Review Activity Module 3: Genetics

Laroche:
Mouse Colouration
During module 4 on evolution, we will spend several classes examining the evolutionary significance of
fur colour in a certain group of mice from the Sonoran desert in the South-Western United States. To
prepare for this module, in the review activities for the first 3 modules we will be examining the
molecular, cellular, and genetic basis for mouse coat colour.
In the review activities for modules 1 and 2, we learned about a protein called MC1R that is
found in the cell membranes of specific mouse cells called melanocytes, whose job it is to
produce the pigment melanin, which gives mice the colouration of their fur. In this activity we
will further examine the genetic and molecular basis for the production of fur colour.

The Rock Pocket Mouse:

The rock pocket mouse, Chaetodipus intermedius, is a small, nocturnal animal found in the
deserts of the south-western United States. Most rock pocket mice have a sandy, light-coloured
coat that enables them to blend in with the light color of the desert rocks and sand on which they
live. However, populations of primarily dark-coloured rock pocket mice have been found living
in areas where the ground is covered in a dark rock called basalt caused by geologic lava flows
thousands of years ago. Scientists have collected data from a population of primarily dark-
coloured mice living in an area of basalt called the Pinacate lava flow in Arizona, as well as from
a nearby light-coloured population. Researchers analyzed the data from these two populations in
search of the genetic mutation responsible for the dark color. Their analysis led to the discovery
of a mutation in the Mc1r gene which is involved in coat-colour determination.

The Mc1r Gene:

The coat colour of rock pocket mice is determined by two pigments: eumelanin, which is dark-
coloured; and pheomelanin, which is light-coloured. The synthesis of these pigments is
controlled by the products of several genes, including the Mc1r gene. The mouse Mc1r gene is
located on mouse chromosome 16 (rock pocket mice have n=23 just like humans), and encodes a
protein called the Melanocortin-1-Receptor (MC1R), which you have seen in each of the last two
review activities. This receptor is found embedded in the membrane of specialized cells called
melanocytes, which you have also examined. The melanocytes of wild-type (non-mutant) mice
produce much more pheomelanin than eumelanin (or almost no eumlanin); the result is a sandy-
coloured mouse. The mutated allele of the Mc1r gene, however, triggers melanocytes to increase
the production of eumelanin, resulting in the dark coat-colour phenotype.
Wild-type Mc1r allele (light phenotype)
Below are five 15 base DNA nucleotide sequences from the wild-type (light coat colour) Mc1r
allele template DNA strand. Use the sequences provided to determine the complementary mRNA
sequence and the translated amino acid strand. Note: the actual gene contains 951 base pairs (317
amino acids). The amino acid position in the protein sequence is provided for each segment.
Extracellular Domain I
Amino Acids 015 → 019
Template Strand: 3’–TTGAGGTGGGCGTGT–5’

mRNA Strand (identify 5’,3’): 5’–AAC UCC ACC CGC ACA–3’

Amino Acid Strand (identify N,C): N-Asn-Ser-Thr-Arg-Thr-C

Extracellular Domain III

Amino Acids 105 → 109
Template Strand: 3’–CGGGACCGGTGGGCC–5’

mRNA Strand (identify 5’,3’): 5’–GCC CUG GCC ACC CGG–3’

Amino Acid Strand (identify N,C): N-Ala-Leu-Ala-Thr-Arg-C

Intracellular Domain I
Amino Acids 160 → 164
Template Strand: 3’–GCCCGAGCCACCGCC–5’

mRNA Strand (identify 5’,3’): 5’–CGG GCU CGG UGG CGG–3’

Amino Acid Strand (identify N,C): N-Arg-Ala-Arg-Trp-Arg-C

Transmembrane V
Amino Acids 210 → 214
Template Strand: 3’–TACGAACGTGGGGAG–5’

mRNA Strand (identify 5’,3’): 5’–AUG CUU GCA CCC CUC–3’

Amino Acid Strand (identify N,C): N-Met-Leu-Ala-Pro-Leu-C

Intracellular Domain III

Amino Acids 230 → 234
Template Strand: 3’–GAACAGGTGGTTCCA–5’

mRNA Strand (identify 5’,3’): 5’–CUU GUC CAC CAA GGU–3’

Amino Acid Strand (identify N,C): N-Leu-Val-His-Gln-Gly- C

Mutant Mc1r allele (dark phenotype)
The sequences below are for the mutant (dark coloured) Mc1r allele. There are 5 mutations in
this allele (one per sequence). Compare the DNA sequences of the wild-type and mutant Mc1r
alleles to identify the locations of these mutations. You only need to transcribe/translate the 3-
base codons with the mutations and the corresponding amino acids!
Extracellular Domain I
Amino Acids 015 → 019
Template Strand: 3’–TTGAGGTGGzCGTGT–5’

mRNA mutated codon: 5’–AAC UCC ACC UGC ACA–3’

Altered Amino Acid: N-Asn-Ser-Thr-Cys-Thr-C

Extracellular Domain III

Amino Acids 105 → 109
Template Strand: 3’–CGGGACCGGTGGACC–5’

mRNA mutated codon: 5’–GCC CUG GCC ACC UGG–3’

Altered Amino Acid: N-Ala-Leu-Ala-Thr-Trp-C

Intracellular Domain I
Amino Acids 160 → 164
Template Strand: 3’–ACCCGAGCCACCGCC–5’

mRNA mutated codon: 5’–UGG GCU CGG UGG CGG–3’

Altered Amino Acid: N-Trp-Ala-Arg-Trp-Arg-C

Transmembrane V
Amino Acids 210 → 214
Template Strand: 3’–TACGAGCGTGGGGAG–5’

mRNA mutated codon: 5’–AUG CUC GCA CCC CUC–3’

Altered Amino Acid: N-Met-Leu-Ala-Pro-Leu-C

Intracellular Domain III

Amino Acids 230 → 234
Template Strand: 3’–GAACAGGTGGTGCCA–5’

mRNA mutated codon: 5’–CUU GUC CAC CAC GGU–3’

Altered Amino Acid: N-Leu-Val-His-His -Gly- C

1. The five codons with mutations correspond to amino acids 18, 109, 160, 211, and 233.
Explain why the mutation at codon 211 is not as significant as the other mutations.
Mutation 211 is a silent point mutation. This means that the altered nucleic acid base
doesn’t actually result in a change in amino acid, and so there is ultimately no effect on
the protein or on phenotype. An organism can sustain any number of silent mutations,
because they ultimately have no effect one way or another.
2. Complete the table below comparing the chemistry of amino acids in the wild-type MC1R
protein and the mutant MC1R protein.
Amino Acid Mutation Wild-type MC1R Mutant MC1R
Position Number Amino Acid Chemistry Amino Acid Chemistry
211 Non-Polar Non-Polar

18 + Charged Non-Polar

109 + Charged Non-Polar

160 + Charged Non-Polar

233 Polar + Charged

As you should have determined from one of the previous review activities, the Melanocortin-1-
Receptor (MC1R) protein is a trans-membrane receptor protein involved in a typical cell
communication pathway (diagram A above). In other words, this protein receives signals from
outside the cell, and activates molecular pathways in the cell when it is triggered. This type of
receptor contains an extracellular binding site for a signal molecule, and an intracellular binding
site for internal pathway molecules.
For MC1R, the signal molecule is a hormone called melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH;
see it bound to MC1R in diagram A). When α-MSH binds to MC1R, this protein changes its
shape, and its intracellular portion is then in the proper shape to bind to and activate an internal
pathway protein (the three ‘G’ molecule complex also shown bound to MC1R in diagram A),
which, through a complex set of reactions, ultimately results in the cell producing a protein
enzyme called tyrosinase.
This enzyme then enters into the metabolic pathway outlined in diagram B. When tyrosinase is
present, it interacts with and alters a molecule called dopaquinone, ultimately sending this
molecule along a metabolic pathway that results in the molecule becoming the dark coloured
pigment eumelanin. When tyrosinase is not present, dopaquinone proceeds along a different
metabolic path and eventually becomes the light pigment pheomelanin.

