Basic Radio Vol 1-6 - A Rider 1961 Text

basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Electronic Services Division
Raytheon Company
Author of
FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIO TELEMETRY
VOL. 1
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC, NEW YORK

Copyright September 1961 by John F. Rider Publisher, Inc.
All rights reserved. This book or any parts thereof may not be reproduced
in any form or in any language without permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 61-11229
Printed in the United States of America
Fifth Printing, 1968

PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to fill a need for a text stating in plain, every-
day language, what many people consider a complex technical subject.
A technical subject need not be complex. Careful filling in of the back-
ground with essential information, and then leading step by step to the
final explanation, provides a logical method of explaining the most diffi-
cult subject.
It would be impossible to cover in a single book or series of books, the

immense scope implied in the word electronics. However, an understanding
of radio circuits serves as a foundation for advanced study in all fields
of electronics, such as television, radar, computers, etc. For teaching radio,
the all-important basic tool of electronics, most available textbooks are
woefully inadequate. One type contains information so brief as to acquaint
rather than instruct. Another type is based on the premise that teaching
a student to design a circuit is the best method of having him understand
that circuit’s operation.
Basic Radio represents the neglected middle ground. It is a course in radio

communications, as distinct from a general course in electronics. The text
deals with the circuitry and techniques used for the transmission and
reception of intelligence via radio energy. Assuming no prior knowledge
of electricity or electronics, the six volumes of this course “begin at the
beginning” and carry the reader in logical steps through a study of elec-
tricity and electronics as required for a clear understanding of radio
receivers and transmitters. Illustrations are used on every page to rein-
force the highlights of that page. All examples given are based on actual
or typical circuitry to make the course as practical and realistic as possible.
Most important, the text provides a solid foundation upon which the
reader can build his further, more advanced knowledge of electronics.
The sequence of Basic Radio first establishes a knowledge of d-c elec-

Upon this is built an understanding of the slightly more involved
tricity.
a-c electricity.Equipped with this information the reader is ready to study
the operation of electron tubes and electron tube circuits, including power
supplies, amplifiers, oscillators, etc. Having covered the components of
electronic circuitry in Volumes 1 through 3, we assemble these components
IV PREFACE
in Volume 4, and develop the complete radio receiver, AM and FM. In
Volume 5 we recognize the development of the transistor, and devote the
entire volume to the theory and circuitry of transistor receivers and semi-
conductors. The last volume of the course. Volume 6, covers the long-
neglected subject of transmitters, antennas, and transmission lines.
No prior knowledge of algebra, electricity, or any associated subject is

required for the understanding of this series it is self-contained. Embrac-
;
ing a vast amount of information, it cannot be read like a novel, skimming

through for the high points. Each page contains a carefully selected
thought or group of thoughts. Readers should take advantage of this, and
study each individual page as a separate subject.
Whenever someone is presented with an award he gives thanks and
acknowledgement to those “without whose help ...” etc. It is no different
here. The most patient, and long-suffering was my wife Celia, who typed,
and typed, and typed. To her, the editorial staff of John F. Rider, and
others in the “background”, my heartfelt thanks and gratitude for their
assistance and understanding patience.
MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. I — BASIC RADIO
THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY 1

Introduction to Radio • The Early History of Electricity A Famous Experiment in
•
Electricity • ElectricalCharging by Rubbing • The Modem Concept of Electricity

• Matter and Chemical Elements • The Atom Every Atom is Made of Electricity
•
• Electrical Forces in the Atom • Bound

• Free Electrons in Metals • The
Electrons
Modern Concept of Charging • Charging by Contact • Charging by Induction • Dis-
charging a Charged Object • Discharging Through a Wire • Demonstrating the Elec-
tric Field Concept • Electric Lines of Force • Potential and Kinetic Energy • Differ-
ence of Potential • Static Electricity and Electrostatics • Free Electrons and Electric
Current • Conductors • Insulators • Electrical Pressure and Electromotive Force •
Unit of Electromotive Force (the Volt)
Summary and Review Questions 34

ELECTRIC CURRENT 35
Electric Current (Rate of Flow and Ampere) • Velocity of Electrons in a Conductor
• Effects of Electric Current • The Generation of Electromotive Force
CELLS AND BATTERIES 39

The Primary Cell • The Zinc-Carbon
(Le Clanche) Primary Cell • Action in a
Primary Cell • Primary Cells (Zinc-Mercury Oxide Type) • The Secondary Cell (Lead-
Acid) • Charge and Discharge in the Lead-Acid Cell • The Nickel-Cadmium Cell •
Output Voltage Rating of Cells • The Current Capacity Rating of Cells • Connecting
Cells in Series to Form a Battery • Connecting Cells in Parallel to Form a Battery •
Series-Parallel Connected Cells
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 51
The Electric Circuit • The Closed Electric Circuit
RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS 53

Resistance • D-C
Resistance of Voltage Sources (Internal Resistance) • Unit of Re-
sistance (The Ohm) • Factors that Determine Resistance in Metals (Material and
Length) • Factors that Determine Resistance in Metals (Cross Section and Tempera-
ture) • Practical Units of Wire Sizes — American Wire Gage • Resistors • Resistor
Ratings and Color Codes • Special Resistors
OHM’S LAW 63
Ohm’s Law For Finding Current • Ohm’s Law For Finding Voltage • Ohm’s Law For
Finding Resistance
ELECTRICAL POWER 67
Electrical Power and the Watt • Power Formulas • Power Rating of Resistors • The
Kilowatthour
VI CONTENTS
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS 71
The Organization of D-C Circuits (Schematic Representation)
MEASURING DEVICES 72
Introduction to Measuring Devices
SERIES CIRCUITS 73
The Series-Connected or Series Circuit • Determining Resistance in Series (Calcula-
tion) • Connecting-Wire Resistance • Resistance in Series (Measurment) • Current
In A Series Circuit (Calculation and Measurment) • Polarity In Series Circuits •
Voltage Drop In Series Circuits • Determining Applied Voltage In A Series D-C
Circuit • Calculating and Measuring Voltage Drop in Series Circuits • Applying
Voltage Drop (Potentiometer Voltage Divider) • Power in the Series Circuit
PARALLEL CIRCUITS 85
Parallel Circuits •Current in a Parallel Circuit • Computing Resistances in Parallel
• Calculating Current in a Parallel Circuit • Power in Parallel D-C Circuits
SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF D-C CIRCUITS 90

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS 91
Series-Parallel Circuits • Current and Voltage in Series-Parallel Circuits
KIRCHHOFF’s LAWS 92
FUSES 94
MAGNETISM 96
Magnetism and Electromagnetism • Magnetism Is A Form of Energy • Magnetic and
Nonmagnetic Materials • The Poles of A Magnet • The Basis of Magnetism • Attrac-
tion and Repulsion Between The Poles of Magnets • The Magnetic Field (Lines of
Force) • Lines of Force and Flux Density (Units) • Properties of Magnetic Lines of
Force • Electromagnetism • Action of Magnetic Field Around Two Parallel Current-
Carrying Wires • The Magnetic Field Around A Current-Carrying Coil • Strength
of the Magnetic Field Around A Solenoid (Ampere-Turns) • The Left-Hand Rule For
A Coil • The Electromagnet • The Magnetic Circuit • Motion of A Current-Carrying
Conductor In A Magnetic Field
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 114

The D-C Motor Induced Electromotive Force (emf) The Moving Conductor Genera-
• ;
tor • Induced Electromotive Force; Moving Magnetic Field • Factors That Control
the Amount of Induced EMF
METERS 119
Electrical Measuring Devices: The D’Arsonval Meter • Operation of the Moving-
Coil D-C Meter As A Current Meter • How to Calculate the Resistance of A Shunt •
Using the Current Meter • The D-C Moving-Coil Voltmeter • Calculating the Multi-
plier • D-C Voltmeters — Ohms-Per-Volt Rating • Using the Voltmeter Properly •
The Series Ohmmeter • The Shunt Ohmmeter • Using the Ohmmeter • D-C Meter
Scales • The Wattmeter • The Wheatstone Bridge
AMERICAN WIRE GAGE TABLE 134
GLOSSARY 135
INDEX 137
THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY 1-1
Introduction to Radio
Radio is the name applied to the most successful and most frequently used
facility for communicating with all parts of the world. Radio communica-
tion is speedy and reliable. An important news event — a political incident,
the death of a famous person, any significant occurrence anywhere in the
world — can be made known instantly everywhere else in the world through
the medium of radio. The speed of the radio wave is approximately 186, 000
miles per second, rapid enough to circle the globe at the equator slightly more
than seven times per second. But the dissemination of news, culture and en-
tertainment by radio broadcasting is but one of the many functions of radio.
Police radio, marine radio, and aviation radio are equally important because
they function to safeguard human life on land, on and beneath the sea, and in
the air.
Without the benefits of radio, conquest of space would be impossible. The

transmission of vital information from satellites to earth is one application
of radio in this effort. Television is basically a radio system. The ability
to detect an unseen hostile target and to locate its position and distance from
a point of observation is another application of radio: it is called Radar —
RAdio Detection And Ranging. An understanding of the workings of radio is
also the basis for understanding the widespread applications of electronics.
And it all begins with a study of electricity.
1-2 THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY
The Early History of Electricity
Knowledge concerning electricity started with the Greeks. It is said that at

about 600 BC, the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered that a cer-
tain substance (now known as amber), when rubbed with certain materials,
displayed a peculiar force. It would attract tiny bits of dried leaves and wood
to itself. Thales had no explanation for the action, but he gave the name
electron to the substance. The word "electron" is in use today but its mean-
ing is far different now, as you will learn.
The behavior of amber remained a mystery for about a thousand years. But
as time passed, more and more substances which behaved like amber were
discovered. About the year 1600, an English scientist named William Gilbert
compiled a list of so-called electriks, or substances that could be electrified
or "charged with electricity", by rubbing (friction). When electrified, they
could attract tiny objects such as bits of paper and threads of cloth. Then,
in the early 18th century, experimenters with electriks discovered that many
materials, when rubbed with other materials such as fur or wool, not only
would attract tiny objects, but would attract or repel each other. The action
was not understood and it was declared to be the display of electrical force
due to a mysterious something known as electricity.
A Famous Experiment in Electricity
field of electricity was

One of the far-reaching experiments performed in the
and the rubbing of a resin rod
the rubbing of a glass rod with a piece of silk,
with a piece of fur, after which the two electrically charged or, simply,
charged rods were suspended near each other and allowed to demonstrate
their electrical effects on each other.
The
The charged resin rod and the charged glass rod attracted each other!
rubbed
charged resin rod repelled another resin rod that had been similarly
The charged glass rod repelled another glass rod that had been
with the furl
rubbed with the silk!
Itwas also found that the action of rubbing the resin rod with the fur also had
charged the fur. But the kind of charge was such that the fur and the resin rod
were attracted to each other, whereas the charged glass rod and the fur repelled
one another. The silk used for rubbing also displayed electrical effects.
It
too had acquired a charge when it was used to rub the glass rod,
and its charge
was such that it was attracted to the glass rod as well as by the fur, but it was
repelled by the electrified resin rod.
)
A Famous Experiment In Electricity (contd.
Many ideas were advanced as explanations for the actions observed. Charles
Dufay, a French chemist, suggested that the different behavior of the
charged
rods was due to the presence of two kinds of electricity -- resinous
in the
resin rod, and vitreous in the glass. Benjamin Franklin,
one of Amer-
lca s founders, recommended a change in the names
identifying the two
kinds of electricity. He suggested the name positive (symbolized by the plus
sign + ) for the kind of charge on the glass, and negative (symbolized
by the
minus sign - ) for the kind of charge on the resin rod. These names were
accepted and have been in use ever since.
By Franklin's Definition
Franklin also suggested the idea that everything in its normal

stat e, that is
all objects which are not electrified, are made of equal
amounts of positive
and negative electricity. Such uncharged objects do not
display electrical
effects (attraction or repulsion) because the effects of one kind
of electricity
are offset by the effects of the other kind of electricity. He
visualized the
so-called electrified or charged condition of an object as being
the presence
of more of one kind of electricity than of the other kind. The
part of the elec-
trified resin rod which was rubbed was charged with
negative electricity be-
cause it contained more negative electricity than positive electricity.
The
a mount of negative charge was equal to the excess of negative
electricity over
positive electricity. In a practical sense, negative charge
was produced in
the resin rod by rubbing. The glass rod, on the other hand,
was charged with
positive electricity in the area where it was rubbed because
it contained more
positive electricity than negative electricity. The amount
of positive charge
was equal to the excess of positive electricity over negative electricity.
Again ’
in a practical sense, positive charge was produced in
the glass rod by rubbing.
)
A Famous Experiment in Electricity (contd.
Franklin advanced several more fundamental ideas. He said that any object
(body) which, when charged, behaved like the electrified resin rod, had a
"negative charge. " In other words, the glass rod was attracted to the resin
rod and also the silk; therefore, the resin rod and the silk were charged with
the same kind of electricity —
negative. By the same reasoning, any charged
object (body) which behaved like the charged glass rod was charged with pos-
itive electricity. The resin rod was attracted to the glass rod and also to the
fur; therefore, the glass rod and the fur were charged with the same kind of
electricity -- positive.
Itwas observed that bodies which carried unlike charges —

the resin rod and
the glass rod, the silk and the fur, the resin rod and the fur, the glass rod
and the silk —
were attracted to each other. On the other hand, when the fur
and the glass rod, or the resin rod and the silk (all of which carried the same
kind of charge) were allowed to act on each other, it was noted that they repelled
each other. From these findings came certain fundamental conclusions :
namely, that bodies charged with unlike electricity attract each other whereas ,
bodies charged with the same kind of electricity repel each other These ex- .
periments and observations did not explain what electricity was; they simply
dealt with observable behavior of the assumed two kinds of electricity. Inter-
estingly enough, these conclusions were correct and have become fundamental
laws of electricity.
Bodies Charged With Unlike Electricity Anted Each Other
Charged
negative Glass Rod
Charged
Resin Rod charge (or any object
(or any object that behaves
that behaves like a glass rod
like a resin rod when charged)
when charged)
attraction
Bodies Chewed With The Seme Kind Of Electricity Repel Each Other
repulsion
between two negatively between two positively

charged objects |
charged objects
Electrical Charging By Rubbing
more negative more positive more positive more negative

electricity than electricity than than
electricity electricity than
positive negative negative positive
electricity elec tr icity electricity electricity
HENCE:
negatively positively negatively
charged charged charged
Early Explanation Of Negatively and Positively Charged Objects
Franklin explained "charging by rubbing" in the following way. When the resin
rod was rubbed with the fur, the surface friction caused some of the positive
electricity in the resin to go to the fur. Now the rubbed part of the resin rod
had more negative electricity than it had positive electricity; hence, it was
negatively charged On the other hand, the part of the fur used for rubbing
.
now contained more positive electricity than negative electricity; therefore,

it was positively charged. Inthecaseof the glass rod rubbed with the silk, the
silk gave up positive electricity which went to the glass, giving the rubbed
portion of the glass rod a preponderance of positive electricity; therefore, a
positive charge. Having given up positive electricity, the part of the silk used
for rubbing was left with more negative electricity than positive electricity;
hence, it was negatively charged.
It so happens that Franklin was not correct in his identification of which kind
of electricity went where. Science has since learned that it was negative
electricity which was displaced; from the fur to the resin rod, and from the
glass to the silk. But the identities of the final charge created on the electri-
fied resin rod and on the electrified glass rod as established then are in use
today. Equally important, as you shall learn later on, is that several other
concepts advanced at that time are in use today; namely that everything is
made of two kinds of electricity and that one kind of electricity can be sepa-
rated from the other kind. But before we can discuss the modern versions of
these happenings, we must develop the atomic concept of matter and the
electronic concept of electricity.
The Modern Concept of Electricity
Although our concepts of electricity differ substantially from the ideas

of Franklin' s time, the pattern of modern thinking, strangely enough, follows
the explanation of electrical behavior as expressed then.
There are two kinds of electricity. Still using Franklin's terms, we speak of
them as positive and negative Whereas in Franklin's day electricity was vis-
.
ualized as a fluid, today we believe that electricity exists as minute, virtually

weightless spherical specks or particles — the positive electricity particles
being called protons, and the negative electricity particles being called elec-
trons. We don't know if the proton is, or just carries, a certain amount of
positive electricity, or if the electron is, or just carries, a certain amount
of negative electricity. Either concept is acceptable because it leads to the
same thing.
There Are Two Kinds Of

Fundamental Electric Charges
The Electron
Man has never seen a proton or an electron because the particles are too tiny
for even the greatest known magnification to make them visible. But this has
not prevented the development of certain ideas about them. For instance, it
has been established that the amount of positive electricity associated with a
proton is exactly equal to the amount of negative electricity associated with an
electron. Each is the smallest amount of electricity of its kind known. There-
fore, the proton is the fundamental charge of positive electricity and the elec-
,
tron is the fundamental_charge_ofjiega^^ Each is an impractically

small amount, but finite just the same. Operating electrical systems involve
the motion of fantastic quantities of electrons, as you shall learn.
Matter and Chemical Elements
—
How do the specks of electricity protons and electrons -- fit into the scheme
of things? The answer is that they are the main ingredients of everything.
Everything in the world you can see or touch, and even the many things invis-
ible to the naked eye but known to exist, make up the matter of the universe.
Matter exists in solid, liquid, or gaseous states. Blood, skin, bone, steel,
water, glass, rubber, powder, gold, smoke, copper, tobacco, and air are
just some of the many examples of matter. Chemically speaking, all matter
is made of one or more of the 102 "pure" substances identified as chemical
elements. The word "pure" as applied to a chemical element is that it con-
sists of only one substance. By definition, a chemical element is a substance
which cannot be subdivided into two or more different substances by any known
chemical means, nor can it be produced by the chemical combination of two
or more different substances.
W e are interested in chemical elements because so many of them are used as

the ingredients that make up the various components that comprise electrical,
circuits and equipment. In some instances, elements such as copper, alumi-
num, and carbon are used directly; at other times, compounds (combinations
of different elements) are used in the construction of electrical and elec-
tronic components.
The Atom
If a small quantity of a chemical element, solid, liquid or gas, could be re-
duced in amount by a continuous series of subdivisions, the fundamental build-

ing block of the element eventually would be reached. This is the atom.
Science knows no way of performing such a subdivision, and consequently no
one has ever seen an atom. But even though we lack this ability, we accept
the idea that nature has built everything out of atoms. Atoms form the chem-
ical elements, and chemical elements singly, or in combination make up
everything else; therefore, in the fundamental sense, everything is made
of atoms .
(Note:
The lines joining
the atoms do not really
exist. They ore used as

an aid to show the
atomic make-up of the
copper crystal.)
J f undo mental building block
THE COPPER CRYSTAL - THE TINIEST PIECE OF COPPER

THAT BEHAVES LIKE
COPPER. IT CONSISTS OF 14 ATOMS IN A FIXED FORMATION.
The smallest possible amount of some gaseous elements which display the
properties of the gases is a molecule made up of two atoms that are in an
,
electrical bond. Oxygen is one of these, Hydrogen and" Chlorine are others-.
Then there are gaseous elements for which the smallest quantity of the sub-
stance is a single atom. Helium, Argon and Neon are examples. In the case
of the elemental metals, a different situation prevails. The smallest amount
of the element is a single atom, as for instance copper, silver, gold, iron,
lead, tin and others, but the smallest amount of the metal which displays the
physical properties of the metal —
expansion, contraction, malleability --is
a crysta l. (Sometimes, the crystal of a metal is called a giant molecule). A
crystal of a metal is an organization of atoms of the element arranged in a
particular formation. For instance, the tiniest amount of pure copper which
will behave like the metal is 14 atoms of copper arranged in a geometric
pattern called a face -centered lattice A length of copper wire would be made
.
of a tremendous amount of these crystals. Other elemental metals have their

atoms arranged in different formations. Remembering the geometric pattern
of the crystal of copper is not vital to understanding the workings of electricity.
Every Atom Is Made of Electricity
A SUBMICROSCOPIC SOLAR SYSTEM
Every atom (regardless of kind) is an organized structure whose main parts

are comprised of particles of positive electricity (protons) and particles of
negative electricity (electrons). When we say that one atom is different from
another (each being representative of a different kind of chemical element), we
mean simply that the two atoms are made of different amounts of positive elec-
tricity, with each having as much negative electricity as positive electricity.
A popular concept of the atom was advanced by Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist.
He visualized the atom as having a stationary center (or nucleus) in which was
concentrated all the positive electricity of the atom (all the protons). Also
present in the nucleus of all but the Hydrogen atom was still another kind of
particle called a neutron .Each kind of atom contained a different number of
neutrons, but since the neutron contributes nothing of electrical character to
the atom, we need not discuss it any further. Revolving around the nucleus
with very high velocity and at different distances from it are the specks of neg-
ative electricity -- planetary electrons -- which balance the positive electri-
city content of the atom. In any one kind of atom, there are associated with
it as many planetary electrons as there are protons in the nucleus,
or as much
negative electricity as positive electricity. As a convenience in identifying
the different kinds of atoms, each kind is associated with a number and with
one or two letters. The numerical reference states the number of protons in
the atom (hence, the number of planetary electrons too), while the letter sym-
bol identifies the chemical element. As typical examples, the Hydrogen atom
(H) is #1; the Carbon atom (C) is #6; the Copper atom (Cu) is #29; the Silver
atom (Ag) is #47, and so on.
Electrical Forces In The Atom
What keeps the circling electrons from flying out of the atom under the influ-
ence of the centrifugal force that each planetary electron feels ? The general
concept is that the electrons are held in their orbits against the pull of centri-
fugal force by the electrical force of attraction between the protons in the nu-
cleus and the orbiting electrons. The electrical force is manifested as a me-
chanical force; it pulls the electrons inwards towards the nucleus while the
centrifugal force is pulling the electrons outward away from the center.
The two forces are in exact balance; therefore, the electrons do not leave the
atom nor do they "fall" into the nucleus. Each fundamental particle of elec-
tricity is inseparably endowed with the property of attracting an oppositely
charged particle to itself, and repelling every similarly charged particle.
The protons in the nucleus also feel a pull towards the electrons, but the much
greater mass of the individual proton keeps it put where it is.
Planetary Electrons are

submitted to centrifugal
force due to their speed
in orbit .forces of attraction
from the positive charge
(protons) and forces of
,
repulsion from neighboring

electrons. All act together to
keep the electrons in the atom.
ORBITS
V NUCLEUS
FORCE OF UltUaittU
pull electron to nucleus
tend< n 8 to
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE tending to
pull electron out of atom
planetary electrons orbit around
nucleus at high speeds

FORCES OF REPULSION
BETWEEN ELECTRONS
A force of repulsion exists between each orbiting electron and acts in all di-
rections, thus keeping the planetary electrons in their positions in the orbits.
A similar force of repulsion exists between individual protons which are sep-
arated, but when they are as densely packed as they are in the nucleus, there
is a "something" which accounts for their not flying apart.
The electrical forces in the atom are fundamental and tremendous. Were this
not so, the universe would fly apart. As long as the atom is in electrical
equilibrium, that is, equal numbers of protons and electrons, the electrical
and mechanical force condition is confined strictly to the Inside of the atom .
Neither the protons nor the electrons inside an electrically-neutral atom (equal
numbers of protons and electrons) have any effect on other electrons and pro-
tons outside of the atom. This subject will receive more attention later, as
we develop several related ideas.
Bound Electrons
The electrical forces referred to on the preceding page exist inside everj
atom but the behavior of these forces is not exactly the same in the different
kinds of atoms. For our purposes, we need not consider the different kinds
of atoms on an individual variety basis; it is sufficient if we deal with two main
categories- -nonmetals and metals. We shall consider each separately.
Under all normal conditions, the force of attraction between the protons in the
nucleus and the planetary electrons in the atoms of nonmetal s is sufficiently
strong to keep all the electrons tightly "locked" inside the atomic structure.
The electrons revolving in orbits close to the nucleus, as well as those revolv-
ing at the farthermost distances from the center of the atom, are "bound" to
the atom. An occasional atom may let go of one of its outermost electrons,
but by and large, we assume that the nonmetallic materials are made mainly
of atoms which are in electrical balance (always have equal numbers of protons
and electrons). They are electrically-neutral atoms.
centrifugal force (B)
This situation is not an unchangeable one Given a different set of conditions

(which we might call "abnormal") such as the application of a sufficiently
strong external force- -one strong enough to overcome the binding forces be-
—
tween the protons and outermost electrons inside the atomic structure it is
possible to upset the electrical balance. It is possible to literally "tear" one
or more electrons out of the atom, or even temporarily "add" an electron to
the atom. Strangely enough, such external forces can be developed rather
easily. Rubbing the resin rod with the fur and the glass rod with the silk are
examples of "abnormal" conditions --that is, the application of such external
force. The surface atoms of the fur and the glass rod released electrons,
whereas the surface atoms of the resin rod and the silk temporarily accepted them
Free Electrons In Metals
We have explained how the electrons in the atoms of nonmetals are bound to
the atom. On the other hand, it is an accepted theory that the protons in the
nucleus of the atom of a metal hold onto all but one of the normal complement
of planetary electrons.
The situation is explained in the following way. The electron (or electrons)
that orbits at the farthest distance from the nucleus in the atom of metals is
believed to follow an elliptical path. (An ellipse is a geometrical figure which
has the shape of a hoop that has been flattened slightly). The other orbits are
assumed to be circular. Asa casein point, let us assume an atom of copper.
The outermost orbit is occupied by a single electron, this orbit being elliptical.
At one point in the path of travel, the electron is very close to the nucleus; at
another point, the electron is far removed from the nucleus. When the elec-
tron is farthest from the nucleus, it is released because the force of attraction
between it and the cluster of protons is not sufficiently strong to keep the elec-
tron in its orbit. It is believed that this action occurs in the atoms of all met-
als, although not exactly to the same extent in each kind.
The liberated electrons are called "free electrons". They wander among the
atoms of the metal throughout all parts of the metal in a random manner (pre-
sumably uniformly distributed throughout the metal), as many moving in one
direction as in another. Every atom which has lost an electron now has a
preponderance of positive charge, that amounting to one proton. These atoms
are called "positive ions". However, for every positive ion in the metal there
isafree electron so that the balance between positive and negative electricity
is maintained and the metal as a whole remains electrically neutral.
The Modern Concept of Charging
The modern concept of "charging with electricity" or simply, "charging" is

nothing more than disturbing either the equality of the electron and proton
content in an object, or the uniform distributions of the negative and positive
electricity content.
The four examples of nonmetallic substances used in the Franklin experiment

became charged because electrons were torn from the surface atoms of one
material (the fur and the glass rod) and transferred to the surface atoms of
the other material (the resin rod and the silk) during the rubbing process.
The emphasis on the surface atoms is made for a reason. The atoms of all
solid substances are to all intents and purposes fixed in their locations . When
electrons are transferred from the surface atoms of one nonmetallic object to
surface atoms of another nonmetallic object, the negative charge is transferred
from one particular place to another Whatever charge is given up or acquired
.
by rubbing, the action occurs over the area where the friction took place. The
charged condition is therefore localized to certain places on the surface .This
point is stressed because the action is somewhat different in objects made
of metals.
mm FRICTION TOOK met

Charging By Contact
The frictional method of charging (rubbing) is applicable to nonmetals and met-

als alike, but not too successfully to the latter. A preferred method of charg-
ing metallic objects is by contact. We are concerned with the charging of metal
objects because metals are used in radio equipment.
Let us assume we have a hard rubber rod which has been given a negative
charge by some means. (Hard rubber behaves like resin). We also have a
small strip of aluminum which is electrically neutral. The strip is suspended
by a silk thread. We now make momentary contact between the charged rub-
ber rod and the metal strip. Some of the electrons leave the rubber and go to
the aluminum. Having given up some of its electrons, the rubber now has less
negative charge; but now, the metal strip also has a negative charge. The
total of the acquired electrons, plus the free electrons, plus the bound elec-
trons in the atom of the metal exceeds the total of the protons in the metal.
Thus, the total negative electricity content exceeds the total positive elec-
tricity content; hence, the net negative charge However, unlike the behavior
.
of the nonmetallic object, the electrons passed on to the aluminum distribute

themselves uniformly over the entire surface of the strip after which (to all
,
intents and purposes) they are at rest.
CHARGING BY CONTACT •
CHARGES
DISTRIBUTE THEMSELVES UNIFORMLY OVER METAL STRIP
...PRODUCING A NEGATIVELY
CHARGED ALUMINUM STRIP.
In other words, the acquired negative charge is not localized to the point of
contact with the rubber. It exists everywhere on the aluminum surface . If a
positively-charged glass rod had been used as the charging body in place of
the negatively-charged rubber rod, some of the free electrons moving along
the surface o f the aluminum would have gone to the glass, leaving a preponder-
ance of positively-charged atoms (positive ions) in the metal. The metal strip
then would have been charged positively.
Charging By Induction
There is still another method of charging an object. It is called charging

by
induction. We shall apply it to metallic objects rather than nonmetallic be-
cause the practical applications of the phenomenon involve metallic
components.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION*• Chetys An Aftnefed end Repelled

Irenes e'$pece7<>$£$^
>:
positive charge resulting from

<£ repulsion of negative charges
negatively charged
rubber rod
0
+ +++
+ ++ 4
+ + +*f*
-
ALUMINUM ROD
M ^
negative charges repelled by
% rubber rod
negative charge resulting from

attraction by positively charged rod
V ALUMINUM ROD
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
positive charges
i
resulting from
loss of negative charges
to other end of rod.
Imagine an uncharged aluminum rod suspended by a silk

thread. (Any other
metal could by used). Also a negatively-charged rubber rod.
The negatively-
charged rubber rod exerts an influence on the free electrons within
the alumi-
num rod, acting across the space separating the two rods. Complying
with
the law that like charges repel, the rubber rod drives the free
electrons wan-
dering in the aluminum rod away from the end nearest the
rubber rod. Now
there is a decrease in the number of free electrons at that
end of the aluminum
rod which is nearest the charged rubber rod and a crowding
of free electrons
at the other end of the metal rod. This condition exists
as long as the charged
rubber rod is held near the metal rod.
If, instead of using a

negatively-charged rod as the charging body, we used a
positively-charged glass rod, the free electrons in the metal
rod would be
attracted towards the end which is nearest the glass rod, causing
a crowding
at this end and a shortage at the other end.
)
Charging By Induction (cont'd.
Let us continue the experiment with the metal bar being acted upon by the neg-
atively-charged rubber rod. As shown in the illustration, some of the free elec-
trons are crowded at the end away from the rubber, having been repelled
from the end near the rubber rod by the energy associated with the neg-
atively-charged rubber.
Now we momentarily touch the end of the metal rod farthest from the rubber.
The human body is not the best -known path for electricity, butit is good en-
ough for this purpose. The crowded electrons tending to repel each other
readily leave the metal and go to the finger. Then, we remove the charged
rubber rod from the vicinity of the metal rod. The free electrons inside the
metal redistribute themselves uniformly throughout the metal, but now, there
are more atoms shy electrons than there are free electrons in the metal The .
metal rod contains more positive electricity than negative electricity; hence,
it has acquired a positive charge. It is to be noted that a negatively -charged
charging body induces a positive charge in the original electrical neutral
body. In other words, the charge induced is the opposite of the inducing charge.
1 1
charging takes place crowded negative charges leave rod
through space and enter neutral finger
Aluminum Rod
+ +++
4^+^4+i"+
Crowded Electrons will

leave rod when contact
is made with neutral object.
)
...when rubber rod and finger are Aluminum Rod
removed, remaining negative charges (Positively Charged)
combine with positive charges.
This results in a net positive charge,
since some negative charges were lost.
If thecharging body had been a positively-charged glass rod, the metal would
have had a shortage of free electrons at the end farthest from the glass rod.
The positively-charged atoms at this end would pull electrons from the finger
that touched the metal. Removing the charged glass rod from the vicinity of
the metal would then leave the metal with more free electrons than positively-
charged atoms — or a net negative charge.
-
Discharging A Charged Object
You have learned that the electron and the proton are associated with elec-
trical energy. If we think in terms of theory only, we say that a negative and
positive charge are subject to a force which attracts each to the other; similar
charges tend to repel each other. If we take the practical viewpoint, we real -
ize that it is the electron, the very much lighter of the two fundamental charges
of electricity, which performs the motion” (Each proton has about 1837 times
the mass of an electron). Moreover, the positive electricity is locked inside
the atom; it does not move under the influence of forces that act between charges.
If we give a free electron the opportunity to move from one place to another under
the influence of a nearby positive charge, it will do so, but the positive charge
will not move.
Ifwe arrange for a negatively-charged object and a positively-charged one to

make physical contact, the point of contact becomes the path over which the
excess electrons on the negatively charged object move to the positively-
charged atoms on the positively-charged object. If both objects have equal
amounts of unlike charge, all the electrons corresponding to the negative charge
will flow to the positively-charged body, where they will neutralize the posi-
tive charge and create an electrically -balanced (neutral) condition in both ob-
jects. Wehave, infact, discharged both charged objects by physical contact .
Another kind of physical path could be a piece of wire which touches both ob-
jects at the same time. The flow of electrons through the wire is another
story in itself.
negatively charged positively charged
object object
M +4+. ++++++.+4+4J
+V+
equal but opposite charges
. .
+
+ + + ++I
wire
I
/ opposite charges are

brought into contact & ::
-
r negative charges (low to
positively charged object
$
uncharged uncharged Wire can provide
contact between
negatively
and
opposite charges completely neutralize each other,
positively
making both objects uncharged
charged objects
CHARGED OBJECTS CAN BE DISCHARGED BY CONTACT

Discharging A Charged Object (cont'd)
path
Obj ects bearing unliKe charges can be discharged without using a physical
one with a very strong negative charge,
between them. Assume two objects,
the other with an equally strong positive charge. If the two charged
objects
not touching, the excess elec-
are brought sufficiently close to each other but
object under the influence of the force of attraction
trons on the negative will,
between unlike charges, leap across the gap to the positively-charged object.
The movement of electrons through air produces a visible flash of light accom-
panied by an audible crackling sound. The visible phenomenon is called an
the
arc. The greater the accumulation of the unlike charge on the two objects,
wider the separation that can be bridged by the arc. Lightning is an example
of arc discharge between dissimilarly-charged clouds, or between a
charged
cloud and earth.
strong
UNLIKE CHARGES
' electrons leap (+)
+
+ + + + + + + + +
ft + +
1
+ + tttttttt
+ + t t t t t t
+ + + t t t t t t t
ARC
( due to force of attraction )
If all the surplus electrons on the negatively-charged

object move over to the
positively-charged object, both obj ects become electrically neutral. That is,
the charged objects are discharged; the negatively-charged object because it
has lost its surplus electrons, and the positively-charged object because it has
acquired enough free electrons to neutralize the excess positively-charged
atoms (positive ions) of the metal. It is conceivable that not all of the surplus
electrons will move to the positively-charged object during the arc, in which
case both objects will remain in a charged state, with each now bearing
less charge than before the occurance of the arc.
) )
Discharging Through a Wire
It is easy to visualize the action of discharging two charged objects

by direct
contact. The excess electrons on the negative object stream to the positive
ions on the positive object. But how does the discharge action take place
through a wire which joins two oppositely-charged metal objects? The
answer is important to the study of electricity.
Let us assume the following conditions: The negatively-charged

object (A)
bears great numbers of excess free electrons along its surface. The
posi-
tively-charged object (B) has an equivalent shortage of free electrons along
its
surface. Finally, a piece of copper wire is connected between
the pieces of metal.
When the copper wire joins A and B, the excess free electrons on A have
free
electrons which they can repel (the free electrons in the wire).
Hence the
wire is a path into which the excess free electrons on A can move.
Simul-
taneously, the excess positive ions on B now have free electrons
(in the wire)
on which they can exert a force of attraction Thus, the free electrons in the
.
wire feel a force of repulsion at one end and a force of attraction

at the other.
Actually, the electrons throughout the wire are subject
to these forces. The
net result is that the excess free electrons on A
enter the wire at the same
time the excess positive ions on B are pulling free electrons
out of the wire
Of course, as excess electrons leave A, the amount of negative charge
dimin-
ishes, and as they go to B the amount of positive charge
diminishes.
Free electrons pass

through wire from A to B
metal object metal object

( negatively charged
positively charged
(
-f- + -t-
+ + +.+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +»Bl+
4 + + +-
negc.Iive charge repels positive charge attracts

free electrons'in wire copper wire free electrons in wire
DISCHARGING CHARGED OBJECTS THROUGH WIRE

-- as many electrons leave wire and enter B as enter the wire at A
When all the excess electrons have left A and entered B, both strips
are fully
discharged and no further movement takes place between the
two metal objects
through the wire. Note that the movement of electrons through
the wire is in
a single direction —
from negative to positive —
and it happens without any
change in the number of free electrons that are present in
the wire at any one
time, because as many leave the wire as enter it.
Demonstrating the Electric Field Concept
You have learned that the motion between charges or charged objects (attrac-
tion or repulsion) is caused by the presence of an electric force. We also
said that the charging process was the equivalent of storing electrical energy.
But where is the force which moves charged objects? And where does the
storage of electrical energy take place ? Strangely enough, both are found in
thesameplace —
in the space between the charged objects. This is explained
by the concept of the electric field of force also known simply as the electric
,
field. The space between and all around charged objects is filled with elec-
trical energy —the energy of the electric field that is associated with the charge
ects. This energy can do work.
strong positive |
charge
crystals are
crystal: are distributed electric lines start out |

(distributed in
perpendicularly from pattern of

in random positions
surface of strips electric field
It can be demonstrated in the following way. Assume two electrically-neutral

parallel -positioned metal strips cemented onto a pane of glass. Now we drop
crystals of gypsum (or very tiny bristles of hair) onto the plate, and tap the
glass slightly. The gypsum (or tiny pieces of hair) occupy random positions.
That is, nothing happens. Now, remove the crystals (or hair) and give one
metal plate an exceptionally strong negative charge and the other plate an
equally strong positive charge. Then drop the crystals onto the plate and tap
the glass. A distinct line pattern will be seen between the metal strips and
around them. Something has happened! The unlike charge given to the two
plates has created an electric field between and around the metal strips. The
electrical energy that constitutes the field acted on the crystals (or the hair)
and made them line themselves up in a special way. The field exerted me-
chanical force. If the two charged strips could move, they would move
towards each other.
Electric Lines of Force
The electric field between thetwo charged metal strips shown on the preceding
page has a distinct line pattern. One gathers the impression that the gypsum
crystals acted on by the energy in the electric field aligned themselves along
"lines" of energy. It is explained in the following way.
THE E LECTRIC FIELD AROUND POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

POINT CHARGES
electric lines move radially out electric lines move radially
from a positive point charge into a negative point charge
positive charge;;
[proton] f|§
f|
negative charge
||
(electron |
)
Every electron and proton has an electric field of its own. The energy of the
fundamental charge is in this field. The electric field occupies the space all
around the charge. Michael Faraday, an Irish scientist, pictured this field in
a certain way. He visualized the field as being made up of "pencils of energy"
which can conveniently be illustrated by innumerable straight lines which radi-
ate outward in all directions from the center of the charge. He called these
lines electric lines of force, or simply, lines of force .
Faraday said that a line of force behaved in certain ways. It had a direction
of action; exerted force in the direction in which it pointed, as indicated by
it
an arrowhead drawn on the line. The direction was, and is (by arbitrary con-
vention) that in which it would make an imaginary positive t est charge move.
So it pointed away from the proton and toward the electron. Another accepted
form of behavior of lines of force is that those lines which advance in the same
direction repel one another. A third form of behavior which he conceived was
that lines of force which joined unlike charges behaved like stretched rubber
bands that always wanted to contract. So, when we say that unlike charges
attract, it is the action of the lines of force in the electric field between the
charges that pulls them together. When we say that like charges repel, it is
the force of repulsion between the lines of force going in the same direction
that move facing charges apart.
) )
Lines of Force (cont'd.
The lines of force concept is a ready means for explaining the apparent absence
of electrical effects around electrically-neutral objects, and the electric field
around charged objects. Interestingly, an electric field exists around the
electrons and protons even in an uncharged object, but the fields have equal
intensity and are opposite in direction of action at all points equidistant from
the charge One charge offsets the effects of the other everywhere; therefore,
•
there is no detectable electric field surrounding the object. On this basis, an

electrically-neutral atom is considered as having no external electric field .
When the process of charging causes an accumulation of electrons on one ob-

ject and positive ions on the other, each charged object has its own electric
field, but two fields acting on each other produce a single net electric field
between them.
In the case of the positive ions, each ion contains more protons than electrons;
hence, it has a net electric field, that of the surplus protons. The energy of
this field is detectable beyond the limits of the ion. The same condition is
true in the case of the negative ion, except that now the electric field is that
due to the excess electrons.
II Electric LinesAround Equal Electric Lines Around Two]

But Unlike Charges Jjjjjf | Equal Positive Charges ||
charges tend to move charges tend to move
^towards each other

attract )
away from each other \
( repel
All lines terminate at All lines terminate at

negative charge negative charges induced
on nearest uncharged objects
As to the lineformation of the electric field between the parallel metal

strips, it follows the reasoning of the lines of force concept. Actually,
there are innumerable lines of force between the strips. The lines of
force are substantially parallel between the strips, because the mutual
force of attraction between them straightens them.
Potential and Kinetic Energy
In the study of practical electricity, we are concerned mainly with the move-
ment of free electrons and the conditions which govern their movement. In
this connection, the subject of electricity has a language all its own wherein
certain words identify particular conditions. One of these words is "potential".
Potential is an abridgment of "potential energy", the energy associated with
position To illustrate this, consider the following. Assume a 5-pound weight
.
resting on a pane of glass which in turn is resting on a table. Now you raise
the weight above the glass to a height of say, 6 feet. Then you let it fall. The
glass shatters. Where did the weight acquire the energy to break the glass ?
The answer is simple, even though you may not have thought much about it.
The energy to break the glass was acquired by the weight from your effort in
lifting against the gravitational pull of the earth. This pull accounts for
it
everything falling to the ground, and if it were possible to do so, falling towards
the center of the earth. You did work on the weight; that is, you gave energy
to the weight when you raised it above the glass. You gave the weight poten-
tial energy - -the energy of position. The higher you raise the weight above
the table, the more work is done on it and the greater is the amount of poten-
tial energy stored in the weight. When you allowed the
weight to fall, the po-
tential energy was converted to kinetic energy- -the energy of motion . When
the weight struck the glass, the kinetic energy was changed into heat energy,
sound energy, and mechanical energy, all of which are related to the actual
physical breaking of the glass and the sound which accompanies the action.
)
Potential (cont'd.
Let us now assume that we remove free electrons from an object by any one
of the charging processes described, and pass these electrons on to another
object. Whatever the method used, the displacement of the electrons requires
the application of energy to make them move against either the force of attrac-
tion of the positive ions remaining after the electrons have been taken away,
or against the force of repulsion from other free electrons which are on the
surface to which the electrons are being transferred. The displaced electrons
now have acquired potential energy. The greater the displacement, the greater
is the amount of work that must be done, and the greater the potential energy
acquired by the displaced electrons.
Now, if we arrange for the displaced electrons to go back to where they were,
the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy (the energy of motion) and
the moving charges can do work. The higher the potential of the charge at any
point, the more work can be done when the potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy. We save time by referring to the point or place where the
charge or charges exist as being at a certain "potential" relative to some
reference point, rather than describing it in terms of potential energy.
Difference of Potential
Another phrase encountered very often in electricity is "difference of potential"

It, too, is related to the movement of free electrons. Difference of potential
expresses a situation which determines the tendency of free electrons to move
from one place to another. When we accumulate an excess of free electrons
on an object and create a shortage of free electrons on another, we create a
difference of potential between these two charged objects. You can consider
the obj ects as charged metal strips, if you desire. Given a path between these
two objects, free electrons would move from the "negative" strip to the "posi-
tive" strip. The greater the excess of free electrons on one strip and the more
the shortage of free electrons on the other, the greater is the difference of poten-
tial between the two strips and the stronger would be the tendency of the free
electrons on the negatively-charged strip to go to the positively-charged strip.
mmm
CHARGES TEND TO MOVE BETWEEN TWO POINTS THAT ARE AT
I
DIFFERENT POTENTIALSi^^®SH®ilii
charged metal strips
+ +
DIFFERENCE OF
LARGE POTENTIAL BECAUSE ONE
DIFFERENCE OF DIFFERENCE OF STRIP IS MORE NEGATIVE
POTENTIAL POTENTIAL THAN THE OTHER
It is important however, to understand that a difference of potential exists be-

tween any two points or places where unequal amounts of free electrons exist.
Conceivably, two metal strips (or any other objects) may be charged negatively,
one less than the other. A difference of potential exists between these charged
objects. Thus, there would be a tendency for electrons to move from the more
negatively-charged object to the less negatively-charged object until both ob-
jects were at the same potential, after which there would be no further tend-
ency of the electrons to move between the two charged objects. In other words,
andthisis a very important condition, movement of free electrons through the
w ir e that connected the two metal strips described several pages back occurred
while a difference of potential existed between them.
Static Electricity and Electrostatics
One area of the study of electricity is called electrostatics We have dis-

.
cussed charging and discharging. Whether the method of charge was by fric-
tion, contact, or induction, electrons were displaced from one object to an-
other, after which the electrons came to rest at a new location, creating a
charged state. The name given to electricity at rest is static electricity,
and the broad subject of charging and discharging (the behavior of static elec-
tricity) is called electrostatics. The study of electric fields between charged
objects falls under the heading of electrostatics.
electrostatics peals with electricity at rest
positively charged plate

^
*
Although plates are oppositely .
charged, the charges will remainl

electric at rest until a path is provided
between plates.
field
m metallic plate
negatively charged plated separator
between
a practical application
metallic plates
of this is in the capacitor
metallic plate
We must not confuse the electrically-neutral condition of an object with the

meaning of electricity at rest. Electrical phenomena is not usually associated
with an electrically-neutral object except to recognize that it can be charged
But when it is electrically neutral, it has no electrical effects because for all
intents and purposes it has no electrical field. In addition, it is important
to understand that while a metallic object contains a tremendous number of
free electrons in motion, when this object is charged by acquiring electrons,
these surplus electrons are (to all intents and purposes) at rest along the
surface of the metal.
There are practical reasons for having emphasized the phenomena of charg-
ing and discharging. Charging an object is the equivalent of storing electrical
energy on the object; discharging an object is the equivalent of releasing the
electrical energy. The practical device which does this in radio equipment,
and about which you will learn more later, is called a capacitor (also known
as a condenser). The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical energy and
to release it when it is needed. As we will learn, electrical charges also play
an important role in the operation of tubes and transistors.
Free Electrons and Electric Current
SOME ELECTRONS DRIFT FROM ATOM TO ATOmU
The study of the atom was intended to serve several purposes. First, to lay
the foundation for the explanation of electrical charge and discharge. This we
have done. Second, to be the basis for the explanation of electric current.
This we shall do now.
Let us take an imaginary glimpse inside a piece of copper wire. What we see
would not be too much different in any other kind of metal. The atoms shy
electrons (more correctly known as positive ions) perform ato-and-fro motion
over a very limited distance each side of a "fixed "position. Although describ-
ing a vibratory motion, we can, for all purposes, consider the ions as being
fixed in location in the wire. In between, a host of free electrons drift slowly
in all directions--as many moving in one direction as in the opposite direction.
While performing this motion, the free electrons attach themselves momen-
tarily to the ions, and even to atoms which have acquired the balancing elec-
—
tron only to be freed again a moment later. The free electrons collide with
each other, as well as with atoms. This is an important phenomenon, as you
shall soon learn. Obviously, metal contains wandering negative electricity
(wandering electrons) but it is not usable electricity as it is. We must change
electron movement from random to controlled. Then it is electric current.
)
Free Electrons And Electric Current (cont'd.
A few pages back, we described the motion of free electrons through a wire
connected to two metal strips charged with unlike electricity. The direction
of electron flow was from the negative to the positive strip. Such movement
— —
was a controlled motion it had a definite direction a singular direction
throughout the wire. Although the flow of electrons did not last for long, it
did constitute electric current while it lasted. We define electric current as
free electrons performing a controlled motion.
Let's consider electric current in a different way. When free electrons are
drifting at random in a wire, as much charge (electricity) moves in one direc-
tion as in the opposite^ direction. There is, therefore, no continuous delivery
of electricity from one point to another in a constant direction through the
wire But when the random motion of the electrons is changed to controlled
.
motion, electricity is delivered continuously in a constant direction through

the wire. Such delivery of charge is electric current. As you will learn
later, two important considerations of electric current are the direction of
flow, and the quantity of electricity that is transported in a period of time--
the period being 1 second.
Conductors
Based on the atomic concept of matter and the electrical makeup of the atom,
are made of electricity. Yet, all materials are not equally good as
all things
paths for electricity (electric current). Conductors is the name assigned to
a broad category of materials through which a practical amount of electric
current can flow under normal conditions. Most conductors are metallic.
The usefulness of metal to conduct electric current stems from the abundance
of free electrons in the material, the free electrons being electricity that is
available to be moved through the metal when the material is part of a com-
plete electrical system. However, not all metals are equally good conductors.
The availability of free electrons for a given length and cross section is not the
same in all metallic substances. The chart indicates the commonly-used
metals in their order of suitability as paths for electric current. Silver is the
best, but being expensive is used only in special cases. Copper, the second
best conducting material, is plentiful and inexpensive; hence, is used most
often. At the bottom of the list is Nichrome, a special alloy manufactured
specifically to perform as an inferior conductor. It is one of numerous alloys
that find special use in electrical systems.
Relative Ability
to Conduct
(Conductance)
silver 1.08
copper 1.00
aluminum .63
iron . 1 5
tin .12
nichrome .017
Insulators
Insulators Is the name given to a special group of materials that provide ex-
tremelypoor paths for electric currents under all normal conditions. In fact,
their function is to prevent the flow of electric current. To understand the
basis of action of insulator materials, think of an atom whose electrons are
bound to the atomic structure; in other words, the material contains very few
free electrons. Since there are very few free electrons per given length and
cross section of the material, there is very little charge which can be delivered
from one point to another. No material is completely void of free electrons.
But if they are so few in number, relatively speaking, that a practical and
useful amount of electric current cannot flow under normal conditions, we
consider the material to be an insulator. Examples of such substances are
plastics, glass, mica, mineral oil, rubber, dry paper, dry wood, cotton, and
ceramic substances. The above references are not in the order of their
suitability as insulators.
INSULATORS Provide A Poor Path For Electricity
Very Few Free Electrons
Let us clarify some points regarding the names associated with insulator
materials. The material itself is called an insulating material, but when it is
shaped into some form--large or small --and sometimes used as a support
for wires carrying electric current, it is called an insulator Another word
.
for an insulator is dielectric If the material is used as a covering around

.
wires that carry electric current, it is called insulation .
ELECTRICAL INSULATION USED IN RADIO

Electrical Pressure and Electromotive Force
Q: How is the random motion of free electrons in a conductor changed

to the
controlled motion that is electric current? A: By the application of
electri-
cal pressure which is known as electromotive force. It is abbreviated
emf ’
and pronounced ee-em-eff.
Positive Terminal electron flow will continue as

(positive ions) long as EMF is maintained
source of
cS'-V. electromotive
force
|pt§
S§
m
stw
Negative Terminal
(free electrons)
electrical
between terminals
(a
path
conductor)
A source of electromotive force can be described as a device in which

electrons
are forcibly separated from atoms. This creates free electrons
and atoms
shy electrons or positive ions. The conventional cell or
battery used in
flashlights and portable radio receivers is an example of
sources of electrical
pressure or electromotive force. There are other sources about which
you
will study later.
The separating action referred to above takes place inside

the device con-
tinuously while the device is functioning. The result corresponds
to an accum-
ulation of free electrons on the "negative" terminal
(usually designated by the
symbol -) and atoms shy electrons on the "positive" terminal
(usually desig-
natea by the symbol +). The displaced free electrons are
attracted to the atoms
that are shy electrons (unlike charges attract each
other), but they cannot do
so by any path inside the device. The chemical action inside
a battery prevents
this. But if we provide some sort of electrical
path outside the battery, con-
nected between the negative and positive terminals,
there will be a movement
of free electrons between the battery terminals
via the external oath in a
particular direction —from the negative to the positive terminal. This direc-
tional quality of the action is called polarity. The electrical force acting on
the electrons accumulated on the negative terminal
urging them to the atoms
that are shy electrons on the positive terminal
is the electromotive force
developed by the chemical action in the battery.
Unit of Electromotive Force (the Volt)
If we were speaking about water pressure or air pressure, we would refer to

the amount of pressure in terms of "pounds per square inch". In the case of
electrical pressure, or more correctly stated, electromotive force, the unit
used is the volt. The actual amount of voltage is expressed by a number.
Thus, the output of a flashlight cell is rated at an electromotive force of 1. 5
volts; the modern automobile battery is rated at an electromotive force of 12
volts. Some other sources of electromotive force may be rated at 10 volts,
120 volts, or 5000 volts.
The difference of potential between two points in an electrical system can also
be identified interms of volts. It has become accepted practice to refer to the
electromotive force of a device in terms of voltage output the presence of
,
electromotive force being understood when the voltage reference is made.

Thus, by saying that the voltage output of a flashlight cell is 1. 5 volts, we mean
that it develops an electromotive force of 1. 5 volts.
CONVERSION OF VOLTAGE VALUES
potential difference end 1 KILOVOLT =

electromotive farce ere 1000 VOLTS
(KV)
measured in terns ef
1 MILLIVOLT =
which represents electrical .001 VOLT
pressure
(MV)
1 MICROVOLT =
x .000001 MICROVOLTS
.000001 VOLT
(yUV)
The voltages encountered in radio equipment involve a very wide range.