3. Using your knowledge of mutations, amino acids, and proteins, develop hypotheses to explain
the following:
1. How the extracellular mutations result in a dark phenotype (hint: think about the
chemistry of amino acids, particularly their charge).
The extracellular mutations result in the MC1R protein being able to bind more
effectively with the α-MSH signal molecule. When these molecules are bound
together, more internal signal is sent to produce eumelanin instead of pheomelanin.
2. How the intracellular mutations result in a dark phenotype (hint: think about the
chemistry of amino acids, particularly their charge).
The intracellular mutations result in the MC1R protein being able to bind more
effectively with the G-protein complex. When these molecules are bound together,
more internal signal is sent to produce eumelanin instead of pheomelanin.
3. How the wild-type MC1R proteins leads to the light phenotype (hint: it might be helpful
to think of the wild-type protein NOT leading to the dark phenotype).
The wild type MC1R does not bind effectively with either the α-MSH signal
molecule or the G-protein complex. The result is that very little internal signal is
sent to produce tyrosinase, and so the cell produces pheomelanin instead of
eumelanin.
4. The creation of only a modest amount of tyrosinase in a mouse’s melanocyte cells is sufficient
to produce enough eumelanin for export into the hair follicles that the mouse will have dark
fur. Based on this information, as well as the information presented to this point and your
answers to the questions above, what do you believe is the pattern of inheritance for the
mutant Mc1r allele at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels?
 Molecular:
Melanocyte cells in heterozygous mice (mice with both the wild and mutated Mc1r
alleles) produce both the normal and mutated versions of the MC1R proteins, and
both of these protein types get embedded in the plasma membrane. Thus, if you
examine the melanocytes of heterozygous mice you will find both types of proteins
equally expressed, separate, and distinct from each other. Thus, on a molecular level,
the Mc1r allele is co-dominant.
 Cellular:
The paragraph above states that the creation of only a modest amount of tyrosinase is
enough to produce enough eumelanin to make a mouse look dark. As described for
the previous answers, heterozygous mice will have both the wild and mutated MC1R
proteins in their membranes. The wild protein will not bind to either the αMSH
molecule or the G-protein complex, and thus will essentially not result in the
production of any tyrosinase. However, the mutated version of the MC1R protein
that the mice have in their membranes will bind to both molecules, and will produce
tyrosinase. While the ultimate amount of tyrosinase produced in a heterozygous
mouse will only be about half of what is produced in a mouse homozygous for the
dark allele, this amount of tyrosinase will result in enough eumelanin for the cell to
look dark. Thus, if you examine the melanocyte cells of heterozygous mice they will
look equally as dark as the melanocyte cells of homozygous dark mice, meaning that,
on a cellular level, the mutated Mc1r allele inherits as an autosomal dominant
(remember that the gene is found on chromosome 16, not on an autosome).
 Organismal:
The answer provided above for the cellular phenotype is essentially the same answer
here. If the cells of heterozygotes are the same colour as the cells of homozygous dark
mice, then, on an organismal level, heterozygous mice will be dark, and the mutated
Mc1r allele inherits as an autosomal dominant.

5. If a mouse that is heterozygous at the Mc1r gene locus mates with a light mouse,
approximately what proportion of their offspring would you expect to be dark coloured?
From the previous question you should have figured out that the dark allele is dominant.
Thus, the heterozygote has both alleles (Dd), while the light mouse must be homozygous
recessive (dd), because having two copies of the recessive allele is the only way that these
mice will not be dark. So, the cross is Dd X dd, and a simple Punnet square will identify
that 50% of the babies will inherit the D dark allele, and will thus be dark coloured.
Hemophilia
Two prospective parents are meeting with a genetic counsellor because of the presence of factor
VIII deficiency hemophilia in both of their families. Factor VIII is a protein that helps the blood
to clot, and when a person’s factor VIII level is very low, even the smallest cuts can be
troublesome, and internal bleeding is common. Complications include swelling, joint damage,
and an increased likelihood of neurological complications due to intracerebral bleeding.
Neither of the two prospective parents suffer from this disorder, but both have close family
members who do. Since they are now thinking about starting a family of their own, they are
therefore concerned about the risks of passing on genetic diseases to their children. For example,
they know that hemophilia A is an inherited disease; the prospective mother’s father is also red-
green colour-blind, and they know that this condition runs in families as well.
As a first step, the genetic counselor asks them to fill out a narrative history listing their relatives,
relationships, and if they were affected by any genetic diseases that they know of:
NAME: Greg
I have one brother and one sister, neither of whom are married. My brother suffers from factor
VIII deficiency, but no one else in my immediate family does. My mother has two sisters and
one brother, all of whom are normal, but one of my aunts has a son (my cousin Tim) who also
has this disorder; all of my other cousins are normal. Both of my maternal grandparents are
normal, but my grandmother had a brother who presumably had this deficiency (he wasn’t able
to clot properly and died very young). My great grandmother on my mom’s side also had a
brother who died very young because he was sick, but none of my relatives have actually been
able to confirm that he suffered from this disorder. My father is completely normal. He was
adopted from an orphanage and nothing is known about his family.

NAME: Olga
I have two brothers, one of whom has factor VIII deficiency. The brother with the disease is
married to a woman who does not have the disease. They have two young boys, both normal. My
father is an only child who does not suffer factor VIII deficiency. His father is also an only child,
but his mother has a brother, none of whom suffer from any hemophilia. They are all still living.
My maternal grandmother is healthy and had a sister who died from this just after birth. She
married my grandfather who was one of four children, all boys, none of whom were affected by
any disease that anyone is aware of. My grandparents had two children, my mother and my
uncle. My uncle has hemophilia but my mom doesn’t. My uncle married my (normal) aunt and
they had two children, neither of whom showed any sign of any disease. Their boy is still single
but their girl got married, to a normal man, and had a son, who has hemophilia A.
My dad is red-green colour blind, but neither of my brothers are. My dad’s parents don’t have
this problem either, but his uncle does. Nobody on my mom’s side has this.
The pedigrees for both of these narratives are provided below, where individual ‘A’ is Greg and
individual ‘B’ is Olga. However, you can (and should) try to construct these yourself at home
based on the narratives... it’s good practice.

Hemophili

Colour Blindness

A B

?
The genetic counsellor is familiar with hemophilia and factor VIII deficiency, but decides to do
her due diligence regardless and do some background research. What she finds is that the gene
encoding the factor VIII protein is called F8, and that this gene is expressed primarily in the
liver. Once exported from liver cells, the factor VIII protein circulates in the bloodstream in an
inactive form, until an injury that damages blood vessels occurs. In response to injury,
coagulation factor VIII is activated, and the active protein sets off a chain of additional chemical
reactions that form a blood clot. The hemophilia condition arises due to a mutation in the F8
gene which results in the production of a non-functional factor VIII protein. However, the quality
control mechanisms of the cell don’t identify this protein as being faulty, and so cells in the liver
produce and excrete it in exactly the same manner as they do the normal factor VIII protein. The
faulty protein simply circulates in the bloodstream until it is degraded, but has no discernible
action during this time.
4. Based on all of the information provided to this point, including the pedigree of the two
families and a description of the function of factor VIII, what conclusion do you think the
genetic counsellor would come to with regard to the pattern of inheritance for hemophilia A
on an organismal level? What does this imply with regard to the location of the F8 gene
within the human genome?
The F8 gene is located on the X chromosome, and the hemophilia allele is recessive.
Thus, the pattern of inheritance is X-Linked recessive. This can be identified from the
pedigree because many more males are affected than females and because parents are
normal but have affected children, and also from the information provided in that the
factor VIII protein doesn’t do anything, and its effect will be masked by the function of a
normal factor VIII protein in a heterozygous (female) individual.
5. How would you describe the pattern of inheritance for the normal and hemophilia F8 alleles
on a molecular level?
The alleles are co-dominant on a molecular level because they both get produced and
secreted into the bloodstream. Thus, in the blood of a heterozygous (female) individual,
there are equal amounts of both the normal and mutated factor VIII proteins, expressed
separately, distinctly, and equally.
6. The paragraph above states that the mutated factor VIII protein has no discernible action,
although, of course, by not doing what it’s supposed to do it results in the hemophilia
phenotype. Imagine, instead, that the mutated protein still cannot form blood clots, but that its
new shape results in it interacting with the proteins in myocyte muscle cells, ultimately
leading to increased muscle mass in people with this F8 mutation (this likely wouldn’t be
possible, but just run with this as a hypothetical). In this situation, what biological term would
you use to describe the action of the mutated F8 allele?
This would be an example of a pleiotropic effect, as the mutated F8 allele would have
effects on multiple and seemingly unrelated phenotypes.
7. If you’re reading this question without having answered number 4, note that the answer for
question 4 can actually be found in the description below. Do not keep reading if you want to
legitimately challenge yourself to answer question 4 correctly without assistance.

The F8 gene is located on the X chromosome, and hemophilia inherits in an X-linked