Voltages may be as high as several thousand volts or as low as a fraction of
a millionth of a volt. Sometimes, it is convenient to state them as a number
and a word prefix having a numerical significance. For instance, it is quite
common to use the prefix "kilo" to mean 1000. In other words, 1 kilovolt
(abbreviated kv) means 1000 volts, and 10 kilovolts means 10, 000 volts. When
the voltage value is between 1 and 999, the amount is expressed as a simple
number; beyond 999, the prefix kilo can be used.
Voltages less than 1 volt are sometimes stated as a decimal and sometimes
by a number associated with a prefix. For instance, the prefix "milli" means
one -thousandth; the prefix "micro" means one-millionth. To state three one-
thousandths of a volt, it is customary to say 3 millivolts (3 mv)and, when
writing the amount, the decimal 003 volt can be used. In like manner, 100
.
millionths of a volt would be stated as 100 microvolts (100 /iv) and, when
shown in a computation, it might appear as 0001 volt..
1-34 SUMMARY
Many materials, when rubbed with other materials, not only attract tiny
objects, but exert forces of attraction and repulsion on each other.
Bodies charged with unlike electricity attract each other; bodies charged
with the same kind of electricity repel each other; positively-and-ne-
gatively-charged bodies attract each other.
—
Everything is made of two kinds of electricity positive and negative —
and one kind can be separated from the other.
Protons are the fundamental charge of positive electricity; electrons are
the fundamental charge of negative electricity.
Electrons are held in their orbits against the pull of centrifugal force by
the electrical force of attraction between the protons in the nucleus of
the atom and the orbiting electrons.
All matter is composed of one or more of 102 substances known as chem-
ical elements, which are comprised of atoms.
Matter or substances with an excess of electrons are said to be negative-
ly-charged; matter or substances with a deficiency of electrons are
said to be positively charged.
Atoms are comprised of positively-charged particles called protons,
negatively-charged particles called electrons, and uncharged particles
called neutrons.
Metallic objects can be charged by contact or by induction.
Objects bearing unlike charges can be discharged (made electrically
neutral) through air (arc discharge), by direct contact, or through a
wire.
Every electron and proton has an electric field of its own, which occupies
the space around it. The energy of fundamental charge is in this field.
Potential energy is the energy of position; kinetic energy is the energy
of motion.
Conductors are materials through which electric current flows under
normal conditions; insulators prevent the flow of electric current.
An electromotive force changes the random movement of electrons
through a wire to controlled movement (electric current). The unit
of emf is the volt.
A difference of potential exists between two points or places in an elec-
trical system and is identified in terms of voltage.
"Potential" and "voltage" are terms which are used interchangeably.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are two kinds of electricity called?
2 . Define the fundamental laws of attraction and repulsion between two elec -
trical charges.
3. How many elements are there? What is the smallest part of an element?
4. What are atoms comprised of?
5. What is the difference between charging by contact and by induction?
6. Explain what free electrons are.
7. What is an electric current?
8. What is the name given to electricity at rest?
9. Explain what is meant by the "lines of force concept".
10. Define a conductor. Give examples of good conductors.
11. Define an insulator. Give examples of good insulators.
12. Which is the better conductor, copper or silver? Which is more wide-
ly used and why ?
1-35
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric Current (Rate of Flow and Ampere)
Most electrical devices function by virtue of the electric current which flows
through them. An important characteristic of electric current is its rate of
flow.
The unit of quantity for electric current is the coulomb, named after the scien-
tist Charles Coulomb (1736-1 806). It corresponds to the gallon in liquid mea-
sure. Although we seldom mention the equivalency between a gallon of fluid
and the number of drops of the fluid that make up the quantity, there is a fig-
ure which expressesthe amount of electricity contained in a coulomb in terms
of the electricity carried by each electron. Specifically, it is the amount of
electrical charge equal to 6.28 x 1()18 or 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 elec-
trons. (You need not bear this number in mind but it is useful to show that
a coulomb is a specific amount of electricity). It is not sufficient to know the
quantity of electricity passing through a device; we must know the rate of flow.
In this connection, the unit time reference is 1 second; hence, the rate of flow
of electric current is expressed as coulombs per second. This term corre-
sponds to "gallons per minute". However, in the electrical language, we
shorten "coulombs per second" to the simple word "ampere", named after
the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836). We say that 1 ampere
of electric current flows when 1 coulomb of electric charge moves past any
given point ini second. Note that the word ampere already includes the quan-
tityand the time references. Thus, a reference to 5 amperes means the flow
of 5coulombs of electricity past a given point every second. Another short cut
used in engineering language isthe letter'!’ to represent the symbol for current.
1-36 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Velocity of Electrons in a Conductor
We have spoken of current flow as consisting of the movement

of free electrons
under the influence of an electromotive force. We
learned that the individual
free electrons moved from atom to atom in the general direction of the posi-
tive electromotive force charge, and away from the negative charge. Actually,
the forward motion of the individual electrons is not very rapid, but their elec-
trical effect is -- approximately 186, 000 miles per second, the speed of light.
St movement of electron causes other electron

nt area
4 ^ ^ >4 '
X .001 = MILLIAMPERE (ma) 1000 mo = 1 ampere

lAMPEREl
-X .000001 = MICROAMPERE Ua) 1,000, 000Aa = 1 ampere
When an electron is attracted to the positive terminal, there is a deficiency

of negative charge in the area just vacated. A new free electron is attracted
to fill the vacancy. This effect travels along the length of the conductor, with
the positive terminal attracting and the negative terminal repelling free elec-
trons. Thus, despite the fact that the electrons themselves drift very slowly,
the effect of the changes in positions of the electrons is transferred along the
conductor, connecting the terminals of the source of emf almost instantly.
In radio, the amount of current flow may be hundreds of amperes in trans-

mitting equipment; but most often, it is in fractions of an ampere. Quantities
such as the milliampere (. 001 ampere) and the microampere (. 000001 ampere)
are commonly used.
ELECTRIC CURRENT 1-37
Effects of Electric Current
Although an electric current is invisible, its presence can be detected because

of its effects. The greater the amount of current, the stronger the effects.
The Heat Effect. When electric current flows through a conductor, it raises
the temperature of the material. The rise in temperature may be inconse-
quential, or it may be sufficient to make a conductor glow cherry red, as in
a toaster, or white hot, as in an electric light or a flashlight bulb. The heat
—
may become so intense as to melt the material this principle is used in the
ordinary "fuse”.
The Magnetic Effect A second effect of electric current is known as magnetic.
.
Every conductor through which current is flowing is surrounded on all sides

by an invisible area of energy known as a magnetic field. The origin of the
field is the moving electron, and the intensity of the field depends upon the
strength of the current. Of great importance is the fact that the magnetic field
is capable of exerting mechanical forces on a variety of metals such as steel,
iron, nickel and on materials known as "ferrites". Also, it is capable of ex-
erting mechanical forces on electrons moving in nearby conductors.
The Chemical Effect. A third effect is known as the chemical effect. The pas-
sage of electric current through different fluids can cause the breakup (de-
composition) of the fluid into its constituent atoms. Also, under certain con-
ditions, electric current passed through acids in which certain metals are im-
mersed can cause decomposition of the metal. This is the basis of electroplating.
1-38 ELECTRIC CURRENT
The Generation of Electromotive Force
Electromotive force (emf or voltage) was described earlier as being the result
of the forcible separation of electrons from atoms, causing an accumulation
of electrons (negative charge) at one point, and an accumulation of atoms shy
electrons (positive charge) at another point.
An Electromotive Force Difference

or Of Potential
Can Be Generated In VarietyA Of Ways
Riechanical generator
The condition can be developed in a variety of devices. For instance, two

oppositely-charged plates can be a source of an electromotive force as long
as the oppositely-charged condition exists on the plates. When these charges
are neutralized by the transfer of electrons, the electromotive force between
the plates ceases. The friction of rubbing resin with fur and glass with silk
separated electrons from atoms and accounted for the generation of an elec-
tromotive force between these charged objects. Also, you will recall a previous
reference to batteries. They generate an electromotive force by internal
chemical action, continuing to do so as long as the chemical action continues.
Rotating machines know as generators constitute another category of devices

that generate an electromotive force. Later, we shall discuss the method.
Still other substances, like slabs of quartz and crystals of Rochelle salts,
when subjected to pressure or physical deformation, result in the separation
of electrons from atoms within them and so generate electromotive force be-
tween their faces. This fs known as the "piezoelectric" effect. Two dissimilar
metals, placed in contact with each other and with their point of contact heat-
ed, will generate an electromotive force at the open ends.
CELLS AND BATTERIES 1-39
The Primary Cell
Experiments conducted during the 18th century disclosed that when two dis-
similar materials like zinc and carbon (or copper used in place of carbon) were
immersed in a bath of acid solution (sulphuric acid diluted in water), chemi-
cal action produced an electromotive force between the zinc and the carbon
(or copper). The materials immersed in the acid were called the electrodes,
with the zinc being the negative electrode and the other (carbon or copper)
being the positive electrode. The diluted acid solution was called the elec-
trolyte; the whole assembly was called the cell. Often, cells are mistakenly
referred to as batteries. Actually, the cell is the basic unit; two or more cells
used together comprise a battery. We shall show examples of these later.
s When the + end — temintls tee connected exteentlly, ament mill flom
As to the broad significance of a "primary" cell, it has a particular meaning,

this being that the zinc dissolves slowly while the cell is functioning. Even-
tually, the zinc is eaten away to the extent that it prevents further operation
of the cell. When this stage is reached, the cell has exhausted its useful life.
In other words, a primary cell is of the kind which has a limited life, after
which its operation cannot be restored and the cell as a whole must be disposed
of. There are other kinds of cells which will be dealt with separately in this
section of the course.
,
1-40 CELLS AND BATTERIES
The Zinc-Carbon (Le Clanche) Primary Cell
By far, the most popular and commonly-used primary cell is the zinc-carbon
type, sometimes referred to as the Le Clanche cell. In this cell, the positive
electrode is made of carbon (C) and the negative electrode is made of zinc
(Zn). The electrolyte is a chemical known as ammonium chloride (NH 4 CI)
often called sal ammoniac. The negative electrode is in the form of a con-
tainer and holds the entire cell. The positive element is in the form of a car-
bon rod located at the center of the cell. The electrolyte is mixed with corn-
starch or flour to form a paste. Thus, a dry cell is not really "dry". In fact,
when the electrolyte drys out, the cell becomes useless. A mixture of finely-
ground manganese dioxide (Mn02) is packed around the carbon electrode to
act as a .depolarizer.
When the cell is operating properly, a difference of potential (or voltage) of

about 1 6 volts (fully charged) is developed across the positive and negative
.
terminals. As the cell becomes "used up", either by the electrolyte drying
out or the zinc electrode being "eaten" away, the terminal voltage will fall off.
At about 1 1 volts (discharged), this type of cell becomes useless for most appli-
.
cations —
it cannot be recharged, and must be discarded. Different com-
binations of dissimilar metals and electrolytes will produce different ter-
minal voltages.
Action in a Primary Cell
Let us connect a conducting wire between the terminals of a zinc -carbon dry
4
cell. In the electrolyte (NH4CI), ammonia ions (NH4 ) and chlorine ions
-
(Cl ) are present. When the zinc makes contact with the electrolyte, zinc
ions (Zn ++) enter the solution, each leaving two electrons on the negative
electrode. The accumulation of negative electrons constitutes a negative
charge on the zinc plate. The Zn++ions in the solution repel the positive hy-
drogen ions (H+) and ammonia (NH 4 +) ions that are already there toward the
ammonia atoms which collect on the surface of the carbon electrode in the
form of gaseous bubbles. The loss of electrons leaves the carbon electrode
with a positive charge. The Zn ++ ions combine chemically with the Cl" ions
to form zinc chloride (ZnCl2), a white substance. You may have seen this
substance when you removed "dead" cells from a flashlight case. Therefore,
the zinc plate is gradually used up to form zinc chloride (ZnCl2) during the
operation of the cell.
OPERATION OF THE ZINC-CARBON DRY CELL

External conductor permits
electrons to flow from
negative to positive electrode

difference of potential,
or emf, is developed
Zinc (Zn)
between electrodes
Carbon gives up
electrons, leaving
carbon positive
Positive Zn ions enter

solution leaving
Zn negative
Manganese Dioxide
combines with Hydrogen
+ bubbles to form water
ions repel H & NH^'+
ions toward C and depolarize cell
The overcrowded electrons on the zinc plate repel each other. This repulsion,
plus the attraction of the positive charge on the carbon plate, results in the
creation of the emf of the cell. This emf causes electron, hence current flow,
through the external conducting path between the electrodes. The accumulation
of hydrogen bubbles over the carbon electrode adversely affects the opera-
tion of the cell by blocking normal chemical action. This is called polarization.
The manganese dioxide in the electrolyte prevents polarization by combining
with the hydrogen bubbles to form water.
Primary Cells (Zinc-Mercury Oxide Type)
Another kind of primary cell is the zinc-mercury oxide type invented during
World War II. The cell consists of an amalgamated zinc negative electrode
either in powder form or in coiled corrugated strips. The positive electrode
consists of a mixture of mercuric oxide and graphite, molded under pressure
in a steel cup and assembled into the cell. The electrolyte is a solution of
potassium hydroxide and zinc oxide. Cellulose material is used as a separator
and maintains the electrolyte in paste form to prevent spilling.
TIN PLATED INNER TOP SEALING AND

INSULATING GASKET
STEEL OUTER TOP
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
ELECTROLYTE CONTAINED
IN ABSORBENT MATERIAL AMALGAMATED ZINC
ANODE PELLET
INNER STEEL CASE
SAFETY ABSORBENT
SLEEVE
MERCURIC OXIDE
. VENT DEPOLARIZING
'OUTER STEEL CASE CATHODE PELLET
The voltage of this cell when not in use is 34 volts, but under normal current
1.
drain, the voltage will drop to between 31 and 1. 24 volts. Compared with
1.
most other types of primary cells, zinc-mercury oxide cells have several
very desirable features. The voltage over the operating life (discharge cycle)
is nearly constant, and Us ability to store electrons on the negative electrode
is superior to that of the zinc-carbon cell. It has a comparatively high current
output which it can maintain for a considerable period of time. Also, storage
and shelf life are maintained at higher temperatures. However, fcinc -mercury
cells are more expensive, and have been in demand mainly where their re-
duced size (1/2 to 1 inch in diameter and almost 1 inch long) makes their use
feasible. Some of these applications are: hearing aids, small portable radios,
portable communication equipment, electrical test equipment, scientific instru-
ments, and in some applications as a voltage reference.
An interesting feature of this cell is its ability to maintain a relatively con-

stant voltage over its useful lifetime. In many instances, the voltage of this
cell is used as a standard with which to check voltage -measuring instruments.
The Secondary Cell (Lead-Acid)
The primary difference between the secondary cell and the primary cell is in
the fact that the secondary cell is rechargeable. That is, after the secondary
cell has been in use and has discharged, its chemical action can be reversed
and the cell recharged. The most popular and widely -used secondary cell is the
lead-acid "storage" cell, found in automobiles, trucks and a wide variety
of vehicles. When fully charged, this cell has an output voltage of approx-
imately 2. 2 volts. Automobile batteries are generally made containing three
or six of these cells. The lead-acid cell is capable of delivering extremely
high currents, running into the hundreds of amperes.
FILL CAP
I CUTAWAY II
VIEW
111 OF. 111!
A SINGLE
LEAD-ACID
STORAGE CELL
The two dissimilar metals in the lead-acid cell are finely divided or spongy
lead (Pb) in the form of a plate, and lead peroxide (PbC> 2 ). The lead is the
negative electrode and the lead peroxide the positive electrode. These mat-
erials are relatively soft, and are passed into the openings of a grid to forma
rugged plate. The electrolyte is sulphuric acid (H 2 SO4 ) mixed with dis-
tilled water (H 2 O). A cell consists of several negative and several positive
plates interleaved and fitted into a container, together with the electrolyte.
The condition of this cell can be checked with a hydrometer which measures
the specific gravity of the electrolyte (the weight of the electrolyte as compared
to the weight of the water). When fully charged, the specific gravity may be
1. 25; when discharged, about 1. 1.
Charge And Discharge in the Lead-Acid Cell
Let us look at the chemical action in a lead-acid cell. When fully charged, the
negative plates (electrode) consist of lead, and the positive plates, of lead
peroxide. The electrolyte is sulphuric acid and water. If we connect a con-
ductor between the positive and negative terminals, current will flow and the
cell begins to discharge. During discharge, the acid content of the electrolyte
decreases, and lead sulphate (PbSC>4) deposits on both the positive and neg-
ative plates. The amount of water in the electrolyte increases. This process
continues until both the electrodes contain a maximum of lead sulphate and the
specific gravity of the electrolyte is very low. At this time, since the two
electrodes are no longer dissimilar, the difference of potential across them
is at a minimum.
MR6C m mcmei avion in a iead-acio mi

Sulphuric acid (H
2 SO4 )
8 Water (H 2 0)
Charging Sulphate returning Discharged

to solution
The lead-acid cell can then be recharged by reversing the direction of the dis-
charge current. This is done by connecting the positive terminal of the battery
to the positive terminal of a battery charger, and the negative terminal of the
battery to the negative terminal of the charger. During the charging
process, the negative plate returns to lead and the positive plate to lead per-
oxide. The sulphate returns to the electrolyte and its specific gravity increas-
es. During charge, hydrogen and oxygen are given off, and some water must
be added to the electrolyte to replace the water lost. This is the reason you
have to add water to your automobile battery on the average of two or three
times a year.
The Nickel-Cadmium Cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a comparatively recent development that has found

considerable use in portable and mobile electronic equipment. It is a mech-
anically-rugged cell that can withstand overcharging, overdischarging, or
standing idle in a discharged condition for a long time. Being a secondary cell,
this unit can be recharged after having been discharged. In the charged con-
dition, the positive electrode of a nickel-cadmium cell is a nickelic hydroxide;
the negative electrode is metallic cadmium. The electrolyte is potassium
hydroxide. The average operating voltage of the cell under normal discharge
conditions is about 1. 2 volts.
Contact Spring Cover
Nickel-cadmium cells come in a wide variety of shapes and types, the most
popular being the hermetically-sealed variety available in rectangular, cylin-
drical and button form, and the sintered-plate construction requiring a vent.
In the sintered-plate type, the plates are arranged in groups connected by
welded group straps and are separated by layers of fabric. Positive and neg-
ative plate groups are intermesh ed and placed in plastic containers. During
charge and discharge of a nickel-cadmium cell, there is practically no change
in the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The electrolyte acts only as a con-
ductor for the transfer of hydroxide ions from one electrode to the other, de-
pending upon whether the cell is being charged or discharged.
Output Voltage Rating of Cells
An interesting fact about the electromotive force (emf) generated in cells is

that the output voltage of a cell depends upon the kinds of materials used in the
cell, and not upon the dimensions of the materials. For instance, all zinc-
carbon cells use zinc and carbon electrodes, with an electrolyte of ammonium
chloride. This is true whether we consider the tiny "pen" type cells or the
very large No. 6 cells used for bells and electric trains. The output voltage
of both is exactly the same — 1. 6 volts for a new fully-charged cell. As we
will learn later, the big difference between these cells is in the available cur-
rent output. The same is true of the common lead-acid storage cell. A small
cell of this type having a few plates will have an output voltage of 2. 2 volts,
the same as a large lead-acid cell having a great many large plates. There
are many other different combinations of chemicals that give various voltages,
but the quantity of chemicals involved do not affect the output voltage.
wt mm mmt or a m warn um mwmof

mums used m hoi iipoh we mm OF CHEMICALS USED
To measure the output voltage of a cell, a "voltmeter" is used. This instru-

ment will be covered in detail later in this course. The voltmeter is conn-
ected across the terminals of the primary cell and the voltage is read on the
voltmeter. The same is true of secondary cells; however, to get a more
accurate check of the quality of such a cell, it is common to make the voltage
measurement while the cell is discharging, or "under load".
=
The Current Capacity Rating of Cells
You have learned that if a wire is connected between the negative and positive
terminals of a cell, a current will flow through the wire. The fact that elec-
trons leave the cell and enter the wire is the basis for viewing the cell (or
a battery of cells) as being a source of current As long as the proper chem-
.
ical action continues, the supply of electrons continues. The ability of the
cell to supply electrons at a certain rate is referred to as its current capacity.
The maximum rate of supply of electrons depends upon the size or amount of
active material in the electrodes, assuming proper condition of the electrolyte.
This explains why the large No. 6 dry cell can supply more current than the
much smaller cell.
Large Current Flow Small Current

Flow
unequal output eurrents-
THf CURREN CAPACI Y OF
equal output voltages
A CELL DEPENDS UPON THE
AMOUNT OF ACTIVE
MATERIAL N THE CE
large cell small cell
When the current capacity of a cell is expressed, (a practice most common

with secondary cells), it is done by stating the maximum number of amperes
which the cell will supply for 1 hour. Thus, a 20 ampere-hour cell rating
means that the cell will furnish 20 amperes of current for 1 hour, after which
it will be in a discharged state. If, however, the rate of discharge is less
than the maximum capability, the cell can supply current for more than 1 hour.
For example, the 20 ampere-hour cell could supply 1 ampere for 20 hours.
Working in the other direction, the current capacity could be proportionately
greater for a shorter period, such as 100 amperes for one-fifth of an hour, or
12 minutes. The product of the current in amperes and the time in hours can-
not exceed the ampere-hour rating of a particular cell.
AMPERE x 10 HOURS 5 AMPERES x 2 HOURS = 10 AMPERES x HOUR =

I
10 AMPERE-HOURS 10 AMPERE-HOURS 10 AMPERE-HOURS

it is a measure of the iseful life of a cell before recharge is necessary
Connecting Cells in Series to Form a Battery
Under certain circumstances, the voltage available from a single cell may be
sufficient, as in some small flashlights. Under other circumstances, higher
values of voltage may be required. This can be achieved by connecting as
many cells (primary or secondary) in series as are needed to achieve the nec-
essary voltage. Such a bank of cells forms a battery.
THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF CELLS CONNECTED IN
SERIES IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF ALL THEIR

INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGES.
1.5 + 1 . 5 + 1 5 + 1 5 + 1.5
. . 1.5 + 2 +1
volts volts
WHEN CONNECTING CELLS IN SERIES, THE POS-
DIAGRAM ITIVETERMINAL OF ONE CELL IS CONNECTED
baftery
SYMBOLS TO THE NEGATIVE TERMINAL OF THE OTHER.
The total voltage of series-connected cells is the sum of the voltage output of
each of the cells. Thus, if four 1. 5 -volt dry cells are series connected, the
total voltage is 1.5 + 1. 5 + 1. 5 + 1. 5 + or 6 volts. If 30 such cells are con-
nected in series; the output voltage is 30 x 1. 5 or 45 volts. The 6-volt lead-
acid storage battery consists of three 2-volt cells series connected. The 12
volt lead-acid storage battery consists of six 2-volt cells series connected.
When cells are connected in series, the positive terminal of one is connected
to the negative terminal of the other. By doing this, all the individual poten-
tials or voltages aid each other, and add. The above examples involved cells
rated at the same voltage. This need not be so; cells of any voltage output can
be connected in series. Similarly, batteries of like or unlike voltage rating
can be connected in series to increase the voltage. However, each cell (or
battery) in a series arrangement should have the same current capacity .
Series-Parallel Connected Cells
THE SERIES-PARALLEL CONNECTION
The features of series connection and parallel connection can be combined in

a circuit called series-parallel . This connection gives the higher output volt-
age afforded by series connection and the increased current capacity afforded
by the parallel connection, simultaneously. As in the previous examples in
parallel connection, it is desirable that the current and voltage ratings of the
cells be similar. If a high voltage cell is connected across a lower voltage
cell, the higher voltage will cause current to flow through the lower voltage
cell, possibly damaging it. Generally, this type of connection is seldom used
since higher current capacity can be obtained by using larger cells* However,
there may be emergency instances where the series-parallel circuit is the only
practical method of obtaining the voltage and current combination desired.
When making a series -parallel connection, the usual rules of polarity must be
observed: in series circuits, connect positive to negative; in parallel circuits,
connect positive to positive and negative to negative.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 1-51
The Electric Circuit
Electricity can be put to work through the use of an electric circuit. This is
an organized combination of electrical components that permit some specific
function to be performed. Basically, all electrical circuits consist of three
main components:
1. A source of voltage —thusfar, the only voltage source discussed has been
the cell or battery. As we will study later, there are many other voltage
sources, such as generators and crystals.
2. A load —this is the component for which the entire circuit is constructed.
By having voltage applied to it and current flow through it, the load will per-
form some specific task. The load may be a lamp, toaster, electric motor,
bell or any other device that operates from a voltage applied to it.
3. A conductor —the load may be close to the voltage source, as in a flash-
light, or quite far away, as in the case of an electric power company having
to deliver a voltage many miles from the generator. In either case, there must
be a connection between the voltage source and the load. As we will learn in
electrical circuits, the conductor that connects the load with the voltage source
is invariably a copper wire.
THE COMPLETE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A Schematic Diagram
Would Appear as...
In an electric circuit, there must be a complete path for current flow. That
is, there must be a conductor from the negative terminal of the voltage source
to the load, and a "return" conductor from the load back to the positive side
of the voltage source. Should any one of the above components be missing, we
do not have an electric circuit. It is common to refer to the voltage source
as the "generator" regardless of what type of voltage source is used.
1-52 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
The Closed Electric Circuit
Consider a very simple electric circuit consisting of a flashlight battery, a

flashlight bulb, a socket for the bulb, a switch that can close or open the cir-
cuit as desired, and the wires that interconnect the elements of the circuit.
We show these elements pictorially Each of these circuit devices has two
.
connecting points which correspond to the two openings of a piece of lead pipe.
One connecting point allows the electrical energy to enter the device, the other
end permits the energy to leave the device. It is to these connecting points on
each device that the conducting paths (wires) are joined when forming the cir-
cuit. Each piece of conducting wire also has two connecting points, the two
ends of the wire.
current leaves current

negative terminal enters lamp
THE CLOSED
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
a complete path
for the flow of
electric current current passes through

positive terminal closed switch
We have interconnected the elements of the circuit so that there is only one
conducting path from one terminal of the battery to the switch — from the
switch to the bulb, and from the bulb to the other terminal of the battery. Let
us also assume that we have depressed the movable blade of the switch so
that there is an uninterrupted path through the switch for the current. We now
have a closed circuit. It is considered closed because all the elements of the
circuit are joined to each other and a continuous uninterrupted path exists for
the flow of electric current from the battery through tne devices and pack to
the battery.
Creates an
Open circuit, and
current (low ceases
Should this closed circuit be broken (interrupted) at any point, we have what is
called an "open" circuit. The break may be unintentional, such as a broken
conductor, or a burnt out filament in the lamp, or it may be intentional, such
as opening the switch in order to turn off the lamp. In any case, breakingthe
circuit causes the current to stop flowing, and we have an open circuit.
w
RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS 1-53
Resistance
The word resistance as used in everyday language means opposition to an action

or an idea. In the language of electricity, resistance is defined as "opposition
to the flow of electric current". Now, if you will recall that electric current
was described as being the directed movement of free electrons, then resist-
ance can be looked upon as being the opposition to the motion of free electrons.
From this, we can conclude that wherever free electrons are in motion, there
is resistance to their movement. This is called d-c (direct current) resistance.
(Direct current describes current flow in one direction. Later in this course,
we will study a-c or alternating current, where current flows alternately in
both directions). If we relate this action to metals, all metals regardless of
their shape or purpose, offer electrical resistance.
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—
in an insulator
the resistance is
—
am
m
r insulator
and current flow
m is extremely low
extremely high
+
J
in a food conductor conductor and current flow

the resistance
is extremely hi(h
is extremely low
The importance of d-c resistance stems from its controlling effect on the
amount of current which flows under the influence of an applied voltage. For
instance, if a high voltage is applied across the ends of a glass rod, there is
negligible current flow through the rod. This is so because few free electrons
exist in the glass. Glass is called an insulator because it has few free elec-
trons to perform as electric current; an insulator does not conduct electricity
well. If, now, we interpret poor conductivity due to insufficient free electrons
as beingthe equivalent of very high d-c resistance, we have still another basis
of d-c resistance. So, although several different conditions underlie d-c resist-
ance, the end result is the same -- a limitation on the amount of current flow.
1-54 RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS
D-C Resistance of Voltage Sources (Internal Resistance)
The chemical action inside primary and secondary cells involves the move-
ment of electricity through the electrolyte in which the active electrodes are
immersed. In both the dry and the wet cell, the electricity in motion within
the cell is in the form of positive and negative ions — atoms shy electrons and
atoms with excess electrons. The generation of voltage is accounted for in
part by the decomposition of the electrodes, as wellasby a change in the make-
up of the materials as the two kinds of ions enter or leave the electrodes. It
is this action which ultimately leads to the supply of free electrons from the
negative terminal.
CELLS HAVE INTERNAL RESISTftHCE
Lamp VOLTAGE ACROSS

is bright
ELECTRODES = 1.6 V
V0LTA6E ACROSS
ELECTRODES =1.3 V
internal
resistance internal
low resistance high'
PARTIALLY
FRESH CELL
DISCHARGED
CELL
AS ELECTRODE MATERIALS ARE USED UP AND ELECTROLYTE DRIES UP,
IT DECOMES DIFFICULT FOR ELECTRONS TO PASS THROUGH CELL
However ,
the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy does not
occur with 100% efficiency; some waste usually takes place. We attribute the
loss to the presence of resistance inside the cell —
resistance that is insepa-
rably associated with the action. It is called internal resistance It is least
.
when the chemicals are fresh and the action is strong. As the cells function
and discharge, the internal resistance gradually increases, becoming higher
when the cell is discharged. In the secondary cell, the internal resistance is
high when the battery is discharged but reduces to its normally-low value as
the battery is recharged. When cells are part of an electrical system and are
supplying the circuit current, the internal resistance of each cell of the battery
is considered as being in the path of the circuit current.
.
Unit of Resistance (The Ohm)
D-c resistance is indicated by the capital letter R and, when symbolized,

it appears as a zigzag line. Because the amount of resistance presented to
current flow is not always the same and it is necessary to express and com-
pare different amounts of resistance, science has established a unit of resist-
ance . It is the ohm. The origin of the word ohm is the name George Simon
Ohm. He was a German scientist who advanced the concept that a definite re-
lationship existed between the amount of current flow, the amount of voltage
applied, and the resistance of the electrical system. The concept defined the
unit ohm as being that amount of resistance which limits current to 1 ampere
when the applied voltage is 1 volt.
Practical amounts of resistance encountered in radio circuits range from a

fraction of 1 ohm to several million ohms. As a matter of convenience, the
words "milli" meaning one -thousandth, "kilo" meaning thousand, "meg" mean-
ing one million, and "micro" meaning one-millionth are used in connection with
resistance. Thus, 001 ohm is 1 milliohm, 1000 ohms is 1 kilohm, 1,000,000
.
ohms one megohm, andl micro-ohm is 1/1,000,000 or .000001 ohm. You

is
will recall these words being used in connection with voltage and current values
In addition to prefixes being used to express values of resistance, several let-
ter symbols indicate resistance.
OMEGA 0 =ohms 100 0 =100 ohms

KILO or K =1000 4 K =4000 ohms
MEG or M = million 5 MEG =5, 000, 000 ohms
Factors That Determine Resistance in Metals (Material and Length)
Several physical features of conductors determine the amount of resistance

they present to the flow of current. They are: (1) kind of material; (2) length;
(3) cross-section; (4) temperature.
Resistance Of A Material Is Measured By Its SPECIFIC RESISTANCE...
(a cubic centimeter of the material at)

n
silver
copper (.00000163 ohm)
(.0000017 ohm)
aluminum
(.00000283 ohm)' I
...the lower the specific resistance the better the conductor
A basis for comparing the usefulness of metals as conductors of electricity is

by specific resistance. This is the ohmic value of a standa rd amount (1 cubic
centimeter) of the substance measured at a particular temperature (68° F).
If the specific resistance of a substance is high, it is a "high-resistance" ma-
terial; if the specific resistance is low, it is a "low-resistance" material.
The lower the specific resistance, the better the material performs as a con-
ductor of electric current.
Given any one particular conductor material having a specific resistance, the
longer the conductor, the more will be its resistance. If, for instance, the
conductor is pure copper and a piece 1 foot long and 3/8 inch in diameter has
a resistance of 00005 ohm, a piece 100 feet long will have a resistance 100
.
times as great or 00005 x 100 or 005 ohm. Each foot of length contributes
. .
its share of resistance to the total. This leads to the basic rule "the resist-
ance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length".
Factors That Determine Resistance in Metals (Cross Section and Temperature)
The "thickness" or cross section of a wire made of a given material has a

great effect on its resistance. The greater the cross section of a conductor
(the thicker the wire), the less its resistance per unit length --the reason being
tha t the greater the cross section, the more numerous the free electrons to
be moved by a given applied voltage. Given two equal lengths of the same wire
A and B, with A having twice the cross-sectional area of B, wire A will present
one-half the resistance of B. (Do not confuse cross-sectional area with dia-
meter. ) We can state this as a rule: the d-c resistance of a given conductor
is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.
The higher the temperature of ordinary metal conductors, the higher the resis-
tance per unit length and cross section. The reason for this is simply that
an increase in temperature causes more violent motion of the free electrons
and atoms inside the wire, thus increasing the number of collisions between
electrons, and between electrons and atoms. The result is that the free elec-
trons are retarded more in their advance through hot wire than through cold
wire.
,
Practical Units of Wire Sizes — American Wire Gage
It is standard American practice to use different units to express length and

cross-sectional area. Length can be expressed in a variety of units- -inches
feet, or miles (depending on the circumstances). Units of 1000 feet are com-
area, is customary to use circu-
monly used. To express cross-sectional it
lar mils, in which case, the diameter is stated in terms of the mil. A mil
circle with
equals 1/1000 inch (. 001 inch). One circular mil is the area of a
a diameter of 1 mil. This follows from the formula for the area of a circle,
Thus, a
which is the area proportional to the square of the diameter, or d .
cross-sectional area of d or
round wire with a diameter of 100 mils has a
mils. the diameter is 400 mils, the cross-
100 x 100 = 10,000 circular If
sectional area is 400 x 400 or 160,000 circular mils.
If the wire is rectangular, the cross-sectional area is

expressed in square
mils, and is equal to the width multiplied by the height, each dimension being
expressed in mils. A bus wire 1 inch square has a width of 1000 mils and a
height of 1000 mils; therefore, it has a cross-sectional area of 1, 000, 000
square mils.
Resistors
The manufactured version of resistance is the resistor. A resistor is an elec-

trical component which, when made part of an electrical circuit, is intended
to introduce a definite amount of d-c resistance in very compact form. In
many applications, the purpose of the added resistance is to limit the amount
of circuit current to a predetermined value. As we will learn, there are other
functions as well.
Resistors are made in many sizes and shapes, and in a variety of materials.
The so-called "wire -wound" type makes use of a special alloy wire or ribbon
as the resistance element, and is wound on an insulating form, with or with-
out a ceramic covering. Because of the current carrying capabilities of wire,
this type is used when the circuit currents are relative ly high. They are avail-
able in fixed, adjustable, or continuously-variable types. Resistance values
range from a fraction of an ohm to about 100, 000 ohms, in power (wattage)
ratings from 1/2 watt up to 200 watts. Another type is made of graphite or
carbon powder that is formed into rods and cut to length according to the
resistance desired. They are fixed in their ohmic value and in their power-
handling capabilities. Another type of fixed resistor consists of a thin film
of metal deposited on an insulating form. Both the carbon and the deposited-
metal types are low-current units and are availabe in resistance values from
several ohms to as high as 50, 000, 000 ohms (50 megohms); and in wattage
ratings from 1/2 watt to 2 watts. Connection to the wire resistor is by means
of terminals. Carbon and deposited- metal types are connected by means of
wire leads called pigtails. Continuously-variable resistors (potentiometers)
provide any amount of resistance to the maximum. A rheostat is a kind of
variable resistor designed to handle large amounts of current.
Resistor Ratings and Color Codes
The usefulness of a resistor is measured by its electrical rating. There are

three factors used to determine this rating: the ohmic value; the heat dissi-
pating capability; and the resistance tolerance The tolerance of a resistor is
.
the permitted variation in percent from its rated ohmic value. The heat dis-
sipating capability is also known by another name —
wattage rating which —
we shall learn in detail later. The ohmic value cannot be recognized by mere-
ly looking at the resistor; hence, the resistor is labeled in some way. Fixed,
adjustable, or variable wirewound resistors often have their values stamped
right on them. In the case of fixed carbon and deposited -metal resistors, a
color code consisting of three or four colored bands or dots is used. The color
code indicates both ohmic value and resistance tolerance. To "read" the code
correctly, the resistor must be held in such a position that the colored bands
or dots appear at the left, and the value is then read from left to right. The
length and thickness of the resistor is an indication of its wattage rating. If
no tolerance indication is given, a tolerance of 20% can then be assumed.
RESISTOR COLOR C00E COLOR

Numeral Color Numeral Color
0 Black 5 Green
4th Bond
i Brown 6 Blue represents
2 Red 7 Violet 3rd Band
tolerance
3 Orange 8 Grey
(no band = 20%)
4 Yellow 9 White (silver = 10%)
2nd Ban (gold - 5%)
color represents multiplier

1st Band
color represents second figure
color represents first figure
RESISTOR TOLERANCE Resistance may be

If Tolerance is: anywhere from:
resistor
20% 80 ohms to 120 ohms
— io% 90 ohms to 110 ohms
Assume a fixed carbon resistor that is color -coded yellow, violet, orange
and silver. It would read "four, seven, three zeros, and 10%", meaning
47, 000 ohms rating with a resistance tolerance of plus or minus(t) 10%. An
earlier code now obsolete consisted of a body color, an end color and a dot.
The body color represented the first significant figure, the end color repre-
sented the second significant figure, and the dot represented the number of zeros.
Special Resistors
Sometimes, it is necessary to use resistors having special characteristics or

functions. Such a unit is the ballast resistor. This is a resistor whose re-
sistance increases as the amount of current flowing through it increases, or
as its temperature increases. While this characteristic is true of all conven-
tional resistors, the ballast resistor is placed in certain circuits for the sole
purpose of maintaining a high resistance while current flow is high, and to ex-
hibit a lower resistance when the current flow is low. In some instances, it
is used to provide nothing more than a "voltage drop" in a circuit.
RESISTANCE VS TEMPERATURE
CHARACTERISTICS
FOR A TYPICAL THERMISTOR
their resistance
decreases as
their temperature
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
increases TEMPERATURE °C.
Another special resistor is the thermistor . Unlike conventional resistors

whose resistances increase as their temperatures increase, the thermistor
exhibits the opposite properties —
its resistance decreases when its temper-
ature increases (has a negative-temperature coefficient). Thus, an increase
in current flow through a thermistor would cause its temperature to increase
and its resistance to decrease. As we will see, this property of the thermis-
tor is used in special "temperature -compensating" circuits.
The third special resistor is the voltage -sensitive varisto r. The varistor
exhibits a significant and non-linear change of resistance with applied voltage.
An increase in the applied voltage causes an increase in current which is much
higher than is the case with a standard resistor. Because of the change of re-
sistance with voltage, no resistance rating is listed regarding varistors. In-
stead, a voltage is listed for a specified current.
1-62 SUMMARY
The unit of quantity for electric current is the coulomb; a coulomb per
second is defined asan ampere .
Electric current has three effects: heat; magnetic; and chemical.

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current.
Electrical circuits consist of a source of voltage, a load, and a conductor.
The resistance of any material depends on its length, cross-section, and
temperature.
A primary cell is not rechargeable and has a limited life; a secondary
cell is rechargeable and has a longer life.
Dry cells are rated in ampere-hours at a specified rate of current flow.
The most commonly-used primary cell is the zinc-carbon type.
The most widely-used secondary cell is the lead-acid "storage" type.
The lead-acid cell can be recharged by reversing the direction of the
discharge current.
Batteries should be tested "under load" (while discharging).
The current capacity rating for storage batteries is usually based on a
steady 20-hour discharge. A 100 ampere-hour lead-acid battery will
furnish 5 amperes for 20 hours.
A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte
in a lead-acid cell, which is a good indication of the charge condition
of the battery.
When cells are connected in series, the positive terminal of one is con-
nected to the negative terminal of the other.
Connecting cells in series increases the voltage available.
Connecting cells in parallel increases the current capacity of a battery.
Series-parallel connected cells give both higher voltage output and in-
creased current capacity.
Active material refers to the spongy lead and lead peroxide which are
pressed into the grids of the plates of a lead-acid cell.
The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance; a resistor is the component
which offers this resistance.
The usefulness of a resistor is determined by its electrical rating.
Ballast resistors, thermistors, and varistors are resistors which have
special characteristics and applications.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the unit of measurement for resistance ? For electric current?
For electromotive force ?
2. Name
three types of resistors having special characteristics and appli-
What are these characteristics?
cations.
3. Define resistance. What physical factors influence resistance ?
4. What colors are used to indicate a resistance of 4700 ohms, 10% toler-
ance ?
5. How are dry cells rated?
6. Electrical circuits consist of three main components. What are they?
7. What is the difference between a primary cell and a secondary cell?
8. Upon what does the voltage of a primary cell depend?
9. How should batteries be properly tested?
10. How does connecting cells in parallel affect the current capacity of a
battery ?
11. What method of combining cells gives both increased current capacity and
higher output voltage ?
OHM'S LAW 1-63
Ohm's Law For Finding Current
Applying a voltage to a circuit causes current flow; the presence of resistance

opposes the flow of current. How can we reconcile the seemingly opposite
actions of voltage and resistance? George Simon Ohm, a German scientist;
investigated the behavior of electric current more than 100 years ago and
summed it up in a single, simple formula called Ohm's law This law, in its
.
various forms, is one of the foundations on which the study of electricity rests.
Let us examine the formula by studying its application to a very simple d-c
circuit. The battery supplies a voltage we call E to a flashlight bulb filament
whose operating resistance we call R. We neglect the resistance of the circuit-
connecting wire, the internal resistance of the battery, and the resistance of
the switch. When the switch closes the circuit, current flows. But how much
current? To answer the question, we must know the values for E and R, or
how much voltage is pushing and how much resistance is opposingthe current.
So we shall say that E = 1. 5 volts and R = 3 ohms. Then I = 1. 5/3 or 5 am-
.
pere, which also equals 500 milliamperes. Let's try another set of values.
Suppose that E =3 volts (or twice as much as before) but R is 3 ohms (the same
as before). How much current would flow in the circuit? Substituting the
numbers in the equation, I = 3/3, or 1 ampere. Doubling the voltage doubled
the current The significant fact to remember here is that the current varies
.
directly with the applied voltage when the resistance remains constant. This
is one of the basic relationships between current and voltage when resistance
is kept constant. The same relationship would hold true if the voltage were
reduced while the resistance remained constant.
1-64 OHM'S LAW
Ohm's Law (Cont'd)
We have seen that current varies directly with voltage when resistance is con-
stant, but what happens to the current when the resistance varies? Since
current is still the unknown quantity, we work with the same equation (I = E/R).
Current Varies Directly With Voltage
And Inversely With Resistance.
Assume that E = 1. 5 volts, but now, we shall substitute a different filament

for R. Now the operating resistance is 10 ohms. How much current will
flow in the circuit? 1 = 1. 5/10 = 15 ampere (or 150 milliamperes). It is
.
readily evident that with the voltage constant, any increase in resistance re-
duces the current In fact, we can be specific and say that current varies
.
inversely with resistance. Let's hold E at 1. 5 volts and now assume that R
is 30 ohms, or three times the value used before. Now 1 = 1. 5/30 or .05
ampere (or 50 milliamperes). Thus, the resistance was increased three-fold
and the current decreased to one-third its previous value. In other words,
when the voltage is held constant, the current varies inversely with the re-
sistance. This too is a basic relationship. Make another computation with
E = 1. 5 volts and R = 5 ohms. Your answer is 3 ampere (or 300 milliam-
.
peres). It shows that decreasing resistance increases the current — always

inversely —with the change in resistance.
OHM'S LAW 1-65
Ohm’s Law for Finding Voltage
There is still another form of law. It enables the determination of

Ohm’s
the voltage E when the current. I and the resistance R are known. This equa-
tion is a tool for determining the answer to two possible questions that are
frequently encountered in electrical circuits. One is: What value of voltage
I through aknown resistance R? The other
causes the flow of a known current
is: How muchvoltage must be applied in order for a given current I to flow
through a known resistance R?
For instance, a flashlight bulb requires 5 ampere (or 500 milliamperes)

.
current for proper operation, and its operating resistance is 3 ohms. How
much voltage must be applied for this value of current to flow through the
bulb filament? Since the voltage is unknown, the equation E = I x R is used.
Substituting the known electrical quantities for the letters, we have E = 5 .
x 3=1.5, or E = 1. 5 volts. Let’s consider another case. A different flash-

light bulb is used. This one is rated at 5 ampere current (I) flow but its
.
operating resistance (R) is 30 ohms. How much voltage must be applied so

that the filament will glow with the proper intensity? Now E = 5 x 30 = 15,
.
or E = 15 volts. With the current kept constant, an increase in resistance

requires an increase in applied voltage. In other words, the change in re-
quired voltage varies directly with the change in resistance.
If you will examine the equation for voltage (E) closely, you will note that E
is the product of two quantities, I and R. If either of these quantities remains
constant, the voltage E changes in direct proportion to the change in the other
quantity. Suppose I = 25 ampere and R = 3 ohms. The voltage then equals
.
25 x 3 or 75 volts. Compare this with the first problem on this page. Note
. .
that halving the current reduced the required voltage exactly in half.
1-66 OHM'S LAW
Ohm’s Law For Finding Resistance
There is still another important form of the basic Ohm’s Law. It is used when
the resistance R is the unknown quantity and current I and voltage E are known.
This formula is used to determine the amount of resistance that is present in
a circuit when a given amount of current is being driven through a circuit by
a known amount of voltage. It is also used to determine the value of resistance
required to limit the current to a known value when a voltage of a known value
is applied.
The formula shows that R varies in direct proportion to E and inversely with
I. If E increases and I is constant, R must increase. If E is constant and I
increases, Rmustbe less; if Eis constant and Idecreases, Rmust increase.
In other words, R changes in the same direction as E, but in the opposite di-
rection to I.
t
AssumeEto be 3 volts and the flashlight bulb filament to be rated at 15 am-

.
pere. What isthe operating resistance of the filament? Solvingfor R = 3/. 15

= 20 ohms. Consider this case: E remains at 3 volts, but now we use a bulb
whose filament requires 3 ampere for proper operation. What is its resis-
.
tance? Solving R = 3/. 3 = 10 ohms. Note that with the voltage constant,
doubling the current required a reduction of the resistance to one-half the
original value. This is the inverse proportion relationship. Let’s double the
voltage and keep the current constant at 3 ampere. ThenR = 6/. 3 = 20 ohms.
.
Doubling the voltage with the current constant required atwo-fold increase in
resistance. This is the direct proportion relationship.
Try solving this problem: E = 150 volts and I = 20 milliamperes (20 milliam-
peres = . 02 ampere). What is the value of R? Is your answer 7500 ohms?
ELECTRICAL POWER 1-67
Electrical Power and the Watt
When a voltage forces current to flow through a resistance, it does so against

the opposition of the resistance. Overcoming the resistance of the circuituses
up electrical energy. We can compare this to pushing a large box across the
floor. In this case, the opposition is the friction of the floor to the box.
This
friction causes a certain amount of heat to be produced, with the heat repre-
senting a loss, or wasted energy. In a simple electrical circuit containing a
battery, conductor, lamp, and switch, there will be an electrical loss in the
form of heat throughout the circuit. For all practical purposes, however, the
heat loss everywhere but in the lamp is insignificant. In the lamp, the fila-
ment glows white hot, and radiates light. The rate at which electrical energy
P.
is consumed or used up is called electrical power, designated by the letter
PUTTING ELECTRICITY TO WORK
The unit used to express electrical power is the watt named after James Watt,
,
the inventor of the steam engine. Using our electrical standards, we can say
that 1 watt of electrical energy is used up forcing 1 ampere of current through
a circuitunder the influence of 1 volt. It is important to remember that power
represents the rate of doing work, and not the amount of work done. A man
can do as much work as a steamshovel, but in far more time -- hence, a man
has far less power. Electrical power is equal to the amount of current in a
circuit times the voltage applied to the circuit (P = I x E), and is measured
in watts. To compare electrical to mechanical power, we use the figure
746
watts (electrical horsepower). This amount of electrical power will do as much
work as a mechanical device capable of performing 550 foot-pounds of work
per second (1 mechanical horsepower).
1-68 ELECTRICAL POWER
Power Formulas
Being able to determine the power conditions in an electrical system is very

important. It underlies the selection of the correct component to do a job,
as well as recognizing if the operating conditions are right or wrong. Three
related equations enable the calculation of electrical power (P) in watts.
Each has a particular application, depending on which two of the three quan-
tities —
volts (E), current (I) and resistance (R) —
are known. Under any
circumstances, either E and I, I and R, or E and R must be known.
Let's solve some power problems using

the battery and the flashlight bulb.
Assume that E and the bulb filament requires 5 ampere (there-
is 1. 5 volts .
fore I is 5 ampere). The applicable equation is P = E x I. Using numbers

.
instead of the letters, P = 1. 5 x .5 = 75 watt or 750 milliwatts.

.
Suppose we do not know the voltage, but we do know that the filament current
is 5 ampere and the operating resistance is 3 ohms.
. Then P = I 2 X R or
(. 5 x 5) x 3 =
. 25 x 3 = 75 watt.
. .
As a third case, assume that we know the voltage to be 1. 5 volts and the re-
sistance to be 3 ohms. We do not know the current. The applicable formula
is P = E 2 /R or P = (1. 5 x 1. 5)/3 = 2. 25/3 = 75 watt.
.
Using the above examples of power formulas, try solving the power for the
following conditions: E = 120 volts, I = 10 amperes and R = 12 ohms. Use
each of the three formulas, using only those quantities which apply. Is your
answer 1200 watts? (1200 watts = 1.2 kilowatts). It should be!
ELECTRICAL POWER 1-69
Power Rating of Resistors
All electrical devices and circuits bear some association to electrical

power
ratings, but resistors in electrical and communication equipment are most
prominent in this connection. The wide variety of resistors have many kinds
of uses, the foremost of which is the control of current. A prime
require-
ment, therefore, of all resistors, is the ability to dissipate the electrical
energy delivered to them; i. e. , to be able to dissipate the consequent heat
generated within them. The power rating of the resistor, in watts, expresses
air around it.
this capability, assuming the resistor has adequate circulation of
The power rating sets the limit on the maximum amount of current that can
flow through the resistor without damaging the resistor element. This is so
for all kinds of resistors -- fixed and variable, carbon, deposited metal
or
any other. In all cases, the power rating applies to the whole resistor and
not to a part.
How can we calculate the maximum amount of current which can be permitted
to flow in a r esis tor of a given wattage rating without damaging it? The equa-
tion is: I = P
Assume a wirewound resistor rated at 20 watts and 5 ohms. What is the

maximum amount of current that can be passed through the resistor? Sub-
stituting these values in the equation:
maximum current = 2 amperes
Try to solve the following: The resistor is rated at 0. 5 watt and 5000 ohms.
What is the maximum current? Your answer should be 01 ampere or 10 ma.
.
It important to note the power formula P = I^R. As the current through a

is
resistor doubles, the power dissipated by the resistor increases four times.
As the current triples, the power dissipation requirement increases nine
times. From this, we can see the importance of current flow with regard to
power —
it becomes the most important consideration.
1-70 ELECTRICAL POWER
The Kilowatthour
We have learned that power represents the rate at which electrical energy is
being consumed, or used up. A 50-watt lamp uses electrical power at twice
the rate of a 25-watt lamp. Electric utility companies are in the business of
selling electricity. Through huge electrical generators turned mostly by water
or steam power, the electric companies deliver voltage to homes, offices
and industrial plants. No power is consumed, however, until a circuit is
closed and current is drawn. Electric companies charge for the use of this
power on the basis of how many watts are consumed and for how many hours.
From this comes the term watthour The watthour is obtained by multiplying
.
the number of watts consumed by the number of hours it was consumed. For
instance, a 100-watt lamp burning for 10 hours gives us afigure of 1000 watt-
hours. Since the amount of watthour s used by a home or industry during the
course of a month (a billing period) is usually a very large figure, the kilo-
watthour (KWA) is used. A kilowatthour equals 1000 watthours.
The electric company places a watthour meter at every electrical input. At

specified periods, the amount of watthours consumed is read and subtracted
from the previous total. A charge is made from this, based on the cost
per
kilowatthour. For example, an office uses 1000 kilowatthours during a month.
At 5 cents per kilowatthour, the cost of electricity would be 5 x 1000, or 5000
cents ($50.00). A special meter is used to measure watts, which we will dis-
cuss later.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS 1-71
The Organization of D-C Circuits (Schematic Representation)
We have discussed the meaning of voltage, current, resistance, and power

as individual electrical quantities and the units in which these quantities are
expressed and compared. To use this information we must apply it to circuits.
To understand the principles of electricity, we must be able to recognize and

"read" a circuit. The circuits shown so far have been mostly in pictorial
form. Another form, known as schematic uses symbols to show the com-
ponents of a circuit. Schematic representation is the usual way of showing
circuitry. In a sense it corresponds to the electrical language presented
graphically. We shall start with very few symbols, increasing them as the
variety of circuits and electrical components is increased.
Symbolization on the schematic is usually accompanied by two forms of iden-

tification: a letter with or without an accompanying numeral, (such as R3,
indicating the third resistor in the circuit), and numbers expressingthe elec-
trical value of the component (for example, the ohmic value if it is a resis-
tor and possibly the power rating and tolerance). Sometimes a word will appear
next to the symbol for purposes of identification (such as LAMP).
1-72 MEASURING DEVICES
Introduction to Measuring Devices
Voltage, current, resistance and electrical power are measurable quantities.

Such measurement is done with electrical measuring instruments known as
"meters". Although the principles underlying the operation of meters have
not yet been discussed, it is nevertheless possible to become familiar with
voltmeters that measure voltage, ammeters that measure current, ohmmeters
that measure resistance, and wattmeters that measure electrical power.
Voltmeters and
Millivoltmeters
measure
Ammeters,
Milliammeters,
and
Microammeters
measure
Ohmmeters
measure
Meters have calibrated scales on the "face” of the instrument. These scales
are marked off (calibrated) in fractions or multiples of the units of the quan-
tity being measured. When the meter is connected to the circuit under mea-
surement, a pointer moves across the scale and comes to rest at the position
which corresponds to the magnitude of the quantity being measured at the
particular location in the system wherethe measurement is made. The com-
plete details concerning the theory of electrical meters are given later on.
SERIES CIRCUITS 1-73
The Series-Connected or Series Circuit

the arrangement of
The terms series -connected or series circuit applies to
only one continuous path for the flow of
an electrical circuit in which there is
a battery,
the current. A series circuit may contain many individual devices
are so connected that the
numerous resistances, switches, et. al. --but they
,
An important characteristic of the series

current must flowthrough each one.
break or opening in any part of this circuit will prevent any
circuit is that a
inoperative. Thus,
current from flowing, and make the circuit completely
device into the series circuit, the circuit must be
to insert any additional
and the new device so connected that all the current in the circuit
broken,
must flow through it.
1-74 SERIES CIRCUITS
Determining Resistances in Series (Calculation)
It is not enough to say that resistance exerts control on

the amount of current
that flows in a circuit. There are many ways in which the control of
current
by resistance is used.
RESISTANCES IN SERIES
TOTAL RESISTANCE (R T )=R,+R 2 +R 3

= 5+10 + 15
= 30 OHMS (SL)
The Total Resistance Of A Series Circuit Is Equal

To The Sum Of The Individual Resistances
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery (a voltage source), a

switch, and
a flashlight bulb. The complete circuit is a series circuit
because there is
only one path for the current. For the moment, all we know
about the cir-
cuit is that the operating resistance (the "hot" resistance)
of the filament is
3 ohms. Everything in the circuit appears normal as
judged by the normal
brightness of the filament. Now, we raise the bar of the switch
to open the
circuit; also, we open the circuit at one terminal of the
flashlight bulb socket
and wire a suitable 3-ohm resistor in series with the circuit.
We close the
switch and immediately note that the filament glows less brightly.
The rea-
son is simply that less current is flowing in the circuit, thereby
reducing the
circuit current. In other words, resistanc es in series are
additive in their
effects . Each resistance contributes opposition to the current. This rule
can be stated:
R total or Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
where Rl, R2, and R3 are the resistances in series. Applying this formula
to the above
example, Rt = 3 + 3 = 6 ohms total resistance.
Solve this problem. Four resistances are connected in series:

Rl = 11 ohms;
R2 = 7. 3 ohms; R3 = 6. 8 ohms; and R4 = 116 ohms.
What is the total resis-
tance? Your answer should be 141. 1 ohms.
Connecting -Wire Resistance
Now that you know the basic rule for calculating the total resistance of re-
sistances connected in series, we can consider a more advanced case to illus-
trate an important point. Four different imaginary electric light bulbs are
connected in series. Arbitrarily, we say that their filament resistances are:
R1 = 10 ohms; R2 = 30 ohms; R3 = 11 ohms; and R4 = 49 ohms. They are
connected to a battery through a switch.
Now you are asked, "What is the total circuit resistance?" You get your
answer by totaling the four resistance values, or 10 + 30 + 11 + 49 = 100 ohms.
For all practical purposes, the answer of 100 ohms is correct. But it is not
correct if you are to be technically accurate. We did not consider several
other sources of resistance in the circuit: the internal resistance of the bat-
tery; the resistance of the metal comprising the switch; and the resistance of
the wire used to interconnect all parts of the circuit. These resistances are
present and they are in series with the circuit; therefore, they contribute to
the total resistance of the circuit.
If we ignore the internal resistance of the battery, and the resistance of the
connecting wires and switch
>
y/z/z/y/////^///////^////////////////^///^/////////////^
on very long liines ^ >L

IV
(low-resistance)
large
and high-current, lines
motor
the resistance of the wires must be considered |
Fortunately, however, the internal resistance of a good battery is very low,

usually much less than 1 ohm. Similarly, the switch and the interconnecting
.
wire resistances are very low in the usual radio circuit. The total of these
resistances may be .4 to 5 ohm, certainly an insignificant figure relative to
.
the total resistance of 100 ohms of the devices that make up the load on the
voltage source. When such a relative resistance situation prevails, it is per-
missible to forget about the battery, switch, and connecting -wire resistances
as factors that contribute to the total circuit resistance, and to think only of
the resistance made up by the load devices. We shall do this in all future
discussions except where noted.
Resistances in Series (Measurement)
The total resistance of resistances in series, or the ohmic value of the indi-
vidual resistances in a series circuit, can be determined by measurement
using an ohmmeter .Because of the electrical characteristics of the ohm-
meter, the resistance being measured cannot be part of an electrical circuit
in which current is flowing while the measurement is being made. The re-
sistor or device whose resistance is being measured must be disconnected
from whatever source of voltage may be acting on the circuit.
I
MEASURING R ESISTAN CE
; 10 Q3QS
R>^^Rx100
AN EXTERNAL VOLTAGE
CAN DAMAGE AN OHMMETERlI
I break circuit I
In a series circuit, voltage can be removed by

opening the circuit at any point.
The measurement is made by connecting one test prod of the ohmmeter to one
of the terminals of the device or resistor (alone or a series chain), and the
other test prod to the other terminal of the resistance, and reading the indi-
cation on the scale. Although more will be said later, all ohmmeters afford
different ranges of resistance measurement by manipulating a selector switch.
The ideal condition for accurate measurement is when the indication of the
resistance is at the middle to low end of the scale.
A very important fact to bear in mind when measuring the resistance of lamp
filaments is that there is a major change in the resistance when the filament
is cold and when it is hot Hot means that the filament is drawing current.
.
The resistance of a hot filament is higher. More important, the ohmmeter

cannot be used to measure the resistance of a glowing lamp filament. Damage
to the instrument is sure to result. Every device whose function is to convert
electric energy to heat energy has a "cold" and a "hot" resistance.
Current In A Series Circuit (Calculation and Measurement)
There are two ways of determining the amount of current in a series circuit.
One is by calculation, using Ohm's Law for current (I = E/R). Two quantities
must be known — the total resistance (R) of the series circuit and the applied
voltage (E). The second method is by measurement, using an appropriate
current meter. As a typical case, consider four resistors — R1 = 10 ohms,
R2 = 30 ohms, R3 = 11 ohms and R4 = 49 ohms — joined in series and con-
nected across a 12-volt source. The total circuit resistance is 100 ohms.
How much current is flowing in the circuit?
The current measured by inserting the current -reading meter anywhere

is
in the series circuit. The current being measured must flow through the
meter. Because the series circuit offers only one path for the current, the
current is the same throughout the circuit. This is an important rule. Having
calculated the current to be 0. 12 ampere, we know that a d-c ammeter (or a
d-c milliammeter) with a maximum range of 0. 5 ampere (500 milliamperes)
is ideal for the measurement. A meter with a higher maximum range could
be used, but it would make reading the indicator more difficult.
Try this exercise problem. Four filaments totaling 90 -ohms resistance are
connected in series. How much resistance must be added in series with the
filament string to limit the current to 0. 12 ampere when the battery voltage
is 12 volts? (R =_E_=_12 = 100 ohms, total R. Since we already have 90 ohms,
I .12
We must add 10 ohms. ) Is your answer 10 ohms ?
Polarity In Series Circuits
Voltage polarity in series circuits determines the proper usage of a d-c mea-
suring device. A series circuit consisting of a single resistor connected
across a voltage source presents a simple set of polarity conditions. That
end of the resistor connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source
is the positive end of the resistor; that end of the resistor connected to the
negative terminal of the voltage source is the negative end of the resistor.
If we use the direction of current flow as indicated, the same polarities pre-
vail -- the end at which the current presumably enters the resistance load
is the negative end; where it leaves the resistance load is the positive end.
Current Flow in an Electrical Circuit is

from - to + of the Voltage Source
the end of the resistance
connected to the -t terminal of 1

the battery has positive polarity
Voltage
Source
the end of the resistance

connected to the — terminal of
the battery has negative polarity
A somewhat more complicated set of conditions prevails in a circuit contain-

ing a string of series -connected resistors. Although the end terminals of
the series string have positive and negative polarityjust as in the single-re-
sistance circuit, points along the series string (other than the two extremes)
have dual polarity Point (A), for example, has a positive polarity relative
.
to any point along the series chain. Point (B), on the other hand, is negative
relative to point (A) but positive relative to points (C), (D) and (E). Relative
to point (B), the current enters at (C), but leaves at (B). On the other hand,
relative to point (A), the current enters at (B), thereby making this point
negative while it leaves at (A), making this point positive. If we take point
(E) as the most negative reference point, points (D), (C), (B) and (A) are posi-
tive with respect to point(E).
!
Voltage Drop In Series Circuits
Voltage drop ,
or IR drop as it is also known, is interpreted in two ways.
In one sense, means the voltage that appears across any resistor R through
it
which a current I is flowing. The same thought is conveyed when the product
of IR is referred to as simply voltage without adding the word drop .
p Applied
+ I
q=:
accounts for current
and in
I
effect appears as IR drop

voltage E j~
- ^ ^
It divides across the total ?
resistance as individual voltage
drops or IR drops
Applied
+
j
voltaje E *¥•_
accounts for
current flour I
the sum of
Voltage Drop represents
IR,+ IR Z+ ir 3+ ir 4=| Applied E
a loss of potential as the resolt
of forcing current through a resistance.
It is equal to I
X R
The second meaning of voltage drop (or IR drop) relates expressly to series
circuits;meaning that it refers to the voltage which appears across each re-
sistance R in a series chain when a current I is flowing through the chain.
Since the sum of the individual resistances in a series circuit is the total re-
sistance of the circuit (hence, determines the circuit current I for a given
applied voltage), the sum of the individual voltage drops equals the applied
voltage. Utility-wise, voltage drop is the means whereby a d-c voltage that
is less than the applied voltage can be made available at a particular point in
a series circuit. This function of the series circuit is the reason for its being
called a voltage divider.
Determining Applied Voltage In A Series D-C Circuit
The applied voltage in a series d-c circuit can be calculated when circuit
current and total resistance are known, or it can be measured directly with
a d-c voltmeter. When I and total R are known, Ohm's Law for voltage,
E = IR, is used. It is applicable to all d-c circuits.
Measuring Voltage In A Series Circuit
r t = looa
In the circuit used for the example, the current is 0. 12 ampere (120 milli-
amperes) and the total circuit resistance made up of Rl, R2, R3 and R4
equals 100 ohms. The applied voltage is:
E = I X R, or E = . 12 x 100 = 12 volts.
The 12 volts applied causes 0. 12 ampere to flow through the series circuit.
We can reaffirm this by connecting a suitable d-c voltmeter across the cir-
cuit at the terminals of the voltage source. The positive test lead from the
voltmeter is connected to the positive -polarity side of the circuit, and the
negative test lead (sometimes marked common) is connected to the negative-
polarity side of the circuit. A suitable voltmeter would be one with a full-
scale range of from 30 to perhaps 50 volts, so that the 12 volts indication
would be easily readable.
^
Calculating and Measuring Voltage Drop in Series Circuits
Voltage drop or IR drop can be calculated, or measured with a suitable volt-

meter. To calculate voltage drop, the current and the resistance must be
known. Ohm's Law for voltage (E = I x R) is then used, I being the circuit
current and R representing the ohmic value of each resistance.
,tw,fflW!ffi
«iilIiillllllV0LTAfiF DROP II
III III II
:I|||issS:g?
1 amptre L-— — illlllllllllll
Illlllllllllll
111 HI
50 volts ih:
ll
The IR drop across
each resistor is 10 volts.
.12 ampere i—
|
.12 x 10 or
R IR,DROP OF 1.2 VOLTS ACCOUNTS FOR
io i' CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH R,
SUM OF ALL IR
DROPS EQUALS .12 x 30 or
APPLIED VOLTAGE IR DROP OF 3.6 VOLTS ACCOUNTS FOR
2
12 volts
applied
+"r
^ AND ACCOUNTS FOR
TOTAL CIRCUIT
CURRENT AGAINST
30fi<
3 «
CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH R 2
IR3
.12 x ii or
DROP OF 1.32 VOLTS ACCOUNTS FOR
CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH Rj
T
ifli voltmeter
OPPOSITION OF
TOTAL CIRCUIT .12 x 49 or shows
RESISTANCE (IOOC ) R 4, IR4DROP OF 5.88 VOLTS ACCOUNTS FOR 12 volts
49fl, CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH R 4
To measure voltage drop, a suitable voltmeter is connected across the re-

sistance (or resistances) through which the current is flowing. Across means
that the two leads from the voltmeter are connected to the limits of the cir-
cuit or that part of the circuit where the voltage is to be measured. In the
examples shown, the voltage drop across the entire series train, as well as
across its individual elements, is being measured. The voltage developed
across two or more adjacent resistors also is measurable. Note that the
polarity of the voltage differs at different points along the series-connected
resistances, several points having dual polarity.
Applying Voltage Drop
How drop used? Imagine the following situation: a d-c device that
is voltage
requires 60 volts and 1 ampere for its operation must be used with a d-c vol-
tage source which delivers 100 volts. How can this be done ? The answer is
to connect the device in series with a voltage -dropping resistor which
would
reduce the voltage amount to the difference between the available voltage (100)
and the required voltage (60).
Consider another case. A d-c motor requires that the current through it be
varied at irregular intervals to suit a variety of needs. The required range
of current is a maximum of 1 ampere and a minimum of 0. 5 ampere. The
voltage rating at 1 ampere is 7. 5 volts, whereas the voltage source is 24 volts
d-c. How do we arrange the current needs? By connecting a wirewound rheo-
stat in series with the device. At full current (1 ampere), a voltage drop equal
to 24 - 7. 5, = 16. 5 volts is needed. The resistance required is R=E/I = 16. £yl
= 16. 5 ohms. To reduce the current from 1 ampere to 5 ampere requires
.
that the amount of resistance be doubled. Thus, the maximum resistance re-
quired is 33 ohms. Since a rheostat affords variable resistance from zero to a
maximum, a rheostat rated at 33 ohms maximum and capable of passing 1
ampere will be adequate. The power rating is determined by the highest cur-
rent flow or P = I^R = (1 x 1) x 33 = 33 watts.
Applying Voltage Drop (Cont'd) (Potentiometer Voltage Divider)
A frequently used arrangement found in radio systems makes use of a poten-

tiometer as a voltage divider. It is a means of obtaining a variable voltage
from a constant voltage source. Assume a voltage source E^ (although it
need not always be a battery) and a potentiometer with a total resistance
= 0001
Rt of 100, 000 ohms. The circuit current is I = E/Rf = 10/100, 000 .
ampere, or 100 microamperes. The entire 10 volts applied appears across

the potentiometer element as a fixed voltage drop. By moving the slider
along the resistance element, we can pick off any percentage of the total
applied voltage and it becomes the output voltage. Assume that the slider
is positioned at the top of the element (position M). The output voltage M-0
is the full voltage (E^) existing across the element.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS PROPORTIONAL TO

RESISTANCE BETWEEN 0 AND N |
I
Now assume that the slider is moved half-way down the resistance element
to position N, so that 50,000 ohms are above the slider position and 50, 000
ohms below the slider position. The current through the potentiometer is still
.0001 ampere, so that the voltage drop (IR) across M-N is 0001 x 50, 000 =
.
5 volts, and the voltage drop(IR) across N-0 is 0001 x 50, 000 = 5 volts.
. If
these two Ivoltage drops are added, they total the applied voltage. The voltage
available as output is the voltage drop which appears across the resistance
element between the slider location and the 0 reference point. The voltage
drop across the resistance element between location Mand the slider is, you
might say, wasted. By moving the slider anywhere between 0 and M, any de-
sired value of output voltage between zero and the value of the applied voltage
is made available as output. Usually, the total resistance of the potentiometer
chosen is high, so that the current through it is low. Potentiometer voltage
dividers are usually used when the current drawn through the slider is very low.
Power in the Series Circuit
As current flows through a series circuit, it flows through each resistance

in that circuit. As we have seen, there is a voltage drop, or IR drop, as the
result of current flowing through that resistance. In the process of forcing
electrons through a resistance, a certain amount of power is "wasted", or
consumed. This power is equal to I^R, and is often referred to as the I^R
loss. Since power is measured in terms of watts, virtually all electrical
equipment is rated in terms of how many watts it consumes or dissipates.
Resistors of 1 watt or more usually have their power ratings printed right
on the body of the resistor.
80 WATTS
supplied by voltage source
In the illustration, we have a simple series circuit using three resistors in

series. With two amperes flowing through the circuit (I = 40/20), the power
dissipated in R1 is 20 watts, R2 48 watts, and R3 12 watts. A resistor must
be of sufficient size and proper design to dissipate the heat produced within
itself, and to be safe, circuit designers usuallyusea resistor having a wattage
rating of twice that which is necessary. Rl, a 50-watt resistor, will easily
handle the 20 watts dissipated in it, and may feel almost cool to the touch.
R2 is a 50 -watt resistor that must handle 48 watts dissipation. This resistor
can run warm to very hot, depending upon the circulation of air around it.
R3, a 5-watt resistor having 12 watts dissipated in it, will become extreme-
ly hot and will most likely be destroyed if this condition is maintained for any
length of time.
The total power consumed by the three resistors is 80 watts, and this power
must be supplied by the battery or other source of power. High wattage re-
sistors, of 2 watts or more, should generally be located away from other
components that maybe damaged from the heat. In a series circuit, the total
power supplied by the voltage source is equal to the sum of all the i2r losses
in the circuit.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS 1-85
Parallel Circuits
The parallel-connected or parallel ci rcuit is a second type of circuit arrange-

ment. The term shunt -connected or shunt circuit is also used to describe
this circuit arrangement. In the parallel circuit, the total battery or source
voltage is applied across each and every electrical device in the circuit. The
connection is such that each electrical device connected to the source acts
independently of each other. The circuit that each device is connected into
is called a branch, and the full source voltage is applied to each of these.
Bra \/
the PARALLEL circuit - r “
^
i
CONTAINS TWO OR *t*
MORE CURRENT i
i
i
PATHS (BRANCHES) i i
i
i
L J
r
. _1 _
THE FULL BATTERY VOLTAGE IS APPLIED TO EACH BRANCH
-f
branches 3 parallel branches

2 parallel
The parallel circuit is used in all homes, offices, and industry. When you
turn on a lamp or other electrical device in the home, the full line voltage is
applied to that device. In addition, when a lamp is turned off, it has no effect
on other lamps or electrical devices. There is no limit to how many branches
a parallel circuit might contain. Of course, if there are too many branches,
or if the current drain from some branches becomes too great, the voltage
source may be unable to supply the necessary power, and the result will be
a lowering of the line voltage. Schematically, we show the branches of a
parallel circuit tied together to a common point, or tied to two parallel lines
drawn from the positive and negative terminals of the voltage-source symbol.
1-86 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Current in a Parallel Circuit
We have seen that in the parallel circuit, two or more electrical devices are
connected across a voltage source and act independently of each other. Since
the total voltage is applied to each branch, the current flow in each branch
would be determined by the resistance of each branch. If the voltage source
is 10 volts and the resistance of one branch is 5 ohms, the current through
that branch would be 2 amperes. If the second branch had a resistance of
2 ohms, the current through it would be 5 amperes. Although each branch
operates completely independent of the other branches, there is one point
they have in common -- their individual branch currents combine at the ter-
minals of the voltage source to form a total current (It) for that circuit. In
our example, the total current would be 7 amperes, or the sum of all the in-
dividual branch currents.
\/T voltage source

amperes
J2 =j 5
Il = 2 amperes
'2 = 5 amperes
= 7 amperes
Adding more branches increases Total Current
The amount of branches that can be used in a parallel circuit depends upon
the amount of current drawn by the devices and upon the ability of the wires
to conduct the current without overheating. Circuits containing high-current
devices such as motors and heating units have very few branches; those con-
taining low-current devices such as lamps, small radios, etc. may have many
,
branches. The wiring in most homes permits a total circuit current of from 15
to 20 amperes, and contains a fuse which will "blow out" and break the cir-
cuit should the sum of the branch currents exceed the rating of the fuse.
Computing Resistances in Parallel
Current in parallel circuits can be measured or computed. Familiarity with

the latter process is essential to be able to analyze a parallel circuit. To
compute current, circuit resistance must be known. For the purposes of
this explanation, we shall neglect the connecting -wire and battery resistances.
Several rules related to parallel resistances help to make the calculation
easier. They should be remembered.
Rule 1. When equal values of resistance are connected in parallel, the re-
sultant resistance is equal to the ohmic value of any one of the resistances
divided by the number in parallel. The method of solution applies to any
number of equal resistances in parallel.
Rule 2. Another rule involves the use of multiplication, addition and division,
and applies to any two unequal values of resistance in parallel. It states that
the result of two unequal resistances in parallel is equal to the product of
their ohmic values divided by the sum of their ohmic value. Rule 1 is, of
course, much more convenient to use when the resistances happen to be of
equal ohmic value.
1-88 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Calculating Current in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, the same voltage is applied across each of the parallel
resistors. In the illustration, the voltage applied across Rl, R2, and R3 is
30 volts, the same as the source voltage, E. Current flows from the nega-
tive terminal of the source to point A, where it divides and passes through Rl,
R2, and R3 to point B and back to the positive terminal of the source voltage.
The amount of current flowing through each branch depends on the source vol-
tage and on the resistance of that branch. The lower the resistance of the
branch, the higher the current will be through that branch. The individual
currents can be found by applying Ohm' s law to the individual resistors. Thus,
II = E = 30 = 6 amperes; 12 = E = 30 = 3 amperes; 13 = E = 30 = 1 ampere.

1T1 "IT ~K2 To K3 "30
The It, is equal to the
total current, sum of the currents through the indivi-
dual branches, which is 10 amperes.
To find the total resistance Rt in the circuit, Ohm's law is first used to find
each of the branch currents. Using the formula above, _E = E_ + E + E and, ;
Rt Rl R2 R3
_E = E f J_ +J_ +±\
Rt \R1 R2 R3 J
Both sides of this equation maybe divided by E without changing the value of
the equation, therefore: _1_ = 1 + _1_ + 1
Rt Rl R2 R3
The fraction 1 is the reciprocal of the total resistance of the parallel circuit.
Rt
The reciprocal of a number is the number divided into 1, (e. g. the recipro- ,
cal of 5 is 1. ) The reciprocal of the total resistance of a parallel circuit is

5
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all the branches.
Using the above to find the total resistance of the parallel circuit,
1 =
J_ +_1^ + 1 and with the least common denominator of 30, you have,
;
Rt 5 10 30
_1 = _6_ + _3_ + J_ = 10
Rt 30 30 30 30
Taking the reciprocals of both sides (dividing them intol), Rj.

=J10 = 3 ohms.
10
Power in Parallel D-C Circuits
As we studied in series circuits, a power loss takes place in a resistance as

the result of current flowing through it. This power loss is equal to I2R, and
refers to each and every resistor in the parallel circuit. Each branch of a
parallel circuit contains a resistance, and each of the resistances has the
same voltage (the source voltage) applied across it. Thus, the current through
each branch would be determined by the formula I = E/R. Knowing the cur-
rent in each branch, we can now compute the power consumed by each branch.
We have also seen that each branch circuit operates independently of the others.
Thus, the total power consumed by a parallel circuit is equal to the power
consumed by all the individual branches.
TOTAL POWER CONSUMED BV A PARALLEL CIRCUIT IS EQUAL TO

THE SUM Of THE POWER CONSUMED BT THE INDIVIDUAL BRANCHES
50 w 250 w
100 Volt source

<iooQ Zzoofl <40 Q EQUIVALENT 1
CIRCUIT 1
lllA li.5A _ji2.5A
1
4A V Power =
It = 1A + .5* + 2.5A
Total Power
100 w
w
Total E * It = 4 amperes 50
= 100-4 250 w
= 400 watts 400 watts
In ourhomes, each time we turn on an electrical device or appliance, we close

a branch of a parallel circuit and draw additional current from our power
supply (which are the power lines drawn into our homes by the electric utility
company.) The utility company places a wattmeter in the incoming circuit to
measure the total power consumed by the various devices in use. Every time
a branch is closed, more current is drawn and more power used. As branches
are opened, less power is consumed. Since the total current inaparallel cir-
cuit increases as additional branches are added, we see that the total resist-
ance of a parallel circuit decreases as resistances are placed in parallel.
.
1-90 SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF D-C CIRCUITS

SERIES PARALLEL
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
1 . The sum of the individual voltage The applied voltage is the same across
drops equals the applied voltage. each branch.
2. The total resistance is equal to The total resistance equals the recip-
3.
the sum of the individual resistances rocal of the sum of the reciprocals
that make up the circuit. Rt = R1 + of the resistances.
R2 + R3 + etc. . . Resultant resistance is less than the
4.
smallest resistance of the parallel
combination.
Current is the same in all parts The current divides in each branch
of the circuit. according to the resistance of each
branch.
Total power is equal to the sum of (Same as series circuit) Total power
the power dissipated by the individual is equal to the sum of the power dis-
resistances. sipated by the individual resistances.
SERIES VS PARAL1EL CIRCUITS
voltage is constant across each branch (6 volts) I

current in each branch varies with resistance of each branch I
| -
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS 1-91
Series-Parallel Circuits
PARALLEL BRANCHES OF CIRCUIT
The third type of circuit arrangement is the series -parallel circuit. In this
circuit, there is at least one resistance connected in series and two connec-
ted in parallel. The two basic arrangements of the series-parallel circuit
are shown here. In one, resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and
this parallel connection, in turn, is connected in series with resistance R3.
Thus, R1 and R2 form the parallel component, and R3 the series component
of a series -parallel circuit. We can find the total resistance of any series-
parallel circuit by merely reducing it into a simple series circuit. For
example, the parallel portion of R1 and R2 can be reduced to an equivalent
5-ohm resistor (two 10-ohm resistors in parallel). We then have an equiva-
lent circuit of a 5-ohm resistor in series with the 10-ohm resistor (R3), giving
a total resistance of 15 ohms for the series-parallel combination.
10 A
i—VWVMv'”'
20A
—¥ 1
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
ohms
A second basic series-parallel arrangement is shown where basically we

have two branches of a parallel circuit. However, in one of the branches
w6 have two resistances in series. To find thetotal resistance of this series-
parallel circuit, we first combine R2 and R3 into an equivalent 20 -ohm re-
sistance. The total resistance is then 20 ohms in parallel with 10 ohms, or
6. 67 ohms. From these circuits, we seethe basic scheme in solving series
parallel circuits: combine all series resistances and add them to the resis-
tance of all parallel branches in the circuit.
1-92 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Current and Voltage in Series -Parallel Circuits
In the series -parallel circuit shown, we see the distribution of current and
voltage in such a circuit. Some things become quite apparent. For instance,
since R2 and R3 are in parallel, the voltage across them would be the same.
In addition, since R2 is twice the resistance of R3, the current flow through
it would be only half as great as the current through R3. The current flow
through R1 would be equal to the combined current through R2 and R3. When-
ever the total current flows into a parallel branch, it splits up, with the grea-
ter amount flowing through the smaller resistor. The voltage drop, of course,
across each branch of a parallel circuit would be equal.
In the second circuit shown, we have a series-parallel circuit consisting of

three sections. First, there is a series resistance Rl. In series with this
is a parallel branch R2 and R3 and, in series with this, is a three-branch
parallel circuit consisting of R4, R5, and R6. The total current of 12 am-
peres flows through Rl. It then breaks into two 6-ampere sections through
R2-R3. Finally, it breaks into three 4-ampere sections through R4-R5-R6.
Note that the voltage across each parallel section is equal to the IR or voltage
drop in that section, and that the sum of the currents in each parallel section
is equal to the total current. Keeping these general rules in mind, any kind
of series-parallel circuit can be solved.
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 1-93
Kirchhoff's Laws
An interesting set of laws often used in circuit analysis are known as Kirch-
hoff's laws, named after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887). The principles
they state have already been made known to you, although not as laws assoc-
iated with a particular name.
Kirchhoff's first law deals with the distribution of currents in a circuit. It

states that the sum of all the currents flowing into a point or junction in a cir-
cuit is equal to the sum of all the currents flowing away from that point or
junction Thus, if 1 ampere flows into a junction, 1 ampere must flow away
.
from that junction, whether in a single path or in many paths. In other words,
current cannot accumulate anywhere in a circuit.
Kirchhoff's second law deals with the distribution of voltage in a closed cir-
cuit. It states that the sum of all the individual voltage drops in a closed
circuit is equal to the applied voltage. Thus, if the sum of all the voltage
drops in a circuit should total 100 volts, this should be equal to the applied
voltage. If there is any difference in the two amounts, it indicates that an
error has been made in the calculations.
1-94 FUSES
Fuses
—
All electrical devices soldering irons, motors, radios, etc. ,
are designed
to draw a certain amount of current when plugged into their rated voltage
source. Occasionally, there is an electrical defect, the resistance of the
electrical device falls off, and the amount of current drawn by the device in-
creases greatly. This would cause the wires, often located inside walls, to
overheat and possibly start a fire. To prevent such an occurrence, fuses are
used. A fuse is connected in series with the electrical device it is to protect
so that the total current flowing through the device will also flow through the
fuse.
FUSES PROVIDE CIRCUIT PROTECTION
If this fuse If branch fuses
"blows", entire "blow’J only that

circuit does not branch fails
operate to operate.
We can say then that a fuse is basically an over cur rent device. It consists
usually of a short length of wire or metal ribbon within a suitable enclosed
container. The ribbon, or link, is usually made of an alloy that has a low
melting point and of a size which will carry a given current indefinitely. A
current larger than that at which the fuse is rated will cause the fuse metal
to heat and melt, opening the circuit being protected. Fuse metal generally
consists of an alloy of tin and bismuth, but copper, aluminum, German sil-
ver, and iron alloys are also used.
Fuses may be further classified as instantaneous or time-delay types. The

instantaneous fuse carries its rated current indefinitely, but quickly melts
when its rated current capacity is exceeded by about 25%. Time-delay fuses
are designed to have a time delay for overloads. This feature is necessary
to keep short-time surges (such as high starting currents for motors) from
melting ("blowing") the fuse. This time delay permits momentary high cur-
rent without damaging the fuse, while continuous excessive current produces
a melted fuse. Some fuses are "sealed" and must be discarded when open;
others have provisions for replacing the melted ribbon.
SUMMARY 1-95
Ohm's law defines the relationship between voltage, current, and resis-
tance.
When resistance is held constant, current varies directly with voltage.
When voltage is held constant, current varies inversely with resistance.
Ohm's law for voltage is E = IR; for current, is I = for resistance, is
R =E .
R
I
The unit used to express electrical power is the watt.

A watthour meter measures the amount of electrical power consumed .
Voltmeters measure voltage, ammeters measure current, ohmmeters

measure resistance, and wattmeters measure power.
There are three basic types of electrical circuits: series, parallel, and
series-parallel.
In a series circuit, there is only one continuous path for current to flow.
The current in a series circuit is the same throughout the circuit.
The basic rule for calculating the total resistance of resistances connec-
ted in series is Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + etc.
The voltage in a parallel circuit is the same across each branch of the
circuit; the current divides according to the resistance of each branch.
The sum of the voltage drops in a series circuit is equal to the applied
voltage.
When measuring voltage drop, a voltmeter is connected across the re-
sistance through which current is flowing.
A potentiometer is used as a means of obtaining a variable voltage from
a constant voltage source.
The amount of power wasted in the process of forcing electrons through
a resistance is called the i2r loss.
Kirchhoff's law for current states that the sum of all the currents flowing
into a point is equal to the sum of all the currents flowing away from
that point.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are Ohm’s law's formulas for finding voltage, current, and resis-
tance?
2. What formula is used to find the total resistance of two resistors connec-
ted in parallel?
3. What happens to the current in a circuit when the voltage is doubled and
the resistance is held constant?
4. How does the current change when the voltage is held constant and the
resistance is doubled?
5. What is the difference between current flow in a series circuit and in a
parallel circuit?
6. How is a voltmeter connected when measuring voltage drop?
7. What voltage is required to light a 150-watt lamp drawing 3 amperes of
current?
8. What is the wattage rating of a television receiver connected to a source
of 120 volts and drawing 5 amperes?
9. How much power does an electric toaster consume
if it operates from a
source of 110 volts and draws 7. 5 amperes?

10. What is the total resistance of a circuit having one 5-ohm and two 10-ohm
resistors connected in parallel?
1-96 MAGNETISM
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
More than 20 centuries ago, an ore called magnetite was discovered. The
ancients called it "lodestone" or leading stone. It displayed the peculiar
,
ability to attract tiny bits of iron to itself. Although the action was not under-
stood, it was attributed to an invisible effect called magnetism, named after
Magnesia, the area in ancient Greece where this type of "rock" was found.
The lodestone, in turn, was given the related name of magnet .
%
-Stiy
For a long time, the magnet was regarded merely as a curiosity. Then, it
was discovered that if an elongated piece of lodestone was suspended horizon-
tally so that it could turn freely, one end always pointed towards the North
and the other end always pointed towards the South. This was the birth of the
magnetic directional compass which has become invaluable to travelers on
land, sea, and in the air. Much later it was found that the earth too behaved
as a huge magnet; also, that the interaction between the magnetic effects of
the magnet and that of the earth accounted for the "directional pointing" of
the lodestone. It was concluded that what were called "magnetic effects"
were the result of magnetic energy - -magnetism was a form of energy that
could do work. In time, it was realized that magnetism and electricity were
related. It was found that effects associated with magnets could produce elec-
tric current in wires and that electric current gives rise to magnetic effects.
-
MAGNETISM 1-97
Magnetism Is A Form of Energy
If we sprinkle iron filings onto a sheet of paper and then hold a magnet
slight-
ly above the paper, filings will "leap" upward to the magnet. Iron filings
are light and tiny, but as light as they may be, each filing is a physical entity
and therefore, has some weight. The ability of whatever phenomenon is
associated with the magnet to make the filings leap upward from the paper
provides observable evidence of two conditions: first, magnetism exists
outside of the physical body of the magnet; second, magnetism is a form of
energy as shown by the work done on the iron filings when they are raised
,
against the force of gravity.
PLACED IN MAGNETIC FIELD BY MAGNETIC EFFECT
Magnetic energy normally produces no response from the human senses. The
area around the most powerful magnet is filled with magnetic energy, yet
we cannot see, hear, taste, touch or smell it. We recognize its presence
by its effects - magnetic effects Magnetic energy can do much work. It
.
can make another object, made of magnetizable material, into a magnet.

Magnetic energy can raise very heavy objects made of magnetizable mater-
ials; it can exert mechanical force on other magnets; it contributes to the
generation of emf by mechanical means; and it has many other applications.
,
1-98 MAGNETISM
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials
Magnetic materials can be magnetized and thus made to attract iron and cer-
tain other metals. Foremost among magnetic materials are soft iron
and
alloys of steel such as Alnico containing one or more other metals including
,
nickel, cobalt, and aluminum. Some recently developed "ceramics"

make
excellent magnets, among these being Indox, which contains barium-oxide
and Vectolite, an iron-content compound. Temporary magnets are made from
iron. They behave as magnets only as long as the magnetizing force which
makes them magnets acts on the iron. Iron gives up its magnetic properties
almost immediately after the magnetizing force is removed. Steel and its
alloys, on the other hand, are readily made into permanent magnets;
i. e.
magnets which hold on to their magnetic properties indefinitely.
In contrast to the relatively few magnetic materials, there

are a host of non-
magnetic materials; these cannot be magnetized. For our purposes,
we need
mention but a few: glass, paper, wood, rubber, plastic, cotton,
tin, and
copper. Although nonmagnetic materials cannot be magnetized,
magnetic
energy will pass through them; in fact, they are completely
"transparent" to
this kind of energy. Magnetic materials can be penetrated
by magnetic ener-
gy also but once inside the substance, the energy will use the material as
a preferred path for as long as possible, rather than
leave it and travel
through air or through some other nonmagnetic
substance. Thus, a magnetic
substance is sort of a confining path for magnetic energy. It is
this form of
behavior that makes soft iron an excellent "shield" around
an object from
which we want to keep out magnetic energy.
MAGNETISM
The Poles Of A Magnet

Ifa permanent bar magnet is suspended horizontally so that it is free to ro-
tate,it will come to rest with one end pointing towards the North pole of the
earth, and the opposite end pointing towards the South pole. It has become
conventional to refer to the ends of a magnet as the "poles" of the magnet,
the end pointing towards the North being called the "north-seeking" pole,
and conversely, the end pointing towards the South called the "south-seeking"
pole.
MAGNETIC NORTH HAS NORTH GEOGRAPHIC POLE

SOUTH MAGNETIC POLARITY
the earth acts like a

huge natural magnet
THE
SOUTH-SEEKING
A Suspended Bar Magnet Acts As A Compass MAGNETIC POLE
The earth behaves like a huge natural magnet, having a so-called North and
South magnetic poles in the approximate direction (but not in the immediate
vicinity) of their respective geographic poles. Based on the accepted behavior
of a magnet and the laws of magnetism, the earth's North magnetic pole
actually has south magnetic polarity, whereas the South magnetic pole actually
has north magnetic polarity.
1-100 MAGNETISM
The Basis of Magnetism
How do wev explain magnetism? The details are not exactly known but it is
believed that magnetism is associated with the electrons in the atoms of which
magnetic substances are made. These atoms are believed to be tiny magnets
or "magnetic dipoles", each having a North pole and a South pole. Presumab-
ly, each atom accounts for a certain amount of magnetism, some more and
some less. When a magnetizable material is in an unmagnetized state, the
tiny atomic magnets are oriented in random fashion; that is, the magnetic
poles point in all directions. When a substance contains randomly-oriented
atomic magnets, it is assumed that the magnetic effects of one atom offset
or cancel the magnetic effects of another. Thus, the material as a whole
does not display any magnetic characteristics.
magnetic
dipoles
(random
order)
unmagnetized iteel magnetized steel
The process of "inducing" magnetism is believed to be the reorientation of

the randomly -positioned atomic magnets so that their poles line up in hori-
zontal rows--the N pole of one facing the S pole of the other. Each horizon-
tal row of atomic magnets forms an extremely thin magnet, and the great
many parallel horizontal rows of magnets form a single composite magnet
with a common N pole atone end and a common S pole at the other end. This
theory explains why it is possibleto break a permanent magnet into any num-
ber of parts, each of which remains a magnet with an N and an S pole. When
a material "loses" its magnetism, the atomic magnets change their "magne-
tized" orientation to a random one. In a permanent magnet, once it has been
changed from random orientation to "magnetized" orientation, the atomic
magnets in it stay that way until disrupted by heat or physical shock.
breaking a permanent
magnet does not disturb
the alignment of the
magnetic dipoles
If the magnets are arranged so that the N pole of one faces the S pole of the
other, the magnets will move towards each other. If the magnets are not
perfectly in line, they turn on their axes so as to bring the unlike poles as
close together as possible, again indicating the presence of energy around
the magnet. Such behavior demonstrates another basic rule of magnetism,
this being that unlike magnetic poles attract each other .
The force of repulsion between like poles, or attraction between unlike poles,
varies inversely as the square of the separation between the poles. If the
separation is doubled, the force decreases by a factor of 4 or to 1/4; if it is
tripled, the force decreases by a factor of 9, or to 1/9, and so on. If the
separation is decreased by a factor of two, the force increases by the square
of 2 or 4 times; if the separation is decreased by a factor of 3, the force in-
creases by the square of 3 or 9 times, and so on.
1-102 MAGNETISM
The Magnetic Field (Lines of Force)
How do we describe the energy around a magnet? Michael Faraday advanced

the concept that the region in all directions around a magnet is a "zone of
magnetic influence"; i. e. it is occupied by an invisible "magnetic field of
,
force" or simply, a "magnetic field. " Any magnetizable object placed within
the magnetic field is made into a magnet- -temporary or permanent, depen-
ding on the material--by the energy contained in the magnetic field.
Faraday visualized the magnetic field as being made up of imaginary "mag-

netic lines of force. " Each line of force maybe thought of as a thin, thread-
like region where magnetic energy exists. To explain magnetic behavior,
we assume that the line of force is real. We say that each line of force
"leaves" the magnet at the N pole, completes an elliptical path outside the
magnet to the S pole, then "re-enters" the magnet and advances to the N pole
inside the magnet. Thus, each magnetic line of force is a complete loop of
magnetic energy, part of which is outside the magnet, and part of which is
inside the magnet. Moreover, we say the field has a "directional quality".
Specifically, the direction of the magnetic field, externally, is from the North
to the South pole.
THIS FIELD IS GENERALLY SHOWN AS
We can place a sheet of cardboard over a bar magnet, and sprinkle some
fine iron filings. If we tap the cardboard lightly, the filings will arrange
themselves in the "line" pattern shown. The pattern indicates the organiza-
tion of the lines of force.
MAGNETISM 1-103
Lines of Force and Flux Density (Units)
To express the strength of the magnetic field at any given point around the
magnet, or to compare the magnetic strength, we refer to the number of
magnetic lines of force that pass through a unit area in the magnetic field.
The unit area used for this purpose is a crossTsection 1 centimeter on each
side of 1 square centimeter (or 1 cm2).
ONE MAXWELL TOTAL FLUX FLUX DENSITY FLUX DENSITY

OF FLUX B B
8
B
*
(ONE LINE 1U MAXWELLS 1 MAXWELL/ cm2 1 WEBER / m2
OF FORCE) = 1 WEBER =1 GAUSS =10* GAUSS
When speaking about the magnetic field strength, it is customary to refer to

a single magnetic line of force as a "maxwell of flux". If 1 maxwell of flux
(1 magnetic line of force) passes through a cross-sectional area of 1 square
centimeter, the strength of the magnetic field at that location is 1 gauss.
Associating the number of lines of force with the unit area(orthe number of
flux lines per square cm) expresses flux density (measured in gausses).
Thus, two magnets or two magnetic fields may be compared by referring to
the flux density at corresponding points in the two fields. If magnet A is rated
at a flux density of 100 gausses and magnet B at a flux density of 500 gausses
at the same distance from the N poles, magnet B is by far the stronger mag-
net. Electrical devices which make use of magnetic lines of force created
by electric current may function with flux densities of many hundreds and
even thousands of gausses.
If reference is made to the total number of magnetic lines of force of a mag-

netic field, it is called total flux and is indicated by the symbol 0. The unit
used is 100,000,000 or 10 8 maxwells (lines of force). It is called "weber";

i. e. ,
10 8 maxwells = 1 weber.
1-104 MAGNETISM
Properties of Magnetic Lines Of Force
Magnetic lines of force have numerous properties. Only two are discussed
here; the rest are explained in connection with the magnetic effects of current.
The formation of the "line" pattern by the iron filings, or by the directional
indications of the compass needle, is due to the action of the magnetic ener-
gy in the lines of force. The energy magnetizes each filing and urges it (and
the compass needle- -already a magnet) to take positions along the lines of
force. In the process of magnetizing a filing (or some other magnetizable
object), the energy in the magnetic field induces magnetism in the fi ling The
end of the filing entered by the lines of force becomes the South pole of the
magnetized bit of iron; the end where the lines of force leave the filing is the
North pole. Thus, the magnetizing lines of force pass lengthwise through
each magnet they create.
Being positioned along the lines of force, each tiny magnet in the field is
threaded by the greatest number of flux lines . This is a rule of magnetic
behavior. A magnetizable object located in a magnetic field will position it-
self so that it will be threaded by the greatest number of lines of force. Given
sufficient energy in the magnetic field, the lines of force exert turning, pull-
ing, or pushing force on other magnets on which they act, so that the magnets
will be threaded by the greatest number of flux lines.
MAGNETISM 1-105
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force (Cont'd)
Two magnets placed near each other have separate magnetic fields which
occupy an area common to both. One might gather from this that the lines
of force cross or intersect. This does not happen; lines of
force never cross.
When like poles face each other, the lines of force of each field remain
separate entities, but each field becomes distorted. When unlike poles face
each other, the lines of force of each field interact with the other and produce
a strong resultant field.
Wherever the lines of force of the two fields are parallel and have the same
direction, a strengthened field is created. This follows from the condition
that a greater number of lines of force acting in the same direction are
present
per unit area than if only one magnet and one magnetic field were present.
Where the lines of force of the two fields act in opposite directions, the ener-
other field. The result is a
gy of one field tends to offset the energy in the
weakened field in that area. This condition is equivalent to fewer lines of
force traversing the area. ...
opposite poles feeing like poles feeing
(mutual attraction exists) (mutual repulsion exists)
Stillanother important behavior of magnetic lines of force is that each mag-

netic loop behaves as though it were a rubber band stretched which, if given
,
the opportunity, would contract. This explains why unlike poles attract each
other. The loops of magnetic force passing through the magnets behave as
though they shrink, thus pulling the magnets toward each other. This is
the simplified version of the condition whereby when one portion of a resul-
tant of two fields is strengthened and another is weakened, the movable
sources of the field move from the stronger to the weaker portion of the
field. Strengthened and weakened magnetic fields in an area are illustrated
by more or fewer lines of force.
1-106 MAGNETISM
Electromagnetism
MAGNETIC FIELD IS PRODUCED AROUND CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish physicist, observed that the dir-
ectional indications of a small magneticcompass located near a wire through
which electric current (d-c) was flowing were influenced by the current. The
presence or absence of the current, as well as its direction of flow in the
wire, had a major effect on the behavior of the compass needle. Later ex-
periments by other scientists resulted in the conclusion that electric current
produced a magnetic field or a zone of magnetic energy around itself. This
was the beginning of electromagnetism, the term used to denote magnetic
effects that result from electric current.
The magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor is most dense

nearest the wire (greatest field strength), and thins out at increasing distan-
ces from the wire (reduced field strength). If the above experiment is re-
peated as the cardboard is moved up and down along the wire, the same pattern
appears at every point, indicating that the loops of force (concentric circles)
surround the current all along its path If a small compass is moved around
.
the current-carrying conductor, the poles of the needle line themselves

up
with the magnetic lines of force and change their direction as the compass is
moved around the wire. Thus, the lines of force created by the current have
direction, just as the lines of force associated with a magnet have direction,
except that the direction is now always at right angles (perpendicular) to the
axis of the wire.
MAGNETISM 1-107
Action of Magnetic Field Around Two Parallel Current-Carrying Wires
showed that two magnets with facing poles demonstrate mechanical

for-
We
Two parallel wires carrying current also demonstrate mechanical for-
ces.
the current in
ces of attraction or repulsion, depending on the direction of
the magnetic field surrounding the wires. When
the wires. The energy is in
the lines of force
the currents in the two wires move in the same direction,
hence,
between the wires move in opposite directions. One offsets the other;
the resultant field between the wires is weakened . At the same time, the
the same
directions of the lines of force on the outside of the wires are in
the other at these points. The overall re-
direction. Each field strengthens
sult is a strengthened field on the outside of the wires and a weakened field
between the wires. The contracting behavior of the "outside" magnetic

lines
of force now comes into play, and cause the two wires to move physically
attractio n
towards each other if motion is possible. Although the action is
say that the strength-
between two wires, a much more useful description is to
ened portions of the field tend to push the conductors toward the weaker part
of the field; hence, towards each other.
Currents Flowing In The Same Directinn Current! Flowing In The Opposite Direction
When the currents in the two parallel wires flow in opposite directions, the
resultant field is strongest between the wires and weakest on the outside.
The two wires therefore move apart, again moving from the stronger portion of
the field (inside) towards the weaker portion (outside).
1-108 MAGNETISM
The Magnetic Field Around A Current-Carrying Coil
When a straight conductor is bent into a series of loops, forming a coil (also
known as a solenoid), a very much stronger magnetic field is created within
the space inside the winding as well as outside the coil, but especially inside.
The explanation is that each magnetic loop of force that encircles each turn
passes through the inside of each turn- -hence, through the inside of the coil
as a whole--and all of them have the same direction. Because of this, the
number of lines of force (or flux density) per unit area inside the coil is grea-
ter than anywhere else for the same area outside the turns. The magnetic
field of a coiled wire is therefore very much stronger than if the wire had
not been coiled.
COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
magnetic field produced by a magnetic field produced
current flowing through a coil by a bar magnet .
When current flows in a solenoid, the magnetic lines of force that surround
the winding enter the winding at one end and leave at the other. Where the
lines of force enter the winding is called the South end, or South pole, and
the end where they leave is called the North end, or North pole. This or-
ganization of the magnetic field is like that of the conventional bar magnet;
hence, a solenoid with current flowing in it is an electromagnet .
The term electromagnet denotes a magnet created by virtue of the magnetic

lines of force that issue from an electric current. It is a "temporary" mag-
net because it behaves as such only while current is flowing in the wire. When
the current ceases, the magnetic behavior ceases. Coils of few turns make
weak magnets; to make them strong magnets requires many turns.
MAGNETISM 1-109
Strength of the Magnetic Field Around A Solenoid (Ampere-Turns)
The strength of the magnetic field created by current in a solenoid is deter-

mined by several factors: the amount of current; the number of turns; the
separation between the turns; and the core material. The more current
there is in the winding, the greater the number of flux loops there are that
surround the coil and the more energy there is in the magnetic field around
the coil. Each turn through which current flows contributes lines of force
to the total current; hence, the more the number of turns, the greater the
number of flux loops everywhere around the coil. These two factors are
combined into a single term called "ampere-turns". It is the product of the
current in amperes and the number of turns. A coil with 100 turns and 5 .
ampere of current has the same ampere-turns as a coil with 500 turns and
. 1 ampere of current, for 100 x.5 = 500 x 1. The closer the turns are to
.
each other, the greater the linkage between the flux lines; i. e. the more
,
readily the flux loops around the individual turns link with other turns, and
the stronger the magnetic field is around the coil.
THE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH OF A COIL

Solenoid or Coil Core of Magnetic
( many turns ) Materials (Soft Iron)
DEPENDS ON
t. THE CURRENT
Flux 2. THE NUMBER

density OF TURNS
Current l. DISTANCE
Meter BETWEEN
TURNS
LARGE 4. PERMEABILITY
BATTERY OF THE CORE
Variable Resistor permitting the increase or

decrease of the Current Flow through the coil
A
coil wound on an insulated form with an air -filled core will, for a given
current, have a weaker magnetic field than a coil wound on a core made of a
magnetizable material such as soft iron. The soft iron core becomes magne-
tized and, in this state, creates additional lines of force which add to the total
due to the current. The core material is described in terms of its perme-
ability or magnetic conductivity Permeability expresses the ease with which
.
magnetic lines of force are established in a material relative to that in air

or in a vacuum, both of which have a permeability of 1. Magnetic materials
with a permeability exceeding 50, 000 are available.
1-110 MAGNETISM
The Left-Hand Rule For a Coil
The magnetic polarity produced by the flow of current through a coil is deter-
mined by the direction of the current and the direction of the coil winding.
We should not confuse the voltage drop across a coil with the polarity mag-
netic produced in the coil. North and South are terms applied to opposite
magnetic poles; minus and plus are terms used to describe a difference of
potential.
Based on the electronic concept of current, a method known as the "left-hand

rule for a coil" determines the relationship between the direction of current
and the direction of magnetic flux through the coil. If the coil is grasped
in the left hand with the curled fingers pointing in the direction of current
flow through the turns of the coil, the extended thumb will be pointing in the
direction of the flux and the North pole of the coil. Obviously, the other end
of the coil is then the South end, or South "pole. " As you will see later, the
interaction between the magnetic field that surrounds a conductor in which
current is flowing and a permanent magnetic field that exists between mag-
netic poles is the basis for operation of a wide variety of electrical devices.
.
MAGNETISM 1-111
The Electromagnet
representative of
No other electromechanical device is so widely used or
electromagnet. This unit is composed of a
magnetism and electricity as the
wound around a soft iron core. When direct current flows through
coil or wire
the same polarity that the coil
the coil, the core becomes magnetized with
taken without the iron core. When the current through
(or solenoid) would have
reversed, the polarity of the electromagnet is reversed The
the coil is
same as the solenoid. The addition of
polarity follows the left-hand rule the
serves two functions: first, the magnetic flux is increased
the soft-iron cores
core; second, the
because the soft-iron core is more permeable than the air
The permeability of soft iron is many
flux is much more highly concentrated.
therefore, the flux density is increased considerably when
times that of air;
a soft-iron core is inserted in the coil.
Popular applications of the electromagnet are in bells and buzzers, in circuit

cir-
breakers used to protect circuits, and in relays, used to open and close
devices shown, the fundamental operation depends upon
cuits. Note that in the
piece of metal
the electromagnet becoming energized and attracting a movable
called an armature
1-112 MAGNETISM
The Magnetic Circuit
Lines of magnetic flux do not end at magnetic poles, but are continuous or
closed on themselves like the lines of electron flow in an electric circuit. In
fact, a magnetic circuit is, in many ways, similar to an electric circuit.
To
produce an electric current, a voltage called an electromotive force is re-
quired. Similarly, to produce a magnetic flux, a force called a magnetomo-
tive force is required. In an electric circuit, for a given amount
of voltage
or electromotive force, the current is determined by the circuit resistance.
Similarly, in a magnetic circuit, for a given amount of magnetomotive force,
the flux density depends upon the amount of opposition or reluctance. Thus,
in the magnetic circuit, as in the electric circuit, we can say: the
result
produced is directly proportional to the force that produces it and inversely
proportional to the opposition encountered.
COMPARING THE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
I (cumt) = ly " " 1 11 llrcl '
R (resistance]
0 (flux or lines
of force]
F (magnetomotive force]
R (reluctance]
flux
/
/TVr*
Mi. / \ 1
magneto
motive forte I I
/ /
i
reluctance (opposition of magnetic circuit

to magnetic flux - exists in air and core)
There are two important differences in the relationship of the electric circuit
to that of the magnetic circuit. The first difference is
that in the electric
circuit, the resistance is a constant value and can
be determined by measur-
ing the ratio of voltage to current. In a magnetic circuit,
however, the re-
luctance is not a constant but depends upon the flux, or field
strength. The
second difference is that in electric circuits, current actually flows
(electron
flow) from one point to another. In the magnetic circuit,
there is no actual
flow of flux, but merely an indication of the intensity and
direction of the
magnetic field.
The magnetizing force set up due to current flowing in a coil or

solenoid is
known as the magnetomotive force (abbreviated mmf). The practical
unit of
magnetomotive force is the ampere-turn. We can then say that the magneto-
motive force is proportional to the current (in amperes) in
the circuit and to
the number of turns of the coil. The magnetic flux
(0) comprises the total
number of lines of force in the magnetic circuit. The maxwell is the unit
flux (1 line of force is equal to 1 maxwell).
“ of
MAGNETISM 1-113
Motion of A Current-Carrying Conductor In A Magnetic Field
You have learned that a current in a conductor is surrounded by a magnetic

field. If this conductor is placed within a stationary
magnetic field, the two
fields combine to produce a single resultant distorted field which
exerts force
on the conductor. The force is attributable to the creation of a strengthened
and a weakened region in the resultant field around the conductor. For in-
stance, the lines of force of the individual fields have the same
direction
above the wire; hence, a strengthened field is created above the wire. Be-
the produced bythe current has a direction which is oppo-
low the wire, field
site to the field of the magnets, so the two fields buck each other
and create
a weakened region. The conductor will be moved downward because it is
"pushed" from the strengthened region to the weakened region of the field.
MOTION OF A CURRENT-CARRYING
CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
=z=z
UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
'
-hx
x
CIRCULAR
MAGNETIC FIELD
CIRCULAR MAGNETIC FIELD SUPER- RESULTANT OF THE TWO
IMPOSED ON UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD SUPERIMPOSED FIELDS
By changing the direction of the current in the wire, we can transpose the
locations of the strengthened and weakened regions of the resultant field
around the wire. The former is now located below the wire and the latter
above it. The wire now is "pushed" upward. The greater the amount of cur-
rent in the wire, the stronger are the aiding and bucking effects; therefore,
the greater the difference in magnitude of the strengthened and the weakened
parts of the field. This results in greater force being exerted on the wire and
more rapid motion. The foregoing description explains a fundamental con-
dition which has many applications. Two prominent ones are related to the
electric motor and the "moving-coil" type of electric meter. Both are
discussed in more detail on the pages to follow.
1-114 INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The D-C Motor
A d-c motor is a rotating machine that transforms electrical energy into

mechanical energy. The basic principle was explained on the preceding
page. The stationary magnetic field can be created by a d-c current in a
winding on a suitably -shaped core of soft iron, as well as bythe use of a per-
manent magnet.
THE FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS

OF A D-C MOTOR ARE:
P-iifr
End view of armature INTERSECTION OF FIELDS
1. Field coil and N pole
PRODUCES ROTATION
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF
connections
THE D-C MOTOR '
2. Slotted
armature
ST) with
winding
armature );
*4. Brushes
3. Commutator
\®1,ARMATURE AXI9 Field coil and S
©-Current flowing out of the paper
©-Current flowing into the paper
The two sides of the pivoted conductor (the armature) create two conditions
of current direction within it. The left side (A-B) carries current towards
the reader, whereas the right side (C-D) carries current away from the
reader. Side B-C is just a conducting link. The magnetic field of the cur-
rent in side A-B, acting in conjunction with the stationary field of the
magnet, causes the resultant field to be stronger above the conductor and
weaker below it. In the case of the right side, C-D, the direction of the
current causes the resultant field to be stronger below the conductor and
weaker above it. Thus, a downward push is felt by A-B and an upward push
by C-D. With the loop of wire pivoted at two points, the mechanical forces
produce a torque (a force which tends to turn things), causing rotary motion
on the part of the loop as a whole.
The practical motor has many turns for the armature Physically, it con-
.
sists of a soft steel frame with slots into which the turns are wound. The
turns are divided into separate groups which terminate on the commutator,
a device used for making electrical contact with the conducting loops as they
rotate. The commutator and brushes enable the current always to be passed
into those turns which face the pole pieces, thereby generating continuous
torque to keep the armature rotating.
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 1-115
Induced Electromotive Force (emf); The Moving Conductor Generator
In the d-c motor, electrical energy is transformed into mechanical energy

by making use of magnetic effects. The reverse is also true; mechanical
energy can be transformed into electrical energy by utilizing magnetic ef-
fects. This occurs in the electric generator. A simple experiment demon-
strates the process. A short length of stiff copper wire is connected to a
sensitive zero-center galvanometer by means of two lengths of flexible copper
wire. Also required is a strong "U"-shaped ("horseshoe") permanent mag-
net with pole pieces which are close together, thus affording a concentrated
stationary magnetic field between them.
mmmmmmmm ah m in a comcmmmmm
When the stiff copper conductor is moved downward between the pole pieces
with a rapid motion, thereby cutting across the stationary lines of force, the
galvanometer needle "kicks" away from zero in one direction, and returns
to zero when motion of the conductor ceases Then, when the conductor is
.
moved upward between the pole pieces in a rapid motion, the meter needle
kicks in the opposite direction. The two directions of deflection of the needle
indicate current flow in opposite directions. Both are the result of an elec-
tromotive force (voltage) being induced in the stiff copper wire while it is
cutting across the magnetic lines of force between the pole pieces. If the
wire is moved horizontally (i. e. ,
parallel to the lines of force in either
direction between the pole pieces), no current is evident on the galvanometer.
The overall action is described by saying that "when a conductor cuts mag-
netic lines of force, an electromotive force is induced in the conductor. "
1-116 INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Induced Electromotive Force; Moving Magnetic Field
Instead of moving the conductor so that it will cut stationary magnetic lines
of force, we reverse the process and move the magnetic field so that moving
lines of force cut the stationary conductor. As with the case of the moving
conductor, maximum emf is induced when the lines of force cut the conduc-
tor at right angles, and minimum emf (effectively zero) is induced when the
moving lines of force have a direction parallel to the axis of the conductor.
The electrical polarity of the voltage induced in the conductor, hence, the
direction of the resultant current in the galvanometer circuit, is a function
of the relative direction of motion between the moving magnetic lines of force
and the stationary conductor. When the magnetic field moves downward, it
is the same as though the conductor moves upward When the magnetic field
.
moves upward, it is the same as though the conductor moves downward through
the field. As to the polarity of the voltage induced in the conductor by the
relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic lines of force, it is
indicated by the "left-hand rule for generators. " This rule states that if you
hold the thumb, first and middle fingers of the left hand at right angles to
one another, with the first finger pointing in the direction of the lines of force
and the thumb pointing in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the
middle finger will point in the direction of the induced emf (the direction in
which current will flow).
GALVANOMETER
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 1-117
Factors That Control The Amount of Induced EMF

The amount (magnitude) of the emf (voltage) induced by relative motion be-
tween magnetic lines of force and a conductor is determined by several fac-
tors. In this connection, do not try to associate every magnetic field with a
permanent magnet; think just of the magnetic field regardless of its origin.
1 winding the conductor 2 replacing the magnet 3 increasing the relative
to form a coil with a strong speed of the movement
of many turns electromagnet between conductor and field
The angular relationship between the magnetic lines of force and the conduc-
tor already has been mentioned. Another is the strength of the magnetic
field which is cut, or which is doing the cutting. The greater the field strength
(that is, the greater the flux density), or the more the number of lines of
force per unit area which are cut or are doing the cutting per unit time, the
greater will be the induced emf.
Another way of increasing the induced emf is by increasing the velocity of the
relative motion between the conductor and the field. The faster the armature
of a generator turns, the greater is the induced emf because more lines are
cut every second. The faster the motion of the bar magnet inside a solenoid,
the more rapid the rate of cutting; hence, the greater is the induced emf.
The longer the conductor which is cut or is doing the cutting, the greater the
induced emf. Still another way of increasing the induced emf is to increase
the number of conductors which are cut by the flux lines or which themselves
cut the flux lines. The emf induced in each conductor is added to that induced
in the others. This happens when a conductor is formed into a solenoid.
1-118 SUMMARY
Pieces of iron ore called magnetite were found to possess magnetic pro-
perties which attracted bits of iron. These natural magnets were
called lodestones.
Any magnet that retains its magnetism over a long period of time is a
permanent magnet; if it loses its magnetism rapidly, it is atemporary
magnet.
The space surrounding a magnet is called a magnetic field. Magnetic
lines of force are concentrated around the poles of a magnet.
Pieces of iron or steel become magnetized by induction when they are
brought close to, or in contact with, a magnet.
Every magnet has at least one north pole and one south pole.
Artificial magnets can be made by stroking an unmagnetized piece of iron
or steel with a magnet, or by electrical means.
Residual magnetism is the amount of magnetism retained in a material
after the magnetizing force has been removed.
Like magnetic poles repel each other; unlike magnetic poles attract each
other.
A magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor increases
when thecurrent increases and decreases when the current decreases.
Magnetic lines of force take the form of concentric circles around a cur-
rent-carrying conductor.
A coil through which current is flowing has two polarity identities--vol-
tage and magnetic.
The "left-hand rule” for a coil determines the relationship between the
direction of current and the direction of magnetic flux through the coil.
Ampere-turns is the product of the current in amperes and the number
of turns of the coil. Magnetomotive force is expressed in ampere-turns.
An electromagnet is composed of a coil or wire wound around a soft iron
core.
The maxwell is the unit of magnetic flux; 1 line of force is equal to 1 max-
well.
When the current through the coil of an electromagnet is reversed, the
polarity of the electromagnet is reversed.
Moving a magnetic field pasta conductor will induce a voltage in the con-
ductor.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the "left-hand rule" for a coil.
2. What is an electromagnet?
3. What forms do the magnetic lines of force take around a current-carrying
conductor ?
4. What is the practical unit of magnetomotive force?
5. How does an increase or decrease in current through a conductor affect
its magnetic field?
6. How do the magnetic fields of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet
differ ?
7. Define reluctance. Define permeability.
8. Give two methods for making artificial magnets.
9 . How does a permanent magnet differ from a temporary magnet ?
10. What is the maxwell? What is 1 maxwell equal to?
11 . What happens in a conductor when a magnetic field is moved past it ?
METERS 1-119
Electrical Measuring Devices: The D'Arsonval Meter
Electrical measuring instruments are used for checkingthe operation of elec-

trical and radio equipment. The most commonly-measured electrical quan-
tities are current, voltage, and resistance. The basic instrument used in
d-c ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters is the D'Arsonval permanent
magnet, moving-coil d-c meter (this mechanism is also known as the Weston
meter). Its principle of operation is like that of the d-c motor. Because of
the torque or rotational force developed in the d-c moving coil is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the coil, the scale graduations of
d-c current meters are uniformly divided (linear).
COMPONENT PARTS OF THE BASIC D’ARSONVAL ||

|v:
SPERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENT!
As makeup of the device, a current-carrying loop (the moving

to the physical
coil) is wound on an aluminum frame or bobbin mounted around a circular
core of magnetic material. The entire coil assembly is positioned between
the pole pieces of a permanent horseshoe magnet. The mounting pins of the
assembly pivot on sapphire bearings. A top and bottom spring, mechanically
attached to the coil assembly, conduct the meter current to and from the
coil; load the coil and prevent free spinning when magnetic reactions develop
the turning force; and supply the restoring forces which return the coil to its
normal position when meter current ceases flowing. A pointer attached to
the coil swings across the meter scale as the coil turns between the pole
pieces. Currents induced in the aluminum bobbin "damp" the moving coil and
prevent it from moving back and forth around the point of deflection.
1-120 METERS
Operation of the Moving-Coil D-C Meter As a Current Meter
Although the moving-coil d-c meter is used to measure voltage and resis-
tance, as well as current, it is basically a current-operated device. The
current in the moving coil develops the magnetic field that reacts with the
stationary magnetic field of the permanent magnet (produces rotary motion
of the coil) and moves the meter pointer across the scale of the instrument.
The direction of rotation of the coil is from the strengthened portion to the
weakened portion of the resultant magnetic field, just as in the d-c motor.
Depending on the particular design of a current meter, a certain maximum
current in the coil causes maximum turning force, or full-scale deflection .
Exceeding the maximum current rating "slams" the pointer off scale against
the end stop. For example, passing 2 amperes through a 0. 5 ampere (500
milliamperes) meter movement can easily damage the meter by burning out
the coil or by bending the thin pointer. Less than full-scale current flowing
in the coil produces a proportionately reduced deflection. Thus, 50 milliam-
peres of current flowing through a 100-milliamperes full-scale meter causes
half-scale deflection.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF A PERMANENT

MAGNET, MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENT
With no current flowing in the coil, When current flows through the coil,
there is no deflecting force, deflecting force causes coil to turn.
Some current meter designs incorporate a moving coil in which as little as

10 microamperes of current causes full-scale deflection; other coils may
require 50 microamperes of current and still others may be designed for 1
milliampere or higher. How can these meters be used to measure more
current than can safely flow through the moving coil? The problem is solved
by using a parallel current path, or shunt, around the coil, either inside or
outside the meter. This arrangement is explained on the next page.
-
METERS 1-121
How to Calculate The Resistance of a Shunt
Although it is not conventional practice for users of radio test equipment to

build shunts for current meters, it is still valuable to know how the resis-
tance of a meter shunt is calculated. The general philosophy of the meter
shunt is as follows: if a meter is designed to indicate the flow of 1 milliam-
pere (ma) of current at full-scale deflection and it is desired to measure 10
ma, the ohmic value of the shunt must be such(relative to the ohmic value of
the moving coil in the meter) that 9/10 of the total current (9 ma) passes
through the shunt and 1/10 of the current (1 ma) passes through the meter.
Assume that we wish to use a 0-1 -ma meter (milliameter) having a moving-
coil resistance of 50 ohms in a circuit that may have as much as 10 ma flow-
ing through it. To use the 1-ma meter to measure up to 10 ma, we must add
a shunt to the meter movement, connecting the shunt directly to the outside
terminals of the meter. To calculate the shunt, the following formula is
used: Rs= R x m
"
If -m
where R s is the resistance of the shunt in ohms, R m is the resistance of the
meter movement in ohms, Im is the full-scale current rating of the meter
movement, and It is the total current in amperes to be carried by the meter
and shunt. Substituting the values, we get:
R s = 50 x 001 =, 05 = 5. 56 ohms
.
010 - 001
. 009
. .
The construction of accurate shunts can be done using precise resistance

measuring devices. To calculate other shunts, substitute the new values
in the above formula.
1-122 METERS
Using the Current Meter
Reference to d-c current meters includes ammeters milliammeters and

, ,
microammeters Meters suitable for measuring full-scale currents up to

.
500 microamperes (/ia) are considered to be microammeters; from 500 j^ta

(0. 5 ma) up to 500 ma full scale are milliammeters; and from 500 ma (0. 5
ampere) or more full scale are ammeters.
The first rule for proper use of current meters is that they must be connec-
ted in series with the circuit where the current is to be measured. The cur-
rent must flow through the meter . Usually, this means "breaking" into the
circuit to insert the instrument. However, some circuits provide jacks for
insertion of current meters where measurements are to be made. As a
safety precaution, always disconnect the voltage source when inserting a
current meter into the circuit.
ammeter could have been connected

-here or here'
The second rule for proper use is that the polarity of the meter be correct.
Using the polarity of the voltage source as a reference, the current must
flow into the meter at its negative terminal and out of the meter at its posi-
tive terminal. If the polarity is wrong, the meter pointer will move in the
opposite direction and possibly damage the meter.
The third rule is that whenever uncertain as to how much current is in a cir-
cuit, always start at the highest current range of a meter. If the pointer
barely moves away from the zero point, turn the meter range switch to the
next lower current range. Continue doing this until there is sufficient de-
flection to obtain an accurate reading.
— 1
METERS 1-123
The D-C Moving-Coil Voltmeter
The d-c moving-coil current meter is the basis of the d-c moving-coil volt-
meter A d-c current meter can be used as a d-c voltmeter in the following
.
way: Assume that a current meter has a moving coil rated at 100 jua (. 0001
ampere) full-scale current and a d-c resistance of 1000 ohms. Full-scale
coil current means, therefore, a voltage drop (E = IR) of 0001 x 1000 = 0.
.
volt across the moving coil of this instrument. In fact, every current meter
bears a fixed, internal voltage-drop rating equal to the product of the full-
scale coil current and the d-c resistance of the coil. Thus, although the
ability to measure voltage is inherent in every current meter, its usefulness
is limited because its maximum range and resistance are both very low.
Source Voltage Less Voltage II

SOURCE VOLTAGE'
Drop Across Movement Voltage Drop Across
— Meter Movement
A Voltmeter Consists lWVV AAAAr

Of A Current Meter MULTIPLIER METER MOVEMENT
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
In Series With A
LOAD
Multiplier Resistance A/WV
Howis a current meter used as a voltmeter to measure voltages in excess of
the internal voltage drop across the moving coil ? By making the current
meter part of a circuit in which a multiplier resistance is placed in series
with the meter coil! The ohmic value of the multiplier resistance is such
that when added to the meter coil resistance, the total resistance limits the
circuit current to the full-scale current rating of the meter for any given
applied voltage. In this way, the applied voltage divides between the multi-
plier resistance and the meter resistance in direct proportion to their re-
spective resistances; the voltage drop across the meter coil never exceeds
the internal voltage rating for full-scale deflection. The function of the mul-
tiplier resistance is to develop a voltage drop equal to the excess between
the applied voltage (the voltage being measured) and the internal voltage drop
across the meter coil. This proportioning of voltage drops becomes auto-
matic when the multiplier resistance limits the circuit current as described.
)
1-124 METERS
Calculating the Multiplier
Let us assume that we have a 100 -microampere ammeter (microammeter)

having a d-c resistance of 1000 ohms. We want to convert this meter move-
ment into a voltmeter that reads 25 volts full scale. When the 100-jua full-
scale current flows through the meter, there is a voltage drop of 0. 1 volt
across the meter coil. Our task then is to calculate what resistance must
be placed in series with the meter movement so that when a current of 100
microamperes flows through the meter and resistance, there will be a 25-
volt drop across the meter resistance and multiplier combination. We can
find the total resistance of the combination at 25 volts by using Ohm's law
(R = E/I = 25/. 0001, or 250,000 ohms). Of course, we must not lose sight
of the internal meter resistance of 1000 ohms. Thus, the series multiplier
resistance is equal to 250,000 ohms less the meter resistance of 1000 ohms,
or 249, 000 ohms .
MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER USES SERIES MULTIPLIERS
By using a number of multiplier resistances that can be connected in series

with the meter coil by a selector switch, a series of voltage ranges can be
provided. Each range is suitable for measuring all d-c voltages between
zero and the maximum value. As we will see, any current meter can be
converted into a voltmeter by suitable selection of a series multiplier; how-
ever, the most desirable current meters are those having high sensitivity
(1 ma or less for full-scale deflection.
A
METERS 1-125
D-C Voltmeters — Ohms-Per-Volt Rating
An important electrical characteristic of voltmeters is their ohms -per -volt

rating. This term is the basis for the total resistance of the voltmeter on
each of its voltage ranges (including the multiplier resistance used on each
range). The ohms-per-volt rating is based on the current requirement of
the meter coil for full-scale deflection. If the meter coil in a voltmeter re-
quires 50 jua(. 00005 ampere) for full-scale deflection, the multiplier resis-
tance required for each volt indication is R = E/I, or 1/. 00005 = 20,000
ohms. The instrument therefore has a rating of 20,000 ohms-per-volt on
each range.
The total resistance of the instrument on each range, then, is the ohms-per-
volt rating multiplied by the full-scale limit on each range. For example,
if the range selected is 5 volts full scale, the total resistance presented by
the meter is 20, 000 x 5, or 100, 000 ohms. A meter that requires 1 ma
(. 001 ampere) for full-scale deflection has an ohms-per-volt
rating of 1/. 001
or 1000. If the voltmeter movement uses a 10 -pa moving coil, the instrument
has a rating of 1/. 00001 or 100, 000 ohms per volt.
THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A VOLTMETER
100.000A
“^^SISHOULO
©
Battery Voltmeter
100,000 A
=_ "sees” (100,000 A)
- 300,000 A In Seme Circuits This
(without voltmeter) Affects Operation Seriously
AM i
S r
1
100,000 A
i
~ioo!oooa"
con-j*! j
== 100,000 A > <

Battery "sees’
![|
250,000 A Multiplier-!*^ j
(with voltmeter) 100,000

*
AM l 1
THAN THE RESISTANCE ACROSS WHICH IT IS CONNECTED
Voltmeters are connected across circuits; hence, the resistance of the volt-
meter is in parallel with the resistance of the circuit being measured. To
minimize the shunting effect of the voltmeter resistance across the circuit
resistance, it is essential that the voltmeter resistance be as high as possi-
ble. It- is therefore best to use the highest range possible consistent with
readability.
1-126 METERS
Using the Voltmeter Properly
There are three general rules to keep in mind when using the voltmeter. The
concerns polarity. The d-c moving coil movement must be connec-
first rule
ted so that current flows through the coil in the proper direction. If current
passes in the reverse direction, the pointer will deflect backwards and the
meter possibly will be damaged. All d-c meters have positive and negative
terminals, and connection to a circuit should be made in accordance with the
polarities of the voltages or voltage drops being measured.
The second rule deals with the selection of the correct voltage range. If the
approximate voltage is known, use a range that allows a safe tolerance. If
the voltage to be measured is unknown and unpredictable, start with the high-
est range the voltmeter permits. Then, move to lower ranges until one is
reached that permits an accurate reading.
SIIIIIH
1. OBSERVE POLARITY
(minus to minus)
(plus to plus)
-
r i
voltmeter
t1
m n
Egn
1 !
3,CONNECT ACROSS USE CORRECT RANGE

CIRCUIT OR COMPONENT (if unsure, start with
(do not connect in series) highest range)
The third rule involves the actual connection of the voltmeter. Since a volt-
meter is a comparatively high-resistance instrument, it is always connected
across, or in parallel, with the load or voltage source. Since the voltmeter
shunts the component which it measures, the voltmeter resistance should be
as high as possible so as not to affect circuit operation. The highest range
that provides a reliable reading should always be used. On a 20, 000-ohms-
per-volt meter, a 10-volt range presents a resistance of 200, 000 ohms. If
the actual reading is about8 or 9 volts, then the 50-volt range, which presents
a shunt resistance of 1 megohm, can be used. This would not affect the
operation of a circuit unless its resistance was in excess of 100K ohms.
METERS 1-127
The Series Ohmmeter
The same moving-coil meter that we used in our ammeter and voltmeter can
be used to make an ohmmeter, an instrument for measuring resistance. In
building a basic ohmmeter circuit, we start once again with a 0-1 ma meter
movement connected in series with a fixed resistor (4K), a variable resistor
(IK), and a 4. 5-volt battery (see illustration). This entire circuit ends in a
pair of terminals across which the unknown resistance (Rx) is to be placed.
When the unknown or external resistance is zero, or the output terminals are
short circuited, we want enough current to flow for full-scale meter deflec-
tion. By Ohm's law, 1 ma will flow when the total series circuit resistance
is: R = 4. 5/. 001, or 4500 ohms. Since it is possible for the voltage of a new
battery to be slightly higher than 4. 5 volts, the total series resistance should
be about 5000 ohms to be safe. Having a fixed resistance of 4000 ohms and
a variable resistance of 1000 ohms permits "zero-adjust” to be made on the
ohmmeter. As the battery voltage lowers with age, the potentiometer is
varied to give full-scale deflection when Rx is zero.
„J
MA
0-1
THE series
Meter Movement ^.Full-Scale
Ai
Deflection
(infinity)
Indicates
ZERO Ohms
* IK
Variabli
Resistor
Terminals
IS GENERALLY USED TO MEASURE HIGH RESISTANCE
From we see that in the series ohmmeter, full-scale

this, deflection is equal
to zero ohms at the input terminals. With R x "open", this
is equivalent to an
infinitely -high resistance. Thus, the left side of the meter scale reads "in-
finity”, or some very high value of resistance. We see then that the ohmmeter
scale reads opposite in direction to the ammeter and voltmeter scales. In
addition, it is not a linear scale. If R x is 1500 ohms, circuit current drops
.25 ma, to 75 ma (I = 4. 5/6000). However, the addition of another 1500
.
o hm s across R produces a current of I = 4. 5/7500, or 60 ma, a drop of an

x .
additional . 15 ma. This produces the nonlinear scale shown.

1-128 METERS
The Shunt Ohmmeter

0-1 MA Meter Movement (infinity) Full-Scale Deflection
Indicates Maximum or
Infinite Resistance
Across R v
4K Resistorl
50-Ohm Meter
Resistatice
Terminals IK Variable
Resistor
| THE SHUNT OHMMETER is used generally to measure low resistance
For reading very low values of resistance, the shunt -type ohmmeter is better
suited than the series type. In the shunt unit, the unknown resistance Rx is
now shunted or placed in parallel with the meter, instead of in series with
it. With the unknown resistance connected in this manner, some of the cur-
rent in the ohmmeter circuit now takes the path through Rx The current.
through the meter movement is reduced accordingly, and the amount of de-
flection drops in proportion to the reduction in current. The amount of cur-
rent through the meter depends upon the ratio of the shunt resistance of Rx
to the internal resistance of the meter.
The zero-adjust in the shunt ohmmeter operates oppositely from that in the
series ohmmeter. In the shunt instrument, the variable resistor is adjusted
so that full-scale current flows through the moving coil when there is an
open circuit across the Rx terminals. Thus, maximum or infinite resistance
is indicated on the right-hand side of the meter scale. A short circuit across
terminals Rx would bypass all current around the meter and produce no
pointer deflection. Thus, zero ohms would appear at the left-hand side of the
meter scale. Any resistance connected across the Rx terminals will pro-
vide a path for current, and will cause the current through the meter to be
less than full scale. Low resistances will bypass considerable current and
produce little deflection; high resistances will bypass little current and pro-
duce large deflection. By using a selector switch and various-sized shunts,
a multirange ohmmeter can be made, with each range having a different
multiplying factor.
METERS 1-129
Using the Ohmmeter
There are four basic rules to keep in mind when using the ohmmeter for
measuring resistance. First, we must remember that an ohmmeter car-
ries its own power supply. That is, the power necessary to deflect the poin-
ter comes from the battery within the ohmmeter, and no external power is
necessary. As a matter of fact, any external voltage in the circuit being
measured will not only cause an erroneous reading, but may damage the
moving coil and pointer. Thus, when measuring the resistance of a compon-
ent or circuit, remove the voltage source from the external circuit.
Second, when measuring the resistance of a component, the component must

be "isolated" from the rest of the circuit. This can be done simply by dis-
connecting one end of the component and letting it hang free. By measuring
its resistance while connected in the circuit, you may actually be measuring
the combined resistance of the component and that of some shunt component.
1. Disconnect External Power Ohmmeter (contains*!

(can damage meter) own power supply)
% Zero Adjust
Before Reading
Isolate Component
To Be Measured I, Read Near
(prevent "parallel Low End
circuit” reading)
Of Scale
Third,make the zero adjustment before making a reading. If the ohmmeter

is notproperly adjusted to read zero ohms accurately, all other readings
made will be incorrect.
Fourth, always make a resistance reading near the low end of the resistance
range. At this point, the resistance values on the meter scale are spread
out and a more accurate reading can be made. Avoid reading at the high
end; here, the resistance values are crowded and the slightest inaccuracy
of the ohmmeter can cause a considerable error in a resistance reading. If
a particular resistance reads near the high end of a resistance range, switch
to the next higher range; this will cause the pointer to indicate at a much
lower place on the meter scale.
-
1-130 METERS
D-C Meter Scales
Meter scales used for d-c current and voltage meters have uniformly-spaced
(linear) calibration markings. Single-range meters have a single scale show-
ing only one set of values. This is so either for current or voltage. Multi
range meters may have a single scale on which several sets of values are
marked, with each set serving a different range, or separate scales for each
range covered by the instrument. When a meter is designed to be used for
many ranges, it is equipped with a range-selector switch. Each position on
the switch indicates the highest value of the range of measurement. All ran-
ges begin with zero.
The d-c meter used for resistance measurement has non-uniformly spaced
(nonlinear) calibration markings. Although only one set of numerals is assoc-
iated with a scale, a resistance range -selector switch is always part of the
instrument. Each switch position bears a multiplying factor; i. e. , XI, X10,
X100, etc. The proper reading on that particular range is equal to the meter
scale reading multiplied by the multiplying factor on the range switch.
ON 5-volt range meter reads -3 volts

^ =.l V
ON 50-volt range meter reads =1 V

volft
ON 100-volt range meter reads 60 Vftltt =2 V
ON 250-volt range meter reads f SO: Vfltf =5 V
ON 1000-volt range meter reads $(K) VtHt. '"l^T

V
RANGE SELECTOR
ON 10-ma range meter reads gg
=.2 ma
ON 100-ma range meter reads vtt =2 ma
The amount of change between any two adjacent divisions on any one range is
equal to the maximum value of the range divided by the number of divisions.
If a voltmeter scale consists of 50 divisions and full-scale deflection is 250
volts, each division then corresponds to 250/50 or 5 volts. If this same me-
ter were indicating 25 ma full scale, each division would be equal to 25/50 or
0. 5 ma. If the scale consisted of 100 divisions, each division would repre-
sent 2. 5 volts or 0. 25 ma. Occasionally, the pointer comes to rest between

scale markings. In this case, the user must determine the value of the scale
markings on either side of the pointer, and then estimate the approximate
value of the reading.
METERS 1-131
The Wattmeter
We have discussed thus far the various ways and means of measuring voltage,
current, and resistance. Another important measurement is that of power.
Since power is equal to the product of voltage and current (E x I), we can
obtain this measurement by voltmeter and ammeter readings in a circuit.
-
There is, however, a direct means for measuring power in watts --the electro
dynamometer wattmeter. This wattmeter consists of two coils--one station-
ary and one movable. There are two ways of connecting a wattmeter. In one
method, the stationary coil is the voltage coil and consists of many turns of
small wire having a high resistance; the movable coil is the current coil and
consists of a few turns of large wire having low resistance. The voltage (or
high-resistance) coil is connected across the voltage source, or across the
device whose power consumption is being measured. The current (or low-
resistance) coil is connected in series with the load, and current through the
load passes through the current coil.
The second method of wattmeter connection has the high-resistance voltage

movable coil, with the low-resistance current coil being stationary.
coil as the
This second method is superior for large currents because it removes the
difficulty in conducting large currents into and out of the spring suspension
of the moving coil.
Current through the voltage coil is proportional to the voltage across the load.
The interaction of the magnetic fields from the fixed and movable coils causes
the movable coil to rotate. The effect is almost the same as if the voltage
applied across the load and the current through the load were multiplied to-
gether. The torque on the movable coil is proportional to the current and
also to the voltage; it is therefore proportional to their product. The meter
pointer thus registers according to the power consumption E x I. As we will
learn later, wattmeters are used more in a-c circuits than in d-c circuits.
1-132 METERS
The Wheatstone Bridge
It is often necessary to make resistance measurements of greater accuracy

than is possible with an ohmmeter. Measuring ammeter shunts, voltmeter
multipliers, and other high-precision resistances can be done with an in-
strument known as the Wheatstone bridge. In the schematic of the bridge,
resistances R1 and R2 are fixed and form one leg of the bridge. The other
leg of the bridge consists of variable resistance R3 and the unknown resis-
tance R x . The applied battery voltage appears across both branches of this
parallel circuit and produces current flow.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE PROVIDES HIGH-ACCURACY RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Let us assume that the battery voltage is 10 volts, R1 = 1 ohm, and R2 = 9

ohms. The current through the A-B-C leg would be 1 ampere, with point B
being 1 volt positive with respect to point A. In leg A-D-C there will also be
current flow. Let us assume the unknown resistance is 90 ohms, and the
variable resistance is adjusted to 10 ohms. The current flow in this leg would
then be 0. 1 ampere or 100 ma (I = 10/100). The 0. 1 ampere flowing through
R3 would cause a voltage drop of 1 volt, with a 9 -volt drop across Rx Thus,
.
point D would also be 1 volt positive with respect to point A. Since points
B and D are both 1 volt positive with respect to point A, they are at the same
potential, and no current will flow through the galvanometer. However,
should the ratio of R1 to R2 differ from that of R3 to R x points B and D
,
would not be at the same potential, and current would flow from B to D or
D to B, depending on which point was at the higher potential.
R3 is usually a calibrated resistor which is varied until the galvanometer reads
zero, indicative of no difference of potential across it. It is important to re-
member that R1 and R2 need have only a known ratio. Commercial bridges
often have plug-in units or means of changing the R1-R2 ratio in terms of
1:1, 10:1, 100:1, 1000:1, etc.
SUMMARY 1-133
The basic d-c meter is the permanent -magnet, moving-coil type (called
the D'Arsonval movement.
The moving coil d-c meter is used to measure voltage, current, and re-
sistance.
Voltmeters are always connected across a circuit being measured; am-
meters are always connected in series with a circuit being measured.
D-c current meters include ammeters, milliammeters, and microam-
meters.
Correct polarity must be observed when measuring current to avoid dam-
aging the meter.
Always begin at the highest range of a current meter whenever in doubt
as to how much current is in a circuit.
A current meter can be used as a voltmeter to measure voltages exceed-
ing the internal voltage drop across the moving coil by placing a mul-
tiplier resistance in series with the moving coil.
Current meters can be used to measure more current than can safely
flow through their moving coils by using either an external or an in-
ternal shunt around the coil.
When using a voltmeter, always select the highest range which provides
a reliable reading.
When using an ohmmeter, always make a resistance reading near the
low end of the resistance range. At this point, a more accurate read-
ing can be made.
Meter scales used for d-c current and voltage meters are linearly cali-
brated; the d-c meter scale used for resistance measurements is non-
linearly calibrated.
The zero adjust in the shunt ohmmeter operates oppositely from that in
series ohmmeter.
The series ohmmeter is generally used to measure high resistance.
The shunt ohmmeter is used to measure very low values of resistance.
An electrodynamometer wattmeter measures power directly in watts.
A Wheatstone bridge is used to make very accurate resistance measure-
ments.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why must the power be disconnected when an ohmmeter is placed in the
circuit ?
2. What is the basic meter movement used in d-c ammeters, voltmeters,
and ohmmeters?
3. When is a meter shunt resistance used?
4. What formula is used to calculate the resistance of a meter shunt?
5. How should current meters be connected in a circuit where current is to
be measured?
6. How is a current meter used as a voltmeter to measure voltage greater
than the internal voltage drop across the moving coil?
7. What is meant by the ohms-per-volt rating of a meter?
8. How are voltmeters connected in a circuit?
9. What three rules should be remembered for correct use of a voltmeter ?
10. How do series ohmmeters and shunt ohmmeters differ?
11. What type of wattmeter directly measures power in watts?
12. When is a Wheatstone bridge used?
AMERICAN WIRE GAGE TABLE (B & S)
FOR STANDARD ANNEALED BARE COPPER WIRE (at 68°F)
1 Gage 1
H Diameter
(inches)
| 1
Area
(circ. miis)
| |
(lbs.
Weight
per 1000 ft.)
Resistance
(ft. per ohm)
H Resistance
(ohms per 1000
1 Current Capacity
ft.) (amps-rubber insul)
1
0000 .4600 211600. 640.6 20400. .04901 225

000 .4096 167800. 507.9 16180. .06180 175
00 .3648 133100. 402.8 12830. .07793 150
0 .3249 105500. 319.5 10180. .09827 125
1 .2893 83690. 253.3 8070. .1239 100

2 .2576 66370. 200.9 6400. .1563 90
s .2294 52640. 159.3 5075. .1970 to
4 .2043 41740. 126.4 4025. .2485 70
. S .1819 33100. 100.2 3192. .3133 55

0 .1620 26250. 79.46 2531. .3951 50
7 .1443 20820. 63.02 2007. .4982
0 .1285 16510. 49.98 1592. .6282 35
0 .1144 13090. 39.63 1262. .7921

10 .1019 10380. 31.43 1001. .9989 25
11 .09074 8234. 24.92 794. 1.260
12 .08081 6530. 19.77 629.6 1.588 20
IS .07196 5178. 15.68 499.3 2.003

14 .Q6408 4107. 12.43 396.0 2.525 15
IS .05707 3257. 9.858 314.0 3.184
10 .05082 2583. 7.818 249.0 4.016 6
17 .04526 2048. 6.200 197.5 5.064

10 .04030 1624. 4.917 156.5 6.385 3
IS .03589 1288. 3.899 124.2 8.051
20 .03196 1022. 3.092 98.5 10.15
21 .02846 810.1 2.452 78.11 12.80

22 .02535 642.4 1.945 61.95 16.14
23 .02257 509.5 1.542 49.13 20.36
24 .02010 404.0 1.223 38.96 25.67
25 .01790 320.4 .9699 30.90 32.37

20 .01594 254.1 .7692 24.50 40.81
27 .01420 201.5 .6100 19.43 51.47
20 .01264 159.8 .4837 15.41 64.90
20 .01126 126.7 .3836 12.22 81.83

30 .01003 100.5 .3042 9.691 103.2
31 .008926 79.7 .2413 7.685 130.1
32 .007950 63.21 .1913 6.095 164.1
33 .007080 50.13 .1517 4.833 206.9

34 .006305 39.75 .1203 3.833 260.9
35 .005615 31.52 .09542 3.040 329.0
30 .005000 25.00 .07568 2.411 414.8
37 .004453 19.83 .06001 1.912 523.1

so .003965 15.72 .04759 1.516 659.6
39 .003531 12.47 .03774 1.202 831.8
40 .003145 9.888 .02993 0.9534 1049.
41 .00280 7.8400 .02373 .7559 1323.

42 .00249 6.2001 .01877 .5977 1673.
4S .00222 4.9284 .01492 .4753 2104.
44 .00197 3.8809 .01175 .3743 2672.
45 .00176 3.0976 .00938 .2987 3348.
40 .00157 2.4649 .00746 .2377 4207.
GLOSSARY
Alnico Magnet— Permanent magnet consisting of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt.
Ampere-Hour— Unit of electricity equal to a current of one ampere flowing for a period of one hour.
Ampere-Turns— Product of the number of turns in a coil times the current in amperes flowing through the coil.
Atom— The smallest particle into which matter can be divided.
Ballast Resistor— Resistor whose resistance increases rapidly with increases in current flow through it.
Battery— Device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
Charged Bodies— Bodies with an excess or a deficiency of electrons.
Coulomb— The unit of quantity for electric current.
D'Arsonva/ Meter Movement— Most commonly used movement in precision instruments for making d-c
measurements.
Difference of Potential— Voltage between two points.
Direct Current— Unidirectional electric current flowing in one direction through a circuit, and essentially
constant in magnitude.
Discharge— In a storage battery, conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
Electrolyte— Chemical compound, either liquid or pastelike, whose chemical action causes a current flow, or
in which a chemical action is caused by the flow of current.
Electromagnet— Core of magnetic materia! (such as soft iron) which becomes temporarily magnetized by
an electric current passed through a coil of wire wound around the core.
Electromotive Force (emf)— Force which tends to alter the motion of electricity or to maintain its motion
against resistance. Measured in volts.
Electron — Elementary negative charge that revolves around the nucleus of an atom; negatively-charged
particles of matter.
Flux— Term used to designate all the magnetic lines of force in a region.
Flux Density— Number of magnetic lines of force passing through a given area.
Free Electrons— Electrons which are not bound to a particular atom but wander at random among the many
atoms of a substance.
Fuse— Protective device used in an electric circuit containing a wire, bar, or strip of fusible metal. Wire
melts and breaks when current through it exceeds the rated value of the fuse.
Induced Voltage— Voltage produced by a change in the number of magnetic lines of force passing through
a coil in a circuit.
Insulator— Device having high electric resistance used for separating conductors to prevent undesired flow
of current from the conductors to other objects.
Ion— Electrified particle which is formed when an atom or group of atoms loses or gains one or more
electrons.
IR drop— Voltage drop produced across a resistance R by the flow of current I through the resistance.
I'R loss— Power loss in connecting wires and other parts of a circuit caused by current flow I through re-
sistance R of the conductors.
Junction— Connection point between two or more conductors.
Kilowatt— Unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts.
Law of Magnetism— Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.

A
1-136 GLOSSARY
Lood—Device used to absorb power and convert it into a desired useful form.
Lodesfone— A kind of iron ore (magnetite) which is a natural magnet.
Magnetic Flux— Lines of force generated by a magnet.
Magnetic Lines of force— Imaginary lines used to designate the direction in which magnetic forces are acting
as a result of a magnetomotive force.
Mofecu/e'— Smallest subdivision of a compound which still retains the chemical properties of that compound.
Ohm— Unit of electrical resistance.
Ohm's taw— Expresses the relationship existing in an electrical circuit between the voltage E, the current
I, and the resistance R. E = IR; I
— E/R; R = E/1.
Parallel Circuit— Two or more electrical devices connected so the line current divides between them.
Permeability — Measure of how much better than air a given material is as a path for magnetic lines of force.
Polarity— Condition in an electrical circuit whereby the direction of current flow can be determined.
Potential — Difference in voltage between two points of a circuit. Expressed in volts.
Potentiometer— A variable voltage divider.
Power— Rate of doing work or expending energy. In d-c circuits, multiplying volts by amperes gives power
in watts. P = El; P — l R; P — E /R.
2 2
Primary Cell— Cell designed to produce an electric current through electrochemical reaction. Cannot be
recharged by electric current when completely discharged.
Proton— Positive particle in an atom. Smallest quantity of positive electricity that can exist in a free state.
Re/ucfance— Property of a magnetic circuit which determines the amount of magnetic flux that will be pro-
duced as a result of applying a given magnetomotive force.
Resistance— Opposition which a device or material offers to the flow of current.
Rheostat— Resistor whose value can be varied. Used to handle large currents.
Secondary Cell— Source of electrical energy where the cell may be recharged after being discharged by
sending an electric current through it opposite in direction to the discharge current.
Series Circuit — Two or more electrical devices connected so that the total current must flow through each of
them in turn.
Shunt— Any part, or component, connected in parallel with some other part, or component.
Solenoid— Electromagnet having an energizing coil, cylindrical or tubular in form, acting on an armature
positioned in the center of a coil. A coil used to produce a magnetic field.
Static Charge— Electric charge accumulated on an object.
Thermistor— Temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistance changes negatively as its temperature increases.
Variable Resistor— Resistor whose value can be changed mechanically.
Varistor— Voltage-sensitive resistor whose resistance changes as the voltage applied to it changes. Its
resistance lowers when a high voltage is present.
Volt— Unit of electromotive force or electrical pressure.
Voltage Drop— difference, or loss of voltage, between two points.
Waff— Practical unit of electrical power.
Watthour Meter— Meter that registers and measures electrical energy in watthours or kilowatthours.
Wheafsfone Bridge— Null-type resistance-measuring circuit in which resistance is measured by direct com-
parision with a standard resistance.
INDEX TO VOL. I
(Note: A cumulative index covering all six volumes

in this series is included at the end of Volume VI.)
Alnico, 1-97 D'Arsonval meter, 1-119

Aluminum, 1-30 D-c motor, 1-114
Amber, 1-2 Depolarizer, 1-40
American Wire Gage, 1-58, 1-134 Dielectric, 1-31
Ammeter, 1-72, 1-122 Difference of potential, 1-26

Ampere, 1-35 Discharging, 1-18 1-20 —
Andre Marie, 1-35 Dry cell, 1-40
hour, 1-47
Electrical horsepower, 1-67
turns, 1-109, 1-112
Electrical power, 1-67
Arc, 1-19
Electrical symbols, 1-71
Armature, 1-111,1-114
Electric current, 1-28, 1-35
Atom, 1-9
Electric field, 1-21
Atomic magnets, 1-100
Electricity,discovery of, 1-2
Ballast resistor, 1-61 Electrolyte, 1-39
Battery, 1-32, 1-38, 1-39, 1-48 Electromagnet, 1-108, 1-111
charger, 1-44 Electromagnetism, 1-106
symbol, 1-48 Electromotive force (emf), 1-32
Bound electron, 1-12 Electrons, 1-2, 1-7
Brown and Sharpe Gage, 1-58 Electron drift, 1-36
Bucking, 1-113 Electrostatics, 1-27
Elements, chemical, 1-8, 1-10
Capacitor, 1-27
Cell, 1-32, 1-39 Faraday, Michael, 1-22, 1-102
symbol, 1-48 Ferrites, 1-37
Charged surfaces, 1-14 Flux density, 1-103
Charges, electrical, 1-3, 1-5 Franklin, Benjamin, 1-4
Chemical effect, 1-37 Free electron, 1-13 — 1-33
Circuit current, 1-54 Fuse, 1-37, 1-94
Circuits, 1-51, 1-71
Gauss, 1-103
Circular mil, 1-58
Generation of emf, 1-38
Closed circuit, 1-51
Generator, 1-38, 1-115
Coil, 1-108
Gilbert, William, 1-2
Color code for resistors, 1-60
Glossary, 1-135
Compounds, 1-8
Condenser, 1-27 Heat effect, 1-37
Conductance, 1-30 Horsepower, 1-67
Conductors, 1-30 Hydrogen, 1-9
Contact charging, 1-15 atom, 1-10
Copper, 1-30 Hydrometer, 1-43
atom, 1-10
Coulomb, 1-35 Induced emf, 1-114
Crystal, 1-9 Induction, 1-16
Current, 1-28, 1-35 Insulating material, 1-31
capacity, 1-47, 1-48 Insulators, 1-31
Ohm's Law for, 1-63 Internal resistance, 1-54
1-138 INDEX
Planetary electrons, 1-10, 1-11

IR drop, 1-79, 1-81
|2R loss, 1-84 Polarity, 1-32
Iron, 1-30 Polarization, 1-41

Positive
Kilowatt hour, 1-70 charge, 1-15

Kinetic energy, 1-24 electricity, 1-4
Kirchhoff's Law, 1-93 ion, 1-13, 1-28

terminal, 1-32
Lattice, 1-9 Potential energy, 1-24
Lead-acid cell, 1-43 Pote n ti om ete r, 1-59
Le Clanche cell, 1-40 Power, 1-67
Left-hand rule, 1-110, 1-116 loss, 1-84
Lightning, 1-19 rating, resistors, 1-69
Lines of force, 1-22, 1-23 Piezoelectric, 1-38
Load, 1-51 Primary cell, 1-39 — 1-42
Lodestone, 1-96 Protons, 1-7
Radar, 1-1
Magnesia, 1-96
Reluctance, 1-112
Magnet, 1-96
Residual magnetism, 1-118
Magnetic
Resistance, 1-53
conductivity, 1-109
effect, 1-37 Ohm's Law for, 1-66
symbol, 1-55
field, 1-102
Resistor ratings, 1-60, 1-69
1-103
flux,
Resistors, 1-53, 1-59
poles,1-99
Rheostat, 1-59
Magnetism, 1-96
Magnetomotive force, 1-112
Secondary cell, 1-43 — 1-45
Maxwell, 1-103, 1-112
Series-connected 1-48, 1-73
Mechanical Series-parallel connected, 1-50, 1-91
horsepower, 1-67
Shunt circuit, 1-85
force, 1-11
Shunt ohmmeter, 1-128
Megohm, 1-55
Specific gravity, 1-43
Mercury cell, 1-42
Specific resistance, 1-56
Metals, 1-12 1-36
Speed of electricity,
Meters, 1-119
1-72,
Speed of light, 1-36
Meter sensitivity, 1-124
Solenoid, 1-108
Milliammeter, 1-122
Square mils, 1-58
Milliampere, 1-36 1-27
Static electricity,
Milliohm, 1-55
Storage cell, 1-43
Millivolt, 1-33
Symbols, 1-71
Mils, 1-58
Molecule, 1-9 Temporary magnet, 1-97
Multiplier, 1-123 Thermistor, 1-61
Tin, 1-30
Negative Tolerance, 1-60
charge, 1-15 Torque, 1-114
electricity, 1-4
ion, 1-28 Varistor, 1-61
temperature coefficient, 1-61 Volt, 1-33
terminal, 1-32 Voltage
Neutron, 1-10 divider, 1-79, 1-83
Nichrome, 1-30 drop, 1-79, 1-81
Nickel-cadmium cell, 1-45 Ohm's law for finding, 1-65
Nucleus, 1-10 output, 1-33
Voltmeter, 1-46, 1-72, 1-123
Ohm, 1-55
Watt, 1-67
George Simon, 1-55, 1-63
Watthour, 1-70
Ohm meter, 1-72, 1-76, 1-127
Wattmeter, 1-72, 1-131
Ohm's Law, 1-63 — 1-66
Weber, 1-103
Open circuit, 1-51
Wheatstone bridge, 1-132
Output voltage, 1-46
Wire gage, 1-58, 1-134
Wire-wound resistor, 1-59
Parallel circuits, 1-85
Pa rail el -connected, 1-49 Zinc-carbon cell, 1-40
Permanent magnet, 1-97 Zinc-chloride, 1-41
Permeability, 1-109 Zinc-mercury oxide cell, 1-42
HOW THIS COURSE WAS DEVELOPED
Most books are written because the author, who may have been, or is
a teacher, has found that he is not satisfied with existing material on
the subject at a particular level — this is true of Basic Radio. Many fine
texts have been written on radio engineering. However, books on radio

communications for the student or beginner have fallen short in that
they either fail to communicate to the reader by being too mathematical
or too technical, or they attempt to oversimplify the subject and thus
“water down” the technical material to a point where there is little
foundation left on which the student can build his future knowledge
of radio.
During his many years of teaching experience, the author found the
great communicative value in the visualized approach to teaching radio.
As an instructor, the author had first-hand knowledge of the benefits

and drawbacks of a wide variety of teaching methods. This six-volume
course on Basic Radio represents the final development of the author's

notes and illustrations in the teaching of the subject of radio. An idea
is illustrated on every page of text. Each illustration drives home a com-
plete idea, with many callouts to enable the reader to get maximum
instructive benefit from each illustration. Basic Radio represents the
finest development of instructive material for the teaching of radio in
book form. It is truly a radio course palatable to the student.
Volume - DC ELECTRICITY
1
Volume 2 -AC ELECTRICITY

Volume 3 - ELECTRON TUBE CIRCUITS
Volume 4- AM AND FM RECEIVERS
Volume 5-TRANSISTORS
Volume 6-TRANSMITTERS, AM AND FM
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC., NEW YORK

basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Raytheon Company
Author of
VOL. 2

Fourth Printing, 1968

PREFACE
cult subject.