recessive manner (on an organismal level). The gene whose mutated version results in colour
blindness (CB) also happens to be on the X chromosome. There is a 25% recombinant
frequency between F8 and CB. Based on the pedigree created by the genetic counsellor
(above), calculate the probability of Greg and Olga having a son who is both colour blind and
has hemophilia.
Both genes are X-linked, and the question asks about the probability of Greg and Olga
having a son. In this scenario, the son receives the Y chromosome from the father, not
the X, and so we don’t care at all about Greg’s side, because it contributes 0 probability
to this answer.
However, because the son only gets one X and this is from mom, any alleles on this
chromosome will be expressed. So, for the son to be colour blind and have hemophilia,
what needs to happen is Olga needs to pass on a chromosome that has the colour blind
allele and the hemophilia allele. However, it is guaranteed that she does not possess such
a chromosome, as the X chromosome with the colour blind allele came from her father
(colour blindness only on the father’s side), while the X chromosome with hemophilia
would have come from her mother (hemophilia only on the mother’s side). Thus, even if
she does indeed possess both alleles, they will be on homologous chromosomes.
Of course, the possibility exists that crossing over could recombine the alleles and get
them both on the same X chromosome. So, we need to figure out the probability of Olga
having both alleles, AND the probability that crossing over would occur, AND the
probability that Olga would pass on the chromosome with both alleles of interest.
First, Olga’s father is colour blind, which means his only X chromosome, which he gave
to his daughter, includes the colour blind allele. So, she has this allele with 100%
certainty. Next, we see that Olga’s brother has hemophilia, which means he must have
inherited the allele on the X chromosome he got from his mother. Since Olga’s mother
does not display the disorder, this means she is a carrier (heterozygous). Thus, she would
have a 50% chance of having passed on this allele to Olga, meaning Olga has a 50%
probability of having the hemophilia allele. If she does have both alleles, these would be
on opposite chromosomes, but there is a 25% probability that crossing over will occur
and put them on the same chromosome. Finally, if all of this happens, there is a 50%
probability of passing on the recombinant chromosome with both alleles of interest.
Final tally: 1 X 1/2 X 1/4 X 1/2 = 1/16
There is a 1/16 probability of having a child with both disorders.
8. The Mc1r gene described in the first section of this review for mice can also be found in a
similar version in humans. In our species, Mc1r is also a gene that affects pigmentation, and a
particular mutant variant of this gene results in red hair. This particular mutant inherits as an
autosomal recessive. Imagine that Greg from the story above has red hair, and that Olga has
brown hair, but carries a copy of the recessive Mc1r red hair allele. What would be the
probability of them having a red haired daughter?
To have red hair, the daughter needs to receive a mutant Mc1r from both her mom and
dad. Greg is homozygous recessive, with two copies of this allele, so she will get the allele
from him with 100% certainty. Olga, on the other hand, is heterozygous. Thus, there is a
50% probability of her passing on the mutant allele to her daughter. That’s all you need
to know in terms of the Mc1r allele.
However, the question is also phrased such that it is asking you the probability of the
two parents having a daughter in the first place. Thus, you must incorporate the
probability of this, which is 50%.
Final tally: 1 X 1/2 X 1/2 = 1/4
Roffey:
Follow the steps outlined in the monohybrid crosses homework. Use a separate sheet of
paper. Questions below are for 2 unlinked traits.
1. In pea plants, the allele for axial (A) flowers (located on the side of the stem) is dominant over
the allele for terminal (a) flowers (located on the top of the stem). The allele for inflated pods
(I) is dominant over the allele for constricted pods (i). A cross between 2 pea plants with axial
flowers and inflated pods gives the following offspring: 20 with axial flowers and inflated
pods, 7 with axial flowers and constricted pods, and 5 with terminal flowers and inflated pods.
What are the genotypes of the 2 parents? Explain your answer and show the Punnett square.
This is a dihybrid cross, where the parents are both AaIi. The expected phenotypic ratio for such
a cross would be 9:3:3:1. Out of 32 organisms, that would make 18 axial inflated, 6 axial
constricted, 6 terminal inflated, and 2 terminal constricted. These expected proportions match the
observed proportions fairly closely; note that the absence of terminal constricted plants could
simply have happened by chance, as only 2/32 would have been expected to have this phenotype.
2. Cross two pea plants. One is heterozygous for tall stems and round seeds (both are the
dominant phenotypes). The other is also heterozygous for stem height, but homozygous
recessive for seed shape.
TtRr X Ttrr = Draw 4 X 2 Punnet square, gametes of TR, Tr, tR, and tr on top, gametes of Tr and
tr on the side.
3. In Japanese four o'clocks, the alleles for red flower color (R) is incompletely dominant over
the allele for white flower color (R'). Cross the four o’clocks with the genotypes: RRTt x
RR’Tt. Assume that tall stems (T) are dominant over short stems (t). (Yes, you are supposed
to do this cross with one square. Organisms possess both dominant-recessive traits and
incomplete traits - think about it...).
Draw 4 X 2 Punnet square, gametes of RT, Rt, R’T, and R’t on top, gametes of RT and Rt on the
side. Progeny will include 3 different flower colours (red: RR, white: R’R’, pink: RR’) and
two different stem lengths (tall: TT and Tt, short, tt).
4. In rabbits, the allele for black coat color (B) is dominant over the allele for brown coat color
(b). The allele for straight fur (S) is dominant over the allele for curly fur (s). Someone gives
you a male rabbit with black straight fur and a female rabbit with brown curly fur. If you bred
these two, would you expect to get any offspring with brown curly hair in the first generation
(F1)? Explain your answer with 4 Punnett squares.
The brown curly female has the genotype bbss. The black straight male has one of four possible
genotypes: BBSS, BBSs, BbSS, or BbSs. The only way you could get brown curly offspring in
F1 would be if the father is BbSs.
More Crosses (fun, fun, fun )
5. In 1908, British biologists William Bateson and Reginald Punnett discovered an inheritance
pattern that was different than Mendel’s discoveries. They crossed pea plants heterozygous
for the traits of flower color and pollen shape (PpLl x PpLl). (In pea plants, purple flowers are
dominant over white flowers and long pollen grains are dominant over short pollen grains.)
The crosses produced offspring with a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 instead of the expected 9:3:3:1.
(1) Show with a Punnett square what they predicted their offspring would be. (2) Explain why
their ratio was different. (3) Show with a Punnett square how they got their results.
Predicted offspring were a straight dihybrid cross. See example from a textbook. Their ratio was
different because the two genes they looked at are linked on the same chromosome, and do
not assort independently during meiosis 1. In other words, the gametes produced by PpLl
would only be PL and pl (assuming the dominant alleles are on the same homolog), as
opposed to PL, Pl, pL, and pl you would expect if the alleles assorted independently.
6. In reindeer, black noses are dominant over red, and walking is dominant over flying. (1)
What is Rudolph’s genotype and phenotype? (2) If Rudolph’s mom is a black-nosed walker
and dad is a red- nosed flyer, what are their respective genotypes? (3) What are the predicted
genotypes and phenotypes of Rudolph’s siblings?
Rudolph: bbww (homozygous recessive for both genes); Mom: BbWw; Dad: bbww; siblings:
BbWw, bbWw, Bbww, bbww
7. A “roan" stallion is mated with a mare of the same phenotype. Among their many offspring
over the next several years, 4 are also roan, one is red (chestnut) and 2 are white. What is the
simplest explanation for the inheritance of these colors in horses? What would be the most
probable phenotype and genotype of the foal produced from a cross of a roan mare and red
stallion?
Epistasis, with two genes. The roan gene dominates the other, so if you have a dominant roan
allele you have a roan horse. With a horse homozygous recessive for roan the chestnut allele
is expressed, if a dominant allele is present. If not, the horse ends up white.
8. In tigers, a recessive allele causes an absence of fur pigmentation (a "white tiger”) and also a
cross- eyed condition. (1) What is the explanation for this? (2) If two phenotypically normal
tigers that are heterozygous for both traits are mated, what percentage of their offspring will
be cross-eyed? What percentage will be white?
Pleiotropy. This question is misleading, because we’re only dealing with one gene. Straight
monohybrid cross: ¼ will be cross-eyed white.
9. In corn plants, a dominant allele (I) inhibits kernel color, while the recessive allele (i) permits
color when homozygous (ii). At a different gene, the dominant allele P causes a purple kernel
color, while the homozygous recessive genotype (pp) causes red kernels. If plants that are
heterozygous for both traits are crossed, what are the predicted genotypes and phenotypes of
the offspring? (This is a special condition called “epistasis" which was unknown to Mendel)
12:3:1 ratio, yellow (inhibited) : purple : red
1. You were born with 6 toes on your feet. The extra digits were surgically removed when you
were 2 years old. Your dad also has this disorder, as does your paternal Uncle Bob and their
father Martin. Your sister does not have extra toes.
• What is the name of this disorder? polydactyly_________________________
• What is its inheritance (i.e., autosomal or x-linked, recessive or dominant)? Autosomal
dominant___________
• Draw a pedigree for your family. Fill in the genotypes.
• Your mom is going to have another child soon. What is the percent chance this child will
have extra digits? 1/2__________