Upon this is built an understanding of the slightly more involved
tricity.
IV PREFACE
conductors. The last volume of the course, Volume 6, covers the long-

required for the understanding of this series; it is self-contained. Embrac-
MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. II — BASIC RADIO
A-C ELECTRICITY:
Introduction to AC • The Circle:
FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS 1
Angular Rotation • The Right Triangle • Vectors • Multiple
Vectors • The Parallelogram
GENERATING AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE 8

Generating Voltage Moving Conductor
a The A-C Generator
in a • Basic
FREQUENCY 12
The Cycle: Frequency
THE SINE WAVEFORM 13

The Sine Waveform:
Voltage and Current • Instantaneous and Peak Values of A-C Voltage and
Current Average Value of a Sine Waveform Voltage or Current • The Effective or RMS Value of
•
a Sine Wave • The Meaning of Effective Value • Rate of Change
PHASE 19
The Concept of Phase (In Phase) • Concept of Phase (Lead and Lag)
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR 22
Magnetic Field around Alternating Current
SELF-INDUCED EMF 23
Self-Induction of EMF • The Action of Self-Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)
INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 25
Inductance • Unit of Inductance: The Henry • Mutual Induction • Mutual Inductance • Inductance
in Series and Parallel • Inductive Reactance • Inductive Reactance: Solving Problems
INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 33

Alternating Voltage and Current in an Inductive Circuit
R-L CIRCUIT: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 34

Alternating Voltage and Current in R-L Circuits
IMPEDANCE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS 35

Impedance (Z) • Solving Impedance Problems • Graphical Determination of Impedance (R and L
in Series)
OHM’S LAW FOR

Alternating Current in an Inductor
A-C CIRCUITS 38
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS 39

Determining Current an R-L
the Voltage
in R-L
Series Circuit • Distribution in a Series Circuit
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL R-L CIRCUITS 41

The R-L
Parallel Voltage Distribution
Circuit: The R-L Current Distribution
• Parallel Circuit:
PARALLEL R-L CIRCUIT: IMPEDANCE CALCULATION 43

Impedance R-L A-C
of the Parallel Circuit
COMPARISON BETWEEN SERIES AND PARALLEL R-L

CIRCUITS 44
TRANSFORMERS: ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 45
The Transformer Transformer Action (Unloaded Secondary) • Transformer Action (Loaded Sec-
•
ondary) • Iron-Core and Air-Core Transformers • Voltage Step-up and Step-Down in Transformers
(Turns Ratio) • Current Turns Ratio • Current Transformation (Power) • Multi-Secondary Winding
Transformers • Tapped Primary and Secondary Windings • Transformer Losses • The Autotransformer
• Transformer Applications
VI CONTENTS
TRANSFER OF POWER: MATCHING IMPEDANCES 58
Impedance Matching
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 60
Definition, Construction • Charging a Capacitor • Building up Voltage in the Capacitor:
Function,
Charging Current Demonstating the Voltage across a Charged Capacitor • The Electric Field between
•
the Capacitor Plates • Discharging a Capacitor • Charging a Capacitor from an A-C Voltage Source •
Voltage and Current Phase Shift in a Capacitor • Unit of Capacitance: the Farad • Factors Deter-
mining Capacitance Area and Plate Separation • Factors that Determine Capacitance Dielectric Con-
stant • Fixed Capacitors: Paper Type • Fixed Capacitors: Mica and Ceramic • Capacitor Color
Coding and Temperature Coefficient • Variable Capacitors • The Electrolytic Capacitor • Connecting
Capacitors in Parallel • Connecting Capacitors in Series • Capacitive Reactance (Xc) • Capacitive
Reactance: Effect of Change in Frequency • Capacitive Reactance: Effect of Change in Capaci-
tance • Using the Equation for Capacitive Reactance • Current and Voltage in a Series R-C Circuit
• Impedance of a Series R-C Circuit • Parallel R-C Circuits • Impedance of a Parallel R-C Circuit
POWER IN A-C CIRCUITS , 90

Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive Circuits • Power Factor
TIME CONSTANT IN A-C CIRCUITS 92
R-L Circuit Time Constant • R-C Circuit Time Constant (Charging) • R-C Circuit Time Constant
(Discharging) • Applying the Universal Time Constant Chart
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C CIRCUITS 97

Relationship of L and C in Series (General) • L and C in Scries (Impedance) • Impedance, and
Calculating Impedance Problems • Calculating Current Problems
POWER SUPPLIES 101

Analyzing the Distribution of Voltage
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS 102

Calculating the Impedance • L-C-R in Series (Impedance) • L-C-R in Series • L-C-R in Series
(Voltages)
SERIES RESONANT L-C-R CIRCUITS 106

Resonant Frequency • Determining the Impedance • Variations in Current • The Effect of Resistance
SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS 110

Effective Resistance and Q
Summary and Review Questions Ill
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C CIRCUITS 112

Branch Currents in the Basic Parallel L-C Circuit • Branch Currents and Circuit Impedance • Line
Current and Circuit Impedance
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUITS 115

The Basic Parallel L-C-R Circuit (General) • Branch Currents and Line Current • Line Current and
Circuit Impedance
PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUITS 119

Calculating the Resonant Frequency • Line Current and Impedance • Circulating Current • Resonance
Curve
THE PRACTICAL PARALLEL L-C CIRCUIT 124

Comparison with L-C Theoretically Ideal Parallel Circuit
THE PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUIT 125

Branch Currents • Line Current
FILTER CIRCUITS 127

Effect of L and C at Different Frequencies • Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters • Bandpass and Band-
Reject Filters
A-CMETERS 130
and Operation
Characteristics
THE OSCILLOSCOPE 132

Measuring Waveforms

NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: Table 134
GLOSSARY 135
INDEX 137
A-C ELECTRICITY— FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
Introduction to AC
In Volume 1, we covered the subject of d-c electricity. In d-c circuits, the
polarity of the voltage source remained constant, as did the difference of po-
tential, or voltage. Under these conditions, electron flow was always in one
direction, from minus to plus, and of constant quantity. In alternating cur-
rent (a-c) electricity, we have a condition where the polarity of the voltage
source is constantly changing. What was the positive terminal at one instant
becomes the negative terminal some time later; what was the negative termi-
nal at one instant becomes the positive terminal some time later. As a re-
sult of the constantly changing polarity of the voltage source, the direction of
electron flow in the circuit also keeps reversing. In addition to reversing
—
direction current in an a-c circuit will also keep varying in quantity from
,
zero to maximum in one direction and back to zero, and from zero to maxi-
mum in the opposite direction and then back to zero. Thus, the alternating
voltage will cause an alternating current.
IN A D-C CIRCUIT,
CURRENT FLOWS
CONSTANTLY IN
ONE DIRECTION.
IN AN A-C CIRCUIT,
CURRENT FLOWS FIRST .AND THEN IN THE
IN ONE DIRECTION. OPPOSITE DIRECTION.
A-c electricity is not "better" than d-c; it is another type of electricity that
has certain advantages. With a-c we can use transformers which enable us
to transform a-c voltage to as high or as low a voltage as we wish. This
permits efficient distribution of electrical power. In addition, there are
many kinds of electrical components and devices that can do certain "jobs"
in a-c circuits that cannot be done in a d-c circuit. An important point to
remember is that a-c does not replace d-c.
A-c makes possible radio communication. However, most of the circuits in

a-c communications equipment are controlled by d-c voltages. Because a-c
involves constantly changing voltages and currents, we must give a little
more thought to them. Thus, we begin our study of a-c with some fundamen-
tal mathematics which will help us in this study.
2-2 A-C ELECTRICITY— FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
The Circle — Angular Rotation

The circle is a simple figure, and yet it represents an important considera-
tion in our study of a-c electricity. Let us review it briefly. The constantly
curving line that forms the circle is called the circumference. If we draw a
straight line from the center of a circle to any point on the circumference,
that line is called a radius. Any line drawn through the center of the circle
and dividing the circle in half is called the diameter. Looking further into
the circle, we find that the circle is divided into degrees; let us see how they
are formed.
A Circle Contains 360°

r>
OF JOB CIRCLE
^diameter
(
\.
'V*
y
_L
360
represents
of a circle.
An Angle is'/'e^X formed by drawing /«\\b two radii in ^ \

a citcle -
Radii OB and OA must Moving OB closer to OA Moving OB farther from

meet at O and form makes angle OA makes angles (BOA)
angles S (BOA) smaller. larger.
A B —p c ,A8 0o D E
rnv
o 7a
90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
iline R rotates a complete revolution, or 360°.^^^^^^

§$i
From the center of the circle, we draw a radius to the circumference and
call that lineOA. We will keep this line in this position and use it as a refer-
ence line. We now draw a second radius, OB. The position of OB to OA
forms an angle. We refer to this angle as angle BOA, with point O being the
vertex or origin of lines OA and OB. If we move line OB closer to OA, the
angle thus formed becomes smaller; if OB is moved farther away from OA,
the angle becomes larger. If line OB is rotated farther and farther away
from our reference line OA, it will spin past the entire circumference and
end up overlapping line OA. The entire rotation of a radius from one point on
the circumference, all around the circumference, and back to the starting
point, covers 360°. Thus, if line R started at position OA and rotated until
it pointed straight up on the page, it would have rotated 90°, and we would say
that it formed a 90° angle with line OA. If we keep rotating the radius 90°
more, line R would now form a diameter together with OA, and we call this a
straight angle, or 180°. As line R now moves downward to the bottom of the
page, it has gone through 90° more, or a total of 270°. Finally, we rotate it
90° more until it reaches its starting point. In one complete rotation, line
OB has moved through 360°. The angle formed by the rotating line R with
respect to line OA is given the name "theta," after the Greek letter ( 6 ).
A-C ELECTRICITY— FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS 2-3
The Right Triangle
The right triangle is a special triangle in that one of its three angles is a
right (90°) angle. The number of degrees included in the three angles of any
triangle is 180. Thus, since one of the angles of a right triangle is equal to
90°, the sum of the remaining two angles must be 90°. In studying the right
triangle, we assign a particular group of names to the various sides and an-
gles. The side that lies horizontal to the page is called the base (b), the ver-
tical side is called the altitude (a), and the side opposite the right angle is
called the hypotenuse The length of these sides has a particular relation-
.
—
ship the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides (c^ = a^ + b2). Also, the length
of the hypotenuse is greater than the length of either of the other sides but is
less than their sum.
Hypotenuse Angle A + Angle B +

(side opposite right angle)
Angle C equals 180°
Angle formed by
hypotenuse and
ba se often referred right angle (90°)
to as THETA
Side c
2 = Side a? + Side b
2
or c2 = a2 + b2
RIGHT TRIANGLE RELATIONSHIPS

side opposite a
Sine of 0 = c 2= a 2 + b2
hypotenuse c Sine 0= ^
52 = 42 + 32
side adjacent Cosine 0 =
Cosine of 0 =
b y 25 = 16 + 9
hypotenuse <
Tangent0=d
25 = 25
side opposite a b = 3
0 =—
_ , „ —
1unuvm
Tangent of
01 C7 - , **•*&,»*#*<
side adiacent b
The angle formed by the base and hypotenuse is often referred to as the angle
theta ( 6 ). With regard to this angle, we
will often refer to the side opposite
angle 9 , the side adjacent to angle 9 , and the hypotenuse. These relation-
ships are referred to as the sine, cosine, and tangent of angle 9 . The sine
of this angle is equal to the side opposite divided by the hypotenuse; the tan-
gent of 9 is equal to the side opposite divided by the side adjacent. In rotating
from 0° to 90°, the sine of 9 will vary from a value of 0 to 1; the cosine of 9
will vary from 1 down to 0; and the tangent of 9 will vary from 0 to infinity.
2-4 A-C E LE CTRICITY - - FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
Vectors
Some things or situations can be expressed by a single number, (e.g. the ,
population of a town, the number of feet in a mile, or the number of chairs

in a room). Anything which can be described fully by a single number is
called a scalar quantity. There are, however, many situations or actions
that cannot be described in this manner. For example, the movement of a
jet plane. To say that it is flying at 600 miles an hour is not sufficient --the
direction in which it is going also must be stated. If we desire to identify the
force being applied to an object, it is not sufficient to say it has a force of
100 pounds. Is the force being applied upward or downward, to the right or
to the left? Both magnitude (amount) and direction must be stated. Any situa-
tion or action that requires mention of both magnitude and direction to de-
scribe it is called a vector quantity. Alternating voltage and current and re-
lated phenomena are vector quantities.
A vector is a straight, or directed line with an arrowhead at one end. This

is the head end; the other end is the origin or the tail of the vector. The length
of the vector identified in any suitable units indicates the magnitude of the
quantity, whereas the direction in which the arrowhead points is the direction
of the quantity. Letters assigned to the head and to the tail of the vector rea-
dily identify the vectors, such as OA, OB, AB, CD, etc.
- >
A-C ELECTRICITY— FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS 2-5
Multiple Vectors
Assume two like teams of men pulling on an object as in (A). One team ex-
erts a pull of 1000 pounds in one direction while the other team is exerting a
similar pull of 1000 pounds in the opposite direction. The situation can be il-
lustrated by two vectors OA and OB of equal length (equal magnitude of force)
directed in opposite directions. One pull cancels the other, hence, the net
force acting on the object is zero.
(A) Two Veetots Acting in Opposite Oitections
Vector shows Vector shows Equal vectors Equal vectors

pull pul
1000 POUND PULL
A O B A O B
<- <r >

'
calibrated in
without -
arbitrary divisions
in this
in this to show 1000-lb calibration
direction.
direction. pull * n each direction. markings.
IB)
The pull toward the left
Unequal vectors
A O B
exceeds the
i — —— i i
i
• i
>
Resultant
direction of
OR is
OA and
in
calibrated in arbitrary
pull toward the right. isequal to OA
divisions. Vector OA minus OB lbs.
is longer than vector OB.
(C)
The pull toward the right Unequal vectors
A O OR is in
exceeds the pull
toward the
f t t — =
Resultant
direction of OB and is
left. equal to OB minus OA lbs
(D)
4 units 4 units 8 units Vector: Acting in the Seme
Direction Combine to Produce
< ii i
( i i I-
o Force Equal to Their Sum
B O ;A Resultant Force
If vector OB is shorter than vector OA as In (B), it means that the amount of

force applied in one direction (vector OA) exceeds the amount of force applied
in the other direction (vector OB). The net force is established by subtract-
ing vector OB from OA. The resultant force (OR) acting on the object is in
the direction of the greater force vector OA. —
The same method is used to
establish the resultant when the greater force is in the direction of OB as in
(C). The resultant is vector OR in the direction of vector OB. The vector
subtraction obviously is simple arithmetical subtraction.
Vectors representing forces acting in the same direction can be added to

each other, as shown in (D). They are joined head to tail, as shown by the
tail of OB being joined to the head of OA. The resultant is indicated by the
sum of the lengths of OA and OB interpreted in whatever units express the
magnitudes of OA and OB. Again, the vector addition is simple arithmetical
addition.
.
2-6 A-C ELECTRICITY— FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
The Parallelogram
Forces do not always counteract or aid each other completely. Sometimes,

they act on the same object in directions which are at right angles to each
other. This condition can be shown graphically by two vectors, OA and OB,
having a common origin and forming a right angle. Four positions of the
vectors are shown in (A) on page 2-7. Each of the vectors in the presenta-
tion is referred to as a component vector. Also, one of them is selected as
the reference vector, usually the one which is positioned horizontally. Vec-
tor OB typifies this.
Two forces acting at right angles to each other produce a resultant force
which also has magnitude and direction. It is established in a particular way
known as the parallelogram method. The parallelogram is formed by using
the vectors OA and OB as adjacent sides and adding two new sides, BC and
AC, shown by the dotted lines in the figures shown in (B). Side BC is paral-
lel and equal to side OA, and side AC is parallel and equal to side OB. The
diagonal drawn between the origin (point O) of the component vectors and the
opposite comer of the parallelogram is the resultant. If the resultant is cal-
ibrated in the same units that are used for the two component vectors OA and
OB, the magnitude of the resultant can be interpreted directly from the
length of the resultant OC
As can be seen,the resultant has a direction of action which differs from
that of the twocomponent vectors OA and OB. The original right angle (90°)
relationship between OA and the reference vector OB is modified, and the
resultant now has an angular relationship COB relative to the direction of
vector OB.
The magnitude of the resultant is a function of the relative magnitudes of the

two components. When the two components have equal magnitudes (equal
length), the resultant is the smallest possible, but even then it is greater
than either of the components but not equal to their sum. When one compon-
ent vector exceeds the other, the resultant is always greater than the larger
of the two components. Examples are given in (C) on page 2-7.
As to the direction of the resultant OC, too is a function of the relative

it
magnitudes of the two component vectors. When
the component vectors are
of equal length, the direction of the resultant is mid-way between the direc-
tions of the individual components. These are 90° apart; the resultant is
always at 45° see the first example in (C) . When the vertically directed
component (in these examples it is OA) is greater in magnitude than the hori-
zontally-directed component OB as shown in (C), examples 2 and 4 the re-
,
sultant has a direction which is closer to the vertically directed component,

and the angle COB exceeds 45°. When the situation is reversed and the hori-
zontally directed component vector OB is the larger of the two components
(C), example 3 the resultant is directed more in the direction of the larger
component. As can be seen, the angle COB is then less than 45°. As long
as the two component vectors are present, the angle COB will never be 0°,
nor will it ever be 90° —
its angle will always have some value in between
these limits.
Vectors in directions forming a ?o° angle
THE RESULTANT ALWAYS IS LARGER THAN

THE LARGER OF TWO UNEQUAL COMPONENTS
(1 ) ( 2) (3) (4)
OA OB,
= OA>OB, OA<OB, OA>OB /
0=45° 0=more 0=less 0=more

than 45° than 45° than 45°
2-8 GENERATING AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
Generating a Voltage in a Moving Conductor
There are several ways of generating an a-c voltage. The basic method is to
induce an emf in a conductor by moving it across the lines of force of a sta-
tionary magnetic field, as we discussed in Volume 1. We will now consider
this a little more closely. When a conductor is moved, the free electrons it
contains move with it regardless of which direction the conductor moves.
Every moving electron is encircled by magnetic loops of force, and these
loops always position themselves at right angles, or perpendicular to the
direction of the moving negative charge. When a conductor moves down-
ward, the electrons it contains move downward with it. Thus, the magnetic
loops encircling the electrons are perpendicular to the downward motion, or
in a horizontal plane. Applying the left-hand rule to the motion of the elec-
trons, the magnetic loops will rotate counterclockwise around the electrons
(viewing the electrons from the top down). When a conductor moves upward,
the reverse occurs.
GENERATING A VOLTAGE BY PASSING

A CONDUCTOR THROUGH A MAGNETIC FIELD
moving -motion of conductor moves deficiency of
electrons vconductor downward through negative
encircled by magnetic field charges
magnetic
loops
surplus of
negative
charges and a difference of
conductor potential generated between
is
the ends of the conductor

conductor moves direction of
strengthened region
downward into page stationary magnetic field
Interaction of magnetic
t©; -
fields produces directed
electron motion.
free electrons
weakened region urged in this direction
When a conductor cuts through a stationary magnetic field, there is inter-

action between this field and the magnetic loops encircling the moving elec-
trons. This interaction produces a resultant magnetic field around the free
electrons, which in turn produces a strengthened and a weakened region on
opposite sides of the electrons. The strengthened region results from the
two magnetic fields aiding each other; the weakened region from the two
magnetic fields opposing each other. The free electrons present are thus
"urged" from the strengthened region in the direction of the weakened re-
gion, creating an accumulation of free electrons at one end and a corre-
sponding shortage at the other. The area of electron accumulation is called
the negative end of the conductor; the area of electron shortage is called the
positive end. Thus, a potential difference is produced between the ends of
the moving conductor, and the conductor becomes a voltage source.
)
GENERATING AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE 2-9
Generating a Voltage in a Moving Conductor (Contd.
The polarity of the electromotive force induced in a conductor cutting

through magnetic lines of force is a function of the relative directions of the
lines of force of the stationary magnetic field and the direction of motion of
the conductor. The direction of the stationary field is fixed - from the
north pole to the south pole. Therefore, the direction of motion of the mov-
ing conductor is the controlling factor in determining polarity.
Maximum Voltage is Induced in a Conductor When

It Cuts a Maximum Number of Lines of Force Per Unit Time.
It varies with the cutting
speed and the strength
of the magnetic field.
C-C’
Maximum number of Fewer flux lines cut; Minimum flux lines
flux lines cut; maximum less induced voltage, cut; minimum or
voltage induced. zero voltage induced.
THE DIRECTION OF CUTTING.
The amount of voltage that is induced or generated depends on the velocity

atwhich the lines of force of the stationary field are cut by the conductor,
and the strength or flux density of the magnetic field. Assuming the con-
ductor velocity remains constant, the rate at which the stationary flux lines
are cut then will depend on the angle at which the conductor cuts through the
flux lines. Minimum or zero voltage is induced when the conductor moves
parallel to the lines of force. Maximum voltage is induced when the conduc-
tor cuts the lines of force at right angles, or 90°. This is the greatest pos-
sible cutting angle, and the angle at which maximum flux lines are cut per
unit time. Between these two points, an intermediate amount of voltage is
induced.
2-10 GENERATING AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
The Basic A-C Generator
The basic generator of alternating voltage is a pivoted-loop armature having

two coil sides, A-B and C-D, which rotate between the two pole pieces of a
horseshoe magnet with uniform velocity and through a uniform stationary
magnetic field. The rotating motion causes the coil sides to cut the flux
lines of the stationary field. Because the voltage generated in the two sides
of the rotating loop is equal (though opposite in polarity), we can examine the
process of voltage generation by considering one coil side only. For this
purpose, we select the side C-D and use its slip-ring as the voltage refer-
ence.
A-C GENERATOR3
AS ARMATURE COIL ROTATES

BETWEEN MAGNETIC POLES,
A-C VOLTAGE IS GENERATED
BETWEEN SLIP RINGS. BRUSHES

MAINTAIN CONTACT ON RINGS
AND CARRY CURRENT TO
AND FROM LOAD.
slip rings
Assume that the action begins with side C-D momentarily positioned at A.
At this moment, the coil side is moving parallel to the flux lines of the sta-
tionary field. Thus, the angle of cutting of the flux lines is zero (or the rate
of cutting of the flux lines is zero); hence, the voltage induced in the coil side
is zero. As rotation continues, the coil side moves upward and passes
through progressively increasing angles of rotation, as shown by points B,
C, D, E, F, and G, which correspond to 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°.
In doing so, the angle of cutting of the flux lines by the rotating coil side in-
creases from 0° at A to a maximum of 90° at G; therefore, the rate of cutting
of flux lines increases and the output voltage increases. Maximum output
voltage is developed at G, or when the angle of cutting is 90°, thus complet-
ing one -quarter turn. A plot of the output voltage in steps of 15° of angular
time between 0° (A) and 90° (G) is shown.
As the coil side continues rotating, it inscribes increasing angles of rota-
tion; 105° (H), 120° (I), 135° (J), 150° (K), 165° (L), and 180° (M), but the
angle and the rate of cutting of the flux lines decreases progressively from
G to M. And so does the voltage output, reaching zero at M. Here, the coil
side again is moving parallel to the flux lines. Note that the amount of de-
crease in voltage for each 15° change in angular rotation between 90° and
180° (G to M) is exactly the same as the amount of increase in voltage be-
tween 0° and 90° (A to G). Note also that the output voltage remains positive
while the coil side is completing the half turn from 0° to 180° of angular
time, the reason being that the motion of the coil side through the flux lines
(past the Npole) continues throughout, except at the angles of 0°( A) and 180° (M).
GENERATING AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE 2-11
The Basic A-C Generator (Cont'd)
As the coil side moves past the 180° point, the angle of rotation continues to
increase, as does the angle at which the conductor cuts the field. The con-
ductor now is moving downward past the S pole. The direction of electron flow
in the conductor is the opposite of before and the induced voltage is negative.
END VIEW OF VOLTAGE GENERATED BY

ARMATURE COIL CONDUCTOR ROTATED ONE
SIDE CD AS IT FULL CYCLE IN FIXED
ROTATES IN FIXED MAGNETIC FIELD
MAGNETIC FIELD
Minimum voltage
generated at 0° and 180°
Now we show the voltage below the zero voltage reference line. The output
voltage has been reversed because of the change in the relative direction of
the moving conductor and the stationary flux lines. The change in output vol-
tage of negative polarity for angular steps of 15° between 180° (M) and 270°
(S) is exactly t he same as the voltage between 0° (A) and 90° (G) of positive
polarity. That is, the 90° (G)and 270° (S) points are maximum voltage points
of opposite polarity. Further movement of the coil side from the 270° (S)
position to the 360° (Y) position results in a fall in voltage from maximum
negative to zero. The angular rotation increases but the rate of cutting of the
flux lines decreases from the maximum at the 270° (S) point to 0 at the mom-
ent of 360° (Y) of rotation. The coil has completed one full turn. It corres-
ponds to 360° of rotation and is the equivalent of 1 cycle of the output voltage.
2-12 FREQUENCY
The Cycle — Frequency

When the armature in the basic a-c generator completes one full turn (360°)
of rotation, it has generated one cycle of voltage. The voltage has gone from
a starting value of zero, risen to a maximum positive value, fallen back to
zero, risen to a maximum negative value, and fallen back to zero. A cycle
refers to a complete chain or sequence of events. A cycle of voltage applied
to a resistance load will cause a similar cycle of current to flow in a circuit.
The cycle of current will go through the same fluctuation as the cycle of volt-
age. When all the voltage or current values are joined together, they form a
"picture" or pattern called a waveform.
The number of complete cycles that occur in one second is called the fre-
quency of the waveform. When a voltage or current waveform passes through
60 cps, it is called a 60-cycle frequency. Each half-cycle is called an alter-
nation each complete cycle thus contains two alternations --a positive and a
;
negative. Since a 60-cycle frequency represents 60 complete cycles per sec-

ond, the time duration of each cycle is 1/60 of a second. In high frequencies
such as 1 megacycle (1, 000, 000 cycles per second), the time duration of each
cycle is 1/1,000,000 of a second. The faster our basic generator rotates,
the more cycles per second will be generated, and the higher will be the out-
put frequency. The strength of the magnetic field will determine the strength
or amplitude of the output waveform, but not its frequency.
THE SINE WAVEFORM 2-13
The Sine Waveform — Voltage and Current
The sine or sinusoidal waveform is a pattern of instantaneous changes in the

value of an alternating voltage or current. The word "sine" is taken from
the sine table (see Appendix) used in mathematics because the amplitude of
the sine wave varies from zero to maximum in the same manner as the val-
ues in the sine table. When we refer to a waveform as a sine wave, it indi-
cates that we are considering only a single frequency. When various sine
waves of different frequencies are combined, they form a complex waveform
which is not a sine wave.
The Sine Waveform

+ VOLTAGE
An important characteristic of the sine waveform is that the positive and

negative half-cycle are mirror images of each other. The rate of rise and
fall of both alternations is identical. At 0°, we see that the value of the sine
wave (voltage or current) is zero. At 30° along the zero time axis, the sine
waveform value has climbed to 0. 5, or half its maximum value. At 45°, the
sine wave is at 0. 707 of its maximum value, and at 60° a value of 0. 87 of
maximum is reached. Finally, at 90° or one quarter of the entire cycle, the
maximum value of the sine wave is reached. In going from 90° to the half-
way point at 180°, the sine wave decreases in value in a manner opposite
from the way it increased going from 0° to 90°. The second half-cycle, from
180° to 360°, has identical rise and fall values to those of the first half-cycle
except that they are in the opposite direction. Actually, a sine wave consists
of many more values than are shown. There are an infinite number of val-
ues, and the sine wave is a picture of all their instantaneous values joined
together in time.
2-14 THE SINE WAVEFORM
Instantaneous and Peak Values of A-C Voltage and Current
The continually changing values of alternating voltage and current necessitate

the use of special terminology to express the amount of the voltage and the
current. The instantaneous value of an a-c voltage or current is that value
which exists at any specific instant of time. It can have any amplitude be-
tween 0 and maximum and can be of a positive or a negative polarity. When
,
an instantaneous value is indicated, small letter "e" is used to express vol-

tage and small letter ”i”to express current. For example, the instantaneous
value of a sine waveform voltage at 45° is stated as e = 28. 3 volts. Sim-
ilarly, the instantaneous value of a sine waveform current at 345° might be
stated as i = 0.259 ampere. Reference to an instantaneous value must be
accompanied by identification of its time in the cycle because the value of a
,
sine wave changes constantly. An a-c voltage at 33° is different from an a-c
voltage at 34°, and is still different at 34. 5°.
3
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The peak value of an alternating voltage or current is the highest value

reached by the quantity during a cycle. Maximum and peak value have the
same meaning. A peak amplitude of 10 volts means the same as a maximum
amplitude of 10 volts. This holds true for any type of waveform. Of course,
the polarity may also be referred to, such as peak -positive or peak-negative
value. In the sine waveform, the positive-and negative-peak values are
always alike; this is not so for voltage or current waveforms which are not
of sine waveformvariation. The peak -to -peak value (sometime abbreviated
p-p), issimply the sum of the positive-peak and negative-peak values, re-
gardless of the waveform. A voltage that has a 10-volt peak -positive value
and a 10-volt peak-negative value has a 20 volt (10 + 10)peak-to-peak value.
Average Value of a Sine Waveform Voltage or Current
Ifwe add all the instantaneous values of the positive half-cycle and the fol-
lowing negative half-cycle of a sine waveform, and then find the average of
these values, we find it to be zero. The reason for this is that the two adja-
cent half-cycle are of opposite polarity (one being plus and the other minus)
and, when we add a plus quantity to a minus quantity of equal value, the
re-
sult is zero. So a general statement can be made the average value of —
a
cycle of a sine waveform is zero.
A different situation prevails if we think in terms of a half-cycle, either pos-

itive or negative. Imagine that the peak value of a sine waveform voltage or
current is 1 volt or 1 ampere. If we add up the instantaneous values of volt-
Since
age or current prevailing at each 5° of the cycle, the total is 22.90.
the half-cycle waveform is made up of 36 instantaneous values, then
22.9/36 gives us an answer of 0.636 volt or ampere. Therefore, 0.636 is
the average value of a half-cycle of a sine waveform voltage or current
when
the peak value is 1 volt or 1 ampere. We say then, that the average value of
a sine wave is 0. 636 of its maximum value.
Eav = 0. 636 x E max, or I av = 0- 636 x I max
Knowing the average value of a sine wave, we can calculate the peak or max-
imum value. It is the average value multiplied by 1. 57 or
= 1- 57 x E av or Ijnax = 1. 57 X I av
^max ,
For instance, if the average value of a sine waveform voltage is 140 volts,
the maximum (or peak) value is E max = 1. 57 x 140 = 219. 8 volts.
The Effective or RMS Value of a Sine Wave
You have learned that when direct current flows through a resistance, the
amount of heat developed is proportional to l2, or the square of the current.
When alternating current flows through a resistor, the heat developed is pro-
portional to the square of the instantaneous values of current. We can see
why this is so. Alternating current changes constantly in value--it changes
every instant. First, it rises from zero to a maximum value and then, it
falls back to zero. Following this, it rises to a maximum in the opposite di-
rection in a circuit and then, it again falls back to zero. Because of this con-
stant variation, we must find a value that will be equivalent to some value in
direct current. This equivalent value is called the effective value, because
the effective value of an a-c sine wave tells us that that value of alternating
current will do as much work as the same value of direct current. Unless
we have an effective value, it would be difficult to discuss a-c voltages and
currents in comparison to d-c voltages and currents.
ROOT MEAN SQUARE EFFECTIVE VALUE OF ( )
SINE WAVE EQUALS 0.707 OF MAXIMUM VALUE
SINE
WAVE
VALUE INSTANTANEOUS INSTANTANEOUS 0.707
AT VALUE VALUE SQUARED
0° = 0.00 0.0000
10° ~
0.17 0.0289
20° = 0.34 0. 1156
30° s 0.50 0.2500
40° = 0.64 0.4096
50° 0.77 0.5929
60° = 0.87 0.7569
70° 0.94 0.8836
80° = 0.98 0.9604
90° = 1.00 1.0000
4.9979
-
10| 4.9979 = 0.49979 (meon square)
y/ 0.49979 = 0.7069 — (roof mean square)

or 0.707
The effective value of a sine wave is obtained as follows: First, we take a

large number of instantaneous values of a sine wave and square each one.
Then, we add up all the squared instantaneous values and divide this total by
the number of values used. This gives us the average or mean square. Fi-
nally, we take the square root of the mean square, which gives us the root
mean square, or rms value. This rms value is very important, because the
rms value of an a-c sine wave indicates that a specific voltage or current
will do as much work as the same value of d-c.
The Meaning of Effective Value
COMPARISON
£.v^6F v; r >:
A-C VALUES
AVERAGE = Max. x 0 636 EFFECTIVE=Max. X 0.707 MAXIMUM= Effective x 1.414

Effective x 0.9 Average X 1. II Average x 1.57
When we plug a soldering iron into a 120-volt a-c source, it will reach a cer-
tain temperature, depending upon its wattage rating. If we plug this same
soldering iron into a 120-volt d-c source, it will arrive at the same temper-
ature. This is because the 120 volts a-c is the effective value of the a-c
waveform. Its peak value is much higher than 120 volts, and for much of
each alternation its instantaneous values are less than 120 volts. Actually,
the effective value of a sine wave is 0. 707 of its maximum value. An alter-
nating voltage with a peak or maximum value of 1 volt will have an effective
value of 1 x 707 volt, and
. it will produce the same heat in a given re-
sistor as . 707 volt d-c.
There are two simple formulas that can be used: One, to find the effective
value of a sine wave knowing its maximum value; the other, to find the peak
value knowing the effective value.
Effective Value = Maximum Value x 0. 707

Maximum Value = Effective Value x 1.414
At the ordinary 120-volt 60-cycle house outlet, the peak value is:
E max = 120 x 1-414 = 169. 68 volts.
If an a-c current has a peak value of 5 amperes, the rms value would be:
I
e ff = 5 x . 707 = 3.535 amperes
As another example, if the effective value of a current is 180 milliamperes,

and the effective value of a voltage is 690 millivolts, their peak values are:
I m ax = 180 x 1. 414 = 254. 5 milliamperes

or . 18 x 1. 414 = 2545 amperes
.
E m ax = 690 x 1. 414 = 975. 7 millivolts

or 69 x
. 1. 414 = 9757 volts
.
Whenever an a-c voltage or current is stated, it always is taken to mean the

effective or rms value, unless otherwise indicated. The usual a-c voltmeters
and ammeters are calibrated to read rms values.
Rate of Change
A SINE WAVE DOES NOT HAVE UNIFORM RATE OF CHANGE. |
0.U£ 1 rate of change = 0

0.86
~A '
i
\ rate of change maximum
0.50 0 50
t A ZJ !
\f Na-360° .
30° 60° 90° 180V /

rate of
/ i
change
maximum
3
°°' 1
3®°
1
>
vV y^^ ,
rate of
*
change = 0
IN FIRST 30°, sine wave rises 50%, or to half of maximum value — RISE OF 0.50.
IN LAST 30°, sine wave goes from 0.86 to 1, or maximum value — RISE OF 0.14.
Related to the behavior of alternating current and voltage is a mathematical

term known as rate of change. It refers to the relative change in value of an
a-c voltage or current in a unit period of time. For example, if a current
(or voltage) changes a great deal in value in a given small interval of time,
its rate of change is high if its value changes only a little in the same period
;
of time, its rate of change is low. If an alternating current (or voltage)

waveform is plotted on a graph, the slope or steepness of the waveform as it
increases or decreases at any point on the graph, relative to the horizontal
axis or time scale, is an indication of the relative rate of change. From
this, it is evident that the higher the frequency of a voltage or current, the
faster the rate of change.
RATE OF CHANGE IS GREATER

i
AT HIGH FREQUENCIES
y=5
i
'
'
THAN AT LOW FREQUENCIES.

1
y i- 3 /
I i
time
I
]**(
'=1 120-cycle frequency
60-cycle frequency
RATE OF CHANGE -j- greater tha
The rate of change of a sine waveform quantity is maximum at the instant

that the current (or voltage) is passing through zero in both the positive and
negative -polarity directions. It is minimum (zero) at the moment when the
waveform is passing through its maximum amplitude. At this instant, the
quantity is neither decreasing nor increasing. Thus, the maximum rate of
change occurs at 0°, 180°, and 360°; the minimum rate of change occurs at
90° and 270°.
PHASE 2-19
The Concept of Phase (In Phase)
" "phase differ-

"Phase, " sometimes referred to as "phase displacement,
ence", or "phase relation, " is a concept of a time relationship between two
—
alternating quantities voltage, currents, or a current and a voltage. By
time relationship in a-c, we mean the extent to which the two quantities re-
main in step or go out of step as their amplitudes change in value. In a d-c
circuit, a change in current keeps in step (phase) with a change in voltage;
this is not necessarily the case in a-c circuits. Circuit components other
than resistance cause changes in phase. When the voltage and current
changes keep in step with each other, they are said to be in phase. This al-
ways takes place in a resistive circuit, since voltage and current in a resist-
ance are in phase.
Imagine two identical generators that start functioning at the same instant,
with their armatures revolving at the same speed. Each will generate a sine
waveform voltage in which zero and maximum amplitudes occur together, and
where their relative intermediate values will occur at the same time. We
describe such behavior of two generators as being in step, or in phase and,
producing two voltages which are in phase Another way of stating this is to
.
say that the two voltages have 0° phase difference, or that the phase angle
of voltage A relative to voltage B (or vice versa) is 0°. When considering
the phase relation between two quantities, a suitable point of reference is the
instant when the two quantities pass through zero amplitude in the same di-
reetion. When shown as vectors, the in-phase quantities have a common
origin and lie along the same plane, each vector head having its own identity.
2-20 PHASE
Concept of Phase (Lead and Lag)
Out of phase is a broad expression which indicates that the identical ampli-
tude variations of the waveforms do not occur at the same time. Like two
runners (A and B) who are racing, A can arrive at a selected point ahead of
B, or lead B, which automatically places B behind A, or lagging A. In elec-
trical considerations, the point of reference is the instant when the two wave-
forms being compared pass through zero amplitude in the same direction .
Whichever quantity passes through this point first is leading the other.
Out-of-phase conditions are expressed in electrical degrees, because this

manner of expression is much more convenient than referring to a fractional
part of a cycle. It is preferable to say a 90° phase difference than 1/4 cycle;
using the term 45° phase difference is preferable to 1/8 cycle.
If you examine (1) below, you will note that voltage A passes through zero
going in the positive direction one -quarter of a cycle, or 90° before voltage
B. In (2), the two voltages (A and B) have a phase difference of only 45°
with A leading B, which is the same as B lagging A by this amount. In (3),
current I is leading voltage E by one -quarter of a cycle, or 90°, or E is lag-
ging I by 90°. In (4), voltages A and B are 180° out of phase. They pass
through maximum and zero points at the same time but in opposite directions.
Vectorial DO HOT VARY IDENTICALLY

Presentation OUT-OF-PHASE WAVEFORMS WITH RESPECT TO TIME
A LEADS B BY 90° or B LAGS A BY 90 c
time
A and 6 are 90
out of phase.
SUMMARY 2-21
Any drawn through the center of a circle which divides the circle in half
line
called the diameter.
is
The constantly curving line that forms a circle is called the circumference.
The three sides of a right triangle are: the base (horizontal side); the altitude
(vertical side); and the hypotenuse (side opposite the right angle).
In a right triangle, the angle formed by the base and the hypotenuse is re-
ferred to as the angle theta (0).
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides (C^ = A2 + B^).
A vector relationship is used to describe any situation or action that involves
both magnitude and direction.
The basic method of inducing an emf in a conductor is to move it across
the lines of force of a stationary magnetic field.
Maximum voltage is induced in a conductor when the conductor cuts the mag-
netic lines of force at right angles, or 90°.
The basic a-c generator is a pivoted-loop armature having two coil sides
which rotate between magnetic poles with uniform velocity and through
a uniform stationary magnetic field.
A cycle one complete series of changes in an a-c current or voltage.
is
Frequency is the number of cycles which occur in one second.
The sine waveform is a pattern of instantaneous changes in the value of an
alternating voltage or current.
The instantaneous value of an a-c voltage or current is that value which ex-
ists at any specific instant of time. The peak (maximum) value is the
highest value reached by a quantity during a cycle.
The average value of a sine wave equals 636 of its maximum value.
.
The root mean square (RMS) or effective value of a sine wave equals 707 of
.
its maximum value.

The higher the frequency of a voltage or current, the faster the rate of change.
—
Phase refers to a time relationship between two alternating quantities volt-
ages, currents, or voltages and currents.
Out of phase broadly indicates that the identical amplitude variations of two
waveforms do not occur at the same time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are
the three sides of a right triangle?
Explain the parallelogram method and its application to vector analysis.
2.
3. In a right triangle, what is the angle formed by the base and the hypo-
tenuse referred to as?
4. What is the relationship of the three sides of a right triangle to each other?
5. What is a vector relationship used to describe?
6. Give three factors which determine the magnitude of an induced emf.
7. What is the basic method used to induce an emf in a conductor?
8. Explain the principle of operation of the basic a-c generator.
9. What is a sine waveform?
10. Define a cycle. Define frequency .
11. What is meant by the rms or effective value of a sine wave and what is it
equal to? What is the average value of a sine wave equal to?
12. Explain what is meant by rate of change.
2-22 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR
Magnetic Field around Alternating Current
Alternating current is encircled by loops of magnetic force that change in

number instant by instant and periodically change direction.
Magnetic field around a Current-Carrying Conductor
Assume a sine waveform current. (Whatever happens during one cycle occurs
during the others. ) When the current is zero, there is no magnetic field
around the conductor. As current begins to increase, the magnetic field
builds up in density, reaching maximum value coincident with the maximum
current point in the positive half-cycle. The direction of the field is deter-
mined by the left-hand rule. We show the field counterclockwise during the
;
positive alternation, as the current starts to decrease in value but is still

in the same direction, the intensity of the magnetic field also decreases. To
all intents and purposes, the lines of force of the previously higher value of
current in the vicinity of the conductor fall back into the conductor, i. e. the
,
field collapses, reaching zero intensity when the current reaches zero. At
this instant, the direction of flow reverses. As the current begins to flow in
the opposite direction, increasing in value moment by moment, the magnetic
field starts increasing in intensity- -but now it has a direction that is the oppo-
site of what existed before. We show it as having a clockwise direction.
Maximum field strength is again reached at the peak point of the negative
half-cycle; then, the magnetic field begins to decrease, again collapsing into
the conductor, reaching zero at the instant the cycle has been completed. An
alternating current produces a constantly changing magnetic field around the
conductor in which it is flowing.
SELF-INDUCED EMF 2-23
Self-Induction of EMF
You have learned that relative motion between a magnetic field and a conduc-
tor will induce an emf in a conductor. In the examples shown so far, the
moving or changing magnetic field was produced by one component (a magnet),
and the conductor in which the emf was induced represented another component.
Ay )
*<
•<
_ y-—",
VARYING MAGNETIC
FIELD CUTSTHROUGH
CONDUCTOR AND
SELF-INDUCED EMF
is produced by
+
c
PRODUCES SELF-
INDUCED EMF
A VARYING
CURRENT IN
A CONDUCTOR
MAGNETIC FIELD EXPANDS
OUTWARD FROM ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTOR
s\ N
/\
—
\y
T
magnetic
field
collapses)
/
-V
\
— r
magnetic
field
expands
i
— \y
\—r
magnetic
field
collapses
Self-induction of emf involves a changing current, a changing magnetic field,

and a conductor; but now, the path of the current, the place of origin of the
magnetic field, and the conductor in which it induces a voltage are one and
the same. This is why we call the emf that is produced a self-induced emf.
To visualize the action, think of it this way. An increasing current creates
an increasingly intense magnetic field. The magnetic field originates at the
free electrons inside the wire. As the field increases and expands from in-
side the wire to outside the wire, it must first move through the wire It is .
during the time that the expanding magnetic field is cutting the wire that the
emf of self-induction is generated.
Now imagine the current to be decreasing. The surrounding field collapses

into the wire, i. e. returns to its place of origin, the free electrons. While
,
moving back through the conductor to the electrons, the shrinking loops of
flux cut the conductor and induce an emf--a self-induced emf. In one case,
the emf of self-induction is generated by lines of force that move outward;
in the other case, the emf of self-induction is generated bylines of force that
move inward. If one direction of cutting due to a rising current generates ia
voltage of one polarity, the opposite direction of cutting due to a falling cur-
rent generates an emf of opposite polarity.
"
2-24 SELF-INDUCED EMF
The Action of Self -Induced EMF (Lenz's Law)
Assume an a-c circuit in which the current is increasing. The self-induced

emf produced would have a polarity opposite to the applied voltage and, there-
fore, acts in opposition to this voltage and tends to retard the build-up of the
circuit current. When the circuit current decreases, the self-induced emf
has a polarity which aids the applied voltage and so tends to maintain the cur-
rent; that is, prevent it from falling together with the decrease in voltage.
Because the action of the self-induced emf is opposite to that of the applied
voltage, it is often referred to as counter -emf or back-emf .
APPLIED A-C VOLTAGE PRODUCES

ALTERNATING CURRENT FLOW
THROUGH COIL.
mm
MAGNETIC
CURRENT PRODUCES
FIELD. JiiWES
IS®®* COUNTER-EMF PRODUCED
DY EXPANDING AND COLLAPSING
MAGNETIC FIELD WILL ALWAYS
OPPOSE THE APPLIED VOLTAGE.
applied emf counter-emf

i s. V N F
INDUCED VOLTAGE!
EQUALS
Change in number of flux lines

1
^ 180 phaseî
°
difference Time (in seconds)
, |
The behavior of self-induced emf was first explained by H. F. Emil Lenz and
has since become known as Lenz's law. Although stated in different ways,
Lenz's law states: "A changing current induces an emfwhose polarity is such
as to oppose the change in current. " Counter-emf is not readily measurable,
but its effects can be observed. When a circuit in which a substantial amount
of current is flowing through coils is suddenly opened, the sudden collapse
of the magnetic field induces a counter-emf which can be greater than the
originally applied voltage. In fact, the counter-emf may even cause amomen-
tary arc to bridge the gap where the circuit was opened.
The amount of counter-emf produced will depend upon the rate of change at
which the expanding and contracting magnetic lines of force cut the conduc-
tor. The greater the current, the more lines of force cutting per unit time;
the higher the frequency, the more rapidly the magnetic field moves and,
again, the more lines of force cutting per unit time.
INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 2-25
Inductance
The physical shape of the conductor in which current flows, sometimes re-
ferred to as the "geometry of the inductor, " also has a bearing on the control
of the current. The loops of flux lines associated with current in a straight
wire cut only that conductor during expansion and contraction of the surround-
ing magnetic field. The number of flux linkages between the lines of force
and the conductor is the same as the number of loops of force produced by the
current in the conductor. If, however, the conductor is coiled to form a
solenoid, each turn links not only with the flux lines from that turn, but also
with flux lines from adjacent and nearby turns.
Inductance Property of a Circuit or

is that
Component which Opposes a Change in Current .11
In expanding and contracting, flux
linkages induce a counter-emf in
a conductor. Induced voltage opposes

both a rise and fall of circuit current.
The total number of flux linkages with each turn is, therefore, several times
the number of flux lines from a given current in the turn. If 10 flux lines
originate from each of three adjacent turns and the lines link with each turn,
the total number of f lux linkages is 90, whereas the total number of lines that
originate from the three turns is only 30. The greater the number of flux
linkages per unit time, the greater the emf induced in each turn; hence, in
the solenoid as a whole. For any given current in a coil, the counter-emf
induced in the coil is a function of the number of flux lines multiplied by a
constant that arises from the shape of the coil. The constant is symbolized
by the capital letter and is called self -inductance, or simply inductance.
2-26 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Inductance (Cont'd)
The greater the inductance of a coil, the higher is the induced emf and the
greater is the opposition to the increase and decrease of current in the
solenoid.
Every conductor — short or long--has inductance. When the frequency is

low (say up to several hundred cycles), the effect of the inductance of any rea-
sonably long length of straight conductor is negligible. When the straight
conductor is coiled, its inductance increases substantially. Even if the con-
ductor is not coiled but its length is great, the amount of inductance possessed
by the straight wire can be sufficient to influence current flow. This situa-
tion can be a problem for even a reasonably short length of wire when the
operating frequency is high.
The Inductor,tee (/) of e Coil Depends open... $
L.TQ ) Q .ISO) )
m
NUMBER OF TURNS
Low Inductance High Inductance
^(HTr~)
HARD I
1
SOFT
rrp
fJ I
PERMEABILITY
OF CORE
STEEL L°
,
w Inductance IRON High Inductance
,TP|
w
() ) CROSS-SECTIONAL
Low Inductance AREA OF CORE
High Inductance
(r ,
-
SPACING OF TURNS
Low Inductance High Inductance
MM
Iron-core coils with many turns
have high values of inductance.
Cross-sectional view of multi-layer coil HHl

The greater the number of turns in a coil, the higher is its inductance. The
closer the coil turns are to each other, the higher the coil inductance, be-
cause the flux linkages increase in number. If the core of a solenoid is made
of a high-permeability material, such as soft iron, the inductance increases
still more. On the other hand, if a coil is wound by doubling the wire back
on itself, the inductance is held to a minimum The self -induced emf genera-
.
ted in one half of the total length of the conductor offsets the self-induced
emf generated in the other half of the conductor; hence, the coil as a whole
displays minimum or even negligible inductance. Such a winding is known
as a "non-inductive" winding. This method of winding is used to form wire-
wound resistors wherein d-c resistance is desired but where inductance is
an undesirable effect.
-
Unit of Inductance --The Henry
The unit of inductance is the henry named after the American physicist,
,
Joseph Henry. By definition, a conductor, or coil, has an inductance of 1

henry when a current which changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second in-
duces an emf of 1 volt. The number of flux lines corresponding to this rate
of change in the current is 100,000,000, or 10 8 In defining inductance as
.
flux linkages per ampere of current producing the flux, we can say:
flux linkages
Inductance (in henries) = X 10“ 8
current producing flux
Having established the above, we can now study the formula for determining
the magnitude of a counter -emf:
Counter -emf (induced voltage caused by changing current) =

change in current
k x
change in time
The minus sign means that the voltage developed is a counter voltage and
opposes the force producing it. From this, we can see that the greater the
inductance or the faster the rate of current change, the greater the counter
emf induced in the circuit.
LOW-FREQUENCY HIGH-FREQUENCY
INDUCTOR INDUCTOR
(iron core) wound on
ceramic core
HIGH INDUCTANCE
t
LOW INDUCTANCE
(l-~30-henry range) (microhenry range)
*
HIGH-FREQUENCY
used in radio receivers INDUCTOR
may be rated at wound on
300 ma or higher shunt resistor
Inductance acts to oppose i gîn current.
INDUCTORS COME IN A
VARIETY OF SIZES -
FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES
INDUCTANCE OFFERS
NO OPPOSITION
TO FLOW OF D-C
The inductance of coils used in radio communications equipment ranges from

extremely small air-core units of 1 microhenry and less to large iron-core
multilayer units of 30 henries and more. Inductors are also usually rated
at some specific current. When excessive current flows through an iron-core
inductor, the core may become "saturated" and the inductance decreases.
From what we have learned, we see that in addition to resistance, another

circuit property, inductance, also is involved in the control of current. Of
course, we must remember that while resistance opposes the flow of both a-c
and d-c, the effect of inductance comes into play only under conditions of al-
ternating or changing current.
Mutual Induction
When a changing magnetic field produced by one coil cuts the turns of a sec-
ond coil and induces an emf in the second winding, the action is known as
mutual induction The winding from which the flux originates is called the
.
primary usually indicated by the letter P. The voltage that is applied to the
,
primary winding and causes current to flow is called the primary voltage .
The changing current that flows in the primary winding and produces the chang-
ing fluxis the primary current sometimes referred to as the inducing current.
,
The winding in which the emf is induced by the changing magnetic field is
known as the secondary, usually indicated by the letter S. The emf induced
in the secondary winding is known as the secondary voltage If the secondary
.
is part of a closed circuit wherein current flows, this current is called the
secondary current. Mutual induction is a basis for transferring electrical
energy from one circuit to another by means of a changing magnetic field.
This is the basis of transformer operation.
MUTUAL INDUCTION
PRIMARY ^ [SECONDARY
Secondary Flux
(cuts primary and
secondary turns)
Primary
Voltage (Lol
Secondary
Source Voltage
Primary
Current
*j Secondary
Current
% MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED

DY INDUCED SECONDARY
VARYING MAGNETIC FIELD b %* CURRENT, ITSELF INDUCES
INDUCES VOLTAGE IN SECONDARY P VOLTAGE RACK INTO PRIMARY
The amount of emf induced in the secondary is, among other conditions, a
function of the physical positioning between the primary and secondary wind-
ings. The positioning determines the flux linkages between the windings and,
therefore, the rate of cutting by the lines of force. This physical relation-
ship is known as "coupling. " Coupling flux linkage, and induced emf are
,
maximum when the primary and secondary turns are interwound, or when
the primary and secondary windings are one above the other and very close
together. The more the number of turns of the secondary winding that are
cut by the changing flux from the primary, the higher the emf induced in the
secondary. The emf induced in each turn of the secondary winding is additive
to the others.
Mutual Inductance
If a sine waveform voltage is applied to the primary winding of a primary-

secondary assembly, a similarly varying current will flow in the primary
winding. During the time that the primary current increases, its magnetic
field expands, cutting the turns of the secondary and inducing a voltage in it.
The secondary voltage, in turn, causes the flow of secondary current which
has such direction (opposite to the primary current) as to create a magnetic
field that opposes the field produced by the primary current. This action
conforms with Lenz's law.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE BETWEEN COILS depends upon

COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
l ; /
<( )
'J>
Maximum coupling (unity or 1) occurs Minimum coupling occurs

j
when all the flux from each coil cuts when two coils are
all the turns of the opposite coil. at right angles
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (M) = K (coefficient of coupling) 7 LI x 12

= 0.5 decimal from 0,0 to l.p] es
M = 0.5 y 10 X 2.5
= 0.5 V 25
= 0.5 x 5
= 2.5 HENRIES
The magnetic field produced by the secondary current expands and, in so do-
ing, cuts the turns of the primary winding. Here, it induces an emf which
acts in opposition to the emf that is self-induced by the primary current.
The resultant voltage of these two oppositely acting voltages is lower in value
than the original self-induced voltage. Therefore, the primary current rises
higher than it would were the field from the secondary current absent. During
the period of decreasing primary current, the collapsing magnetic field cuts
the secondary winding and induces an emf. The secondary current now has
a direction that produces a magnetic field which tends to offset the collapsing
field around the primary; i. e. it aids the self-induced emf in the primary
,
and thus tends to prevent the primary current from falling.
The control of the primary current is presumed to be the result of magnetic

lines of force common to both the primary and secondary windings These .
common flux linkages are given the name mutual inductance which is desig- ,
nated by the letter M

and uses the henry as its unit. Any two coils positioned
so that flux from one links with the other have mutual inductance.
Inductance in Series and Parallel
Inorder to achieve certain desired amounts of inductance, it is sometimes

necessary to conduct inductors in series or parallel. When connecting induc-
tors in series, the total inductance will be the sum of all the individual in-
ductances: Lt = LI + L2 + L3 + etc. This formula holds true, however, only
when the inductors are shielded from each other, or so positioned physically
that there is no mutual inductance between them. If however, two inductors
are located so that the flux lines from each cut the turns of the other, then
the total inductance must take into consideration the mutual inductance be-
tween them.
We use the formula: Lt = LI + L2 ± 2M. The plus-or-minus 2M is used to

take into consideration that the two inductors can be connected either series
aiding or series opposing. In series aiding, the two inductors are arranged
so that their flux lines move in the same direction and thus aid each other.
This additional mutual inductance adds to the basic inductances of LI and L2.
When two inductances are arranged so that their flux lines oppose each other,
we say that they are connected series opposing. Thus, the coefficient of
coupling and the direction of magnetic fields help determine the total induc-
tance. We can note an interesting point here. If we double the number of
turns of a coil and assume perfect coupling (K - 1), we can achieve four times
the inductance.
The total inductance of a circuit containing inductances in parallel is calcula-

ted in the same manner as resistances in parallel:
The above formula is valid, as in series opposing, only when each inductor
is shielded from the other. Any mutual inductance existing between induc-
tors in parallel tends to reduce the total inductance.
c
Inductive Reactance
The opposition offered by an inductance to a change in current is measured at

any given instant in terms of counter-emf (the voltage opposing the applied
voltage). We saw that the characteristic of an inductance was to oppose any
change in current, be it an increase or a decrease. This opposition pre-
sented by an inductance to an a-c or changing current is called inductive re-
actance (indicated as Xl)- It can be compared somewhat to resistance (R).
In d-c circuits and in a-c circuits containing only resistance, the total oppo-
sition to the flow of current is the resistance, in ohms (R = E/I).
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE -
OPPOSITION TO A CHANGE IN CURRENT
d-c indirctor a-c nductor
generator ^ m ^/ generator
i
f X = 2TTf l
\ hIIIR IIIRBII
a-c circuitt
I
t Tr= 3 .i 4
/(pronounced pi)
l
^ i
J- |
2 TT= 6.28
-V
| f= cycles per second ;
Current is limited both by 1= inductance in |r

Current is limited only Resistance and Reactance henries
by Resistance of inductor of inductor
*
? W- ,v V • X :
* '
<:
* v
'
J
HIGH L
I .. , As inductance of circuit increases, reactance increases.
Reactance comes into play only under varying conditions. It represents an

opposition to the flow of a varying current. Thus, the opposition offered by
an inductor is called inductive reactance and, like resistance, is also meas-
ured in ohms. (Later in this course, we will study the reactance presented
by a capacitor, called capacitive reactance. ) Since the magnitude of induced
emf depends on the amount of inductance and the frequency (rate of change) of
the current, the formula for inductive reactance takes both into account. In-
ductive reactance is calculated: Xl = 27rfL. The 27rf represents the rate of
change of the current. There are 2 tt( 6. 28) radians in a cycle, so 2 rf repre-
sents the rate of change in current per second (angular velocity). Frequency
(f) is in cycles per second, and L is equal to the inductance in henries. From
this formula, we can see that the higher the frequency or the greater the in-
ductance, the greater will be the inductive reactance. This is logical, since
an increase in either will cause flux lines to be cut at a greater rate, and
produce a greater counter-emf.
Inductive Reactance — Solving Problems
Having established the formula for inductive reactance: X L = 2nfL, letus

solve some problems concerning inductive reactance so as to gain a greater
familiarity with this "new" type of opposition to current flow. In each of the
following problems, we will assume that the resistance of the inductor is
zero ohms. Actually, this is never the case. Since an inductor is wound
with turns of wire, there must be some d-c resistance. Later, we will dis-
cuss the practical inductor which contains both resistance and reactance.
Munmini Inductive Reactance X[ *L=tn'l
O Frequency (in cycles)

^ O Inductance (in henries) ^
As FREQUENCY increases or decreases, As inductance increases or decreases,
inductive reactance increases or decreases, inductive reactance increases or decreases.
In a simple circuit containing a 60 -cycle voltage source and a 10 -henry coil

we will find the inductive reactance of the coil using the basic formula: L X
= 27Tfl = 6. 28 x 60 x 10 = 3768 ohms.
Leaving L fixed at 10 henries, and doubling the frequency to 120 cycles, XL

= 2rfL = 6. 28 x 120 x 10 = 7536 ohms.
We see that doubling the circuit frequency doubled the inductive reactance.
Leaving L at 10 henries but changing the frequency to 30 cycles,
XL = 2rfL = 6. 28 x 30 x 10 = 1884 ohms.
We see that halving the circuit frequency halved the inductive reactance.
Just as doubling and halving the circuit frequency doubled and halved the in-
ductive reactance, the same would be true with doubling and halving the in-
ductance of the coil. We say, then, that the inductive reactance of a coil
varies directly with the frequency and with the inductance.
Working with a small 50-microhenry coil at a frequency of 4 megacycles, we

get an inductive reactance through the coil of:
XL = 2rfL = 6. 28 x 4, 000, 000 x 0. 00005 = 1256 ohms.
Let us find the inductive reactance of a 1 -millihenry coil at 10 kilocycles.
XT
J_i
= 2ufL = 6. 28 x 10, 000 x 0. 001 = 62. 8 ohms.
,
INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT— VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 2-33
Alternating Voltage and Current in an Inductive Circuit
In discussing voltage and current in an inductive circuit, we shall first assume

an ideal inductance - -one without any resistance. This will establish basic
theory about a "pure" inductive circuit which, while it never occurs, enables
us to understand practical inductive circuits. We learned that inductive re-
actance not only limits the amount of current flowing in an inductive a-c
circuit, but also delays the increase or decrease of current in the circuit.
The current in an inductive circuit takes the form of a sine wave if the applied
voltage is of a sine waveform, except that the current is delayed or lags be-
hind the voltage variations.
VOLTAGE LEADS
APPLIED
CURRENT BY 90° IN A /TX/
/ 90°
app, ed voltage
;
180° 270° 360°

PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
A-C VOLTAGE SOURCE
0°V APPLIED\ ;
1
/
/
time
VOLTAGE
PURE LEADS
INDUCTANCE CURRENT
'(No resistance) BY 90‘ current
USING VECTORS WE SHOW time

PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
E , Greatest Rate
applied K\°°
'
of Change in
Current
E
counter
y OO
current Produces
Maximum
Counter-Emf
tir
Smallest Rate of Change in Current
Produces Minimum Counter-Emf counter-emf
We learned that in an inductive circuit, a change in current produces a coun-

ter-emf which acts to oppose that change. Itwas established that the counter -
emf was 180° out of phase with the applied voltage. We can now consider
the relationship of the current in an inductive circuit to the applied voltage
and the counter-emf. Since the counter-emf is induced by the changing cur-
rent, it follows that the maximum counter-emf is induced when the current
is changing at its greatest rate. We learned that the greatest rate of change
in a sine waveform occurs when the waveform passes through its 0°, 180°,
and 360° points; the least rate of change (but maximum value) occurs at its
90° and 270° points. Thus, when the current waveform is at maximum, for
example, the counter-emf waveform will be zero; when the current waveform
is at zero, the counter-emf is at maximum.
From this, we can see that there is a 90° phase difference between the cur-
rent in an inductive circuit and the counter-emf it produces. Since the applied
voltage is 180° out of phase with the counter-emf, there is a 90° phase dif-
ference between the applied voltage and the current. The applied voltage
causes the current to flow, so we say that the applied voltage leads the current
by 90°, or the current lags the applied voltage by 90°.
2-34 R-L CIRCUIT— VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
Alternating Voltage and Current in R-L Circuits
The practical coil consists of both inductance and resistance acting in series.
We have just discussed the effect of inductance on voltage and current. Let
us now review the effect of resistance on voltage and current in an a-c cir-
cuit. Since the property of resistance has no association with magnetic ef-
fects (actually, resistors contain some inductance), current flow through a
resistance is assumed to be free of a magnetic field. The absence of a mag-
netic field prevents the self-induction of an emf; hence, a varying voltage
applied to a resistance causes a simultaneously varying current. In other
words, voltage and current are in phase in a resistance. We can use Ohm's
law to find the current in an a-c resistive circuit just as in a d-c circuit, ex-
cept that in an a-c circuit, we must think of I and E in the same terms —
average, effective, or peak values.
In n Series A-C Circuit Conteining L end R, is#;'

'
Volfege Props ocross L end R ere 90° Out of Phese
When an alternating voltage is applied to a practical coil, the same current

(I)flows in the inductive and resistive parts of the coil. In flowing through
the R-L circuit, the current produces two voltage drops —
one across the in-
ductance (El) and one across the resistance (Er). The inductance voltage
drop is equal to IXl; the resistance voltage drop, to IR. With the same cur-
rent flowing through the coil, E ^ leads I by 90°, and Ep is in phase with I.
Thus, voltage drops El and Er are 90° apart, with El leading Er. Since
the effect of the inductance is to produce a voltage drop 90° out of phase with
the current, and resistance produces a voltage drop in phase with the cur-
rent, the net effect is that the resultant or applied voltage will lead the cur-
rent in an R-L circuit by a phase angle 90° or less. Later, we will learn
how to find the exact phase angle.
IMPEDANCE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS 2-35
Impedance (Z)
Two sources of opposition to current flow exist in the practical inductor --

one is inductive reactance (Xl), arising from the action of inductance (L);
the other is resistance (R), arisingfrom the nature of the conductor
material.
The combined actions of Xl and R constitute the total opposition to current
flow known as impedance Impedance expressed terms
. is in of ohms and is
indicated by the letter Z.
1/
= Xl 2 + R
'
SOLUTION >
= +
RIGHT TRIANGLE - Vl 6 +9
PRESENTATION = 1/ 25 = 5 ohms
THE IMPEDANCE OF A SERIES R-L CIRCUIT CAN NEVER BE
EQUAL TO OR AS GREAT AS THE
SUM OF X LAND R, NOR CAN IT BE EQUAL TO OR LESS THAN
EITHER X OR R.
L
The two cur rent -opposition components- -inductive reactance and

resistance --
are considered as being in series in an inductor. However,
to find their im-
pedance, we cannot add them arithmetically for our answer.
To determine
i m
Pe dance of a series R-L circuit, it is necessary to take into account
the 90 phase difference between the voltage drops
across the inductance and
the resistance. This can be done in two ways: by
using the right triangle
equation; or by vectors (graphically). The equation
method ilîs the right
triangle as its basis. Early in this volume, we
learned that if we squared
the hypotenuse of a right triangle, that sum
would be equal to the sum of the
other two sides squared. When we consider the right
triangle for calculating
impedance, we make the vertical side, or altitude, represent
the inductive
reactance. The horizontal side, or base, represents the
resistance. The
hypotenuse which joins the ends of these two sides represents
the impedance
of the circuit. From this, we can see a basic formula for finding the im-
pedance of a series R-L circuit: z2 = X 2 +R 2. To sim lify
L p this and find
z directly, we take the square r oo t of both sides
of the equation and get the
highly usable formula: Z = V^L
2 +R 2 .
In a series R-L circuit, Xl and R must be considered 90° apart because the
same current flows through R and L, but the voltage drops are 90° displaced.
2-36 IMPEDANCE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS
Solving Impedance Problems
Let us now solve some impedance problems in order to familiarize ourselves

with this procedure. In the first two, we will assume we already know the
inductive reactance; in the third, we will work out the problem.
We have R-L circuit in which the inductive reactance is 18 ohms and

a series
ohm s. Find the impedance of the circuit. Using the
the resistance is 24
impedance formula Z = a/Xl 2 + R2, we first find the square of Xl- Since
Xl isequal to 18 ohms, Xl 2 is equal to 18 x 18, or 324 ohms. R is equal
to 24 ohms, so R2 equals 24 x 24, or 576 ohms. We now add XL 2 (324 ohms)
and R2 (576 ohms) and get a total of 900 ohms. Taking the square root of 900
gives us 30 (30 x 30 equals 900). Thus, this circuit's impedance is 30 ohms.
PROBLEM PROBLEM
R= 24G R =20 fl L = 10 mh
,
1 ke R
voltage
(V) <50X1
source
^ z = ?
5
i 1
Ist'.FIND X(.
X L = 2wfL
SOLUTION = 6.28x1000x0.01
= 62.8 ohms
Z = Vx l
2 +R2 Z =a/x L 2 + R 2 2nd. FIND Z
= Vi82 + 242 = a/48 2 + 20 2 Z =a/Xl 2 + R 2
= V324+ 576 = /v/2304 + 400 =a/ 62.82+ 502

=V3943. 84+2 500
= V900 = a/ 2704
= a/6443.84
i 30 ohms = 52 ohms = 80.3 ohms
We now have a series R-L circuit having an inductive reactance of 48 ohms

and a resistance of 20 ohms. Find the impedance of the circuit. Once again,
we first square Xl, and get 48 x 48, or 2304 ohms. We then square R, and
get 20 x 20, or 400 ohms. Adding these two squared numbers, we get 2304
plus 400, or 2704. Taking the square root of 2704, we get 52 (52 x 52 equals
2704). The impedance is 52 ohms.
In our third problem, we have a series R-L circuit in which L is a 10 milli-

henry coil and R is a 50-ohm resistor. The frequency of the applied voltage
is 1 kc (or 1000 cycles). Find the impedance of the circuit. We know the
resistance is 50 ohms, so we must first find the inductive reactance. This
is equal to: Xl =2 ir fL. Filling in the formula, we get XL = 6. 28 x 1000
x 0.01, or 62.8 ohms. Knowing the inductive reactance is 62.8 ohms, we
can now find the impedance of the circuit. We square 62. 8 (62. 8 x 62. 8) and
get 3943. 84. We then square the resistance (50 ohms) and get 2500. Adding
3943. 84 and 2500, we get 6443. 84. Finally, takingthe square root of 6443. 84
we get 80. 3 ohms, the impedance of this circuit.
IMPEDANCE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS 2-37
Graphical Determination of Impedance (R and L in Series)
There is a simple graphical method that can be used to determine the imped-
ance of an R-L circuit. It makes use of a parallelogram method that has
certain advantages and disadvantages. To apply this method, let us first
state a problem With which we can work. We will assume a series R-L cir-
cuit in which the inductive reactance is 80 ohms and the resistance is 60 ohms
at the frequency of the voltage source. The problem —to find the impedance
of the circuit. Instead of using the impedance formula, the problem is laid
out to scale. We draw the vertical line which represents Xl to some exact
length to represent the number "80". It could be 8-inches long, with each
inch representing 10 ohms, or any other unit of measurement can be used.
Then, with Xl being 8 units long, we draw the horizontal R axis exactly 6
units long to represent 60 ohms.
A parallelogram isnow drawn, with one side parallel to the Xl axis and one
side parallel to the R axis. Each new side is drawn from the end of the Xl
and R axis. We now draw the resultant from the point where Xl and R meet
to the diagonal corner of the parallelogram. This diagonal represents the
resultant of the Xl
and R vectors and indicates the impedance of the circuit.
If the parallelogram were scaled and drawn properly, the resultant would be
exactly 10 units long, representing 100 ohms impedance. Naturally, the
same units of length would have to be applied to Xl, R," and Z in any given
problem.
An advantage of this method is that it gives a quick, rough approximation.

Its disadvantage is that it is somewhat clumsy and impractical where high
precision is required. Another thing can be seen. The angle formed by the
resultant and the R axis is the angle by which the current lags the voltage in
an R-L circuit, and can be measured with a protractor. In our circuit, it is
about 53. 1°.
2-38 OHM'S LAW FOR A-C CIRCUITS
Alternating Current in an Inductor
When the impedance of a coil and the applied voltage are known, the alterna-
ting current flowing through the inductor can be readily calculated.
Pre-
viously explained versions of Ohm's law for current are used except that R
(resistance) in the equation is replaced by Z (impedance). Ohm’s law as
applied to a-c then reads: I = E/Z; Z = E/I; and E = I x Z.
L - 1 mh TO FIND CURRENT FLOW

(0.001 henry) IN AN A-C CIRCUIT,
WE USE OHM’S LAW
R = 10 ohms
FOR A-C CIRCUITS
I= E/Z
Land Rare shown as separate components for the purpose of this problem only.
two are inseparable since the same winding
Actually, in an inductor the
produces the resistance and the inductance.
1st FIND X 2nd =V* L 2 + R2 3rd FIND I:

L
:
Z
FIND Z: c
X L = 2ir fL 6.28 2 +10 2
z
= 6.28 x 1000 x 0.001 =V 39.4 + 100 10
= 6.28 ohms 139.4 11.8
= 11.8 ohms = 0.847 ampere
In each of these ratios, current and voltage must be expressed in the same
terms. If we are considering the effective value of I, then we must consider
the effective value of E. If we use peak values or average values of I, we
must use like values of E. By so doing, it does not matter what values of
E and I are being used. In virtually all instances, except where specifically
noted, it is assumed that the effective value of E and I are being used. Note
that nothing really new is being introduced— Ohm's law is still perfectly usable.
The only thing new is that we must now consider other things such as XL arid
Z since we are dealing with an inductive circuit.
The following problem illustrates a typical situation of an inductor in an a-c

circuit. The resistance in the inductor is the actual d-c resistance of the
copper wire that makes up the coil. Assume we have a 1 -millihenry coil to
which is applied a 1-kilocycle 10-volt a-c source. The d-c resistance of the
inductor is 10 ohms. How much current flows through the coil? To solve
the problem, we must first determine the inductive reactance and then the
impedance. We find the inductive reactance using the formula Xl = 2 ir fL =
6. 28 x 1000 x 001 = 6. 2 8 o hms. We can now find the impedance: Z =
//Xl 2 +R 2 = A/39.4 +100 = Vl39. 4 = 11. 8 ohms. Now using Ohm’s law
for a-c circuits, we find the current: I = E/Z = 10/11.8 = .847 ampere.
We can go one step further and find the phase angle 9 by which current lags
the voltage: Tangent © = Xl/R = 6. 28/10 = . 628. From the tangent table,
.6273 = 32. 1°.
)
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS 2-39
Determining the Current in an R-L Series Circuit
The theory you have learned about the series-connected R and L components
of an inductor applies equallywhen an external resistance is series con-
nected with the inductor. Now, two values of resistance are involved--the
d-c resistance of the coil winding, and the external resistance. Assume a
series-connected circuit in which inductance L = 5 henries, coil resistance
R1 = 40 ohms, external resistor R2 = 1000 ohms, and the applied voltage is
100 volts at 100 cycles. Let us find the current in this circuit.
PRACTICAL INDUCTOR presents both INDUCTANCE and RESISTANCE to the circuit.
TOTAL
RESISTANCE
f =100 OF CIRCUIT
cycles
X L « 2irf L= 6.28 x 100 x 5 3140 ohms

r=v^7+ Z = '/x l2+(R1+R2)2« 3140 2 +1040 2 «3308 ohms
''/
I
I
8
VZ 8
3308
* 0.0302 ampere
°
(from tangent
755U 301 71
s = ' tobies)
R1 + R2
Before any calculating is done, let us examine the circuit. The coil resis-
tance of R1 (40 ohms) is negligible (less than 1/10) relative to the external
resistance of R2 (1000 ohms), but we shall take Rl into account just the
same. Being series connected, we can visualize the resistance elements as
a single sum Rl + R2. Then, the equation for impedance Z reads:
Z = V XL 2
+ (Rl + R2)
2
To calculate the impedance, we must first solve for the inductive reactance (Xl).
Xl = 2rf L = 6. 28 x 100 x 5 = 3 140 ohms

Then: Z = V 3140 2 + (40 + 1000) 2
= V 3140 2 + 1040 2
= V 10,941, 200
= 3308 ohms
(If the coil resistance of Rl (40 ohms) is neglected, Z = 3296 ohms.
=
E 100
Current I = . 0302 ampere, or 30. 2 milliamperes.
The phase angle of the current is: tangent 8 = = 3. 01 = 71°

2-40 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN SERIES R-L CIRCUITS
Voltage Distribution in a Series R-L Circuit
When we studied d-c electricity, it was established that the sum of all the
voltage drops in a series circuit was equal to the battery or applied voltage.
We discussed this further in Kirchhoff's laws. The same is true of the vol-
tage drops in an R-L series a-c circuit, with one single exception. The vol-
tage drops across R and L are not simply added together. The reason for
this is that there is a 90° phase difference between the inductive voltage drop
(El) and the resistive voltage drop (Er). The 90° phase difference between
these voltage drops is caused by the fact that while the same current flows
through R and L in a series circuit, the current through R is in phase with
the voltage, but through L, the current lags behind the voltage by 90°.
R-L Circuit Circuit Impedance

The Sum x l =5°
of the
Brj o ohms z = y so + 50 2 2
Voltage Drops ;R
ohms
= 50 = J 2500 + 2500
in a Series R-L Meeasi = J 5000
Circuit Voltage Drops
= 70.711 ohms
Circuit is Equal
E
L
= IXX L E = Ix R Circuit Current
R
= 1.414 x 50
to the Applied
= 70.7 volts
= 1.414 x 50
I = — . 100
1.414 amperes
= 70.7 volts Z 70.711
Voltage -
Applied Voltage = Vectorial Addition of Voltages
However, these Sum of Voltage Drops
E applied = E|^+ Ep 2
Voltage Drops E =
L
=v 70.7 +70.7 717
*
70.7
must be Added =y 5000 + 5000 volts
Vectorially. = </ 10,000

= 100 volts e = 70.7 volts
R
This does not present any new problem. Our fundamental rule that the sum
of all the voltage drops in a series circuit is equal to the applied voltage still
holds true. The only difference is that in order to get the sum of an inductive
and a resistive voltage drop, it is necessary to add them vectorially. Since
the same current flows through R and L, we can find the sum of their voltage
drops in the same manner that we found the sum of their resistance and re-
actance, because the voltage drops are equal to IR and IXl We found the .
impedance of an R-L series circuit using the formula Z Xl 2 + r 2. By =V

a very simple substitution, we can find the sum of two voltage drops 90° out
of phase: E (applied) = V
E L 2 +Er2. Thus, while measuring the voltage
drop across R and L separately, it would seem to give a ridiculous answer
(greater than the applied, voltage); vectorial addition of these voltages would
give an answer equal to the exact applied voltage. Thus, Kirchhoff's laws
for d-c circuits holds up equally well with a-c circuits. In an inductor, it is
impossible to measure separately the voltage drop across R and L; we get
one voltage drop across the R-L impedance.
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL R-L CIRCUITS 2-41
The Parallel R-L Circuit --Voltage Distribution
The parallel R-L circuit consists of a voltage source across which an induc-
tiveelement and a resistive element are connected. By definition, there must
be one or more of each of these elements in this type of circuit. Once again,
we assume that the inductive element has zero resistance. Of course, in
practice this is impossible. Later, we will discuss parallel circuits in which
a particular branch contains both R and L. First, let us analyze the voltage
distribution of a parallel R-L circuit.
r
> l r--H
VE =
(£) '
i E = !
100 «
cH
100 3
volt$ 3
L -*
volts'!
l
--H §1 Xl =
j9A <
>
R = 6A k
ol
X
12 A
L “ 1
ng,] \2aB
+>1 ®j|
100 volts - 36 Ip--
T
T
J R-T T
1 L “To TTT
,
E _ 100
'I- xT-To'
The current in each branch i$ independent of the current in the other branches.
I r is in phase with applied voltage
I[ lags applied voltage and Ir by 90°

The Voltage Applied
(current through R)
I R
across Every Branch
o f a Parallel R-L
Circuit is the Sane k-90°-m \\
applied voltage*
As in the case of the parallel circuit in our study of d-c circuits, a parallel
circuit contains two or more branches. The applied voltage is across each
and every branch of this circuit. Thus, a voltage or difference of potential
equal to the full applied voltage is across each branch. In this respect, the
current flow through each branch acts independently of the current flow in
every other branch. Should one branch of the parallel circuit be opened, the
stoppage of current flow in that branch would not affect the operation of any of
the other branches; only the total current (It) would be affected.
The amountof current in each branch of a parallel circuit is determined by

the voltage applied to that branch and the R or Xl of that branch. In short,
the current in each branch would be equal to Ir = E/R or II = E/Xl, as the
case may be. The current flow in each branch must be treated separately.
However, there is one important new consideration. The current through a
resistive branch is in phase with the applied voltage; the current through an
inductive branch lags the applied voltage by 90°. This is an important con-
sideration when computing the total current.
K i
2-42 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL R-L CIRCUITS
The Parallel R-L Circuit --Current Distribution
We have stated that the current flow in each branch of a parallel circuit is
completely independent of the current flow in every other branch. The im-
portant difference between a purely resistive parallel circuit and an R-L
parallel circuit is in finding the total current. In a purely resistive parallel
circuit, we simply find the total of all the individual branch currents, and this
sum equals the total current. But in the R-L parallel circuit, the currents
in the inductive branches are 90° out of phase with the current in the resis-
tive branches. Thus, once again we are faced with vectorial addition. We
must first add up all the inductive currents and all the resistive currents, and
then add them vectorially.
The total current in a parallel R-L circuit is equal to

the vectorial sum of all the individual branch currents.
F V
8A 1
• xL
3A
=i
s
10 v
4A }x L
1
' i =
—
sa: X L 2|
; S 2.5ft = 2ft
T 1 |
A 2A R2 =
>
6A gl
A A
t »
.
: R = r
4 a vl
[
>sa
i- r
s = 9.49A
1
It
E and 1 1
in R-L parallel circuit
applied voltage
current
/ / W27.0” 360 °
i t = y
=
# FORMULA SOLUTION
V&2+
i r2 +i l 2
82
lit =/lR, 2 +I Lt 2
f 32+92
MM
!
0
:
a0 0
\ j
f V
y 100
1
I
=
= y 9 + si
N
an«le by which total current
10 AMPERES = y 90 1 lags applied voltage in
IB | R-L parallel circuit
The total current in an R-L circuit can be found in two ways: by a graphical
layout of the current vectors; and by direct formula. In the graphical repre-
sentation, the current vectors for the inductive current (iL)and the resistive
current (Ir) are placed at right angles. Since the resistive current is in phase
with the applied voltage, IR is the reference point and is located on the hori-
zontal axis. With the inductive current lagging 90° behind it, we place the
inductive current vector straight down, representing a 90° lag behind Ir.
Using the parallelogram, the resultant represents the total current and the
angle of lag between the app lied voltag e and the total current. Using the for-
mula for impedance, Z = V
x L 2 + R2, which we developed for right tr iangle
problems, we simply substitute and get: total current (It) =‘\/ I L 2 + Ir 2 The -
angle of current lag behind the applied voltage is equal to: tangent 0 = Il/IR-
PARALLEL R-L CIRCUIT— IMPEDANCE CALCULATION 2-43
Impedance of the Parallel R-L A-C Circuit
To Find the Tote! Impedance
In a purely resistive parallel circuit

|
[in an R-l parallel circuit
A-c XL
use the formula use the formula
R X L
The impedance of the parallel R-L a-c circuit is computed by a method very
much like that used for calculating the resistance of resistors con-
total
nected in parallel. We learned that to find the total resistance of two resist-
ances in parallel, we used the formula - (R1 x R2)/(R1 + R2). We can now
substitute in this formula to bring our R-L circuit into play. To find imped-
ance, we say Z = (R x Xl)/(R + Xl). However, the addition of two vector
quantities, as we have seen, cannot be made by simple addition. Therefore,
to take into consideration the fact that R and Xj m
ust be added vectorially,
i
we change the formula to: Z = R x Xl/VR^ + Xl^. Using this formula, we

would be accounting for the 90° phase difference between the currents in the
resistive and inductive branches.
2-44 COMPARISON BETWEEN SERIES AND PARALLEL R-L CIRCUITS
SERIES R-L CIRCUIT PARALLEL R-L CIRCUIT

The current is the same everywhere. The current divides between the
branches; each branch current is a
function of the branch resistance or
reactance.
The current is in phase throughout The current in the inductive branch

the circuit. lags the current in the resistive
branch by 90°.
The voltage across the inductance The voltage across the inductance is
leads the voltage across the resis- in phase with the voltage across the
tance by 90°. resistance.
The angle of lag between the total The angle of lag between the line cur-
circuit current and the applied cir- rent and the applied voltage is deter-
cuit voltage is determined by the mined by which circuit component is
amount of reactance and resistance. smaller- -the reactance or the resis-
tance.
Increasing the frequency makes the Increasing the frequency makes the
circuit more inductive because the circuit more because the
resistive
inductive reactance exerts greater line current is predominantly the re-
control on the circuit current. The sistive branch current.
angle of lag increases .
The applied voltage divides vector- The applied voltage is the same
iaily between the series reactance across all parallel-connected ele-
and resistance. ments.
Increasing resistances makes the Increasing resistances makes the

circuit more resistive The angle of . circuit more inductive. The angle of
lag of the circuit current approaches lag of the line current approaches 90°
0° more closely. more closely.
Increasing the inductance makes the Increasing the inductance make s the
circuit more inductive The angle . circuit more resistive The angle of .
of lag of the circuit current approa- lag of the line current approaches 0°
ches 90° more closely. more closely.
ItHE
1
R.T-
PARALLEL ii n
R-L CIRCUIT
——
i
E = Er + E|. (added vectorially) If = I R + I L (added vectorially)

SAME CURRENT THROUGH R AND L SAME VOLTAGES ACROSS R AND L
R x Xi
Z =yR 2 + X l2 Z =
Vr 2 + Xl 2
TRANSFORMERS— ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-45
The Transformer
You have learned that an alternating current ora varying d-c current flowing
in one coil can induce a varying voltage in a neighboring coil. The changing
magnetic lines of force from the varying current in one coil (which we call
the primary ) cuts the turns of the other coil (called the secondary ) and induces
a changing voltage in each of the turns of the secondary. When two coil wind-
ings are arranged so that a changing current in one induces a voltage in the
other, the combination of windings constitutes a transformer Every trans-
.
former has a primary winding and one or more secondary windings. The
primary winding (usually labeled P) receives the input electrical energy from
a voltage source, whereas the secondary winding or windings (usually labeled
S) delivers the induced output voltage to a load.
CHANGING FLUX LINES WHICH CUT TURNS

OF A COIL INDUCE A VOLTAGE
a-c voltage
I Alternating current in primary produces a-c voltage in secondary.
secondary
a-c voltage load
voltogefoj) output
The changing flux from a primary can cut several coils and induce
an a-c voltage in each.
The transformer serves many functions. It enables the transfer of electrical

energy from one electrical circuit to another by using changing magnetic
lines of force as the link between the two. In this way, it behaves as a coup-
ling device. Also, it provides a means whereby an alternating voltage of a
given amount can be changed (transformed) to higher or lower amounts, making
electrical power distribution practical. Such transformation also can be
applied to current and impedance. These functions are explained later.
2-46 TRANSFORMERS— ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS
Transformer Action (Unloaded Secondary)
Assume a two -winding iron-core transformer with a primary (P) and a secon-
dary (S), both of equal number of turns and of very low resistance. There is
no load connected to the secondary winding. The a-c voltage applied to the
primary is shown as a single cycle starting at maximum positive.
As the primary voltage Ep starts decreasing from maximum positive value,

the primary current In starts increasing from zero in a positive direction.
(See A on facing page. ) The 90° lag of primary current relative to primary
voltage is due to the inductance of the primary winding. As the primary cur-
rent starts increasing from zero, its associated magnetic field starts expan-
ding. At this instant, the rate of change of the current, and of the flux, is
maximum The flux lines cut the turns of the primary winding and generate
.
a self -induced emf of maximum value in the primary winding. This emf acts
in opposition to the applied primary voltage Ep. Since there is nothing to
prevent the generation of a maximum number of flux linkages, the self-induced
emf is high, thereby causing the primary current Ip to be very low in value.
Stated another way, the primary current is held low by the high inductive re-
actance of the iron-core primary.
At the same instant in time (still A on the facing page), the expanding field
produced by the primary current cuts the turns of the secondary (S), where it
induces the secondary voltage, Es- Inasmuch as the rate of change of the
magnetic field is maximum, the voltage Es is maximum. This secondary
voltage has a polaritythat is opposite to that of the primary voltage. It appears
across the secondary, but since the secondary is unloaded (open) there is no
secondary current. Hence, the action in the secondary has no effect on the
action in the primary circuit. When the primary current reache sits maximum
positive value, the rate of change of its field is theoretically zero; hence, the
voltage induced in the secondary is zero. This coincides with the instant in
time when the primary voltage Ep is zero.
As the primary voltage Ep passes through zero, changes polarity, and starts
increasing towards its negative peak, the primary current Ip (still of the same
direction) starts decreasing from maximum to zero, accompanied by the col-
lapse of the magnetic field back into the primary. (See B. ) The flux lines
again cut the turns of the secondary winding, but now, in a direction opposite
to that when the field was expanding. The result is a secondary voltage oppo-
site in polarity to the previous voltage, and opposite to that of the applied pri-
mary voltage. As Es increases towards its maximum positive value, the
applied primary voltage increases towards its maximum negative value, both
peaks being reached at the same instant. Also, at the same moment, the
primary current Ip passes through zero.
The action of the transformer during the remainder of the primary voltage and
current cycle is shown in C and D. It is the same as previously described ex-
cept for the reversal in direction of the primary current. The expansion and
collapse of the field is as before, during which time the remainder of the
secondary voltage cycle is generated. At each instant of time, the secondary
voltage is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage. The primary current
is 90° behind the primary voltage, but 90° ahead of the secondary voltage E s .
SUMMARY OF VOLTAGE-CURRENT CONDITIONS
IN UNLOADED SECONDARY TRANSFORMER
ep
;
^vCYXt *5
Transformer Action (Loaded Secondary)
When the transformer is delivering voltage to a load, current flows in the

load and in the secondary winding. This current affects the primary current.
We will assume that the load connected to the transformer is a resistance R.
When a voltage is induced in the secondary winding, a current flows through
the load. This current also flows through the secondary winding. The load
current is a current drain on the transformer. Like any other alternating
current, the current in the secondary is accompanied by changing flux lines.
The path for these flux lines is the transformer core, but the direction of
these lines is opposite to that of the flux lines associated with the primary
current. So, in effect, two sets of flux lines flow in the core— one due to the
primary current, and the other due to the secondary current.
1
, SECONDARY without o
m
Only the primary current flux lines flew in the cnre.i
WHEN NO ELECTRICITY IS BEING TAKEN
OUT OF THE SYSTEM, VIRTUALLY NO
electricity needs to be supplied
SECONDARY
WITHOUT LOAD
-
RESULTS IN MAXIMUM SELF-INDUCED EMF XCRDSS
THE PRIMARY HIGHEST INDUCTIVE REACTANCE IN

SECONDARY WHEN A LARGE QUANTITY OF
PRIMARY WINDING AND VERY LUW PRIMARY CURRENT. ELECTRICITYIS BEING TAKEN
with 9 LOAD OUT OF THE SYSTEM, A LARGE
QUANTITY OF IT MUST
BE SUPPLIED
secondary
|
with load
Primary and secondary current flux lines are assumed to flow
in the core. The flux due to secondary current acts on the primary.
The emf self-induced in the primary is reduced, as is the inductive
reactance of the winding; hence, the primary current increases automatically.
By virtue of its direction, the secondary current flux opposes the primary
current flux. In doing so, the number of linkages which occur between the
primary current flux and the primary turns, and which accounts for the self-
induced emf in the primary, is reduced. This action is like a self-regulating
valve that permits the primary current to increase above the small amount
which flows when there is no load on the secondary. The amount of increase
in primary current is determined by the amount of current drawn from the
secondary winding. In other words, when the secondary winding delivers
power (E x I) to a load, the primary winding draws more power from the vol-
tage source than when the secondary winding is not delivering power to a load.
With the primary voltage being fixed in value, the increase in power required
by the primary appears as an increase in primary current. Of course, the
converse is true— if the secondary current drain decreases, the primary cur-
rent automatically decreases to adjust to the new situation.
.
TRANS FORMERS --ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-49
Iron-Core and Air-Core Transformers
There are many kinds of transformers. In a broad sense, they fall into two
—
categories iron-core and air-core. Each category has numerous subdivi-
sions relating to its particular uses. The two types mentioned state the kind
of material that serves as the path over which the magnetic lines of force
travel from the primary to the secondary and in the reverse direction. Since
soft iron is a much better path for magnetic lines of force than air, it is used
as the core for the transformer windings, except at very high frequencies.
The iron core conducts most of the flux lines originating from the primary
current in the primary winding to the turns of the secondary winding, thereby
allowing the maximum number of flux linkages (tight coupling between the
windings ), or the transfer of the greatest amount of electrical energy from
the primary to the secondary. To improve the action in many iron-core trans-
formers, the primary and secondary windings are wound on top of each other.
Some iron-core transformers contain a powdered-iron core in the form of a
rod on which the primary and secondary coils are located side by side. The
flux linkage is reduced; hence, the coupling is not as tight. Transformers of
this type may have iron cores that are movable for "tuning" (varying induc-
tance) purposes. The presence of a ferrite (iron) material as the core in a
transformer is symbolized bytwo or more straight lines located in the space
between the symbols for the coils, or above or below them.
LAMINATED SOFT IRON CORE.*

FORMS A COMPLETE PATH AT CORES
LAMINATED SOFT
fssiamsi
IRON CORE FORMS
FOR FLUX LINES
MOVING BETWEEN A COMPLETE PATH gp]
THE COILS ON FOR FLUX LINES
MOVING BETWEEN
^
OUTSIDE LEGS
OF CORE COILS MOUNTEP
ATOP EACH OTHER ON
CENTER LEG OF CORE
Symbol Symbol
for for
iron-core air-core
transformer transformer Symbols for transformers
with moveable iron-cores
AIR-CORE COILS
'
MOUNTED
wuuim
r on
INSULATED FORM
BUT AS ONLY PARTIAL PATH FLUX LINES MOVE THROUGH AIR;

FOR FLUX lines ;;
The air-core transformer has its coils wound on insulated forms that use air
as the path for the flux lines moving between the windings. The absence of
the iron core provides low values of inductance and limited flux linkages;
hence, very loose coupling between the coils. Such transformers are used at
very high frequencie s. They are discussed at greater length later in this course
2-50 TRANS FORMERS --ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS
Voltage Step-Up and Step-Down in Transformers (Turns Ratio)
One of the fundamental considerations in transformers is the amount of vol-

tage derived from the secondary winding relative to the amount of voltage
that is applied to the primary winding. If the voltage output from the secondary
winding is higher than the voltage applied to the primary winding, a voltage
step-up has taken place; if the secondary voltage is less than the primary
voltage, a voltage step-down has taken place. Some transformers are de-
signed to furnish both voltage step-up as well as voltage step-down. When
a transformer is desired with a single secondary winding intended to furnish
a voltage equal to the primary voltage, the voltage transformation is 1-to-l
(1:1) and the device is known as an "isolation" transformer. Its only function
is to isolate one circuit from the other.
vo met sup-up VOllMt SUP-DOWN
3
N 5s ^
Eo*-
N„
- X
E„p = —
—2000
'GO
X 120 E
s
=
n
X E
p
« —r
100
X 120
2400 Volts = 24 Volts
Whether the secondary voltage exceeds the primary voltage or is less than
the primary voltage is determined by the turns ratio between the secondary
winding and the primary winding. This is expressed as an equation as follows:
secondary voltage _ number of turns in secondary winding ; Es ""
Ns
primary voltage ~ number of turns in primary winding Ep "Np
As you can see, the secondary -primary turns ratio equals the secondary-
primary voltage ratio. When the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) ex-
ceeds the number of turns in the primary (Np), or N s is greater than Np, a
voltage step-up occurs. When the reverse is true, a voltage step-down occurs.
The actual voltage derived from the secondary winding is equal to the product
of the secondary -primary turns ratio and the voltage applied to the primary.
The above assumes perfect (100%) coupling between primary and secondary.
This is seldom the case. However, in some power transformers, coupling
is almost perfect.
— -
TRANS FORMERS --ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-51
Current Turns Ratio
The secondary -primary turns ratio determines the amount of primary current
that will flow for a given secondary current. You have learned that the more
the number of turns (N) in a coil through which a current (I) in amperes is
flowing, the greater the number of flux lines that are established by the cur-
rent. The product of the number of turns and the current (or N x I) was iden-
tified as the ampere-turns. In the ideal transformer, the number of ampere-
turns in the primary equals the number of ampere-turns in the secondary.
Imagine that you are working with a loaded transformer in which the primary
winding has 100 turns and the secondary winding has 2000 turns. The secon-
dary-primary turns ratio then is 2000/100 = 20. If the secondary load current
is 0.2 ampere, the secondary ampere-turns are 2000 x .2 = 400. For the
same number of ampere-turns to exist in the primary of 100 turns, the pri-
mary current must be increased in the same proportion as the secondary
primary turns ratio This ratio is 20; hence, the primary current must be
.
20 times greater than the secondary current. The self-regulating action of

the primary winding establishes the primary current at the required value.
The Primary-Secondary Current Relationship
si IN A VOLTAGE STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

Assume
IMC; 1— Ic = 0.2 amp load current

SIP \
TURNS RATIO = N.s/N = 2000/100 = 20

f
Ip= îxl s = 2222 x 0.2 = 4 amperes

N„ 100
PRIMARY AMPERE-TURNS = Np x r
p = 10 o x 4 = 400
y. .'.
v •
SECONDARY AMPERE-TURNS = N $
P S
r
c)
Np
100
"1
10
Nc
IN
Assume
A VOLTAGE STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
ynw-K''
L turns turns
1^=2 amps load current
X' '
,r • f J
TURNS RATIO = N
s
/N p
= 10/100 = 0.1
- . •; •
.'<i f.-‘ .,
then
Ip =•
P
Nc
- 10
~
mmm.
N, 100
PRIMARY AMPERE-TURNS = Np x ioo x 0.2 = 20

p =
I
SECONDARY AMPERE-TURNS = Nj x Ij = 10 x 2 = 20
The same conditions hold true when the secondary winding has fewer turns
than the primary winding. In this case, the equality of ampere -turns is gained
by the higher current in the secondary of fewer turns and the lower current ,
in the primary of more turns. Thus, the primary-secondary current ratio

is opposite to that of the primary-secondary voltage ratio . A 1:10 voltage
step-up transformer will exhibit a 10:1 current step-down characteristic.
We see that E x I in the primary will equal E x I in the secondary. In short,
primary power equals secondary power.
)
2-52 TRANS FORMERS --ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS
Current Transformation (Power)
A transformer is not a generator of electrical power; its primary circuit

absorbs powerfrom a voltage source and its secondary circuit delivers power
to a load. Assuming an ideal transformer with a resistive load in the secon-
dary, the power absorbed by the primary equals the power consumed by the
secondary (In practice, the power consumed by the secondary is slightly
.
less than that absorbed by the primary, the difference being due to electrical
losses in the transformer, as will be explained later.
in m wo% trncm mmmm...

PRIMARY SECONDARY
|
'sti
E«. Power
S R<
OUT
P ~ E x Ip
p p
p = E x 1
s S s
the power ebsorbed by fbe prinery = tbe power delivered by tbe secondary
When the amount if the amount ot primary When the secondary the primary
load current increases current increases power increases power increases
A
A
t t
And the same is true in the reverse direction
The ideal input-output power relationship is stated as: power (in watts) in
primary = power (in watts) in secondary, or P watts = P s watts. Since pow-
p
er is equal to voltage times current (E x I), the power relationship can be
restated as: E p x I p = E s x I s Assume a loaded transformer with al:lturns
.
ratio. Then, the primary voltage E and the secondary voltage E will be
p s
equal. Whatever the secondary load current I may be, the primary current
s
Ip will adjust itself to the same value so as to satisfythe condition E I
p p = E s Is,
and the power is the same in both circuits. If the load on the secondary
is
changed, thereby changing secondary current I s the primary current I will
readjust itself to be equal to I s p ,
For any amount of power delivered by the

.
secondary within the capabilities of the transformer, the primary circuit be-
haves as a self-regulating system in which the current
changes in value SO
that the primary circuit power equals the secondary circuit
power. The pri-
mary current change is the result of the increased or decreased action of the
secondary current flux lines on the primary current flux lines; hence, on the
emf self-induced in the primary.
—
TRANSFORMERS— ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-53
Multi -Secondary Winding Transformers
A broad category of iron-core transformers is known as "power transfor-

mers. " They have several secondary windings
and a single primary winding
which is common to all the secondaries. The purpose of these transformers
is to supply a number of operating voltages required by radio communications
equipment. Sometimes, as many as two voltage step-up secondaries and
three voltage step-down secondaries are part of the same transformer. The
voltage derived from each secondary winding is independent of the others, its
amount being determined by the individual secondary -common primary turns
ratio.
VOLTAGE RATIOS in MULTI-SECONDARY WINDINGS!

T
-Lsi
M ^
£ N$i
12 turns
c
fc
~l
Sl Eci =
SI "
Nei
-n-
Np
* Ep = —
19
x 120 = 12 volts
Ip !S2
120 n S2
.
* r I NcO Aftfi
vol,s
J""Np 600 turns : S2 E S2 =-j^- X Ep =^Pxl20 = 600 volts
'"0120 P-
fturns
’ V H 1
I
53 4 ^
N S3 6
'
hs 3 turns ^*E s 3 ES3

=7^ * Ep = x 120 = 6 volts
I$4
* N
I | S4 N S4
— 6 turns
^ E
5.^ S4 E S4 =
-
-^
Np
x E
p
=
-^
120
x 120 = 6
runilTIAII • Hill ti apaaiimiiui aa v///////////,
POWER DISTRIBOTION in MULTI-SECONDARY WINDINGS

S «— 1
1
£~S1
1 — ^ 12 volts
1
2 amps = P waf t s = 12 x 2 = 24 watts
Ip
120
volts
r :
600 volts (5) 0.1 amp = P wa tts = 600 x 0.1 = 60 watts
t »
I
S3
^ S3 ^6 Y °* ts ®4 amps = P watts = 6 x 4 = 24 watts
IS4«—>«
^6
1
£• S4 v olts @ 1 amp = P watts = 6xl = 6 watts
Secondary winding powers are additive and equal to primary power.

P primary = P + P + P + P 24 + 60 + 24 + 6 = 114 watts
S1 S2 S3 S4 =
Concerning the power consumed by the secondary windings relative to the

power absorbed by the primary winding, if we assume the ideal case, the
power in the primary equals the arithmetical sum of the power delivered by
each Of the secondary windings, or P = P S 1 + P S 2 + P 3- In the practical
p s
case, the primary power may be from 5 to 10% higher than the sum of the
power delivered by the secondary windings, this much being wasted as elec-
trical losses in the transformer.
Tapped Primary and Secondary Windings
Some types of iron-core transformers have a multi-tapped primary winding

and a centertapped secondary winding. A tap is simply a wire connection
to the winding. Usually, for convenience, it is joined to a terminal. The
tapped primary is a continuously wound coil that affords a selection of the
number of primary turns which are active during the operation of the trans-
former. It permits the use of the transformer over a range of primary volt-
ages for a given secondary voltage. Assume a transformer that is rated 1200
volts from one secondary winding (SI) and 6 volts from another secondary
winding (S2) with 120 volts a-c applied to the primary. Winding SI has 1000
turns and S2 has 5 turns. To satisfy the above voltage conditions, the pri-
mary must have 100 active turns. Now suppose that the available primary
voltage is only 110 volts. If this voltage were applied to the transformer, the
two secondaries would deliver less than the required 1200 and 6 volts. But
if we increased the secondary-primary turns ratio by the correct amount, it
would compensate for the reduced primary voltage. The taps on the primary
permit such a change in turns ratio to allow for the condition when the primary
voltage is either lower or higher than the rated optimum voltage. (See A).
(a) Tapped primary affords changes (b) Centertapped secondary affords equal voltages on
in secondary-primary turns ratio. each side of the centertap.
SI
r
1000
-1200
El
VOLTS
TOTAL E IS
n s CENTER.
REQUIRED
ipi El + E2 DR
1000
VOLTAGE
£2 1200
TF 1200 +1200
-I30V- IS 1200 •2400 VOLTS
TURNS VOLTS
m 20 V— VOLTS IHOOO
1
•IIOV- 120 '

N EQUALS
109 92 |
f-IOOV- VOLTS ^ 1
00 TURNS
TURNS
TURNS iTURNS
REQUIRED = «
'
i 100 ;
82.5 * N>5
7^ TURNS (TURNS VOLTAGE TURNS VOLTS CENTER TOTAL E IS
.
E
l
+
i
5 TURNS . IS 6 ... - E3 E4 OR
1 i.-i .r t
-VOLTS The current is the N*5 E4'6 “
T 6+6 -12 VOLTS
S2 TURNS VOLTS
.
= »s same in each half of
Ec X E
P
Np a centertapped winding.
©J 1' e centertap has a relative dual polarity

ks:
S
CENTER
T/“ tepsl J CENTER ~
'+•
TAP
XX $s§
+
TAP
iljif ONE HALF-CYCLE i A HALF-CYCLE LATER itr

I
iw | |
1
The centertapped secondary (B) is simply a means of achieving equal volt-

ages on both sides of a common reference point the centertap to suit cer- — —
tain operating conditions. The voltage available from each half of the wind-
ing relative to the primary voltage is determined by the turns ratio between
each half of the winding and the primary. At any one instant, the polarity of
the voltage available from the whole centertapped winding is 180° out of
phase with the primary polarity, but the centertap behaves as if it has a dual
polarity (C). With respect to the centertap, the secondary provides two equal
voltages 180° out of phase with each other.
TRANSFORMERS --ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-55
Transformer Losses
We have stated that the transformer can be made almost a 100% efficient de-
vice. There are, however, certain inherent losses in a transformer that can
be minimized but never completely eliminated. The most apparent losses are
called copper losses Since the primary and secondary are wound with many
.
turns of copper wire, there will be wasted l2R losses. This accounts for the
secondary voltage being slightly lower under load than when unloaded. These
losses are reduced by using the largest practical cross-sectional area wire.
Hysteresis losses are due to the lagging of the magnetization and demagne-
tization of the soft steel core behind the alternating current in the circuit.
The atoms of the core material must keep changing polarity, and a sort of
frictional loss is developed. The use of material such as soft silicon steel
for the core greatly reduces hysteresis losses.
wANsmm mis
EDDY CURRENT LOSS
(reduced by using laminated core)
“
Large Vf * \
ulating
current^
^
I
V J
1
laminated core insulation
Small
circulating ~p;
currents
Magnetic core materials cause additional transformer losses because, as

conductors, small short-circuited currents called eddy currents are induced
in them. To reduce these currents, transformer cores are laminated. Each
lamination (strip) is sprayed with an insulated coating so that the d-c resis-
tance between them is very high. The strips are then pressed together to
form the core.
A source of inefficiency stems from the fact that all the lines of flux produced
by the primary and secondary windings do not move through the iron core--
someleak directly out of the windings into space and do not link the windings.
This is known as flux leakage. Another core inefficiency occurs during core
saturation. Above a certain point, an increase in magnetizing force causes
no additional magnetization. Thus, more magnetizing current is being used
than required, resulting in a loss in efficiency.
The Autotransformer
The iron-core autotransformer differs from the multi-coil device we have

been studying. Its operation, as before, depends on flux lines being produced
by the primary current, cutting the turns of the secondary and inducing a vol-
tage. However, its advantage over the conventional transformer is that the
secondary voltage remains substantially constant when the load on the secon-
dary is changed. However, the disadvantage of the autotransformer is that
its primary and secondary are part of the source coil; hence, there is no
isolation of the external circuits that are connected to the primary and the
secondary. This does not prevent the use of the autotransformer in many
circuits.
VOLTAGE I AUTOTRANSFORMER AS VOLTAGE

STEP-UP entire entire STEP-DOWN
DEVICE winding
acts as
winding
acts as DEVICE
this part of secondary primary
i
a-c winding acts a-c
th
is part of
winding
1
a-c acts a-c
voltage as primary; voltage voltage as secondary; voltage
input also part of output input also part of output
secondary primary
t
L J J
TURNS RATIO AND VOLTAGE RATIO FOR
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
STEP-UP S
STEP-DOWN
"
" Np second-
r
a-c
ary i
Ns 5 turns
100 a-c a-c Np
voltage turns 1000 voltage voltage a-c
.
pri- 100
input turns output input turns S voltage
mary output
; _± 1 j j
T .. _ 'S 1000 .. S N
Turns ratio = 77- = = 10 r
Turns ratio = -77- = 0.05
Np 100 Np 100
Nc
,
Secondary voltage Ec = tt-Z- x E„“ c _ N<
"S C
Np Secondary voltage e
s-n; xv E
P
If Ep = 120 volts, E 5 = x 120 If Ep = 120 volts, Ej = x 120

"Jqq
= 1200 volts = 6 volts
When used as a voltage step-up transformer, the entire winding is the secon-
dary and a part of the winding is the primary. When used as a voltage step-
down transformer, the entire windin g is the primary and part of the winding
is the secondary. Obviously, one part of the winding is always common to
both the primary and secondary functions. The turns ratio between the secon-
dary and primary portions of the winding determines the output (secondary)
voltage relative to a given input (primary) voltage, just as in the case of the
conventional transformer. In this regard, note that a certain number of turns
is common to both the so-called secondary and primary windings. This does
not change the usual manner of determining the turns ratio— the secondary
and primary are considered as if each were separate and individual. Usually,
taps on the winding permit changing the secondary-primary turns ratio; hence,
the output voltage.
TRANSFORMERS- -ACTION, TYPES, APPLICATIONS 2-57
Transformer Applications
The transformer truly has an unusual variety of applications in radio com-

munications. We will discuss a few here, and many others will be covered
during this course when applicable. The most commonly used is the power-
transformer type. This transformer is used in the power supply of electronic
equipment to furnish the various a-c voltages necessary for the production of
d-c voltages, and for the operation of particular circuits. The basic power
transformer has a single primary winding, with two or more secondary wind-
ings. One secondary winding usually provides high-voltage a-c for the rec-
tifier and one or more others provide various filament voltages for tubes
,
(these terms will be discussed later in the course). The high-voltage wind-
ing commonly provides from 400 to 800 volts a-c at currents from 25 to 400
milliamperes, and is usually center-tapped. The filament windings usually
provide 6. 3 or 12. 6-volts at 1 to 5 amperes, and 5 volts at 2 or 3 amperes.
Another commonly used transformer is the audio type. Designed to operate

at audio frequencies (20-16,000 cycles), it is usually smaller than the power
transformer and has a wide variety of functions. These transformers are
used primarily for impedance matching and, in some instances, for voltage
amplification. Audio transformers are usually designated by their particular
—
application input transformer, output transformer, microphone transformer,
modulation transformer, interstage transformer, driver transformer, etc.
Usually, they are rated by their primary and secondary impedances and cur-
rent-handling capabilities.
Transformers designed to operate at high frequencies (above audio range)

are referred to as intermediate -frequency and radio -frequency types, and
will be discussed where applicable in this course.
2-58 TRANSFER OF POWER --MATCHING IMPEDANCES
Impedance Matching
In the transfer of power from any electrical source of its load, the impedance
of the load must be equal to or match the internal impedance of the source
for maximum transfer of power. From our table, we see how this is so.
Assuming a 10-volt battery having an internal resistance of 1 ohm, we con-
nectvarious loads ranging from 0. 25 ohm to 4 ohms. From the calculations,
it is seen that the greatest amount of power is delivered to the load when the
load has a resistance or impedance of 1 ohm--the same as the internal im-
pedance of the battery or voltage source.
The transformer is a useful device for matching the impedance of a generator

to that of its load. This is important because in radio work, it is often neces-
sary to connect a low-impedance load to a high -impedance generator, and
vice versa. Unless there is an impedance match, there will not be maximum
transfer of power. Assuming a source or generator impedance of 10, 000
ohms, we will match it to a load of 400 ohms. Using a transformer, the
primary impedance must match the generator impedance, and the secondary
impedance must match the load impedance. The turns ratio of the transform-
er must be:
Nn PT* / 10, 000 /25 Then, Nn
W =
V 400
=
v~r nt
= 5:1
If 100 volts are applied to the primary, the secondary voltage is 20 volts.
Secondary current is 20/400, or .05 ampere. The primary current is 100/
10,000, or .01 ampere. Since the primary power (1 watt) is equal to the
secondary power, the transformer has matched a 400-ohm load to a 10,000-
ohm source with maximum transfer of power. We can say that the source
"sees" the primary impedance as a matching impedance, and the secondary,
which by transformer action receives the primary power, "sees" the load
impedance as a matching impedance.
SUMMARY 2-59
Any change of current flowing in a circuit containing inductance produces a

counter emf which opposes the change taking place. This self-induced
emf tends to prevent an increasing current from increasing and a de-
creasing current from decreasing.
Basically, Lenz's law states, "A changing current induces an emf whose po-
"
larity is such as to oppose the change in current. 2
The greater the coil inductance, the higher the induced emf, and the greater
the opposition to the increase and decrease of current in the coil.
Mutual induction occurs when a changing magnetic field produced by one coil
cuts the windings of a second coil and induces an emf in the second coil.
Inductive reactance (Xl) is the opposition presented by an inductance to an
alternating current. Xl = 2rfL.
In a series R-L circuit, the voltage drops across R and L are 90° out of
phase.
In a circuit containing both inductance and resistance, impedance (Z) is the
total opposition to the flow of alternating cu rrent, and is a combination
of Xl and R. It is expressed in ohms. Z =V Xl + R^.
Ohm's law for a-c circuits is: E = IZ; I = E/Z; and Z = E/I.
The vectorial sum of all the voltage drops in a series R-L circuit is equal to
the applied voltage.
The primary winding of a transformer absorbs the input electrical energy
from a voltage source; the secondary winding delivers the induced output
voltage to a load.
The turns ratio between the secondary and primary windings of a transform-
er determines whether the secondary voltage is greater or less than the
primary voltage.
The primary-secondary current ratio is opposite to that of the primary-
secondary voltage ratfol
In the transfer of power from an electrical source to a load, the load imped-
ance must be equal to, or match, the internal impedance of the source
for maximum transfer of power.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is self-induction of emf? Describe its action.

2. Define inductive reactance and give the formula for calculating the X L of
a circuit.
3. Describe the action of mutual induction and tell what its purpose is.
4. In an inductive circuit, what are the phase relationships between: (1) the
current and the counter emf it produces; (2) the applied voltage and the
counter emf; (3) the applied voltage and the current?
5. What is impedance? How is it calculated in series R-L circuits?
6. What two methods can be used to determine the impedance of a series
R-L circuit?
7. StateOhm's law for a-c circuits.
8. What is the total current in a parallel R-L circuit equal to?
9. What formula is used to find the impedance of a parallel R-L circuit?
10. Give two main functions of a transformer.
11. What determines whether a voltage step-up or step-down takes place in
a transformer?
12. Name three types of losses inherent in a transformer.
2-60 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Definition, Function, Construction
An electrical capacitor (also known as a condenser) stores electricity by ac-

cumulating free electrons on a metal surface, and then releases them as a cur-
rent into the circuit of which the capacitor is a part. It can be said that capac -
itance is a property of a circuit in which energy may be stored in the form of
an electric field. This capability that we call capacitance is generally desig-
nated by the letter C. Although electrical capacitors are used in many differ-
ent ways (as you shall see), and seemingly for different purposes, every use
entails the storage and release of electrical energy. This action underlies the
definition of capacitance - that property of a circuit which opposes a change
in voltage . This property differs from that of an inductance, which opposes
any change in current.
CAPACITANCE IS A PROPERTY OF AN ELECTRIC

CIRCUIT THAT TENDS TO OPPOSE
A CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
lT
-metal plates or
conductors
wire lead LETTER SYMBOL
m insulator or
dielectric
DIAGRAM SYMBOL HI- or
H(-
THE CAPACITOR
...between conductors
between an antenna
and the mast ...between adjacent turns of a coil
Any two conductors separated by an insulator (called a dielectric) can behave

as a capacitor. The conductors may be long or short lengths of wire, large
or small pieces of metal or metal foil, or any other conducting material. The
dielectric that separates the conducting materials may be the insulation around
the wires, a thin insulating film chemically deposited on the metal, ceramics,
mica, oil, or wax-impregnated paper to mention just a few. In some cases,
the dielectric is air, and in still others, a vacuum. As a rule, capacitors used
in electrical and radio circuits are specially manufactured items but, as will
be explained later, the metal parts of electrical and radio systems often be-
have as capacitors.
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Charging a Capacitor
The action of storing electricity in a capacitor is called charging . The elec-

tricity stored in the capacitor is called the charge. As used here, "charge"
refers to an amount of electricity being stored, rather than to the fundamental
particles: the electron and the proton. Theactionof releasing the stored elec-
tricity is called discharging . For purposes of explanation, let us assemble a
basic capacitor consisting of two thin sheets of aluminum 10 inches square sep-
arated by air and positioned 1/2 inch apart. Because air separates the two
active plates (conductors) of the capacitor, the unit is called an air -dielectric
capacitor.
IN THE UNCHARGED IN THE CHARGED

CAPACITOR CAPACITOR
PRODUCED BY FORCING FREE ELECTRONS FROM ON PLATE ONTO ANOTHER
We begin by assuming that the two metal plates are electrically neutral -
each plate contains equal amounts of positive and negative electricity. The
capacitor is therefore in an uncharged state. In the process of charging, one
plate (plate P) of the capacitor is made to give up free electrons and be left
with a preponderance of positive electricity. The other plate (plate N), is made
to accept as many free electrons as were released by plate P, and now has
a surplus of negative electricity. Both electrical conditions are created si-
multaneously. When this electrical condition prevails, the capacitor is said
to contain a charge, or be charged.
Charging a Capacitor (Cont'd)
battery
r®
zfe <2> <=> x Positive Charge
(electron deficiency)
Negative Charge
(electron surplus)
A CAPACITOR IS CHARGED BY PLACING A

DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL ACROSS PLATES
To charge a capacitor, it is necessary to apply a voltage (or difference of po-

tential) to its plates (across its terminals). In other words, the electrical
energy stored in the capacitor must come from a source of voltage (we show
a battery). Assume the circuit elements shown. The open switch isolates the
battery from the capacitor. Then, the switch is closed and the capacitor be-
comes charged from the voltage applied to its plates by the battery.
The positive terminal of a voltage source is always deficient in free electrons.