2. Your brother is color-blind but marries someone with normal vision. Her father is also color-
blind. You have normal vision, as do your parents.
• What is the inheritance of this disorder? X-linked
recessive__________________________
• Draw a pedigree for your family. Fill in the genotypes.
• If you are female, what is the percent chance you are a carrier? 50%__________
• If you are male, what is the percent chance you are a carrier? 0%__________
• What is the percent chance that your future nieces will be color-blind? 50%__________
• What is the percent chance that your future nephews will be color-blind?
50%__________
Sergeant
1. Grace operated a nursery business and crossed true-breeding red flowers with true-
breeding white flowers and obtained all red flowers. How would you classify the
appearance of these flowers?
Red plants express the dominant trait (but they are all genotypically heterozygous).
2. In budgies (a type of bird), the allele for green color (B) is dominant over the allele for
blue color (b). If a true-breeding green budgie and a true-breeding blue budgie mated,
what are the possible genotypes of their young?
BB parent crossed with bb parent gives 100% probability of Bb (heterozygotes) in the
offspring
3. In cats, the white fur allele (C) is dominant over color (c). If a heterozygote was bred to a
colored cat, what would be the genotypes of the gametes of the two parents?
Parents’ gametes are C, c in the heterozygous parent; c, c in the coloured parent
4. Sheila was a horticulturalist who developed a variety of rose that was a recurrent
bloomer, a trait controlled by a recessive allele (r). The allele for annual blooming (R)
was dominant. If she crossed a true-breeding annual bloomer with a recurrent bloomer,
what would be the genotypes of the gametes of the parents?
Parents’ gametes are R,R in the annual bloomer parent; r,r in the recurrent bloomer
parent
5. Hal crossed true-breeding tall barley with true-breeding dwarf barley plants and obtained
all tall plants. If he crossed two tall plants from the progeny, about what percentage of
dwarf plants might he expect?
25% probability of dwarf in the offspring (in the F2 generation; all F1 progeny will be
heterozygous)
6. Jane crossed a lavender flower with a white flower and obtained progeny that were all
lavender. To investigate further the pattern of inheritance, she decided to use the
progeny in a test cross. What is a test cross for this situation?
A test cross is when the heterozygous progeny (Ll) are crossed with individuals with the
homozygous recessive trait (ll; i.e., white flowers).
7. George was a pheasant breeder and he wanted to produce some pheasants with
ornamental ear tufts. He had observed that the ear tuft allele (t) was recessive to the
tuftless allele (T). If he bred a heterozygote to a tufted pheasant, what is the probability
that he would obtain a tufted young?
Tt parent crossed with tt parent gives 50% probability of tufted offspring
8. In sheep, the allele for fleece spotting (s) is recessive to the allele for no-spotting (S). If a
spotted sheep was bred to a true-breeding unspotted sheep, what would be the
phenotype and genotype of the lamb?
ss parent crossed with SS parent gives Ss lamb genotype; phenotype = not spotted
9. Lila crossed tall green corn plants and found that about one in four seedlings were white
and one in four were dwarf. What is the probability that a seedling would be both white
and dwarf?
Cross two TtGg parents; gives 1/16 (0.0625 = 6.25%) probability for a white and dwarf
plant (must cross both alleles, which gives a 9:3:3:1 pattern in offspring)
10. Lila crossed tall green corn plants with dwarf green corn plants and found that about half
the seedlings were dwarf and one quarter were white. What is the probability that a
seedling would be a white dwarf?
Cross TtGg parent with ttGg parent; gives 1/8 (0.125 = 12.5%) probability for a white and
dwarf plant (must cross both alleles, which gives a 9:3:3:1 pattern in offspring)
11. Marty the mouse breeder obtained a mouse variety in which the allele for black (C) was
dominant over the allele for cream fur (c), and the allele for short tail (s) was recessive to
long tail (S). If Marty obtained a mouse that was homozygous for black fur and short tail,
what would be the genotype of the mouse?
Mouse genotype = CCss for black fur with a short tail
12. Marty the mouse breeder obtained a mouse variety in which the allele for black (C) was
dominant over the allele for cream fur (c), and the allele for short tail (s) was recessive to
long tail (S). If Marty obtained a mouse that was heterozygous for both alleles, what
would be its genotype?
Mouse genotype = CcSs for mouse heterozygous for both alleles
13. Shane bred guinea pigs and found that the allele for short hair was dominant over the
allele for long hair, and the allele for black hair was dominant over the allele for brown
hair. If Shane bred a heterozygous black long-haired guinea pig to a guinea pig
heterozygous for fur color and length, what is the probability that he would obtain a long-
haired brown guinea pig?
Cross Bbss parent with BbSs parent; gives 1/8 (0.125 = 12.5%) probability for a long-
haired brown guinea pig (must cross both alleles, which gives a 9:3:3:1 pattern in
offspring)
14. In fruit flies, the red eye color allele (R) is X-linked and dominant to the X-linked white
eye color allele (r). What would be the genotype of a white-eyed male and its sperm?
White-eyed male genotype = XrY; sperm would be either Xr or Y
15. In fruit flies, the red eye color allele (R) is X-linked and dominant to the X-linked white
eye color allele (r). If a red-eyed male was crossed with a white-eyed female and the
progeny included 100 male flies, about how many males would you expect to have red
eyes?
Red-eyed male (XRY) crossed with white-eyed female (XrXr) gives 0 males with white
eyes (would be XrY)
16. What chance will a daughter have of being colorblind of she has a normal mother and a
colorblind father?
Normal mother (XCXC) and colorblind father (XcY) gives 0 colorblind daughters (would be
XcXc)
17. What chance will a daughter have of being colorblind if she has a colorblind mother and
a colorblind father?
Colorblind mother (XcXc) and colorblind father (XcY) gives 100% probability of colorblind
daughters (XcXc)
18. Joshua has curly hair and Madison has straight hair, and their child has wavy hair. What
pattern of inheritance is likely operative in this family?
One parent with curly hair, one parent with straight hair, child with wavy hair indicates
incomplete dominance as the inheritance pattern (i.e., an intermediate phenotype is
possible in a heterozygote).
19. Olivia, blood type B, had an immune reaction when transfused with blood type A red
cells. Her son, blood type AB, had no such reaction when transfused with blood type A
red cells. Why?
Type B individuals produce anti-A antibodies, which will result in a transfusion reaction
when type A cells are received. Type AB individuals possess no anti-A or anti-B
antibodies.
20. Emily has an autosomal dominant disorder for deafness, as did her parents, although
her sister has normal hearing. What are possible genotypes of Emily, her mother, father,
and sister?
Emily can be DD or Dd. Her sister is dd. Her mother and father must be heterozygous
(Dd) (and this type of deafness is autosomal dominant).
1. In squash, a gene for white colour (W) is dominant over its allele for yellow colour (w).
Give the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the results of each of the following crosses:
a. WW x ww
b. Ww x ww
c. Ww x Ww

2. The pollen from the anthers of a heterozygous white-fruited squash plant is placed on the
pistil of a yellow-fruited plant. Show, using ratios, the genotypes and phenotypes you
would expect from this cross.

3. In humans, brown eyes are usually dominant over blue eyes. Suppose a blue-eyed man
marries a brown-eyed woman whose father has blue eyes, what proportion of their
children would you predict will have blue eyes?

4. A brown-eyed man marries a blue-eyed woman and they have ten children, all brown-
eyed, can you be certain that the man is homozygous? If the eleventh child has blue eyes,
what will that show about the father’s genotype?

5. A brown-eyed man whose father was brown-eyed and whose mother was blue-eyed
married a blue-eyed woman whose father and mother were both brown-eyed. The couple
has a blue-eyed son. For which of the individuals mentioned can you be sure of the
genotypes? What are their genotypes? What genotypes are possible for the others?

6. In peas, a gene for tall plants (T) is dominant over its allele for short plants (t). The gene
for smooth peas (S) is dominant over its allele for wrinkled peas (s). Calculate both
phenotypic ratios and genotypic ratios for the results of each of the following crosses:
a. Tt Ss x Tt Ss

b. Tt ss x tt ss
c. Tt Ss x Tt ss
d. TT ss x tt SS
7. In watermelons the genes for green colour and for short shape are dominant over their
alleles for striped colour and for long shape. Suppose a plant with a long striped fruit is
crossed with a plant heterozygous for both these characters. What phenotypes would this
cross produce and in what ratios?
8. If two gene pairs A and a, and B and b are assorting independently, with A dominant to a,
and B dominant to b, what is the probability of obtaining:
a. An AB gamete from an AaBb individual?
b. An AB gamete from an AABb individual?
c. An AABB zygote from a cross of AaBb x AaBb?
d. An AABB zygote from a cross of aabb x AABB?
e. An AB phenotype from a cross of AaBb x AaBb?
f. An AB phenotype from a cross of aabb x AABB?
9. Assume that curly hair (C) in humans is dominant to straight hair (c).
a. If 2 curly-haired parents have a straight-haired child, what are the parental
genotypes?
b. List all the possible genotypic and phenotypic combinations of parents that can
produce a curly-haired child.
10. Dentrinogenesis imperfecta (D) is dominant to the normal condition, as is brachydactyly
(B) dominant to its normal allele. These two traits are found on different chromosomes.
Both are found very rarely in the population. A man with brachydactyly and normal teeth
marries a woman with normal fingers and dentinogenesis imperfecta.
a. State the genotypes of these two individuals.
b. State all the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of this couple,
and their expected frequencies.
11. Pheynylketonuria (PKU) is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder. Two normal
parents have a child with PKU.
a. What are the genotypes of the parents?
b. What is the chance that their next child will also have PKU?
c. What is the chance that a normal child of these parents is a carrier of PKU?
12. Colour-blindness is inherited as a sex-linked recessive disorder.
a. If a colour-blind man marries a normal woman whose brother is colour-blind,
what is the probability that their first son will be colour-blind?
b. If a normal man marries a normal woman whose brother is colour-blind, what is
the probability that their first child will be a colour-blind son?
13. Albinism is inherited as an autosomal recessive, while colour-blindness is inherited as a
sex-linked recessive disorder. A colour-blind albino man and a woman with normal
colour vision and pigmentation produce a colour-blind albino daughter. Give the
genotypes of the parents and the child.
14. Can two colour-blind parents produce:
a. a normal son?
b. a normal daughter?
15. Can two normal parents produce:
a. a colour-blind son?
b. a colour-blind daughter?
16. A woman of A blood type and normal colour vision had five children as described (in no
particular order):
a. male, A blood type, colour-blind
b. male, O blood type, colour-blind
c. female, A blood type, normal colour vision
d. female, B blood type, normal colour vision
e. female, A blood type, colour-blind
Of the two men that may have had children with this woman, the first has AB blood type and
is colour-blind, while the second has A blood type and normal colour vision. Which of these
men is the most probable biological father in each case?
17. As Mendel discovered, smooth seeds in peas is dominant to wrinkled ones. In the
following experiments, parents with known phenotypes (but unknown genotypes)
produce the listed progeny:
Parents Progeny
Smooth Wrinkled
a) smooth x wrinkled 82 78
b) wrinkled x 0 50
wrinkled
c) smooth x smooth 118 39
d) smooth x 74 0
wrinkled
e) smooth x smooth 90 0
Use W for the smooth allele and w for the wrinkled allele to report the most probably
genotype of each parent.
18. In crosses (c), (d), and (e) above, indicate how many of the smooth progeny produced by
each cross would be expected to produce wrinkled progeny when self-fertilized.
19. Assume that eye colour in humans is controlled by a single pair of genes of which the
effect of that from brown (B) is dominant over the effect of that for blue (b).
a. What is the genotype of a brown-eyed individual who marries a blue-eyed
individual and produces an offspring that is blue-eyed?
b. For the mating (in “a” above), what proportions of the two eye colours are
expected among future offspring?
c. What are the expected proportions of eye colour among the offspring of a mating
between two brown-eyed individuals who each had one parent who was blue-
eyed?
20. In dogs, dark coat colour is dominant over albino, and short hair is dominant over long
hair. If these effects are caused by two independently segregating gene pairs, write the
most probable genotypes for the parents of each of the following crosses: (Use the
symbols D and d for dark and albino coat colour alleles, and S and s for the short- and
long-hair alleles, respectively.)
Parental Phenotypes Phenotypes of the Offspring
Dark, Dark, Albino, Albino,
Short Long Short Long
a) dark short x dark short 89 31 29 11
b) dark short x dark long 18 19 0 0
c) albino short x albino short 0 0 28 9
d) dark long x dark long 0 32 0 10
e) dark short x dark short 46 16 0 0
f) dark short x dark long 29 31 9 11