Itdraws these electrons from one plate of the capacitor and leaves that plate
(P) with a deficiency of free electrons hence, with a positive charge. At the
;
same time, the negative terminal of the voltage source releases an equal num-
ber of free electrons into the wire connected to it, thereby forcing free elec-
trons onto the other plate (N). These added free electrons create a surplus of
negative charge on this plate, thus giving the N
plate a negative charge. The
creation of such an electrical condition on the plates of the capacitor is known
as charging. The free electrons that are pulled from the P plate of the capa-
citor to the positive terminal of the battery and the free electrons that move
from the negative terminal of the battery to the N plate constitute a momentary
current usually referred to as a charging current.
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 2-63
Building Up Voltage in the Capacitor - Charging Current
From the instant that free electrons leave one plate and begin accumulating on
the other, charging current flows, and a difference of potential (voltage) ap-
pears between the plates of the capacitor. (Note thatthe charging current flows
first; then, the voltage buildup occurs. ) Unless deliberately prevented from
doing so, the charging (applied) voltage will continue attracting free electrons
from one plate and forcing them onto the other. This process builds up the
capacitor voltage until it becomes equal to the maximum value of the charging
voltage. The voltage built up across the capacitor has the same polarity as
the charging voltage; consequently, it acts in opposition to the charging volt-
age. When the capacitor voltage equals the charging voltage, the two voltages
offset each other, and there is no further movement of free electrons (no charg-
ing current).
CHARGING ~
VOLTAGE IS
10 V moss capacitor, charging current

flows until difference of potential
between capacitor plates equals

Switch is closed and
charging current begins to flow charging voltage.
DIFFERENCE OF
POTENTIAL = 2 V
Charging current
continues to flow,
increasing potential
difference between
capacitor plates DIFFERENCE
OF POTENTIAL
= 7 V
FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES, PURE
CAPACITANCE CHARGING OCCURS
ALMOST INSTANTLY
DIFFERENCE
OF
Charging current stops— capacitor is POTENTIAL
fully charged to value of charging voltage = 10 V
There is a limit to how much voltage can be built up across a given capacitor
by a given charging voltage. The capacitor voltage cannot exceed the maximum
value of the charging voltage at any time But it is possible to subject a ca-
.
pacitor which has been charged by a lower value of charging voltage to an in-
creased value of charging voltage. The capacitor voltage then rises to the
higher value. The ability to charge a capacitor to higher and higher values of
voltage is not without limitations. This limitation arises from a construction-
al characteristic of the capacitor. Every capacitor has a maximum d-c work-
ing voltage rating (which willbe explained later). For the present, let us say
that the capacitor voltage rating sets the limit on the highest value of charging
voltage that may be applied to the capacitor.
—
Demonstrating the Voltage across a Charged Capacitor
When a charged capacitor is disconnected from the charging voltage source,

the charge remains in the capacitor. If the capacitor is very "good, " it
retains its charge for a long period of time, during which time a voltage will
be present across its terminals. This is not the usual way in which capac-
itors are used in electrical and communication systems, but this capability
does have its uses.
Assume that a capacitor is connected to a 110-volt d-c charging source by

means of a single-pole double throw (spdt) switch. After the lapse of suffi-
cient time (a short interval) to charge the capacitor fully, the switch is
opened, thus removing the capacitor from contact with the charging circuit.
To prove that the capacitor is charged and that a voltage exists across its
terminals, we connect an ordinary 40-watt, 110-volt household electric light
across the capacitor by closing the switch. The instant the switch is closed,
the lamp glows brightly for a moment. The electrical energy required to
light the lamp was obtained from the charged capacitor. The voltage across
the terminals of the charged capacitor overcomes the resistance of the lamp
filament (and the connecting wires), and allows the surplus free electrons on
the negative plate of the capacitor to behave as current and move to the posi-
tively charged plate of the capacitor through the filament. This action dis-
charges the capacitor. The movement of the free electrons from the
negatively charged plate of the charged capacitor constitutes a discharge
current: this is accompanied by a fall of voltage across the capacitor to
zero. After this discharge, the filament no longer glows, because there is
no flow of electrons (current) through the lamp filament.
charging current
~©— *-
cmcm
lamp
m oiscmeme
circuit open
a capacitor
1 J5L
-f switch closed''
—
110 -volt between I
Capacitor charges LAMP UNLIT
d-c source points 0 to full 110 volts of 40-watt lamp
A and
_l_o
—e— —e—
B
j u charging source —r—
switch open
I4JL—.JL—
charging-^
I
lam P
-r circuit open
|
circuit
open
110 -volt LAMP UNLIT
d-c source Capacitor fully
+ charged to
L it 110 volts
discharge current
© [
110-volt
charging
circuit open i
vifch closed AI
LAMPLIGHTS
MOMENTARILY AS
between y
d-c source Capacitor G CAPACITOR DISCHARGES.
points B and C
discharges I
CURRENT PASSES
through lamp
THROUGH IT.
—
The Electric Field between the Capacitor Plates
You have learned that every fundamental particle of electricity — each

electron and each proton - is inseparably associated with an invisible region
of energy that exists all around the charge. The zone of energy is referredto
as an electric field made up of electric lines of force.
Capacitor
plates neutral
d-c voltag
Electric field"produced
—+ h
t—
negative-
going plate
T'TTT
'
source -
V
BY POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE positive-
; j ; |
;
J ~ going
switch closed ++-++ ++-+ h plate
e— ^ -e-
d-c voltage negative

Capacitor fully charged
source fTTTTTTTTTTT TTTTTTTTTTTr plate
(maximum strength)-
JIM M M I I
M
I I
'
field II M
! !
II
*1 I I
I I l I II I I I I l l
- positive
++++++ + + + + + + plate
Arrows between plates represent ELECTROSTATIC

LINES OF FORCE which make up
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD between plates. FIELD
STRENGTH is proportional to POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE between plates.
Beginning with the first instant after the flow of charging current (the
appearance of a positive charge on one plate of the capacitor and a negative
charge on the other), an electric field is developed between the two charged
plates within the space between the plates. This field is between the posi-
tive charges on the positive plate and the negative charges on the negative
plate. As more and more electrons are removed from the plate and more
and more electrons are added to the negative plate, the lines of force in-
crease in number, indicating increased field intensity. This action accom-
panies the rise in voltage. When the capacitor voltage has reached its maxi-
mum value, the field intensity has reached a maximum, and remains as long
as the charge given the capacitor remains unaltered. The energy stored in
the capacitor is in the electric field.
Discharging a Capacitor
All of the electricity stored in a theoretically perfect capacitor can be re-

covered from it by providing a suitable electrical conducting path between
the terminals of the capacitor. Such a current path is called a discharge
path. The electric light filament referred to previously formed such a path.
Whether the energy taken out of the charged capacitor is used or wasted is a
function of the electrical makeup of the discharge path. The usual discharge
path is the circuit connected between the terminals of the capacitor. It is
never the battery which serves as the charging voltage source.
Resistance placed across

charged plates of
capacitor provides path
for discharge current.
discharge current
When fully discharged,

capacitor plates are
electrically neutral, and
no discharge current flows.
CAPACITOR DISCHARGES WHEN THERE IS A

DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL BETWEEN PLATES
AND A COMPLETE EXTERNAL PATH
BETWEEN CAPACITOR TERMINALS
The action of recovering the energy stored in a charged capacitor is re-

ferred to as discharging the capacitor. During discharge, the surplus free
electrons on the negatively charged plate move toward the positive charges
on the positively charged plate via the discharge path. This movement of
surplus electrons reduces the negative charge on the negative plate and the
positive charge on the positive plate. Since the movement of free electrons
during discharge is a directed motion, it is actually a current, and is re-
ferred to as the discharge current. The loss of charge on the negatively and
positively charged plates by the flow of the discharge current causes the
voltage originally built up across the capacitor plates to decrease. When all
the surplus electrons have moved from the negatively charged plate to the
positively charged plate, thus making both plates electrically neutral, there
is no further charge in the capacitor, and the voltage across its terminals is
zero. The capacitor is then fully discharged.
. -
Charging a Capacitor from an A-C Voltage Source
A capacitor can be charged as readily by an a-c voltage as by a d-c voltage.

However, the constantly changing amplitude and periodic polarity reversal
of the a-c voltage point up many interesting capacitor characteristics.
Assume a sine waveform voltage from an a-c source. The charging voltage
starts at zero amplitude and increases in a positive direction. The first in-
crease in charging voltage results in the flow of maximum charging current.
The instant charge is applied to the capacitor, a voltage, or potential dif-
ference, starts building up across the capacitor. As the charging voltage
increases in amplitude, more and more charge is added to the capacitor by
progressively decreasing amounts of current. The decrease in current is
due to the increased bucking action by the voltage (sometimes called counter
voltage) building up in the capacitor. When the charging voltage reaches its
peak value, there is zero charging current and maximum voltage built up in
the capacitor.
The Charge and Discharge
of a Capacitor
-©- A to B B to C
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR
I
CHARGES
AND IS FULLY
— “
imm (
r
-st
y)
DISCHARGES
AND IS FULLY
$
B
f- DISCHARGED-
CHARGED AT B AT C /""v
-©- -©-
C to D D to E -e-
CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR
CHARGES IN h DISCHARGES
OPPOSITE
DIRECTION
AND IS FULLY
f
++ © y)
+
AND IS
DISCHARGED^*
FULLY :
CHARGED AT D
-©-
\c
-©-
AT E
-©- w
Having reached its peak positive value at the end of the first quarter -cycle
(90°), the charging voltage begins to decrease in amplitude. At the first
instant of decrease, the voltage built up across the capacitor exceeds the
value of the charging voltage source. The voltage in the capacitor begins to
fall as charge decreases. Note that the flow of discharge current began
first, followed by a fall in capacitor voltage. Similarly, the charging current
flow was ahead of the rise in capacitor voltage. The time sequence between
the charging current and the rise in capacitor voltage, and between the dis-
charge current and the fall in capacitor voltage, is described by saying that
the capacitor current leads the capacitor voltage by a quarter -cycle, or 90°.
Voltage and Current Phase Shift in a Capacitor
Current and voltage variations in the capacitor during the positive half-cycle
of the charging voltage repeat themselves during the negative half-cycle. Of
course, the polarity change in charging voltage produces changes in the di-
rection of current flow and in the polarity of the voltage across the capac-
itor, but the 90° phase difference between I and E is constant throughout the
cycle. (This is an important point to remember. ) It is also important to
remember that the capacitor charge is zero when the current in the circuit
is maximum, and maximum when the current is zero. Therefore, the charge
on the plate of a capacitor is said to lag the current through it by 90°. How-
ever, since the building up and falling off of charge is the building up and
falling off of voltage, the voltage across the capacitor is said to lag the cur-
rent through it by 90°, or the current is said to lead the voltage by 90°.
From Kirchhoff's law, we know that the sum

of the voltage drops in a series
circuit is equal to the applied voltage. Therefore, the voltage across the
capacitor is, by definition, a voltage opposite to the applied voltage, or 180°
out of phase with the applied voltage. Thus, when the applied or charging
voltage is zero, there is no opposition, and when the applied voltage is maxi-
mum, there is a maximum opposition — a voltage produced by the charge on
the capacitor. The variation in charge on the plates of the capacitor also
follows the form of the sine wave and is in phase with the voltage, since for
any given capacitor, the voltage across it depends directly on the charge.
IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
1 capacitor
CURRENT LEAPS VOLTAGE BY 9U°
VECTOR PRESENTATION
I leads E by 90°
90°
_L
Unit of Capacitance - the Farad
The unit of capacitance is the farad, named in honor of Michael Faraday, the
scientist who advanced the concept of electromagnetic induction. The number
of electrons entering and leaving the capacitor plates depends upon the free
electrons available and on the applied voltage. If the applied voltage is high,
the forces of attraction and repulsion are great, and the charge deposited on
the plates is also great. It was discovered that for a given capacitor, the
ratio between the amount of this charge and the voltage causing it is always
a constant. Therefore, the ratio of the charge (Q) to the voltage (E) is con-
sidered to be a measure of the capacitor action, called capacitance (C). The
formula for capacitance is: C = Q/E.
By a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 farad if a 1-volt difference

definition,
in potential results in the storage of 1 coulomb of charge. One coulomb
represents a quantity of 6. 28 x 1018 electrons (6, 280, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000).
For practical purposes, a capacitance of 1 farad represents a fantastically
large capacitance. As a practical matter, capacitors used in radio com-
munications are measured in terms of microfarads (one-millionth of a farad,
pf) and micromicrofarads (one -millionth of a millionth of a farad, |iuf).
Suppose we find the capacitance of a capacitor when the charge (Q) stored is
0. 001 coulomb and the voltage is 1000 volts. By applying the above formula,
C = Q/E, we obtain 0. 001/1000, or 0.000001 farad.) We call this 1 microfarad. |
M FARAD - A measure of the Storage Ability of a Capacitor
1.000.
^ .
C (capacitance in
...
farads) =
Q- (charge
,
in
.
coulombs)
,
.
1.000. E (voltage in volts)
CAPACITANCE CONVERSIONS
1,000,000 MICRO FARADS Uf) = I FARAD (f)
000 MICROMICROFARADS {HU f) = I MICROFARAD
000.000.000 MICROMICROFARADS {HMD - I FARAD
1.000, 000,000,000 PICOFARADS (pf) = I FARAD
1 000,000
f OR O.OOOOOI f I MICROFARAD
,
0R O OOOOOUf I MICROMICROFARAD
1.000,000
I
f OR 0.000 000000001 f I MICROMICROFARAD
1,000,000,000,000
f OR 0.000000000001 f '
PICOFARAD
1
, 000 000 000,000
, ,
I
500>U>Uf * O.OOOS^f 50^f * 0.00005 f 500 Mi * 0.0005 f
10MH f O.OOOOIOAf O.OUt * O.OOOOOOOI f 0.001/rf * lOOO.ittff

3000^«f * 0.003>rf 0.0047>Kf = 0.0000000047 f 0.0047*f =4700^xrf
50 pf 0.000050 ju\ 0.05,uf = 0.00000005 f 0.005/rf * 5000 pf
Factors Determining Capacitance Area and Plate Separation
m W/icimei or a cmcm...
'•>:
the tUlHf It tint a tleeliietl ehtige...
Area (and capacitance)

..varies directly with
can be increased by
plate surface area
interleaving plates
Given capacitance
..varies inversly with
the distance between Greater capacitance

plate surfaces
Smaller capacitance
—H \*~ dista nee between plates
Three factors determine the capacitance of a capacitor: the area of plate

surfaces; the distance between the plates; and the material used as the in-
sulation or dielectric between the plates. The capacitance of a capacitor is
related directly to the surface area of the plates. Given a fixed dielectric
material and distance separating the plates, the capacitance is directly pro-
portional to the area of the plates. The greater the area, the greater the
amount of electricity (charge) which can be stored in the capacitor. This
follows from the condition that the greater the area, the more the number of
free electrons available for charging. Doubling the surface area, with
everything else being fixed, doubles the capacitance; halving the area pro-
duces half the capacitance. We shall see that different capacitor designs give
various capacitance values in the same physical space.
Assuming a capacitor with a given plate area and dielectric material, the
closer the facing plate surfaces are to each other, the greater the capaci-
tance. This is an inverse proportion. Halving the area of separation
doubles the capacitance; doubling the area of separation halves the capaci-
tance. The reason for this is that the closer the facing surfaces are to each
other, the more strongly the unlike charges on the surfaces are attracted
towards each other. This tends to concentrate the free electrons on the
negatively charged surface nearest to the positively charged surface, thus
allowing more negative charges to be crowded onto a plate or plates of a
given area.
There is a limitation to the permissible closeness of the active surfaces to

each other, regardless of the separating medium. If the voltage built up
across the capacitor exceeds the voltage rating of the capacitor (as explained
later), electrons may be pulled away from the negatively charged surfaces
and leap to the positively charged surfaces inside the capacitor. This action
discharges the capacitor and may destroy it.
5
*
Factors that Determine Capacitance Dielectric Constant
Given a capacitor with plates of a certain area and separated from each
other by a specific distance, its capacitance is a function of the kind of
material used for the dielectric. The standard of comparison is dry air,
which is considered as having a dielectric constant (K) of 1. The dielectric
constant of a vacuum differs so little from air that both are considered equal
to unity. Dielectric constant is the ability of a material or medium to permit
the establishment of electric lines of force between oppositely charged
plates. Many materials will support more electric lines of force in a given
space than air; these are said to have a dielectric constant greater than 1.
Dielectric constants vary considerably. As examples, various types of mica
have dielectric constants of from 5 to 9, and some forms of titanium dioxide
have dielectric constants of up to 120. Some special kinds of chemical film
deposits may have dielectric constants as high as 1000 or more. A dielec-
tric (other than air) makes the positively charged surface of a capacitor
repel more free electrons and the negatively charged surface accept more
electrons than when air is the dielectric, thus increasing the capacitance.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS VOLTAGE BREAKDOWNS

Material Dielectric Strength
Material
air _ 1
(volts per 0.001 inch)
resin _ 2.5
air 80
hard rubber _ 2.8
fiber 50
dry paper _ 3.5
Bakelite 500
glass _ 4.2
glass 200
mica ..5-9 2000
iica
porcelain _ 5.5
castor oil 380
Bakelite .4. 5-7.
paper (beeswaxed) 1800
Mycalex .8 1200
paper (paraffined)
titanium dioxide porcelain 750
compounds . 90-170
Normal orbit of
With the same plate size and separation dielectric is strained Voltage
this capacitor-^ has 8 times in charged capacitor.
breakdown
\7
I When excessive voltage is placed across

K=8
—^
capacitor, electrons are ''torn'' from orbit
the capacitance of this capacitor
ir. and current flows through dielectric.
The dielectric material deserves one further consideration - that of break-

down voltage. While the dielectric is an insulator, voltages across the
plates of a capacitor may be sufficiently high to "tear” electrons out of the
atomic orbits of the dielectric. When this occurs, the dielectric "breaks
down, " and arcing occurs between the plates through the dielectric. In many
instances, this destroys the capacitor, as it is short-circuited. Thus, it is
important to observe the dielectric strength of a material. A high voltage
would be needed to break down a vacuum dielectric, but lower voltages
could break down certain other substances. Thus, the breakdown voltage of
a dielectric must be considered as well as its dielectric constant.
Fixed Capacitors - Paper Type
The simplest and most widely used form of paper capacitor consists of two
strips of metal foil rolled up, with strips of paper which have been impreg-
nated with an insulating material (dielectric) placed between them. Im-
pregnating materials generally include various types of oils, waxes, and
plastics. The type used determines the voltage, temperature, and insulation-
resistance characteristics of the capacitor. When the capacitor is to be used
at high working voltages, several layers of insulating paper are used.
extended
outer
PAPER CAPACITORS;
foil
PAPER TUBULAR
Range: 0.0001 — 2;af
Basie shape of paper tubular
DCWV: 100-1000 volts
(oil-impregnated types
foil crimped have DCWV to
around lead end 10,000 volts)
insulating extended
paper inner foil
(Thin layer of
PAPER TUBULAR CONSTRUCTION
aluminum is
deposited on
paper dielectric)
METALLIZED TYPE
(sealed in metal tube)
Range: 0.05 — 2 ju.f
DCWV: 600 volts Range: 0.005 — 2 îf
DCWV: 200-600 volts
UP TO 18 AT 150 DCWV
After the foil and paper strips are rolled up, the protruding ends of the foil
are crimped over so that the individual layers of each strip are in electrical
contact with each other. A lead is attached to each end, and an outer cover
of insulating material is added. The cover is marked with the capacitance
and working voltage, and a black ring is usually printed around one end to
mark the terminal which is connected to the outermost layer of foil. In
paper capacitors, the total capacitance is predetermined by the thickness
and dielectric constant of the paper and the total of the foil plates. Capaci-
tors are usually marked with a d-c working voltage (DCWV) which must be
observed. It should be remembered that a-c voltages are spoken of in terms
of rms (effective) value, and that the peak value is 1. 41 times the rms value.
Thus, when connecting a capacitor in an a-c circuit, we must always keep in
mind the peak a-c voltage that will be impressed across the capacitor plates.
When paper capacitors are required to have a capacitance of over 1 uf, their
physical size generally becomes too large for convenient mounting. Under
such conditions, the capacitor is placed in a metal case filled with insulating
material and then hermetically sealed. Units of this type are known as
potted, or bathtub capacitors.
Fixed Capacitors - Mica and Ceramic
The mica capacitor consists of a number of flat strips of metal foil separated
by similarly shaped strips of mica. The foil strips serve as the capacitor
plates, and the mica acts as the dielectric. Alternate plates are connected
together. An electrode is attached to each set of plates, and a terminal or
lead wire is connected to each electrode. The entire unit is then encased in
a container of plastic insulating material. An alternate construction is that
of the "silvered" mica capacitor. In this unit, very thin layers of silver are
deposited directly on one side of the mica, and the plates are stacked to-
gether so that alternate layers of silver are separated by alternate layers of
mica. The result is the equivalent of the foil construction. Mica capacitors
are available in three basic types: molded, molded-case potted, and ceramic-
case potted. In addition, the "button" type mica unit is very popular.
emenm
Mm 1*4 Comic
wire
ceramic
\\
outer plate-4
wire lead
^
outer coated plote^
u
|
TUBULAR CERAMIC
P
inner
coated
inner plate
wire lead
cross-sectional view
1
SILVERED MICA
Range:
DCWV: 500
HEAVY-DUTY MICA
5î.f
500mm1 @ 12,500 volts

— 0.01
volts
H CERAMIC DISC
Range: ljusf
DCWV: 1000
rolled ceramic
Range: lOOwui
— 0.02*if
volts
—2 jif
j£i f to 0.1 jaf @ 500 volts DCWV: 100 volts
The basic construction of the ceramic capacitor consists of a ceramic disc

or tube with silver or copper plates deposited on the opposite faces of the
ceramic material. In the manufacturing process, electrodes are attached to
the plates, leads or terminals are fastened to the electrodes, and a moisture-
proof coating of plastic or ceramic is added. Ceramic capacitors are avail-
able in a number of basic shapes. The outstanding characteristic, however,
is the high dielectric constant of ceramics. Steatite ceramics have a dielec-
tric constant of 6, magnesium titanate has a K in the region of 16, and
barium titanate has a K of approximately 1200. Ceramic capacitors have
good stability with regard to temperature and voltage changes. The high-K
ceramics provide increased capacitance without increased size.
Capacitor Color Coding and Temperature Coefficient
As in the case of resistors, capacitors are also frequently color coded to

indicate various capacitor characteristics. The points usually covered by
color coding of capacitors are: capacitance, capacitance tolerance, and
temperature coefficient. Some capacitors use color coding to indicate the
d-c working voltage.
MOLDED PAPER
CAPACITOR COLOR CODE
capacitance
SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
(FORMERLY RETMA)
CAPACITANCE IN MICROMICROFARADS
CAPACITANCE *
COLOR 5 NT TOLERANCE
I
multiplier TER. STIC

f?gure t */.
BLACK 0 1 20 (M) A
BROWN 1 10 1 in B
RE0 2 100 2 <G) C LETTER DESIGNATION FOR
ORANGE 3 1 ,000 3(H) 0 CHARACTERISTIC
YELLOW 4 10,000 E TEMP. COEFF.
CHARAC- CAPACITANCE DRIFT
GREEN 5 5 J ) F PARTS PER MILLION
( MAXI MUM )
(
TERISTIC
BLUE 6 PER 'C
VIOLET 7 A t 1000 5% OF NOM CAP, + 1) JJUF

(
GRAY 8 B 1 500 (3% OF NOM CAP, + ) HUF 1
WHITE 9 C t 200 j
(0 5% OF NOM CAP. + 0.5 MW F 1
GOLD O.l 5 ( J) 0 i ioo (0.3% OF NOM CAP -t 0. ) HU F 1
SILVER .01 10 (K) E + 100 TO - 20 (0 1 % OF NOM CAP + 0 1

>WUF
Mica- and ceramic-dielectric capacitors bear an electrical rating known as

temperature coefficient. It is expressed by a number between 0 and 1300,
prefixed by a minus or a plus sign (e. g., -220 or + 30). These designations
state the change in capacitance (in ppf) from the nominal rating per million
parts of capacitance (per pf) per degree Centigrade (ppm/°C) rise in tem-
perature. The reference temperature is 20°C, which is the same as 68°F.
The minus symbol indicates that the capacitance decreases; the plus symbol
indicates that the capacitance increases. The prefix letter N indicates the
same as the minus symbol, whereas the prefix NPO stands for negative-
positive-zero, and indicates that the capacitance change is substantially zero
over a wide range of temperature increase and decrease. For example, an
N750 0.0001 = pf capacitor would have a decrease in capacitance of 750 x
0.0001, or 0.075 ppf per degree rise in temperature.
Variable Capacitors
A variable capacitor affords a continuous variation in capacitance between a

fixed minimum and a fixed maximum value. While capacitance can be varied
by varying plate area, distance between plates, and dielectric material, the
most popular method is the varying of plate area. In this capacitor, there is
a fixed set of metallic plates (called stators) mounted on some insulated
base. Interleaved with these stator plates are the rotor (rotating) plates,
controlled by a shaft. As the shaft is turned, the rotor plates mesh with (but
do not touch) the stator plates, providing a variation in capacitor plate sur-
face area. Usually, the entire frame is connected to the stator which serves
as the grounded or common plates. Where more than one circuit is to be
controlled, variable capacitors may be ganged to give simultaneous control.
The Electrolytic Capacitor
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
TERMINALS TERMINALS
(A) WET TYPE (B) DRY TYPE

A very prominent type of capacitor used in electronic equipment is the
electrolytic variety. In essence, it consists of a positive (anode) metal
plate (aluminum foil or metal sprayed on cotton gauze, or a porous tantalum-
oxide powder core) that is immersed in a liquid (wet type) or paste (dry type)
bath known as the electrolyte. The entire capacitor is contained within a
metal housing* which usually serves as the negative (or cathode) terminal and
as means of contact with the electrolyte, the other active surface in the
capacitor. The dielectric is a very thin film (usually aluminum or tantalum
oxide) which is "forced” on the metal plate.
At the time the electrolytic capacitor is being made, a d-c voltage is applied
between the metal container (the negative terminal) and the metal plate (the
positive, or anode electrode). It causes a relatively high current to flow in
one direction inside the unit. As a result, a very thin dielectric film is
formed on the outside of the positive (anode) electrode. As this film forms,
the current decreases, eventually reaching a minimum. This minimum
current is referred to as the leakage current. When the forming is com-
pleted, the capacitor is polarized; the metal plate is positive and the elec-
trolyte is negative. The capacitor functions properly as long as the charging
voltage has a polarity corresponding to that of the capacitor electrodes.
This is a very important condition; hence, the conventional electrolytic
capacitor bears polarity designations. The d-c type of unit is not suitable
for charging by an a-c voltage. Another form of construction is used in a-c
electrolytic capacitors. These capacitors contain two formed positive elec-
trodes both of which act as either positive or negative electrodes, thus per-
mitting the periodic reversal of polarity of the applied voltage.
The Electrolytic Capacitor (Cont’d)
The electrolytic capacitor offers the advantages of a very high capacitance in

a small space, and at low cost. Capacitance values available in "electro-
lytics" extend from as low as 1 microfarad to several thousand microfarads.
This huge capacitance arises from the extreme thinness of the dielectric
film which, in effect, means that the active surfaces of the capacitor - the
metal plate and the electrolyte - are very close to each other. Film thick-
nesses of as little as 0.00001 inch are commonplace. However, the thin
film introduces a limitation in working voltage. D-c electrolytic capacitors
of up to perhaps 100 pf have working voltage ratings up to 450 volts d-c. As
the capacitance ratings increase, the working voltage ratings decrease
because the dielectric film is thinner; hence, the working voltage must be
reduced to prevent puncture of the dielectric film.
Capacitors rated at several thousand microfarads have working voltage

ratings of from 6 to about 25 volts d-c. Interestingly enough, electrolytic
capacitors sometimes are self-healing. Proper polarity of the applied volt-
age reforms the puncture in the film and "heals" the capacitor, providing
the puncture is small. Operation at voltages in excess of the rating working
voltage is not recommended.
Connecting Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the effect is to produce a total

capacitance equal to the sum of all the individual capacitances. The reason
for this is that, effectively, the total plate surface area of each capacitor is
added, providing a larger total plate area . Since plate area is one of the
factors that determines the capacitance of a capacitor, connecting capacitors
in parallel increases the total capacitance. The formula for parallel capac-
itances is: Ct = Cl + C2 + C3 + . . . . Thus, 5-pf, 10-pf, and 15-pf capac-
itors connected in parallel would provide a total capacitance of 30 pf.
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total voltage of the circuit is
applied across each capacitor. Therefore, no matter how high the voltage
rating of each capacitor in the parallel hookup, the unit with the lowest volt-
age rating effectively becomes the weakest link and limits the amount of
voltage that can be applied to the parallel combination.
Connecting Two Capacitors in Parallel has
the Effect of Increasing the Total Plate Area
(capacitance increases)
U(f| U(f| 2*f

+ =
Connecting Capacitors in Series
Connecting capacitors in series has the effect of reducing the total capaci-
tance tc a value less than the lowest capacitance This is the equivalent of
.
connecting resistors in parallel. The reason for the reduction in total

capacitance when they are connected in series is that effectively, we have
added together the spacing between the plates of all the capacitors. Since the
capacitance of a capacitor varies inversely with the spacing between the
capacitor plates, each series capacitor added to a series string reduces the
total capacitance. From this, we get the formula for the total capacitance of
a series circuit: Ct = (Cl x C2)/(C1 + C2). Thus, if a 10-pf and a 15-pf
capacitor were connected in series, the total capacitance would be: =
(10 x 15)/(10 + 15) = 150/25, or 6 pf. Where more than 2 capacitors are
connected in series we can use the formula Ct = l/[(l/Cl) + (1/C2) + (1/C3)
+ • ] •
. *
Connecting Two Capacitors in Series has the

Effect of Increasing the distance between
Capacitor Plates (capacitance decreases)
1 p.f 1 ju.f 0.5/j.f
| + |
= |—
1 1 1
Cl x C2
Total capacitance of series capacitors: Ct =
^ + ^
5u,f
C2
10uf
HI
C2
— ct ^*1°
5+10
= — 15
= *
3>/3p.f
Voltage rating of series capacitors equal to sum

of individual voltage ratings. Each dielectric When connecting
electrolytics in series,
spacing adds to
lOjjrf lOpf connect plus to minus,
voltage rating
as when connecting
= 5jif at 600 volts
cells in series
200v 400 v
When capacitors are connected in series, the breakdown voltage of each unit
is added to provide a breakdown voltage equal to the sum of each of the
capacitor breakdown voltages. Two capacitors having a 600-volt and 1000-
volt d-c working voltage provide a total safe working voltage of 1600 volts
d-c when connected in series. Thus, series connection provides a reduction
in capacitance and an increase in working voltage rating.
t
Capacitive Reactance (Xc)
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, a certain

amount of current will flow in the circuit. We recall that when a charge
builds up in a capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor acts in opposition
to the applied voltage. The amount of opposition that a capacitor offers to
the flow of current in an a-c circuit depends upon the capacitance of the
capacitor and upon the frequency of the a-c voltage source. The greater the
size of the capacitor, the greater the amount of energy it can store, and the
more the current that must flow to charge it. In addition, since it takes
time to charge a capacitor, the lower the frequency of the a-c charging volt-
age, the slower will be the buildup of charge in a capacitor. The net effect
of all this is to produce a certain opposition to the flow of current. This
opposition in a capacitive circuit is called capacitive reactance and is
measured in ohms.
capacitive reactance (X^)

1
=
4 C 27T fC
in ohms-— in cycles—*'
^
1
^'
s'»in fa rads
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE it lie OPPOSITION TO

COAAENT HOW tIM If » Ctfuim It u A-C Cimii
While different principles and effects are involved, the net effect of capaci-
tive reactance on the flow of current in an a-c circuit is the same as that of
inductive reactance. Whereas inductive reactance is expressed as Xj_,,
capacitive reactance is expressed as Xc; both are measured in ohms. In
addition, inductive reactance varies with inductance and frequency; capacitive
reactance varies with capacitance and frequency — only inversly. The
formula for computing the reactance of a capacitor is: Xq = 1/2 it fC, where
2 ? equals 6. 28, f is the frequency of the a-c source in cycles, and C is the
capacitance of the capacitor in farads. From the formula, we can see an
inverse relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency and capaci-
tance. As f and C increase, Xc decreases; as f and C decrease, Xc
increases.
Capacitive Reactance - Effect of Change in Frequency
To illustrate the change in capacitive reactance as frequency changes,

imagine two sine waveform voltages, El (1 cycle) and E2 (2 cycles), each of
100 volts peak amplitude. These two frequencies are applied to two identical
capacitors, Cl and C2. Voltage El rises from zero to peak amplitude (90°)
in 1/4 second whereas E2 rises from zero to peak amplitude in 1/8 second
(45°). These time intervals are arrived at by dividing the time duration of a
single cycle by 4 since there are four quarter -cycles in a complete cycle.
The time duration for El is 1 second; for E2 it is 1/2 second.
AS FREQUENCY INCREASES, CAPACITIVE REACTANCE DECREASES
1/8 second = 90° for voltage E2 = peak x 1 or 100 volts

1/8 second = 45° for voltage El = peak x 0.707 or 70.7 volts
Now we use 1/8 second as the reference time interval for both voltages,
if
E2, being the higher -frequency voltage, changes in value more rapidly than
El. Voltage E2 rises to the peak value of 100 volts in 1/8 second, whereas
El reaches only the 70. 7-volt level in the same amount of time. Therefore,
capacitor C2 receives maximum charge, whereas Cl receives less charge.
For C2 to receive more charge than Cl in the same time interval, it is
necessary that more current flow into C2 than into Cl. Hence, the capacitive
reactance of C2 for E2 is less than that of Cl for El.
We can translate the above action by saying that the faster the rate of change
of the charging voltage - or the higher the frequency of the charging voltage -
the lower the capacitive reactance of any given capacitor. Of course, the
opposite is true: the lower the frequency, the higher the capacitive reactance.
Capacitive Reactance - Effect of Change in Capacitance
Capacitive reactance decreases with an increase in capacitance and in-

creases with a decrease in capacitance. Given two capacitors, Cl (1 pf) and
C2 (5 pf), both subjected to a voltage of 100 volts peak amplitude, the
larger capacitance can accept more charge. For this to be true when the two
capacitors are charged by the same amount of voltage in the same amount of
time, the current flowing into the larger amount of capacitance must be
greater than the current flowing into the smaller amount of capacitance.
Hence, the capacitive reactance of C2 must be less than that of Cl. From
this, we see that for a given frequency, the larger the capacitance, the
lower the capacitive reactance; the smaller the capacitance, the higher the
capacitive reactance.
the larger the capacitance, we larger ire amount
OF CHARGING CURRENT. HENCE. THE LOWER THE REACTANCE
'1
A capacitor blocks the flow of d-c bot effectively "passes a-c.
We have seen that during the charge and discharge of a capacitor, electrons
flow back and forth in the circuit, first making one plate negative with re-
spect to the other, and then making the other plate negative with respect to
the first. It would seem that there is a complete closed circuit in which the
current is alternating. Actually, of course, the plates of a capacitor are
separated by an insulator (dielectric). No current flows through the dielec-
tric, but since current flows back and forth from plate to plate, the current
in a capacitive circuit takes on all the appearances of a closed-circuit
arrangement. From this, we often use the expression that "current flows
through a capacitor. " Of course, this is not so - it only appears that way.
Using the Equation for Capacitive Reactance
Referring again to the equation for capacitive reactance, let us solve several
typical examples. While doing this, you must bear in mind that we are
determining the opposition to current due only to the presence of the capaci-
tance. The equation does not involve the resistance of the connecting wires
or the actual value of the voltage applied. The illustration shows what
happens when a 0. 1— i_if capacitor is used in a 60-cycle circuit.
caving the capacitance fixed and doubling the frequency
DOUBLING THI FREQUENCY HALVES THE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Leaving the frequency fixed and dnubling the capacitance
DOUBLING THE CAPACITANCE HALVES THE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Given high values of capacitance and high-frequency voltages, capacitive

reactance can fall to extremely low values, even to the point where the ca-
pacitor behaves as a virtual short-circuit to the voltage. For example, a
l~iif capacitor subjected to a voltage of 5 megacycles (5, 000, 000 cycles) has
a capacitive reactance of
XC =
2rfC
=
6.28 x 0.000001 x 5,000,000
= °‘ ° Si 8 ohm
On the other hand, if the capacitance value is very low, and the frequency of
the applied voltage also is very low, the capacitive reactance can become so
high as to behave like a virtual open circuit to the voltage. For instance, if
the capacitance is 0. 001 uf, and the frequency of the voltage is 5 cycles, the
capacitive reactance rises to 31, 847, 000 ohms.
Current and Voltage in a Series R-C Circuit
In any circuit containing both capacitance and resistance, there is a 90

phase shift of current and voltage across the capacitance, and no phase shift
across the resistance. As discussed in inductance, current in a series cir-
cuit is the same throughout and is, therefore, taken as the line of reference
for both the capacitance and the resistance. Since the voltage across the
resistance is in phase with the current through it, and the voltage across the
capacitance is 90° out of phase with this same current, we can see that these
two voltages are 90° out of phase with each other.
Current and Voltages in a Series R-C Circuit
(current in
WAVEFORMS IN
BASIC R-C CIRCUIT
In the illustration, there is a basic series R-C circuit and the curves show-
ing the relationship between the current and voltages across both com-
ponents. The resultant voltage from the two voltage drops which are 90° out
of phase is the voltage drop for the whole circuit and is, by Kirchhoff's law,
equal to the applied voltage. The phase shift of the current in the circuit,
measured with respect to the applied voltage, is called the phase angle of the
circuit.
Current and Voltage in a Series R-C Circuit (Cont'd)
The relationship between the applied voltage, the voltage drops, and the
phase angle of any series R-C circuit may be determined by means of vec-
tors, as shown. The voltage across the resistance is plotted on the hori-
zontal vector, and the voltage across the capacitance on the vertical vector.
Since these two voltages are 90° out of phase, the angle between them is a
right angle. By drawing in a parallelogram based on the two sides, the
resultant vector E becomes the hypotenuse of a right triangle. By using the
theorem that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides, we get E2 = Er2 + Ec^, or E =Êr2 + Ec 2 .
VECTORS AND WAVEFORMS OF CURRENT

AND APPLIED VOLTAGE IN A SERIES R-C CIRCUIT
Since it is known that the current in the circuit is in phase with the voltage
across the resistance, the direction of the current vector is the same as
vector Er, the voltage across the resistance. The phase angle 9 then is the
angle that the applied voltage E makes with vector Er. If the voltage across
the resistance is large with respect to that across the capacitance, the
resultant vector will approach the horizontal and the phase angle will be
small. Similarly, if the voltage across the resistance is small, the resultant
vector will approach the vertical, and the phase angle will approach 90°.
Hence, the presence of resistance in a capacitive circuit causes the current
to lead the applied voltage by some angle less than 90°. The waveforms
show the relative positions of current, voltage, and the phase angle 9 .
Impedance of a Series R-C Circuit
As stated in our discussion of R-L circuits, the total opposition offered by a

circuit containing both a reactive element and a resistance is not the simple
arithmetical sum of the reactance and the resistance. The capacitive react-
ance is added to the resistance in such a manner as to take into account the
90° phase difference between the two voltages in the circuit. To find the im-
pedance of an R-C circuit, we use the s ame basic formula that we used in the
R-L circuit; that is: Z = VR2
+ Xc 2 -In short, the impedance of an R-C
circuit is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the resistance
and the capacitive reactance.
0.000377
= ^ 1,000,000 + 7,023,000
= 26500
8,023,000
= 0 -0389Ampere ,or
38.9 Milliamperes
The same result can be obtained by the use of vectors. Since the same cur-
rent flows in C and R, the vectors can be made proportional to the resistance
and the capacitive reactance. Note that the angle 9 is the phase angle
because the direction of the impedance vector is the same as that of the
applied voltage vector. This angle may be determined by its tangent, Xc/R-
The total current in an R-C series circuit can then be determined by the
formula, I = E/Z.
Parallel R-C Circuits
We show here capacitance C and resistance R connected in parallel across

an a-c source. Since this is a parallel circuit, voltage is the same every-
where; thus, all voltages are in phase with each other. However, the current
through the capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90°, and the current
through the resistance is in phase with the applied voltage, as shown in the
waveforms. Thus, the capacitive current leads the resistance current by
90°, and the resultant current, or total line current, is the vectorial sum of
these two currents.
IVOLTAGE AND CURRENTS IN PARALLEL
angle by which line current

VECTOR PRESENTATION leads applied voltage
In making vectors for this situation, the current through the resistance Ir is
laid off on the horizontal vector, and the current through the capacitance Iq
on the vertical vector. Because the capacitive current leads the resistive
current, the Ip vector is laid off in the positive direction. The resistive
current is taken as the reference vector, since it is in phase with the applied
voltage and represents the direction of the applied voltage. The resultant
vector If- represents the total current in the circuit, and the angle this vector
makes with the horizontal is the phase angle 9 .The line current, then, is
said to lead the applied voltage by the angle 6 . The tangent of this angle is
equal to R/Xq- The total current of this circuit is equal to: It = Ir2 + Ic^.
Thus it can be seen that total current in a parallel R-C circuit, as in d-c
circuits, is always greater than the current in either branch.
Impedance of a Parallel R-C Circuit
The impedance of a parallel R-C circuit may be calculated by using the same
general formula as for finding the total resistance of resistors in parallel.
Because we are dealing with vector quantities when we discuss R and Xq, we
cannot add them arithmetically - they must be added vectorially. Thus we
get the formula for R and C in parallel:
RxXp
Vr 2 + Xc 2
From this, we can see that the total impedance of a parallel R-C circuit
always is somewhat less than either the resistance or the reactance.
Indirectly, the impedance also can be found by finding the total current and
then using the formula Z = E/I. To find the total current, we must first find
the individual currents that flow in R and in C. This is done by Ohm's law,
I = E/R and I = E/Xq. Knowing these currents, the total current then can be
found by adding them vectorially. For instance, if 3 amperes flow through R
and 4 amperes flowthrough C, the vectorial sum of 3 and 4 ip 5 amperes,
z 2 2
which represents the total current (It = -\/ Ir + Ic 2 or 5 = v3 + 4 ).
>
?
SUMMARY 2-89
A capacitor is any two conductors separated by an insulating material (die-

lectric).
Capacitance is a property of a circuit whereby energy may be stored in the
form of an electric field between two conductors (plates) separated by a
dielectric.
Capacitance in a circuit opposes any change in voltage.
The action of storing electricity in a capacitor is called charging.
The action of recovering the energy stored in a charged capacitor is known
as discharging the capacitor.
In a capacitive circuit, current leads the applied voltage by 90°.
The ratio of the charge (Q) to the voltage (E) is the measure of capacitive
action, and is called capacitance. C = Q/E.
A farad is the unit of capacitance. A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 farad
if a 1-volt difference in potential results in the storage of 1 coulomb of
charge.
A microfarad is one-millionth of a farad; a micromicrofarad is one-millionth
of a microfarad, or one million millionth of a farad.
The capacitance of a capacitor varies directly with the plate surface area and
inversely with the distance between the plate surfaces.
Dielectric constant (K) is the ability of a material, or medium, to permit the
establishment of electric lines of force between oppositely charged
plates.
Fixed capacitors are distinguished, according to the dielectric material
used, as paper, oil, mica, ceramic, and electrolytic capacitors.
Electrolytic capacitors show polarity and are used principally in high-power,
low-frequency filter circuits up to 600 volts.
Capacitors connected in parallel add like resistances in series; capacitors
connected in series divide according to the parallel-resistance formula.
The opposition a capacitor presents to a-c is called capacitive reactance (Xc);
the formula for capacitive reactance is Xc = l/2jrfC.
If either, or both, frequency or capacitance increases, Xc decreases, and
vi ce versa. Impedance of a series R-C circuit is calculated by Z =
-n/R2 + Xr>2; impedance of a parallel R-C circuit is calculated bv Z =
r x xc /Vr2 + xc 2 .
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a capacitor? What is capacitance
2. Describe the action of current flow in a capacitor when a d-c voltage is
applied.
3. What factors determine the amount of current flow in a capacitor?
4. What is a dielectric constant?
Define capacitive reactance (Xq). Give the formula for it.
5.
6. How does capacitance vary with respect to the area of the plates, the
distance between them, and the dielectric constant?
7. Define the farad, the microfarad, and the micromicrofarad.
8. When does a capacitor discharge ?
9. What two functions are characteristic of a capacitor?

10. Give the formulas for calculating capacitors in series and in parallel.
11. Give the formulas for calculating the impedances of series R-C circuits
and parallel R-C circuits.
2-90 POWER IN A-C CIRCUITS
Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive Circuits
The power absorbed by a resistance in a d-c circuit is expressed by P = E

x or by I~R and or by E~/R. All lead to the same answer. The power ab-
I,
sorbed by resistance in an a-c circuit is expressed by exactly the same

equations. When an a-c voltage is applied to a pure resistance only, power
is absorbed each instant, regardless of the direction of the current. The
power consumed during a complete cycle is equal to the effective value of
current multiplied by the effective value of voltage, shown simply as P =
E x i. The power curve for current flowing through a resistance is positive
(power is being absorbed) for each half-cycle of the current; there are two
positive power loops for the complete cycle of 360°.
m PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

CURRENT, VOLTAGE, AND
.
P /Xt-Power is being
absorbed POWER IN RESISTIVE,
continuously
CAPACITIVE, AND
INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
Energy is
and E
I stored in
E ('V')
are in phase magnetic field
Energy is stored
in electric field
71
±J
I leads E
Energy is
by 90° Energy is
returned returned
to source M PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT to source c PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
If an a-c voltage is applied to a pure capacitance, current flows into the ca-
pacitor during the charging half-cycle. During this interval, the capacitor
absorbs energy from the voltage source and stores it in the form of an elec-
tric field. Then, during the discharge half-cycle, the capacitor returns all
of the energy it has stored to the voltage source. Thus, over a complete
cycle, the power absorbed by the pure capacitance is zero. When illustrated
by a power curve, the power absorption intervals are shown by positive
loops, whereas the power return intervals are shown by negative loops.
There are two power loops (one positive and one negative) for each half-cycle
of current, or four power loops for a complete cycle.
A similar situation prevails when an a-c voltage is applied to a pure induct-

ance. Energy is absorbed during the time the current is building the mag-
netic field around the inductor, and power is returned to the source when the
magnetic field collapses back into the inductor. As much electrical energy
is returned as is absorbed; hence the net power consumed by a pure induct-
ance during a complete cycle is zero.
—e
POWER IN A-C CIRCUITS 2-91
Power Factor
The power consumed in a resistive a-c circuit is calculated in exactly the

same manner as in d-c circuits (P = E x I). To get an equivalent answer
between d-c and a-c, we use the effective (rms) values of a-c voltages and
currents. However, in inductive and capacitive circuits, the simple power
formula P = E x i requires further consideration. We saw that, in purely
inductive and capacitive circuits, all the energy stored in the form of mag-
netic and electric fields was returned to the source on the 2nd quarter-cycle,
and that the net power dissipated was zero. The practical inductive or ca-
pacitive circuit always contains some resistance, however little. This re-
sistance makes the phase angle between voltage and current somewhat less
than 90°, and some power will be consumed - none will be returned to the
source. If we were to measure the current and voltage in an inductive cir-
cuit that contained resistance, we would not get the true power consumed by
multiplying E x I, because we would be ignoring the partial power of the
inductor, which is returned to the source.
When we measure E and I and then find their product, we get the apparent
P° wer consumed in the circuit. In a purely resistive circuit, the apparent
power is the same as the true power. However, in an inductive or capacitive
circuit, we must take into consideration the phase angle between E and
I,
using the formula P = E x I x cosine 9 The use of "cosine 9 " adds a power
.
feptoy to our calculations. The cosine of 0° is 1. Thus, in a purely resistive

circuit where the phase angle between current and voltage is 0°, power
is
simply E x I. The cosine of 90° is 0; therefore, in a purely inductive or ca-
pacitive circuit, the power is E x i x 0, or zero.
PROBLEM Power an A-C Circuit

in is measured by
X, = 2002
P = E * I
* cosine 0
P=?
-AAA /
1
SOLUTION
300 P = E x 2 2
v
R = 100 | x cosine
= 1.34 x 300 x
cosine 63.4°
9
• V 200 + 100
= 22 4ohms
= 1.34 x 300 x 0.447
- 179 watts 300
i
=
224
_ True power
factor = -
,
Power
Apparent power = 1.34 amperes
179
(1.34 x 300) ^401 G 200
tangent 9 = = = 2 or 63. 4‘
= 0.447 100
In all practical circuits containing C and R, or L and

R, the cosine of the
phase angle (0) between E and I enables us to determine the true power con-
sumed by the circuit. By dividing true power by apparent power, we get the
power factor of the circuit — something between 0 and 1.
1
2-92 TIME CONSTANT IN A-C CIRCUITS
R-L Circuit Time Constant
When a constant (d-c) voltage is applied to a resistance, the rise in current

to a maximum value is instantaneous. If an inductance is connected in series
with the resistance, time elapses while the current builds up to maximum.
If we could observe the behavior of the current, we would see it rise rapidly
from zero and then its rate of increase would progressively diminish. After
a lapse of time, the current would reach a value which for all intents and
purposes is maximum, equal to I = E/R. The relationship between the rise
in the current to a given value and the time lapse while it is happening is
determined by a term known as the time constant. Time constant is a means
of comparing how rapidly the current in one R-L circuit rises to a given
value relative to the current in another R-L circuit. Time constant is ex-
pressed in seconds, and is equal to the inductance L (in henries) divided by
the resistance R (in ohms). The equation is: t = Lhenrles/R ohms- If, f° r
the moment, we assume L = 1 henry and R = 10 ohms, the time constant
L/R = 0. 1 second. The time constant varies in direct proportion to L and
inversely with R.
The pattern of the increase in current in an R-L circuit is the same in all
R-L circuits regardless of the specific values of L and R. When shown
graphically, it is a singularly shaped curve known as an exponential curve.
The characteristic of this pattern of change is that in a time equal to 1 time
constant (It), the current rises to 63.2% of its maximum value (regardless
of what the maximum value may be). On this basis, in the numerical example
given above, the current would rise to 63. 2% of the maximum current in 0.
second. The lapse of time corresponding to additional time constants per-
mits current to rise to specific percentages of maximum (as illustrated).
EXPONENTIAL CURVE OF CURRENT RISE IN R-L CIRCUIT
rises 63.2% of
remaining 1.9%
for a totol of 99.9%
Actual percentage in
5 time constants is 99.9%
effectively 100%
1 time 2 time 3 time 4 time 5 time L henries

constant constants constants constants constants *
sec R ohms
\ \
L=1 hy K= ul Isec 2 sec 3 sec 4 sec 5sec
TIME CONSTANTS
L=1hy R=100n 0.01 sec 0.02 sec 0.03 sec 0.04 sec 0.05 sec
FOR VARIOUS
L=0.002hy FHOOft 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 VALUES OF L AND R

sec sec sec sec sec
^mr^—AAAA-
,
TIME CONSTANT IN A-C CIRCUITS 2-93
R-L Circuit Time Constant (Cont'd)
When a constant voltage is removed from a resistance, the current falls to

zero instantly. When such a voltage is removed from an R-L combination,
a time lapse occurs before the current decays to zero. As in the case of the
rise in current, the decay in current follows an exponential curve, except
that now the curve is an inverted version of the one which showed the rise in
current. In a time equal to It, the current decreases 63. 2% from the maxi-
mum; i. e. it falls to 36. 8% of the maximum. In time 2t, it decays 86. 4%
,
from the maximum to a value equal to 13. 6% of the maximum. As shown in

the illustration, it decreases to 0. 1% of the maximum; i. e., it falls 99.9%
from the maximum or, effectively, to zero in 5t.
Max 100%
falls 63.2% of DECAY OF CURRENT IN
100% to 36.8%
INDUCTOR PER TIME
\\ CONSTANT OCCURS AT
JX 5
•-
falls 63.2% of
SAME RATE AS
O O
E E 36.8% to 13.6% RISE IN CURRENT
4)
k.
O ^
4- C falls 63.2% of
C 4)
4) £ 13.6% to 5.1%
t: 5
I
falls 63.2% of
5.1% to 0.19%
/
falls 63.2% of
0.19
0.19% 0.1%,
to
Min effectively 0
Units of Time Constont