21. Red-green colour blindness is inherited as a sex-linked recessive disorder. If a colour-

blind woman marries a man who has normal colour vision, what would be the expected
phenotypes of their children with reference to this character?
22. A man and his wife both have normal colour vision, but a daughter has red-green colour
blindness, a sex-linked recessive trait. The man sues his wife for divorce on grounds of
infidelity. Can genetics provide evidence supporting his case?
23. If a man with blood type B, one of whose parents had blood type O, marries a woman
with blood type AB, what will be the theoretical percentage of their children with blood
type B?
24. Both Mrs. Smith and Mrs. Jones had babies the same day in the same hospital. Mrs.
Smith took home a baby girl, whom she named Shirley. Mrs. Jones took home a baby
girl, whom she named Jane. Mrs. Jones began to suspect, however, that her child had
been accidentally switched with the Smith baby in the nursery. Blood tests were done:
 Mr. Smith was type A, Mrs. Smith type B, Mr. Jones type A, Mrs. Jones type A, Shirley
type O, and Jane type B. Had a mix-up occurred?
25. In Labrador Retrievers (a breed of dogs), the dominant gene B determines black coat
colour and bb produces brown. A separate gene, E, however, shows dominant epistasis
over the B and b alleles, resulting in a “golden” coat colour. The recessive e allows
expression of B and b. A breeder wants to know the genotypes of her dogs, so she breeds
them and makes note of the offspring of several litters. Determine the genotypes of the
parent dogs.
a. Golden female x Golden male
Offspring: 7 Golden, 1 black, 1 brown

b. Black female x Golden male

Offspring: 8 Golden, 5 black, 2 brown
Answers to Biology NYA Genetic Problems - Set #2
1. a) All heterozygous white

w w

W Ww Ww

b) Genotype ratio = 1 Ww : 1 ww W Ww Ww
Phenotype ratio = 1 white : 1 yellow

w w

W Ww Ww

w ww ww
c) Genotype ratio = 1 WW : 2 Ww : 1 ww
Phenotype ratio = 3 white : 1 yellow

W w

W WW Ww

w Ww ww

2. Let W be the allele for white colour and w be the allele for yellow colour. Therefore, the genotype of the
pollen, the male gamete, is Ww and the female gamete is ww. The cross is Ww x ww, and the offspring,
determined by the Punnett square are as follows:
Genotype ratio = 1 Ww : 1 ww
Phenotype ratio = 1 white : 1 yellow
Male
Gametes

W w
gametes
Female

w Ww Ww

w ww ww

3. Let B be the allele for brown eyes and b the allele for blue eyes. The man must be bb, but the woman is B-.
However, since her father is bb, she must have a b allele. Hence, her genotype is Bb. The cross is bb x Bb,
and the Punnett square shows that 50 percent blue-eyed offspring is predicted.
Male
Gametes

b b
gametes
Female

B Bb Bb

b bb bb
4. This time the man is B-, and the woman is bb. The cross is Bb x bb, or BB x bb. The first cross would yield
50 percent blue-eyed children as in question above, and the second cross would yield all brown-eyed
children as shown in the Punnett square below. In this case, every child would receive a dominant B allele
from Dad. His ten brown-eyed children indicate that he is BB. However, if his eleventh child were blue-
eyed, then the man’s genotype is Bb.
Male
Gametes

B B

gametes
Female
b Bb Bb

b Bb Bb

5. In this problem, the brown-eyed man’s genotype is Bb since his blue-eyed mother is bb. The man’s father is
either BB or Bb. The wife’s genotype is bb, and both of her parents are Bb heterozygotes. The blue-eyed
son is bb.

6. a) This is a dihybrid cross.

Genotype ratio = 1 TTSS : 2 TTSs : 1 TTss : 2 TtSS: 4 TtSs : 2 Ttss : 1 ttSS : 2 ttSs : 1 ttss
Phenotype ratio = 9 tall & smooth : 3 tall & wrinkled : 3 short & smooth : 1 short & wrinkled

b) This is a test cross. The phenotypes will reflect the alleles present in the tall and wrinkled parent in equal
numbers. Phenotype ratio = 1 tall & wrinkled : 1 short & wrinkled. Genotype ratio = 1 TTss : 1 ttss. Take
note that none of the offspring from a testcross can have a homozygous dominant genotype.

c) Parent 1’s gametes = TS, Ts, tS and ts, Parent 2’s gametes = Ts and ts.
Genotype ratio = 1 TtSs : 1 Ttss : 1 ttSs : 1 ttss
Phenotype ratio = 1 tall & smooth : 1 tall & wrinkled : 1 short & smooth : 1 short & wrinkled

d) Both parents can only produce one type of gamete, so there is only one type of offspring possible. Parent
1 produces Ts and Parent 2 produces tS. The genotype of all the offspring is TtSs. The phenotype of all the
offspring is tall and smooth.

7. Let S be the allele for green, s for stripped, L for short, and l for long.
The cross is ssll x SsLl. Since this is a test cross, the phenotypes will reflect the alleles present in the green and
short parent plan in equal numbers. (Assume there is no linkage—that is, that the genes for fruit pattern and
length are on different chromosomes.)
Phenotype ratio = 1 green & short :1 green & long : 1 stripped & short : 1 stripped & long

8. a) AaBb individual produces four types of gametes: ¼ AB, ¼ ab, ¼ Ab, ¼ aB.
Answer = ¼ AB gametes.
b) AABb individual produces two types of gametes: ½ AB, ½ Ab
Answer = ½ AB gametes.
c) AaBb x AaBb
 ♂ ¼ AB ¼ Ab ¼ aB ¼ ab
♀
¼ AB 1/16 AABB

¼ Ab

¼ aB

¼ ab
Answer = 1/16 AABB

d) aabb x AABB
♂ AB
♀
ab AaBb
Answer = no AABB zygotes

e) AaBb x AaBb
♂ ¼ AB ¼ Ab ¼ aB ¼ ab
♀
¼ AB X X X X

¼ Ab X X

¼ aB X X

¼ ab X
Answer = 9/16 A-B- (AB phenotype)

f) aabb x AABB
♂ AB
♀
ab AaBb
Answer = 100% A-B- (AB phenotype)

9. a) Parental genotypes = Cc x Cc. Both parents must be Cc so that each could give c to their cc child.
b) Parents that can have a curly-haired child:
CC x CC (curly x curly), CC x Cc (curly x curly), CC x cc (curly x straight), Cc x Cc (curly x curly), Cc x cc
(curly x straight). All of these matings will produce curly-haired children.
 10. a) The man’s genotype is Bbdd (heterozygous for brachydactyly and normal teeth). The woman’s genotype
is bbDd (normal fingers and heterozygous for dentinogenesis imperfecta).
b) Bbdd x bbDd

♂ ½ bD ½ bd
♀
½ Bd ¼ BbDd ¼ Bbdd

½ bd ¼ bbDd ¼ bbdd
Genotypic and phenotypic frequencies
¼ BbDd; brachydactyly and dentinogenesis imperfecta
¼ bbDd; normal fingers and dentinogenesis imperfecta
¼ Bbdd; brachydactyly and normal teeth
¼ bbdd; normal fingers and normal teeth

11. a) Pp x Pp; both parents must be heterozygous (Pp) to have an affected child (pp).
b) Pp x Pp
♂ ½P ½p
♀
½P ¼ PP ¼ Pp

½p ¼ Pp ¼ pp
Answer = ¼ pp
c) The normal children are ¼ PP + ½ Pp. Of these normal children 2/3 are carriers of PKU.

12. a) Colour-blind man’s genotype = XbY

Genotype of normal woman with colour-blind brother = XBXB or XBXb
XbY x XBXB or XbY x XBXb
♀ XB
♂
½ Xb XBXb

½Y XBY
or

♀ ½ XB ½ Xb
♂
½ Xb ¼ XBXb ¼ XbXb

½Y ¼ XBY ¼ XbY
Answer = chance that the first son is colour-blind = ¼
 = 0% in first mating (consider only the second mating), ½ in second (depends on mother being carrier—1/2
chance that she inherited the allele from her mother)

b) chance that first child is a colour-blind son = 1/8

again there is ½ chance that the mother is a carrier and ¼ chance of first child being male and being colour
blind (note wording of the question)
♀ ½ XB ½ Xb
♂
½ XB ¼ XBXB ¼ XBXb

½Y ¼ XBY ¼ XbY

13. man is colour-blind and albino (XbYaa)

woman has normal vision and normal pigmentation (XB XbAa) heterozygous for both colour-blind and
albinism since her daughter has both traits
daughter is colour-blind and albino (Xb Xbaa)

14. Parents: XbXb x XbY

Xb Y a) answer : cannot produce a normal son

b) answer: cannot produce a normal daughter
Xb XbXb XbY

15. Parents: XBX- x XBy

XBX- XBY

XB XBXB XBY

a) answer: can produce a color-blind son if mother is XBXb; cannot if mother is XBXB
b) answer: cannot produce a color-blind daughter(as above) since she must get XB from dad

16. woman IAiXBXb (IAi because of child b; XBXb because of child e)

Man #1 IAIBXbY
Man #2 IAiXBY (IAi because of child b)
a) answer: male, IA_XbY man #1 or #2 (A blood type & Y chromosome from #1 or #2)
b
b) answer: male, iiX Y man #2 (O blood type only from man #2)
c) answer: female, IA_XBX- man #1 or #2 (A blood type & XB or Xb from either #1 or #2)
d) answer: female, IBiXBX- man #1 (B blood type & IB from #1; I from mom)
e) answer: female, IA_XbXb man #1 (A or O blood type & Xb from #1, A or O & Xb from mom)

17. a) answer: Ww x ww (because ½ of progeny is ww)

b) answer: ww x ww (because “w” is recessive)
c) answer: Ww x Ww (because ¼ of progeny is ww)
d) answer: WW x ww (because all progeny is Ww)
e) answer: WW x W_ (because one parent must be WW as all progeny is W_)
18. c) Ww x Ww  ¼ WW; ½ Ww: ¼ ww
answer: 2/3 smooth progeny (W_) can produce ww progeny when self-fertilized.

d) WW x ww  all Ww
answer: all smooth progeny (Ww) can produce ww progeny when self-fertilized.

e) WW x W_
answer: no wrinkled progeny if both parents are WW
½ of progeny if one parent WW & other is Ww

19. a) B_ x bb  bb child answer: B_ parent must be Bb to produce a bb child

b) Bb x bb
b
½B ½ Bb answer: ½ of children have brown eyes, ½ have blue eyes
½b ½ bb

c) Bb x Bb (both are heterozygous since each had a blue-eyed (bb) parent

½B ½b
½B ¼ BB ¼ Bb answer: offspring are ¼ BB, ½ Bb, ¼ bb
½b ¼ Bb ¼ bb (3/4 brown eyes, ¼ blue eyes)

20. a) D_S_ x D_S_

answer: DdSs x DdSs because some offspring (1/4) are dd(albino) & some (1/4) are ss(long)

b) D_S_ x D_ss
answer: DDSs x Ddss or DDSs x Ddss or DdSs x DDss (all are possible)
-at least one parent must be homozygous DD since there are no dd offspring
-first parent must be Ss since 1é2 of the offspring are ss (long)
c) ddS_ x ddS_
answer: ddSs x ddSs - both parents must be Ss since some offspring (1/4) are long (ss)

d) D_ss x D_ss
answer: Ddss x Ddss – both parents must be Dd since some offspring (1/4) are albino (dd)

e) D_S_ x D_S_
answer: DDSs x D_Ss -at least one parent must be DD since all offspring are dark (D)
-both must be heterozygous Ss since some offspring (1/40 are long (ss)

f) D_S_ x D_ss
answer: DdSs x Ddss -both parents must be Dd since some offspring (1/4) are albino (dd)
-first parent must be Ss since some offspring (1/2) are long (ss)

21. Let C be normal and c be color-blind. The cross is XC/Y x Xc/Xc. Thus all males receive an Xc from their
mother & will be color-blind. All the females will receive the dominant XC from their father & have normal
vision.
22. Yes, genetics can, and the man does have grounds. Since he is normal XC/Y, he will give all his
daughters the dominant allele and they will have normal vision.
(Perhaps there was a mix up at the hospital.)

23. The man is IB/i since one parent is ii, which is actually irrelevant. The cross is IB/i x IA/IB, so that half of the
offspring will have an IA allele from the mother.They cannot be pure B type.The other half will get the IB & will
beB.

24. Every parent has one unknown allele and thus Shirley, who is i/i, may belong to either family. Jane,
who is IB/i, cannot be the daughter of the Joneses, where no IB allele is present. Thus, a mix up did occur
in her case, and she could belong to the Smiths. However, since Shirley may also be their daughter, a third
family may be involved.

25. a) First figure out possible genotypes _ _E_ = golden (any B combination with at least 1 E).
B_ee = black, bbee = brown. All you know of parents at start is _ _E_ x _ _ E_.
Since you see black and brown offspring, you know that both had to be heterozygous for Ee.
-and at least one was heterozygous of Bb (to get a black dog). Since black and brown are in
a 1:1 ratio (like a testcross ratio), then one dog was Bb and the other was bb.
answer: BbEe x bbEe

b) For the second cross, you know that one dog is _bEe and the other must be B_ee. A ratio of
approximately 3:1 black to brown looks like a cross of heterozygotes, so both parents must be Bb.
answer: BbEe x Bbee.
Mendelian Genetics

1. A locus is
a. a recessive gene.
b. an unmatched allele.
c. a sex chromosome.
d. the location of an allele on a chromosome.
e. a dominant gene.

2. Various forms of a gene at a given locus are called

a. chiasmata.
b. alleles.
c. autosomes.
d. loci.
e. chromatids.

3. Diploid organisms
a. have corresponding alleles on homologous chromosomes.
b. are usually the result of the fusion of two haploid gametes.
c. have two sets of chromosomes.
d. have pairs of homologous chromosomes.
e. all of these

4. Which of the following genotypes is homozygous?

a. AaBB
b. aABB
c. aaBB
d. aaBb
e. AaBb

5. The most accurate description of an organism with genotype AaBb is

a. homozygous dominant.
b. heterozygous.
c. heterozygous dominant.
d. homozygous recessive.
e. heterozygous recessive.

6. Gene A occurs on chromosome 5, gene B is on chromosome 21. Therefore, these two

parts of the chromosomes can NOT be
a. genes.
b. dominant.
c. loci.
d. alleles.
e. recessive.
7. If short hair (L) is dominant to long hair (l), animals LL and Ll have the same
a. parents.
b. genotypes.
c. phenotypes.
d. alleles.
e. genes.

8. If tall (D) is dominant to dwarf (d), and two homozygous varieties DD and dd are
crossed, then what kind of offspring will be produced?
a. all intermediate forms
b. all tall
c. all dwarf
d. 1/2 tall, 1/2 dwarf
e. 3/4 tall, 1/4 dwarf

9. If all offspring of a cross have the genotype Aa, the parents of the cross are most likely.
a. AA x aa.
b. Aa x Aa.
c. Aa x aa.
d. AA x Aa.
e. none of these

10. The theory of segregation

a. deals with the alleles governing two different traits.
b. applies only to linked genes.
c. applies only to sex-linked genes.
d. explains the behavior of a pair of alleles during meiosis.
e. none of these

11. The phenotypic ratio of offspring of a monohybrid cross is

a. 1:1.
b. 2:1.
c. 9:3:3:1.
d. 1:2:1.
e. 3:1.

12. In a Punnett square, the letters within the little boxes represent
a. offspring genotypes.
b. parental genotypes.
c. gametes.
d. offspring phenotypes.
e. parental phenotypes.

13. If short hair (L) is dominant to long hair (l), then what fraction of the offspring produced
by a cross of Ll x ll will be homozygous dominant?
a. 1/2
b. 1/4
c. 1/3
d. none (no chance of this offspring)
e. none of these
14. If short hair (L) is dominant to long hair (l), then to determine the genotype of a short-
haired animal it should be crossed with
a. LL.
b. Ll.
c. ll.
d. all of these
e. none of these

15. What fraction of the time will the cross of Aa Bb Cc with Aa Bb Cc produce an offspring
of genotype aa bb cc?
a. 1/64
b. 1/32
c. 3/64
d. 1/16
e. 9/64

16. What fraction of the time will the cross of Aa Bb Cc with Aa Bb Cc produce an offspring
of genotype Aa bb CC ?
a. 1/64
b. 1/32
c. 3/64
d. 1/16
e. 9/64

17. Short hair (L) is dominant to long hair (l). If a short-haired animal of unknown origin is
crossed with a long-haired animal, and they produce one long-haired and one short-haired
offspring, this would indicate that
a. the short-haired animal was pure-breeding.
b. the short-haired animal was not pure-breeding.
c. the long-haired animal was not pure-breeding.
d. the long-haired animal was pure-breeding.
e. none of these can be determined with two offspring

18. Assume short hair (L) is dominant to long hair (l) and black hair (B) is dominant to
brown (b). If you found a black, short-haired animal, you could determine its genotype by
crossing it to an animal with a genotype of
a. LL BB.
b. ll BB.
c. ll Bb.
d. ll bb.
e. LL bb.

19. If all the offspring of a cross had the genotype Aa Bb, the parents of the cross would
most likely be
a. AA BB x aa bb.
b. AA bb x aa BB.
c. Aa Bb x Aa Bb.
d. Aa bb x aa Bb.
e. both AA BB x aa bb, and AA bb x aa BB.
20. In cocker spaniels, black coat color (B) is dominant over red (b), and solid color (S) is
dominant over spotted (s). If a red male was crossed with a black female to produce a red,
spotted puppy, the genotypes of the parents (with male genotype first) would be
a. Bb Ss x Bb Ss.
b. bb Ss x Bb Ss.
c. bb ss x Bb Ss.
d. bb Ss x Bb ss.
e. Bb ss x Bb ss.
21. In cocker spaniels, black coat color (B) is dominant over red (b), and solid color (S) is
dominant over spotted (s). If a red, spotted male was crossed with a black, solid female and all
the offspring from several crosses expressed only the dominant traits, the genotype of the
female would be
a. BB SS.
b. Bb SS.
c. Bb Ss.
d. BB Ss.
e. none of these

22. In cocker spaniels, black coat color (B) is dominant over red (b), and solid color (S) is
dominant over spotted (s). If two dihybrids (Bb Ss) were crossed, the most common phenotype
would be
a. black and solid.
b. black and spotted.
c. red and solid.
d. red and spotted.
e. none of these

23. The usual offspring phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross is

a. 1:1.
b. 2:1.
c. 9:3:3:1.
d. 1:2:1.
e. 3:1.

24. An individual with a genotype of Aa Bb CC is able to produce how many different kinds
of gametes?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 7
e. 8
Chromosomal Inheritance
1. Choose the one most appropriate answer for each.
1 ____ colchicines (drug which stops cells at metaphase)
2 ____ deletion
3 ____ duplication
4 ____ polyploidy
5 ____ monosomy
6 ____ trisomy

A. (2n - 1); an individual deprived of a chromosome

B. a repeat of a particular DNA sequence in the same chromosome or in
nonhomologous ones
C. (2n + 1); three chromosomes of the same kind are present in a set of
chromosomes
D. a piece of the chromosome is inadvertently left out during the repair process
E. inhibits microtubule assembly; prevents chromosome movement
F. describes an embryo with multiple sets of chromosomes

Multiple Choice
1. Genes are
a. located on chromosomes.
b. inherited in the same way as chromosomes.
c. arranged in linear sequence on chromosomes.
d. assorted independently during meiosis.
e. all of these

2. Which of the following is NOT true concerning homologous chromosomes?

a. There are two of each kind.
b. Each parent contributes one of each homologous pair.
c. Most homologous chromosomes carry the same genes for the same
traits.
d. The number of homologous chromosomes is doubled in each generation.
e. Homologous chromosomes pair up during early meiosis.

3. Chromosomes other than those involved in sex determination are known as

a. nucleosomes.
b. heterosomes.
c. alleles.
d. autosomes.
e. liposomes.
4. DNA coding regions that affect the same trait are called
a. homologues.
b. alleles.
c. autosomes.
d. loci.
e. gametes.

5. The location of a gene on a chromosome is its

a. centromere.
b. locus.
c. autosome.
d. allele.
e. centriole.

6. Sex chromosomes
a. determine gender.
b. vary from one sex to another.
c. carry some genes that have nothing to do with sex.
d. all of these

7. Which of the following is an accurate characterization of a mutation?

a. an exchange of chromosomes between two chromosomes
b. the linkage of two unrelated chromosomes
c. a change in the nucleotides of DNA
d. the reassortment of chromosomes at meiosis
e. the shuffling of genes during gamete preparation

8. Which of the following statements is false?

a. The SRY gene is absent in females.
b. The SRY gene apparently is the gene that controls the development of
male sexuality.
c. The development of maleness is by default because males lack two X
chromosomes.
d. Femaleness develops in the embryo before maleness.
e. There is no difference in external genitalia of males or females until four
weeks after conception when the genes determining sex begin to be
expressed.

9. In human females, one of the sex chromosomes is switched off during early
development in a phenomenon called
a. karyotyping.
b. X inactivation.
c. X linkage.
d. crossing over.
e. SRY activation.

10. A condensed, female X chromosome is called a

a. Barr body.
b. Morgan sphere.
c. SRY gene.
d. karyotype.
e. linkage map.
13. If alleles L, M, and N are on the maternal chromosome and l, m, and n are on the
paternal chromosome, the only way that a gamete from such a heterozygote will produce a
gamete with alleles l, m, and N is through
a. nondisjunction.
b. the laws of segregation.
c. the law of independent assortment.
d. crossing over.
e. chromosome aberration.

15. Genetic recombination as a result of crossing over occurs more readily in genes that
a. are on the sex chromosomes.
b. are on the autosomes.
c. are located close together on the same chromosome.
d. are located farther apart on the same chromosome.
e. are located on different chromosomes.

16. In genetic analyses, researchers know that linkage of genes will introduce exceptions to the
principle of
a. dominance.
b. segregation.
c. recessiveness.
d. independent assortment.
e. chromosomal inheritance.

17. An autosomal recessive disorder

a. requires that only one parent be a carrier.
b. displays its symptoms only in heterozygotes.
c. is more frequent in males than females.
d. can appear only in children of parents who both carry the gene.
e. is dominant in females.

18. The probability of producing a phenotypically normal child by two parents who are
carriers for an autosomal recessive disorder is
a. 50 percent.
b. 0 percent.
c. 100 percent.
d. 25 percent.
e. 75 percent.

19. The probability of producing a child who suffers from cystic fibrosis by two parents who
are carriers for the autosomal recessive disorder is
a. 50 percent.
b. 0 percent.
c. 100 percent.
d. 25 percent.
e. 75 percent.
20. A woman is diagnosed to have the genetic disease known as Huntington’s disorder. It is
a rare defect caused by an autosomal dominant allele. The chance for any one of her
children to inherit the disease is a. dependent on the sex of the child.
b. 1 out of 3.
c. 1 out of 2.
d. 3 out of 4.
e. 0.
21. In an autosomal dominant disorder such as Huntington’s, two carrier parents have the
probability of passing the gene on to __________ percent of their children.
a. 50
b. 0
c. 100
d. 25
e. 75

23. In which of the following does the onset of symptoms usually occur in individuals after
childbearing age? a. Tay-Sachs
b. hemophilia
c. Huntington's
d. muscular dystrophy
e. achondroplasia

25. A color-blind man and a woman with normal vision whose father was color-blind have a
son. Color blindness, in this case, is caused by an X-linked recessive gene. If only the male
offspring are considered, the probability that their son is color-blind is
a. 25 percent.
b. 50 percent.
c. 75 percent.
d. 100 percent.
e. none of these

26. Red-green color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait in humans. A color-blind woman
and a man with normal vision have a son. What is the probability that the son is color-blind?
a. 100 percent
b. 75 percent
c. 50 percent
d. 25 percent
e. 0 percent
27. Red-green color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait in humans. What is the
probability that a color-blind woman and a man with normal vision will have a color-blind
daughter?
a. 100 percent
b. 75 percent
c. 50 percent
d. 25 percent
e. 0 percent
28. If a daughter expresses an X-linked recessive gene, she inherited the trait from
a. her mother.
b. her father.
c. both parents.
d. neither parent.
e. her grandmother.
29. An X-linked carrier is a
a. homozygous dominant female.
b. heterozygous female.
c. homozygous recessive female.
d. homozygous male.
e. heterozygous male.

30. A human X-linked gene is

a. found only in males.
b. more frequently expressed in females.
c. found on the Y chromosome.
d. transmitted from father to son.
e. found on the X chromosome.

33. Which of the following would be considered a carrier of a sex-linked recessive defect?
a. a man with the defect
b. a woman with the defect
c. a father of a son with the defect
d. the normal daughter whose father had the defect
e. a son of two unaffected parents

35. The condition occurring when an organism has a 2n + 1 chromosome composition is known
as
a. monosomy.
b. trisomy.
c. diploid.
d. haploid.
e. both trisomy and haploid.

36. Choose any and all of the following that would describe a gamete that is missing one
chromosome.
a. The chromosome number would be expressed as 2n – 1.
b. One chromosome would occur without its homologue.
c. The condition would be called monosomy.
d. The chromosome number would be expressed as 2n – 1 and the
condition would be called monosomy.
e. The chromosome number would be expressed as 2n – 1, the condition
would be called monosomy, and one chromosome would occur without its
homologue.

37. The failure of chromosomes to separate during mitosis or meiosis is called

a. genetic displacement.
b. trisomy.
c. crossing over.
d. nondisjunction.
e. disjunction.
 Answers to Genetics Problems - Set #3

A Mendelian Genetics
1. d 2. b 3. e 4.
c
5. b 6. d 7. c 8.
b
9. a 10. d 11. e 12.
a
13. d 14. c 15. a (¼ x ¼ x ¼) 16.
b(½ x¼x¼)
17. b (ie. Not LL) 18. d 19. e 20.
b
21. a 22. a 23.c (see #22) 24.c
(ABC,AbC,aBC,abC)

B. Chromosomal inheritance
1. 1) E(drug that stops cells at metaphase)
2) D
3) B
4) F(not covered in class)
5) A
6) C

Multiple choice
1. e 11. x 21. e 31. x
2. d 12. x 32. x
3. d 13. d 23. c 33. d
4. b 14. x 24. x
5. b 15. d 25. b 35. b
6. d 16. d 26. a 36. e
7. c 17. d 27. e 37. d
8. c 18. e 28. c
9. b 19. d 29. b
10. a 20. c 30. e
 Answers to Genetics Problems - Pedigrees

23. (A) Autosomal dominant; 50% probability (mother is Bb; father is bb)
(B) Autosomal recessive; 25% probability (parents are heterozygous)
(C) X-linked recessive; 50% if a boy; 0% if a girl (mother is XAXa, father is XAY)
(D) X-linked dominant; #9 would have 100% probability if a girl, 0% probability if a
boy (as in Generation II); #15 would have 50% in either sex (as in Generation III)
Awad:
1. Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment has its physical basis in which phase of the cell cycle?
a) the separation of homologous chromosome pairs in anaphase I of meiosis
b) the orientation of homologous chromosome pairs in metaphase I of meiosis
c) the orientation of homologous chromosome pairs in metaphase II of meiosis
d) the separation of homologous chromosome pairs in anaphase II of meiosis
e) the orientation of homologous chromosome pairs in metaphase of mitosis

2. Carrie’s sister has the recessive disorder phenylketonuria. Neither Carrie nor either of her parents
displays symptoms of this disorder. Carrie ends up marrying a man who knows that he is a carrier for
phenylketonuria. What is the chance that Carrie’s first child will have the disorder?
a) 1/2
b) 1/12
c) 1/6
d) 1/4
e) There is not enough information to answer the question.

3. In pea plants, the allele for purple flower color is dominant to the allele for white flower color. If you
were to perform a test cross to determine the genotype of a purple-flowered plant, what would you
expect the phenotypic ratio of purple-flowered to white-flowered progeny to be if the plant is
homozygous? And what would you expect if the plant is heterozygous?
a) If the purple-flowered plant is homozygous, then the progeny would all have purple flowers; if the
purple-flowered plant is heterozygous, then the progeny would have purple to white flowers in a 1:1
ratio.
b) If the purple-flowered plant is homozygous, than the progeny would all have white flowers; if the
purple-flowered plant is heterozygous, then the progeny would have purple: white flowers in a 1:1 ratio.
c) If the purple-flowered plant is homozygous, than the progeny would have purple to white flowers in a
1:3 ratio; if the purple-flowered plant is heterozygous, then the progeny would have purple to white
flowers in a 1:1 ratio.
d) If the purple-flowered plant is homozygous, than the progeny would all have purple flowers; if the
purple-flowered plant is heterozygous, then the progeny would have purple:white flowers in a 3:1 ratio.
e) If the purple-flowered plant is homozygous, than the progeny would have purple to white flowers in a
1:3 ratio; if the purple-flowered plant is heterozygous, then the progeny would have purple to white
flowers in a 1:3 ratio.

4. Pedram and Monica are both heterozygous for the widow’s peak trait. Individuals who have two
copies of the widow’s peak allele exhibit a sharp, pointed hairline. What is the probability that the
couple’s first three children will all have sharp, pointed hairline?
a) 1/4
b) 1/12
c) 1/64
d) 1/3
e) 3/4
5. A man with the autosomal recessive disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) and a woman without PKU have
a son named Peter, who does not have PKU. Peter is curious about whether his mother is a carrier for
PKU. Which of the following facts would allow him to know?
a) Peter’s own daughter has PKU.
b) Peter submits his own blood sample to a local genotyping lab, which establishes that he is a carrier for
PKU.
c) Peter’s maternal grandmother does not have PKU.
d) Peter’s maternal grandfather has PKU.
e) Peter's paternal grandfather does not have PKU.

6. A plant had the genotype FfGgHh. If 2 such plants were crossed:

a) What proportion would show the dominant phenotype F? 3/4

b) What proportion would show the recessive phenotype for all 3 loci? 1/64

7. In human, polydactyly is due to a dominant allele and results in extra fingers and/or toes.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is recessive and is a condition due to a disorder in the metabolism of the amino
acid phenylalanine. Unless given a special diet as infants, people with PKU may have varying levels of
mental disorders. A man who has neither condition but whose father has PKU and a woman with
polydactyly like her father but without the PKU allele wonder what the probability is of having a child
with both conditions. What about with one of these conditions?

None of the children will have both conditions. Half of the offspring are expected to have polydactyly.

8. A cross in chickens involved the diplopodia and “naked neck” loci. Diplopodia is a recessive mutation
that results in extra bones in the wings and feet, a shortened beak, and an inability to hatch because
they are unable to peck their way out of the shell. The “naked neck” trait is caused by a recessive
mutation that results in loss of feathers on the neck. The offspring included 81 normal, 4 with naked
neck and diplopodia, 22 with naked neck and 34 with diplopodia. What were the genotypes and
phenotypes of the parents?

The ratio is almost 9:3:3:1, therefore, it is a dihybrid cross (DdNn x DdNn)

9. Mrs. Idengaku was one of 2 mothers in a maternity ward. When she was given baby #1, she denied
that it was hers, claiming baby #2 instead. Another mother also claimed baby #2. Mrs. Idengaku is blood
type O. Baby #1 is A, and baby #2 is O. Unfortunately, Mr. Idengaku died just before the baby was born,
so we can’t find out his phenotype or genotype., but the Idengaku family has 3 other children whose
phenotypes are known. Keiko is A, Tohru is B, and Kenichi is B. Who is right, Mrs. Idengaku or the other
mother? What is your reasoning?

Keiko is IAi and Tohru is IBi. Therefore, Mr. Idengaku was IAIB (blood type AB). The Idengaku family cannot
have a child with blood type O (ii), so Mrs. Idengaku is mistaken.
10. A heterozygous, but phenotypically wild-type fruit fly (gray body and normal wings) was mated to a
black fly with vestigial wings. The offspring had the following phenotypic distribution: wild type 729;
black-vestigial 780; black-normal 280; gray-vestigial 220. What conclusion is likely from these results?
a) Black and vestigial loci assort independently.
b)Black and vestigial loci are allelic
c) Epistasis has modified a 9:3:3:1 ratio
d) Black and vestigial loci are linked with a frequency of recombination of 25%.
e) Black and vestigial loci are linked with a frequency of recombination of 75%.
Felkai:
1. A woman is a carrier for-a sex'linked gene that causes an
embryo to spontaneously abort. She has nine children. How many
of these children do you think are boys? Indicate your alleles,
use a punnett square and circle your final answer for full
marks.

L=normal, l=lethal. Woman is X(L)X(l)--a carrier for the sex-

linked allele that causes spontaneous abortion. Her husband must
be X(L)Y. Of all pregnancies Her children would have the
genotypes X(L)X(L) 25% girls all survive, X(L)Y, 25% boys all
survive, X(L)X(l) 25% girls all survive, X(l)Y 25% boys all die
as embryos. Of her surviving children, 1/3 are boys, so 3 of her
9 children are boys.

2. Individuals affected by a condition known as polydactyly have

extra fingers or toes. The following pedigree shows the pattern
of inheritance of this trait in two families (figures A and B).
(3 marks)

a. From the pedigrees, can you tell if polydactyly comes from a

dominant or recessive allele? What criteria helped you to form
you opinion?
a. Polydactyl is caused by a DOMINANT allele because every
individual that has polydactyl has at least one parent with the
condition.

b. Is the trait sex-linked? What criteria helped you to form you opinion?

b. No the trait is not sex-linked, it is autosomal. Affected

boys inherit the disease from both affect fathers or affected
mothers. And, affected fathers pass the disease on to both his
sons and daughters, not just his daughters.

c. What is the probability that the individual marked as a diamond will be born with polydactyly

c. probability is 0%. Neither parent has the dominant allele.

3. Snapdragons are flowers that come in a variety of colors,

including red, pink, and white. A series of crosses with
snapdragons having flowers of different colors produced the
following results:
pink × pink: 27 pink, 13 red, 14 white
red × red: all red
white × white: all white
pink × white: 29 pink, 26 white
pink × red: 28 pink, 27 red
white × red: all pink
Based on the results, what is the most reasonable explanation for the inheritance of these flower
colors?
A) pleiotropic effects
B) qualitative effects
C) incomplete dominance
D) codominance
E) more than two alleles