When R is When L is Time constant is in
ohms henries seconds
megohms henries microseconds
ohms millihenries milliseconds
ohms microhenries microseconds
How do we calculate the momentary current? It is simple for whole-number

time constants; for values in between, the chart is most convenient, as dis-
cussed later. Suppose L = 1 henry and R = 10 ohms. The applied voltage is
10 volts; t is 0. 1 second. The maximum current is I = E/R = 10/10 = 1
ampere. If in constant It (0. 1 second), the current rises 63. 2% of maximum,
it rises to 63. 2% of 1 ampere or to 1 x 0. 632 = 0. 632 ampere. In 2t (0. 2
second), it rises 86. 4% of maximum, or to 1 x 0. 864 = 0. 864 ampere, etc.
as shown on the previous page until in 5t (0. 5 second), it reaches 0. 999
ampere, effectively 1. 0 ampere maximum. As to the decay of the current
when the voltage is removed, in It (0. 1 second) the current falls 63. 2% of
maximum, or decreases 63. 2% of 1 ampere to 36. 8% of the maximum, which
amounts to 0. 368 ampere.
R-C Circuit Time Constant (Charging)
When a constant voltage is applied to a capacitance, the voltage built up in

the capacitor by the charging current reaches the value of the charging volt-
age almost instantly. If a resistance (R) is connected in series with the
capacitor (C), it tends to limit the amount of charging current and, in so
doing, causes time to lapse while the capacitor acquires a charge. The
factor that determines the rise in voltage in the capacitor of an R-C circuit
relative to time is the time constant of the circuit. The R-C circuit time
constant is also expressed in seconds, and equals the resistance (in ohms)
multiplied by the capacitance (in farads). Expressed as an equation, it is:
t = R x c
Imagine a C of 1 pf (0. 000001 farad) in series with an R of 1000 ohms. The

time constant t = 1000 x 0. 000001 = 0. 001 second. The applied voltage is
100 volts. The buildup of voltage in the capacitor is shown by exactly the
same shaped curve as illustrated in the current rise of the R-L circuit. In
It, the current flowing into the capacitor builds the capacitor voltage to
63. of the maximum (the applied voltage), or to 63. 2 volts.
2% In 2t, the
capacitor voltage rises to 84. 6%; in 3t, to 94. 9%; in 4t, to 98. 1%; and in 5t,
it reaches 99.9% (effectively 100%). In voltage values, these percentages
are 84. 6, 94.9, 98.1, and 99.9 (or 100) volts. In 5t, the capacitor is, for
all practical purposes, fully charged. Given the same applied voltage, but
an R-C circuit with a t of 0.005 second, exactly the same percentages of
maximum voltage would appear in the capacitor per time constant as before,
but now it would require 0. 005 second to build to 63. 2%, and a corres-
pondingly increased time to build to the higher voltage values.
EXPONENTIAL CURVE OF VOLTAGE ACROSS C IN AN R-C CIRCUIT
rises 63.2% of
remoining 1.9% or
o totol of 99.9%
Actual percentage in
5 time constants is 99.9%

effectively 100%
Time Constants
0.5 sec
for Various
0.3sec 0.4 sec
—wv Values of
R=2Meg C=0.0025Mf 0.005 sec 0.01 sec 0.015 sec 0.02 sec R and C
vw— II-
— —
TIME CONSTANT IN A-C CIRCUITS 2-95
R-C Circuit Time Constant (Discharging)
The action during discharge of the capacitor in the R-C circuit is the oppo-
site of capacitor charging. The time required for complete discharge and
for the capacitor voltage to fall effectively to zero is extended over that when
no resistance is present in the circuit. The curve which shows the decrease
of the capacitor voltage is exactly the same as the one which shows the de-
crease in inductor current. It is the inverted version of the curve which
shows the rise in voltage across the capacitor during charging (see pre-
ceding page).
The percentage fall of the capacitor voltage from its maximum value relative
to time a function of the time constant of the circuit. You have learned
is
that the capacitor acquires 63. 2% of its maximum charge during the first
period amounting to It. During discharge the capacitor loses .632 of its full
charge in the first time interval equal to It. Thereafter, during the time
interval equal to each succeeding time constant, it loses .632 of the charge
still remaining in it.
IN THE R-C CIRCUIT, THE ACTION DURING

DISCHARGE IS THE OPPOSITE OF CHARGE
—vw——II
R = 1000 C=1nf
0.001 sec 0.002 sec 0.003 sec 0.004 sec 0.005 sec
FMOK C - 10p.f
VA —II 0.1 sec 0.2 sec 0.3 sec 0.4 sec 0.5 sec
R = 2 Meg C : 0.0025 p.f
Wv —II 0.005 sec 0.01 sec 0.015 sec 0.02 sec 0.025 sec
Consider the first time interval equal to It. Assume that the capacitor is
charged to a maximum of 100 volts; it loses 63. 2% of its maximum charge.
If 100 volts = 100%, the capacitor loses 63. 2 volts of its charge; hence,
there remains 100 — 63. 2, or 36. 8 volts of charge in the capacitor. In 2t,
the capacitor loses 63. 2% of its charge, or 63. 2% of the 36. 8 volts that still
remain in it. Thus, in time equal to 2t, the capacitor loses a total of 86. 4%
of the original maximum charge, leaving 13. 6% or 13. 6 volts in the capac-
itor, and so on as illustrated. At the end of 5t, the capacitor has lost 99.9%
of its charge, or 99. 9 of the original 100 volts. Effectively, this is con-
sidered as leaving zero voltage in the capacitor.
Applying the Universal Time Constant Chart
We have said that the pattern of current rise in an R-L circuit is the same
for all values of R and L. The curve that shows the decay of current in the
R-L circuit similarly suits all values of R and L. The same two curves
apply to the R-C circuit. The curve that shows the rise in capacitor voltage
while charging is the same as the one that shows the rise in current in the
R-L circuit. The curve that shows the fall in capacitor voltage during dis-
charge is identical with the curve that shows the decay of current in the R-L
circuit. Because of these similarities, the two curves are known as Univer-
sal Time Constant Curves. They are shown on a single chart. The hori-
zontal axis is calibrated in units totalling 5 time constants, whereas the
vertical axis is divided uniformly in percentages of rise and fall of current
in the R-L circuit, or rise and fall of capacitor voltage in the R-C circuit.
Assume that 100 volts is applied to an R-C circuit, t = 0. 1 second. In It,

the capacitor voltage will rise to 63. 2 volts. What will be the voltage in
1. 5t? Projecting 1. 5t from the horizontal axis to curve A and its point of
intersection with the curve to the vertical axis, we see that the capacitor
voltage builds up to approximately 77. 5% or 77. 5 volts. At 0. 5t, the voltage
in the capacitor is just under 40% of maximum, or just under 40 volts. How
low does the capacitor voltage fall in 0. 4t? Using curve B, it is seen to fall
32. 5% of the full charge to 67. 5 volts. How low does the voltage fall in 2. 6t?
Using curve B, the answer is approximately 93% of maximum, leaving 7% in
the capacitor. Hence, the capacitor voltage is 100 x 0. 07 = 7 volts.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C CIRCUITS 2-97
Relationship of L and C in Series (General)
When an inductance L and a capacitance C are joined end to end, a series

L-C circuit is formed, as shown in A. Let us assume L to be a pure induct-
ance and C to be a pure capacitance. In other words, the circuit has no d-c
resistance. In practice, this electrical situation is never realized. The as-
sumption is valid, however, because in most practical cases, the d-c resist-
ance is so little as to be unimportant in the analysis of the circuit. Later,
we shall discuss the effects of resistance.
If an a-c E is applied to a series L-C circuit, a current I will flow. Since a

series circuit offers only one path for the current, the same current flows in
the inductance and the capacitance — i. e. , through the inductive reactance of
L and the capacitive reactance of C (as in B). The characteristic that limits
the current in an a-c circuit is the impedance of the circuit. In the series
L-C circuit assumed to be free of d-c resistance, the circuit impedance
consists of reactance only - inductive reactance Xl in series with capacitive
reactance Xq (as in C).
Inductive and capacitive reactances are, with reference to their opposition to

current flow, comparable to resistance, although they are different phenom-
ena. The factor common to them is that current flow through a reactance or
a resistance results in the appearance of a voltage drop across each. Cur-
rent through a resistance results in voltage drop Er = IXr; current through
an inductive reactance results in voltage drop El = IXl; current through a
capacitive reactance results in voltage drop Ec = IXc (see D). These volt-
ages differ in one major respect — voltage across resistance is in phase with
current; voltage across an inductance leads current by 90°; voltage across
capacitance lags current by 90°.
L AND C JOINED
END TO END FORM A
SERIES L-C CIRCUIT
© ©
— if-
& E applied
voltage
B The current is the same

everywhere in a series L-C circuit
r^fHh XL Xc
r^jHh XL X~
el
EC
=
=
ix l
IX C
Voltage drops across
L and C
SSmmm cl
in series are equivalent
L and C 5 re
1
in proportion
to X
i
and X
£
in series
O' to their reactances
—
2-98 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C CIRCUITS
L and C in Series (Impedance)
Imagine a circuit in which inductance L is 1 henry (negligible d-c resistance),

inseries with a capacitance C of 10 |jf. Applied voltage E is 120 volts, and
frequency f is 60 cycles. Solving for the reactances:
Xl = 2rfL = 6. 28 x 60 x l = 376. 8 or 377 ohms
1
xc -53C - 6.aa>W xo.ooo T i
* 265 3 or 265
' ohms
Now how do we establish the circuit impedance? We find the answer in a

rule, "The impedance of a series L-C circuit having no resistance is equal
to the difference between the ohmic values of the inductive and capacitive
reactances. " Therefore, for our circuit:
Impedance Z = Xl - Xq
= 377 - 265
= 112 ohms (inductive)
Reactance X^ was subtracted from reactance Xl because Xl was the greater

quantity. If the situation were reversed, Xl would be subtracted from Xq.
In an L-C Circuit, Impedance is equal to

L =1h C = 10
nwp- Xl- x c °r x -X depending on which is larger
i c L,
L
In a series circuit, current is
a reference point since it is

E =120 volts f- 60 cycles the same in all components
El
THE TWO =377ohms
PRODUCING
REACTANCES A CIRCUIT
112
0 CAN BE ohms IMPEDANCE 7
Er
SHOWN AS EQUAL TO
= 265 ohms X, _ Xr
We illustrate this rule vectorially by arranging the Xl vector pointing up

from a reference point, and the Xc vector pointing down from the same
point. The vectors point in opposite directions. If we make each vector
length proportional to its ohmic value, using the same scale for both, the
shorter vector can be subtracted from the longer. The remainder is the dif-
ference between the two and is the net reactance, which we call impedance
(Z). Since X L in our circuit is greater than Xc, the impedance consists of
inductive reactance; hence, the Z vector has the same direction as the Xl
vector. This accounts for the reference, "inductive, " in connection with the
impedance value. More about this later.
Impedance, and Calculating Impedance Problems
The references and capacitive impedances (Z) require clarifica-

to inductive
tion. Where Xl exceeds Xc, Z equals Xl - XC- With Xc greater than XL ,
Z equals Xc - Xl- In either case, the remainder (called impedance) is net

reactance: in one case, a certain amount of Xl; in the other, a certain
amount of Xq.
For a given frequency, changes in the values of L and C result in different

circuit impedances. The same is true if L and C are held constant and the
frequency of E is varied. For example, assume L = 10 h (ten times that of
the previous example) while C = 10 pf (as before). Frequency remains at 60
cycles. Impedance is as shown in A.
Now reduce capacitance by making C = 1 pf (a tenfold decrease), and restore

L to 1 h. Frequency stays at 60 cycles. Impedance now is as shown in B.
Compare this amount of impedance with the example on page 2-98 (112 ohms
inductive). Reducing C increases Xc so that it exceeds Xl- The circuit
impedance therefore becomes capacitive.
Now change E from 60 to 160 cycles. Everything else stays as in the ex-
ample immediately above. Impedance is as shown in C.
Changing frequency causes the two reactances to approach equality. Each

individual reactance remains relatively high, but impedance has fallen to 10
ohms. In certain special cases (resonance), this net reactance can fall to
zero. Lower frequency to 40 cycles, leaving everything else as above (D).
A study of these examples shows that the impedance can be low, medium, or
high, and inductive or capacitive, depending on the values of L, C , and f.
CALCULATIONS OF IMPEDANCE IN SERIES L-C CIRCUITS
X L =2 T fL= 3768 ohms
Xr.=
I
2 ?rfC
= 265 ohms
®— I
lOh lOiif
Ih-|
XL = 2
<
C
=
y
2 ,r tC
L
?oI^ken,
CD
^ 1h iMf
3768 - 265 = 3503

ohms, inductive
E=120v
2653-377=2276
ohms, capacitive
©fc E=t20v
f=60 cycles f=60 cycles
Xl = 2 irfL -1005
u
ohms
®
1004.80) 1h luf
Xl =2irfL = 251 ohms
(octually 251.2X1)
1h luf
(actually
XC= =9950hmS
/
1RRTl- Xr =
1
ZtttC
., = 3981 ohms
L
Hh
27 fC L
(actually 995.2 0) (octually 3980.80)
V thenZ=X c -X L =
1005-995 = 10
ohms, inductive
©i E=120v
f=)60 cycles
3981-251*3730
ohms, capacitive f=40
©te
cycles
120v
2-100 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C CIRCUITS
Calculating Current Problems
Given any value of circuit impedance for L and C in series, and knowing the
applied voltage, the circuit current can be computed by applying Ohm's law
for a-c. The equation is: I = E/Z, where E is the applied voltage, and Z is
the circuit impedance. If you examine the equation, you can see that current
varies in direct proportion to the applied voltage, and in inverse proportion
to changes in Z. The latter relationship is shown in the different examples
on this page.
The values of L and C, E, and f, as well as the current used in the examples,
are not typical of series L-C circuits found in radio receivers. L and C
usually are much smaller, as is the current. The values used here were
selected because it was felt they helped to clarify the discussion.
CALCULATING CURRENT
Z= XL - Xc
E = 120 v
L = I h
= 112 0 ,
Inductive
XL = 377 n Than - i - i£Q
(376.8)
Th I
1
' '
z 112
f '60 = 1.07 Amperes

C « lOyttf
cycles in round numbers
Xc » 265 n (265.3)
B HIGH IMPEDANCE means LOW CURRENT

E = 120 v
z= XL - xc
= 3503 It, Inductive
Then 1=1Z =
3503
f = 60 = 0.034 Ampere, or
cycles 34 mi lliamperes
in round numbers
LOW IMPEDANCE means HIGH CURRENT
E = 120 v
z =
xL - xc
L = I h 10 H, Inductive
xL = 1005 n E
(1004.8) Then = . 120
I
'
z 10
f = 160 C = l^f 12 Amperes
cycles
Xc = 995 n (995.2) in round numbers
HIGH IMPEDANCE means LOW CURRENT

Z - Xq - XL
L = I h = 3730 ft, Capacitive
XL = 251 n 120
Then I
=
| 3730
C = iMf
= 0.0322 Ampere, or
xc = 3981 n 32 milliamperes
(3980.8) inround numbers
0
Analyzing the Distribution of Voltage
The Distribution of Voltage in Series l-C Circuits
I
= 1.07 omp
E L is 90° Net voltage across
~L 403 v ,
ioheadof series combination
of L and C equals
E =!20v
L = h
X L =377n
t
fAU
El = ix
is El *-90°
_
the applied voltage I
'
^' Z0 K\
0
I
I I
e
-I80
”E l-E c ^9q«
f =60 C = IO/<f E l and Ec are
cycles X c = 265 ~r Ie^TxcI
p
ck90° 180° apart when
shown together
Z = II2 0 inductive
IF Xc IN THE CIRCUIT
ISGREATER THAN X .
THEN
In the circuit under discussion, El = 403 volts and Ec

- 283 volts. Note that
both of these are higher than the applied voltage, which is 120 volts. How
can this be? It does happen in series L-C circuits; in fact, one or the other
of these two voltages is always higher than the applied voltage, and,
as shown
in this example, both can be higher. The reason is that for any given circuit
current, the individual voltage drops are determined by the individual
re-
actances. The higher the reactance for a given current, the greater the in-
dividual voltage developed across it by the current. It is a characteristic of
series L-C circuits that very high voltages can develop across L and C.
Let us analyze the voltages in the circuit discussed on page 2-98. As the
result of current flow through L and C, a voltage E = IXl appears across L,
and a voltage Ec = IXc appears across C. Substituting the circuit values in
the equations for El and Ec, we get:
E tL = IX, = 1.07 x 377 = 403 volts

Ju
E_, = IX„ = 1. 07 x 265 = 283 volts

L u
Several significant details are associated with these two circuit voltages:
each is independent of the other; each is measurable with a suitable volt-
meter. Also, voltage E L leads circuit current I by 90°, while voltage E c
lags i by 90°. If we show these two phase relationships in a single vector
presentation using I as the reference vector, it is seen that El and Ec are
180° apart. They thus tend to offset each other in their effects on the circuit.
This leads to the conclusion that the voltage present across the series L-C
circuit as a whole (i. e. across the series combination of L and C), is the
,
-
difference between the two voltages. In this instance, it is El " Ec, or 403
283 = 120 volts (the applied voltage). Since the current flowing through im-
pedance Z develops the same voltage as the voltage difference between El
and Ec, we can conclude that the voltage across the circuit impedance
always equals the applied voltage.
i
2-102 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS
Calculating the Impedance
The practical L-C circuit really is a series L-C-R circuit. The R is the
inherent d-c resistance of the connecting wires and of the coil itself. The
ohmic value of R equals the total d-c resistance of the circuit.
When R a substantial quantity, the manner of determining impedance is

is
different from when R
is negligible. The net reactance of Xl and Xc must
be determined, to which the circuit resistance is added. But this cannot be
done by simple addition because the voltage and current relationships in the
reactance differ in phase by 90°, while they are in phase in the resistance.
To calculate the circuit impedance, the net reactance and the resistance
must be added vectorially. We can do this us ing the right triangle relation-
ship expressed by the equation Z
=V R ^ + X2 where X is the net reactance
and R is the d-c resistance. Because the net reactance ia the difference
,
between Xl and Xq, the equation is changed to read Z = a/r2 + (Xt - x<h 2 -
when Xl is greater than Xc, and to Z =Vr2 + (Xq - Xl) 2 when Xr is greater
than Xl-
THE PRACTICAL SERIES A SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT

REALLY IS
L-C CIRCUIT
L
C \JLS
The Solution of the Impedance Z of Series L-C-R
by the Pythagorean Equation Method by Vector Presentation
= k
2
+ - xc
2 X L = 377a
lx L
]) ]
= ^lOO
2
+ (377 — 2651
2
© r = loon
X, = 265J1
X L = 3 77a
= i 100 + 112
90°
X,-X.
L "c
= 10,000 + 12,544
]j
-hra
’0° loo
= 112fl
fr90°
R = lOOfl
22,544 X, = 265J1
=
^ xL -x c ~V~j z = ison
- 150 ohms R
For the problem to we refer back to a previous example: L = 1

be solved,
henry; C = 10 pf; and = 60 cycles. Here Xl was calculated to be 377 ohms
f
and Xc 265 ohms. With R = 100 ohms, and the net reactance Xl - Xc equal
to 112 ohms
(inductive), the circuit impedance Z equals 150 ohms. It con-
stitutes animpedance (equivalent to an L-R circuit) in which the voltage is
neither 90° ahead of the current, nor in phase with the current. The
angle of lead of the voltage relative to the current is expressed by tan 9 =
(Xl - Xc)/R. This equals 112/100 = 1. 12, or 9 = 48. 3°.
'
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-103
L-C-R in Series (Impedance)
The relative values of R and the net reactance of the series L-C-R circuit
cir-
create a variety of impedance and circuit conditions. Imagine several
cuits in which L and C are of such value as to present the indicated capaci-
tive and inductive reactances. The resistance R of each circuit
is as
indicated.
When the circuit resistance is small, as in circuit A, in comparison to the

net reactance, it contributes little to the circuit impedance. As a
whole,
the circuit behaves as if it were an inductance of such value as to present a
reactance of 3504 ohms.
When the circuit resistance is high in comparison to the net reactance (cir-
cuit B), the impedance, for all intents and purposes, is made up of the
resistance. As a whole, circuit B behaves like a resistance of 200 ohms.
The greater the ratio between the net reactance and the circuit resistance,
the greater the contribution of the resistance to the circuit impedance.
In circuit too, the circuit resistance is very small in

C comparison to the
net reactance (capacitive). Therefore, the resistance contributes very
littleto the circuit impedance. Circuit C behaves as though it were a
capacitance with a reactance of 3730 ohms.
SERIES L-C-R
HAS Z OF AND BEHAVES AS
CIRCUIT
with
2
Z = 80 + (3768 - 265]* X L = 3504fl
y
ot 60 cycles in
= V 80* + 3503* which voltage leads

current by tan0=
= 6400 + 12,271,009
y — =43.7 or 88.7°,
- 3504 ohms
effectively by 90'
R = 200 ohms
Z = \j
200* + (1005 — 995]*
X t = 1005A (actually 200.28 ohms]
in which voltage
X c = 995fl = 200* + 10*
\j leads current
XL -X C
B R = 200U by tan 6 -
= 40,000 + 100
y
- =0.05Or2.9°,
= 200 ohms
effectively 0 C
Z = 14
2
+ (3981 — 251)*
X L = 251Q
y X c = 3730 ohms
voltage lags current
X c = 3981A 14* + 3730*
c
= y
by tantf = —xc - XL
R = Ufl
= 196 + 13,912,900
\j 3730
266 or 89.7°,
14
3730 ohms
effectively by 90
2-104 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS
L-C-R In Series
Given an applied voltage E and circuit impedance Z, the circuit current I

equals E/Z. The nature of Z - whether it is inductive, capacitive, or re-
sistive - is unimportant in the calculation. It is only after the current is
known, as with the voltage across the impedance, that the nature of the
impedance becomes of interest. The same equation applies to all cases for
Z. As you can see, the equation for current I is Ohm's law for a-c and is
identical for the theoretically ideal (resistanceless) L-C circuit and for the
practical L-C-R circuit. Let us apply the equation to the three examples of
circuit impedance shown on the preceding page. Assume that applied voltage
E = 120 volts.
THE SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT
Z = 3504
ohms
Z = 200
ohms
(actually 200 28 U)
.
= 0.6 a mpere I
(actually 0.599 amp)
0.0322 ampere
Ifyou compare the current flowing in examples A on this page with example
B on page 2-100, you will note no change in current despite the presence of
a resistance of 80 ohms. The reason is that the prime control of the current
is Xl; the additional current limitation imposed by the
80 ohms of resist-
ance causes only a trifling reduction in current, which we do not show. On
the other hand, if you compare example B above with example C on page
2-100, you will note that the presence of 200 ohms resistance reduces the
current from 12 amperes to 0. 6 ampere - a tremendous change.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-105
L-C-R in Series (Voltages)
The voltages present across the components of the series L-C-R circuit are
calculated in the same way as for the theoretically ideal (resistanceless)
L-C circuit. The individual voltage drops (Ex) across the reactances are
Ex = IX, where X stands for reactances; the voltage drop across the resist-
ance is Er = IR; and the voltage across the circuit as a whole (i. e. ,
across
the impedance Z) is Eg = IZ. The illustration is of a typical case.
The addition of the two reactive voltages El and Ec to the resistive voltage
Er is done in the same way as the addition of reactances and resistance;
that is, solving for Z. The same answer can be obtained by using vectors,
but the equation method is much easier to use because many values are
difficult to read from vector dimensions. When the three voltages are
shown in the same vector presentation, the voltage Er is the reference volt-
age. It is the voltage that is in phase with the series circuit current. The
other two voltages, El and Ec, differ by 90° from Er; one (El) leading
Er, and the other (Ec) lagging Er by 90°. When all the voltages in the cir-
cuit are added, the voltage across the circuit as a whole is equal to the
applied voltage.
2-106 SERIES RESONANT L-C-R CIRCUITS
Resonant Frequency
Radio communications involves the transmission and reception of signals of

selectable frequency. Such selection is possible because every combination
of L and C responds better to voltages of one frequency than to voltages of
other frequencies. The single frequency at which the circuit responds best
is called the resonant frequency of the circuit.
Resonance occurs when the amount of inductance and the amount of capaci-
tance in a circuit present equal amounts of reactance; i. e. , 2irfL = l/(2trfC),
or Xl = Xc* Resonance in a series L-C-R circuit is, therefore, a partic-
ular condition in the circuit. Resistance R plays no part in determining the
resonant frequency, although, as you will see, it does limit the amount of
current at resonance and affects the behavior of the circuit off resonance.
The equation used for calculating the resonant frequency of a circuit is:
frequency of resonance, f = — —
2ttVlC
*,
where ir is a constant 3. 1416, L is the inductance in henries, and C is the

capacitance in farads. To illustrate the application of the equation, assume
that L = 2 mh (0.002 henry) and C = 80 upf (0.00000000008 farad). What is
the resonant frequency of the circuit?
f = =
6.28^/0(52 x 0.00000000006 6. 28 VOTWDOOOOOObOOlT
1 1
= 398, 089 cycles or
6. 28 x 0. 0000004 0. 000002512
398 kc (round numbers)
A change in either L or C, or both, results in a change in resonant frequency,

except when the product of L and C remains the same. For example, 0. 002
x 80 |iiif = 0.160. If L were 0.001 h (instead of 0.002), and C were 160 mof
(instead of 80), the product of 0. 001 x 160 would be 0. 160 - the same as
above. Hence the two circuits would resonant at the same frequency -
398, 089 cycles.
An L-C Circuit is Resonant when its Inductive Reactance equals its Capacitive Reactance
Xc
Resistance does not SERIES-RESONANT
affect resonant frequency L CIRCUIT
<$>
111NH
f = resonant frequency
y
2 ir = 6.28 (in cycles) !
L = inductance (in henries)
C = capacitance (in farads^
SERIES RESONANT L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-107
Determining the Impedance
Resonance is a particular condition in an L-C circuit at which Xl = Xc-

Since the net reactance of a series L-C-R circuit is the difference between
Xl and Xc, when these two reactances are equal (at resonance), the net
reactance is zero. This leaves only the resistance as the current-limiting
factor in the circuit. Thus, at the resonant frequency, the impedance of the
series L-C-R circuit must be the lowest possible for the circuit, for at this
frequency, the total circuit impedance is the circuit resistance.
Let us examine the impedance conditions at resonance. We shall use the

constants mentioned on the preceding page. L = 2 mh; C = 80 ppf; and the
resonant frequency is 398, 089 cycles. Now we include the circuit resistance
of 100 ohms. Then,
X^ = 2rfL = 6.28 x 398,089 x 0.002 = 5000 ohms (in round numbers)
XC = =
6.28 X 398,089 x 0.00000000008
= 5000 ohms
Therefore,
2 2 2 2 2
Z =Vr + (X
L - Xc )
= Jl 00 + (5000 - 5000) = ^/lOO + 0 = 100 ohms
At all other frequencies the net reactance is not zero; it has a finite value
which increases (as does Z) as the operating frequency moves farther above
or below the resonant frequency. We show this in the table for a range of
frequencies from 100 to 600 kc. Examine the values in the Z column. The
references to Z relative to frequency can be translated into a graph known as
the impedance curve of the series resonant L-C-R circuit. Of course, the
curve is for this particular set of circuit values.
,
— 2 mh
<Tnnr>
L
— 80
1(—
n/ii
C
lOOfl
-©-
BELOW RESONANCE ABOVE RESONANCE Impedance Calculations At,

X L INCREASES WHILE
X r INCREASES Above, and Below Resonance
X r DECREASES
Frequency X L ohms X ohms X ohms R ohms Z ohms

kc/sec
c
1,256 19, 890 18,634 18, 634

2, 512 9,945 7,433 7, 433
300 2, 862
[
|l*398lll
450 5,620 mmm mmm PI 1,240'“'
500 6,280 mmwwWm.
3,978 100 2,302
600 7, 536 3,315 4,221 100 4,221
RESONANT FREQUENCY
2-108 SERIES RESONANT L-C-R CIRCUITS
Variations in Current
We have established that the circuit impedance of the series L-C-R circuit
is minimum at the resonant frequency. For any given value of applied volt-
age, this means that the current is maximum. In fact, the occurrence of
minimum impedance and maximum current at resonance is the identifying
feature of the series resonant L-C-R circuit. Two equations can be used to
compute the current: I = E/Z, for general application during the off resonant
condition, and I = E/R, at the resonant frequency. Assume that E equals
30 volts at all frequencies and R equals 100 ohms. The rest of the circuit
has the constants shown on the preceding page. Therefore, current at the
resonant frequency of 398 kc (actually 398,089 cycles) is:
30
= 0.3 ampere = 300 milliamperes
100
The table shows the frequency, impedance, and current for the circuit under
discussion, over a frequency range of from 100 kc to 600 kc.
MAXIMUM CURRENT OCCURS AT ONE FREQUENCY

- THE RESONANT FREQUENCY
CHART OF VALUES resonant frequency
1
frequency
(kc)
Z ohms E(volts) l(milliamps)**
100 18,634 30 1.61

200 7,433 30 4.0
300 2,862 30 10.48
350 1,270 30 23.6
EETH IPIil 30 FTTH
400 122 30 246
450 1,240 30 24.2
500 2,302 30 13.0
600 4,221 30 7.1
398 = r esonant frequency

When computing the current I,
the answer will be in amperes,

which must be converted
to milliamperes.
The variation current with the change in frequency can be shown

in circuit
graphically. known as the current curve, or resonance curve of the
It is ,
circuit. Frequency is shown along the horizontal axis, and the current am-
plitude is scaled along the vertical axis. Note that while maximum current
flows at the resonant frequency, some current flows at frequencies off
resonance. The high current at one single frequency (resonance) and reduced
currents at other frequencies can be interpreted as discrimination by the
circuit against frequencies other than the resonant frequency. This action of
the circuit is the basis of its use.
SERIES RESONANT L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-109
The Effect of Resistance
We have explained the action of resistance in the series L-C-R circuit as

being the factor which contributes to the control of the current. When we
think of a circuit as a frequency-resonant system, we must take note of
other effects of circuit resistance - that is, its effect on the circuit current
or resonance curve. The lower the circuit resistance when Xl, = Xc, the
higher is the circuit current. If the current is shown graphically as a reson-
ance curve, the peak of the current curve will be higher with lower circuit
resistance. For instance, if the resistance of the circuit discussed on the
preceding page were 10 ohms instead of 100 ohms, the resonant frequency
current would have been 3 amperes instead of 300 milliamperes.
The lower the

resistance of the
series-resonant
L-C circuit...
RESONANT FREQUENCY
...the greater the change in current per unit change

in frequency — hence the circuit tuning.
Equally important is another effect - this time on the shape of the resonance
curve. The lower the circuit resistance, the greater the relative control of
the current by the net reactance of the circuit as the frequency changes from
resonance to off resonance. The result is that the circuit current falls
rapidly as the frequency changes, and the sides of the resonance curve are
steep. Conversely, the higher the circuit resistance, the less will be the
relative control of the circuit current by the net reactance as the frequency
is changed. The result is a broadening of the resonance curve. The steeper
the sides of the resonance curve, the sharper will be the tuning of the circuit.
This means that the circuit discriminates more against frequencies that are
off resonance. In other words, the lower the resistance of a circuit, the
sharper its performance as a frequency selector. Note the difference in
peak amplitudes at the resonant frequency for the three conditions of resist-
ance in the circuit. Note also the limited change in current for resonance
and off resonance conditions with high resistance, compared with the large
change in current for resonance conditions when there is very low resistance.
2-110 SERIES L-C-R CIRCUITS
Effective Resistance and Q

All inductive windings, i. e. , all coils which demonstrate the property of in-
ductance, can be rated in terms of a figure of merit called Q. It is expressed
as a number - for instance, a Q of 100. The higher the number, the more
effectively the coil acts as an electrical device. When stated as an equation:
Q = X L/R, or 2rfL/R.
In this equation, R has a somewhat different meaning than d-c resistance.
Here, it stands for effective resistance a term used to describe all forms of
,
resistance (not reactance) which tend to retard the flow of current in a cir-
cuit. At d-c and low frequencies, the only opposition to the flow of current
is the ohmic resistance of the wire. But at high frequencies, another kind of
resistance — a-c resistance — appears and adds to the effective resistance of
the coil, lowering its Q. This resistance is produced by skin effect. When
skin effect is present, the electron flow is redistributed over the conductor
cross section so as to make most of the electrons flow where they are en-
circled by the least number of magnetic flux lines. Because a greater num-
ber of flux linkages exists in the center of a conductor, the inductance at the
center is greater than near the surface. Thus, at high frequencies, the re-
actance is great enough to affect the flow of current, most of which flows
along the surface of the conductor. Therefore, the effective resistance is
increased, since, in effect, the useful cross section of the conductor is great-
ly reduced.
Skin effect can be minimized by forming the conductor from a large number
of small enameled wires connected in parallel at their ends, but insulated
from each other throughout the rest of their length and interwoven. Each
conductor will then link with the same number of flux lines as every other
one, and the current will divide evenly among the strands, thus greatly in-
creasing the useful cross section of the wire. A stranded cable like this is
called a Litz conductor.
RESONANT
FREQUENCY
The higher the Q, the
sharper the resonance curve

SUMMARY 2-111
Time constant in an R-L circuit is a of comparing how rapidly the

means
current in one R-L circuit rises
to a given value relative to the current
in another R-L circuit. It is expressed in seconds and is calculated by
the equation t (seconds) = L (henries)/R (ohms).

Time constant in an R-C circuit is calculated by the equation: t (seconds) =
R (ohms) x C (farads).
In an R-C circuit, voltage rises to 63. 2% of its maximum value and falls
63. 2% from its maximum value in the first unit of time.
is greater than Xc, the circuit acts inductively and the current lags
the
If Xl
applied voltage (E) by the phase angle 9. Tan 8 = Xl-Xq/R.
If Xc is greater than Xl, the circuit acts capacitively and the
current leads
the applied voltage (E) by the phase angle 9. Tan 8 = Xq-Xl/R-
If Xl is equal to Xq, the circuit is resistive and the current is in phase with
the applied voltage (E).
The resonant frequency of the circuit is the particular frequency at which the
circuit responds best.
The frequency at which an L-C-R circuit resonates is found by the formula
f = 1/2 tt-n/LC.
At resonance, the reactances cancel, current is a maximum, impedance is a
minimum, and the phase angle is 0°.
At resonance, the voltages across the reactances are maximum, and circuit
current is maximum.
In a series L-C-R circuit, the voltages across the reac tive elements ar e
180° out of phase and may be subtracted directly: E =^/e 2 t (E -E > 2
r L c ;
Z -Ve 2 +(X l -Xc )2.

Q a measure of the selectivity of a circuit, and varies inversely with the
is
resistance.
The Q of a series resonant circuit is the ratio of the inductive reactance to
the effective resistance, and is equal to Xl/R-
In considering the Q of a coil, it is important to consider skin effect
— an a-c
resistance which at high frequencies adds to the effective resistance of
a coil, causes losses, and lowers the Q.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Give the formula for finding the impedance of an R-L circuit and of an
R-C circuit?
2. What is the formula for finding the impedance of a series L-C-R circuit?
3. What determines the voltage drop across any single element in an a-c
circuit?
4. In an L-C-R circuit, what is the phase relationship between current and
voltage when Xl is equal to Xq.
5. is the phase relationship between the voltages across the reactive
What
elements in a series L-C-R circuit?
6. Give the formula for calculating the resonant frequency of a circuit.
7. Name the conditions present in a series resonant L-C circuit.
8. What is the relationship between current and impedance at resonance?
9. What is the Q of a resonant circuit? How is it determined?
10. What effect does the resistance in a circuit have upon the frequency of
resonance?
11. In a series resonant circuit, what is the relationship between the volt-
age across either reactance and the applied voltage?
1
2-112 CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C CIRCUITS
Branch Currents in the Basic Parallel L-C Circuit
A capacitor and an inductor connected in parallel across a voltage source

make up a basic parallel L-C circuit. Since they are in parallel, the applied
voltage appears across both L and C. We refer to the voltage across L as
El and across C as Eq.
Assume L-C
that a parallel made up
pure inductance and capac-
circuit is of
itance. The inductance is amount as
to present an Xl of 600
of such an
ohms; the capacitance is such as to present an X^; of 1200 ohms. The ap-
plied voltage is 120 volts at 60 cycles. Thus, the two branch currents are:
E 120
I = = 0. 2 ampere or 200 milliamperes
L
L
E 120
= 0-
I
= jj— = Y 200 1 ampere or 100 milliamperes
c
Note that the inductive branch presents the lesser amount of reactance;
hence, it passes the greater amount of current.
Because the branch currents differ in phase by 180°, the line current in the
parallel L-C circuit is determined by vectorial addition of the branch cur-
rents. When arranging the vectors, the applied voltage (identical to El and
Ec) has the same phase across each branch; hence, it is suitable for use as
the reference vector. With the inductive current II lagging El by 90°, the
lL vector is positioned 90° behind the voltage vector. The length of the II
vector is determined by using any desired scale compatible with the value.
The capacitive current Ic leads E by 90°; hence, the Iq vector leads the
c
reference voltage vector by 90°. The scale used for vector Ic must be the
same as for vector II- The current-voltage relationships shown establish
the two currents as being 180° out of phase. The resultant of two vectors
180° out of phase is the difference between their magnitudes. So we sub-
tract the smaller vector Ic from the larger vector II. The resultant is the
total line current (It = II - Ic)* The line current It equals 0. 2 - 0. 1 = 0.
ampere. Since the inductive current II is the predominant current in the
parallel network, the resultant current It has the same phase as the original
I
L that is, it lags the applied voltage by 90°.
;
)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C CIRCUITS 2-113
Branch Currents and Circuit Impedance
When l|_ is greater than Iq ...the circuit behaves as an
When l£ is greater than 1^, ...the circuit behaves as a

or is lower than X|_ m> capacitance. Z is capacitive
There are several interesting aspects of the parallel L-C circuit which we
shall discuss, but first we must establish the total circuit impedance Zj.
Since we know that line current It equals 0. 1 ampere and applied voltage
equals 120 volts, the circuit impedance Zt equals E/fy. Substituting the ap-
propriate numbers in the equation:
Z = = 1200 ohms (inductive)

t
The voltage source "looking" into the parallel circuit "sees" an impedance of
1200 ohms. The reference to inductive for the impedance has a meaning
similar to that in the series L-C circuit; namely, the behavior of the imped-
ance as an inductance or as a capacitance. The impedance of the parallel
L-C circuit can be inductive or capacitive; this is determined by which form
of opposition to the current flow is most prominent in the parallel network
(assuming that Xl does not equal Xc). The predominant branch reactance is
the lesser one, since it permits the greater amount of branch current to flow.
Therefore, it is most prominent in the resultant line current. In this way,
the lesser reactance determines the overall behavior of the circuit, as well
as the phase relationship between line current and applied voltage. The line
current can have two relationships relative to the applied voltage - leading or
lagging. (Later on, you will learn of a third possible identity, this being the
in-phase condition when the L-C circuit is resonant and behaves like a
resistance.
2-114 CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C CIRCUITS
Line Current and Circuit Impedance
The branch and line currents have been established in circuit A and are:
II = 0. 2 ampere; Ic = 0. 1 ampere; It = 0. 1 ampere; Zt = 1200 ohms. Line
current It is seen to be less than one of the branch currents. This is not
unusual in an a-c circuit when the parallel network consists of L and C. The
currents flowing through the branches are 180° out of phase with each other;
therefore, they tend to cancel in the path which carries the two currents. If
the two branch currents differ greatly, as in case A, the line current It is
less than the higher of the two branch currents; if the two branch currents do
not differ by too much, the current can be less than either of the two branch
currents. The example which follows illustrates this point.
= - = 0-1 am P = — = 0.02 amp

1
,
1
1 1 c 1
1
I
£
1
lit lowtR th tm comm i

i
Assume a second parallel L-C circuit (B) in which E = 120 volts at 60 cycles,
Xl ohms, and Xq = 1200 ohms. Applying Ohm's law for current:
= 1500
II = E/Xl = 120/1500 =0.08 ampere and Ic = E/Xc = 120/1200 =0.1 ampere,
from which If = Ic - II * 0. 1 - 0. 08 = 0. 02 ampere, an amount less than
either branch current. Then the circuit impedance Zt = E/It = 120/0. 02 =
6000 ohms. If now we study closely the constants of circuits A and B, two
extremely important situations are brought to light. By comparing the two
values of line current and the respective reactances in the circuits, it is seen
that the closer to equality Xl and Xc are, the less the line current; the more
one reactance differs from the other, the greater the line current. Since line
current It is the denominator in the equation for the circuit impedance, the
closer to equality Xl and Xc are for any given voltage, the higher the circuit
impedance; the greater the difference between Xl and Xc, the lower the cir-
cuit Impedance. These two electrical conditions are important to remember.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-115
The Basic Parallel L-C-R Circuit (General)
Let us now consider an L-C circuit with parallel resistance R added.

Ele-
ments L and C remain "pure" inductance and capacitance. The addition of
the parallel resistance does not change the individual actions of
L and C.
Now E = El = Ec = Er; therefore, all voltages are in phase. R is simply
another branch across which the applied voltage appears as Er, and through
which a current Ir equal to Er/R flows. Branch current Ir is not influenced
by the presence of II or Ic« There is, however, a difference in the phase
relationship between the voltage and current associated with R. Voltage Er
and
and current Ir are in phase, while voltage El leads current II by 90 ,
voltage Ec lags current Ic by 90°. Thus, the resistive current is 90 out of
180° out of phase
phase with thelnductive and capacitive currents, which are
with each other.
The order of appearance of the circuit elements
in a schematic is unimportant
2-116 CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUITS
Branch Currents and Line Current
Let us say that a parallel L-C-R circuit (A) contains an inductive branch in
which Xl equals 600 ohms, a capacitive branch with X£ equal to 1200 ohms,
and a resistive branch with R equal to 480 ohms. The applied voltage is 120
volts at 60 cycles; hence, El equals Ec equals Er equals 120 volts. I =
El/Xl = 0. 2 ampere; Ic = Ec/Xc = 0. 1 ampere; and Ir = Er/R = 0.L25
ampere.
When the three branch currents are known, the line current is determined by
vectorial addition (B). Because the current and voltage across the resistance
are in phase, Ir is used as the reference vector. The capacitive branch cur-
rent leads its voltage (Ec) by 90°; hence, it is positioned 90° ahead of the
Ir
vector. The inductive current lags its voltage (El) by 90°; hence, it is posi-
tioned 90° behind Ir. The Ic and II vectors are 180° apart; therefore, their
resultant is the difference between them, or II - Ic = 0. 1 ampere. Current
IL is greater than current Ic; therefore, the difference between them has the
same direction as II. This difference current is 90° out of phase with I .
The two currents can be added by the parallelogram method (B), or by the R
equation method (C). Completing the parallelogram and drawing the diagonal
OC furnishes the answer. With all vectors similarly calibrated, the dimen-
sion of OC can be read directly as the amount of line current. The answer is
0. 269 ampere. The same answer is arrived at by the equation method (C).
With both inductive and resistive current present in the line current, the line
current therefore lags the applied voltage by the angle 6. Using a protractor
on the vector presentation shows the angle of lag to be 21.8°. Expressed
mathematically, the lag of the line current is:
tan 9 = —
T
L,
= -2li_
0.25
=0.4 or 0 = 21. 8°
P
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUITS 2-117
Line Current and Circuit Impedance
Since we know the line current (developed on the preceding page), we can
determine the circuit impedance Zj.
vf-S- 446 °hms
Comparison of the line current with the individual branch currents shows
that the line current is greater than the highest branch current. The imped-
ance is less than the lowest ohmic value among the branches. The calculated
circuit impedance Zj = 446 ohms compared to R = 480 ohms shows this to be
true. Although it is true in this instance, the circuit impedance of a parallel
L-C-R circuit is not always less than the lowest ohmic value among the
branches. For example, imagine II equal to Iq because Xl equals Xc at
some frequency. Then the two reactive currents cancel each other as far as
line current is concerned, and the only current appearing in the line current
is the one flowing through the resistive branch. When this is true, circuit
impedance Zf- equals R for all practical purposes.
THE PARALLEL R IN THE PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUIT LIMITS THE MAXIMUM CIRCUIT
IMPEDANCE AND SETS THE MINIMUM CURRENT ADOVE ZERO WHEN X ~X
L C
x,=x r .
x
c
>x L x
L
>x c approaching - increasing from
approaching — increasing from

X| = Xr
j
X,
X, = X. X,=X r
But a much more important point is that when R is in parallel with paralleled
L-C, the circuit impedance can never rise higher than the ohmic value of R,
even though the individual reactances Xl and Xc may be very much higher.
On page 2-114, we found that when Xl and Xc approached equality, the cir-
cuit impedance of the resistanceless circuit increased greatly. With parallel
R present, such an increase cannot take place. The parallel R prevents the
parallel L-C circuit from presenting a very high impedance when Xl = Xc-
This situation is important when working with parallel- resonant L-C cir-
cuits, as explained later.
11 11 1 11 1
2-118 CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUITS
Line Current and Circuit Impedance (Cont'd)
To emphasize the action of R in a parallel-connected L-C-R circuit, we ex-

amine two more sets of circuit constants.
The presence of the parallel-connected resistive branch (R = 10, 000 ohms)

appears to contribute very little to the operation of the circuit. When the dif-
ference between the inductive and capacitive branch currents is much greater
than the resistive branch current, the R branch has very little effect on the
circuit action. As the figures show with R in the circuit, the line current It
is 0.018 ampere and is lagging the applied voltage by 83°. The circuit im-
pedance Zt is 1111 ohms. With R removed, the It would be 0. 0185 ampere
and lagging the applied voltage by 90° - very little difference. The circuit
impedance would be 1081 ohms - again, very little difference. It would be
good practice to solve for the circuit current and impedance with R out of the
circuit.
R HAS LITTLE EFFECT ON THIS CIRCUIT

i
L =ik 20 v
fl
L
- I
c
MUCH GREATER THAN l
R
Xl
100 KC 0.001 /if
_20_
628
- l0.03ll ompere
= 6.28 x 00,000 X 0.001 2 2
= |628 ohms i,. !s_- JO- I,= Vi'r + (Il-I,)
Xc 15 94
V 2 7T f C
I
R
= 10.0125 ampere
= Sn
=7-002' +
= |
.018 ampere
(.031 -0.0125 f
R
6.28 x 100,000 x 0.000000001 =L=
; 20
20 Z.
‘1 = [Hill Ohms
I, 0.018
= ll594l ohms 10,000
R = 10,000 ohms
1 = lo.QQ2 ampere1 tan
_
9= —
I L -I C r-
0.0185
= - =9.25
Ip 0.002
OR 0 --
[63° 1
R HAS CONSIDERABLE EFFECT ON THIS CIRCUIT
£ 9 *‘0.001 /if
(
I
L
— Ig LESS THAN l
R ]
2
W'n" t
+ < I
L- I c>
X L = 2tt f l= 942 ohms

1 I, = 10.020 |
ampere = 0.00297
1 |
ampere
Z, = [ 673o[ ohms
Xc = = 10631 ohms Ir = 10.0188 ampere
27?c I
I,-I c 0.0022
R = |l0,000 ohms lR = l0 002 ampere ton 8 ^ -=— _ = l.l
I
1
R 0.002
OR $ = |47. 7"
Let us now change the operating conditions by raising the frequency of the
applied voltage to 150 kc. It changes the values of Xl and Xc, making the
difference between II and Ic nearly Ir. Xl almost equals Xc. Hence,
the presence of the R branch displays a major effect. In the absence of R,
the circuit impedance Zt would be 9090 ohms, and the line current would
lag the applied voltage by 90°. But with R present, Zt = 6730 ohms and the
line current lags the applied voltage by only 47. 7°, a major change. It is
evident, therefore, that the parallel R displays its greatest effect in the
vicinity of, and at, resonance.
PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUITS 2-119
Calculating the Resonant Frequency
The parallel resonant L-C circuit differs from the ordinary parallel L-C
circuit in one respect — resonance. Resonance occurs when the inductive
reactance (2rfL) equals the capacitive reactance (l/27rfC), or Xl = Xq. For
any given fixed amount of L and C, parallel resonance occurs at only one
frequency (the same as in the series-re sonant L-C circuit). The frequency
of resonance is expressed by f = 1/2 jtVlC, or 1, 000, 000/27T VLC. Both
equations are exactly the same as used for the series-resonant circuit and
both yield the same result. They differ only in the units which are used for
L and C - the first is in henries and farads; the second is in microhenries

and microfarads. To illustrate the application of the two equations, assume
a parallel L-C circuit in which L = 100 microhenries (or 0.0001 henry), and
C = 100 micromicrofarads (or 0. 0001 microfarad, or 0. 0000000001 farad).
Using each equation for the solution, the resonant frequency (often indicated
f 0 ) is:
1,000,000
f cycles - 6 28 f cycles = 6.28^100x0.0001
x y o oooi * 0.0000000001
1 , 000,000
"
=
6.28V O.OOOOOOOOOOOOOI 6.28V0.01
1 _ 1, 000,000
" 6.28x0.0000001 6.28x0.1
1,000,000
= !
“
0.000000628 0.628
= 1,592,197 cycles = 1,592,197 cycles
= 1.5922 me = 1.5922 me
fixed L and C Can Resonate at Only One frequency
Parallel L or C Can Be Tuned to Resonate

at a Variety of frequencies
The values of L and C in a parallel-resonant circuit may be precalculated so
as to be resonant to a single frequency. On the other hand, the requirement
may be for resonance over a band of frequencies. This condition is provided
for by making either L or C (sometimes both) variable between a minimum
and a maximum amount. Each setting within the range of variation then
affords a different resonant frequency. For instance, if in the example above,
L were fixed at 100 uh while C were variable between a minimum of 20 uuf
and a maximum of 100 upf, the circuit could be resonated individually to all
frequencies between a low of 1. 59 22 me to a high of 3. 56 me.

-
2-120 PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUITS
Line Current and Impedance
You have learned circuit offers minimum im-

that the series resonant L-C
pedance at the resonant frequency. of the parallel resonant The behavior
L-C circuit is the exact opposite - at resonance, the circuit impedance is
maximum. When equality between Xl and Xc is reached, the respective
branch currents II and Ic are equal. Since the line current It has been es-
tablished as the difference between the branch currents, and the difference
between two equal amounts is zero, the parallel resonant L-C circuit shows
no line current. From the viewpoint of the voltage source, it is applying
voltage across a circuit having infinite impedance.
Let us illustrate this situation. E = 12 volts at 1. 5922 me; L = 100 micro-

henries, for which Xl is 1000 ohms; C = 0.0001 microfarad, for which
Xc = 1000 ohms. Then:
Hum RESONANCE PKOMICIS

ML — m emtm »<* mmm impedance
E = 12 volts
— 1 r
i
c
When X L = X C
1000=1000
J
t= Il-i c
= 0 012 - 0.012
= 0
.
l E E.
$3 and I. = = 012 amp z, = -
X,=1000 h
’
x
c = 1000
x-s X^ 1000
f =1.5922 me n n .
E, - !2
!
_ In*
c xc " 1000
"° 2 0 p
*
=
0
INFINITE
Infinite circuit
impedance in
theoretically
ideal circuit
Frequencies
below
Resonance
X c greater than X, X L greater than X
c
The ideal case of zero line current and infinite circuit impedance in the res-
onant parallel L-C circuit is not realizable in practice; nevertheless, we
assume that they are attainable because they enable us to establish clearly
the limiting conditions for later comparison with the practical circuit. There
is similarity in behavior between the two. If we show a graphic picture of the
change in line current with change in frequency for the ideal case, the line
current is seen to be zero at resonance, and increases for frequencies on
both sides of resonance. The graph of circuit impedance vs. frequency
shows infinite impedance at resonance and reduced impedance off resonance.
With equality between the branch reactances and branch currents, infinite
impedance is interpreted as infinite resistance.
Circulating Current
The infinite impedance of the resistanceless parallel resonant L-C circuit

should be understood as being the impedance "seen" by the voltage source as
it "looks" into the parallel L-C network. The voltage source "sees" an open
circuit. Also, the zero line current condition should not be mistaken for
zero current conditions inside the parallel network. Interestingly enough, a
significant current flow situation prevails inside the parallel L-C circuit.
Let us examine the current conditions inside the parallel L-C network at
resonance.
The circuit is resistanceless, Xl = Xc, and II = Ic* The two branch cur-
rents are 180° out of phase as the result of their 90° lag and lead relation-
ships with their respective voltages, El and Ec- Examination of the flow of
the two branch currents shows that they move in opposite directions through
their respective branch elements. When the polarity of the applied voltage
changes, the two branch currents reverse their directions of flow. Now, if
we take points A and B as references, and examine the directions of the two
branch currents, they are seen to have like directions. All the current which
flows into A moves away from A; all the current which flows into B moves
away from B. In other words, the two branch currents have become one and
the same current, as far as to-and-fro circulation through L and C inside the
parallel-connected circuit is concerned. In fact, as far as the circulating
current is concerned, the parallel L-C network is really a series circuit,
since there is only one path for the circulating current. The circulating
current is equal to El/Xl or Ec/Xc*
Illllllilillllllllllill «
The CIRCULATING CURRENT in the PARALLEL
RESONANT CIRCUIT is EVERYWHERE THE

SAME in the L CIRCUIT and in the C CIRCI1
2-122 PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUITS
Circulating Current (Cont'd)
What is the importance of the circulating current? The parallel resonant L-C
circuit is sometimes called a "tank" or storage circuit. The circulating
current charges C, momentarily storing energy in it. When C discharges,
the discharge current flows into L and builds a magnetic field, in which
electrical energy is stored. When the magnetic field collapses, the current
again flows into C, recharging it. Discharging again builds a magnetic field
around the coil, thus effecting an interchange of electrical energy between C
and L of the parallel resonant L-C circuit. This energy is maximum at
resonance; hence, maximum energy is available for transfer to anotWfer cir-
cuit or to be kept within the circuit for a purpose.
...BETWEEN L AND C
IN THE OFF-RESONANT
PARALLEL L-C CIRCUIT
THAN
Of) l
X L LESS
UMORE
- than
Xc
i
c
1 THE CIRCULATING
CURRENT UtUKtAStd
current through L
<-]7r
c UUKKtNI DECREASES
7\f # line I
^Tl|
— ^"^tank current
line current
What happens when the circuit is not resonant? Several actions occur.
Assume Xl to be greater than Xq. Then Ic is greater than Ij_,. Suppose that
Ic = 200 ma We
and Ij_, = 50 ma. have learned that the line current
It equals
the difference between the two, or in this case 200- 50 = 150 ma. Circulating
current also flows in the nonresonant state of the circuit, but now it is equal
to the lesser of the two branch currents - in this case, to I
L = 50 ma. An
equal amount of the greater branch current (50 ma) becomes part of the cir-
culating current. The remaining 150 ma of the capacitive branch current is
the line current, and flows through the parallel L-C circuit via the capaci-
tive branch. If the situation were reversed and II equalled 200 ma and Iq
equalled 50 ma, the circulating current would be 50 ma while the line current
of 150 ma would flow through the circuit via the inductance. The farther
away from resonance, the less the circulating current and the greater the
line current.
Resonance Curve
Like the series resonant L-C circuit, the performance of the parallel reso-
nant L-C circuit can be portrayed by a resonance curve. A convenient way
of preparing this curve is by plotting the circulating current vs. frequency.
A current meter is used in each branch circuit.
Current at the resonant frequency determined first. Both meters will in-
is
dicate the same amount of current.As the frequency of the applied voltage
is lowered, Xl decreases while Xc increases. The inductive branch current
thus increases, whereas the capacitive branch current decreases. Since the
circulating current has the value of the lesser branch current, the Xq branch
meter is used as the current indicator. The lower the frequency relative to
resonance, the lower will be the indication on the Xc branch meter. Since
the inductive branch current exceeds the capacitive branch current, the
parallel current as a whole behaves like an inductance.
Then, the circulating current is plotted as the frequency is increased above

resonance. As frequency increases, Xc decreases and Xl increases. The
capacitive branch current now increases, whereas the inductive branch cur-
rent decreases. The indication on the meter in the Xl branch is plotted for
a range of frequencies above resonance. Since the capacitive branch current
exceeds the inductive branch current, the parallel circuit behaves like a
capacitance.
As in the series resonant circuit, the parallel resonant circuit also affords
a selective frequency bandpass. It is the band of frequencies embraced by
this curve at a level corresponding to a circulating current of 70% (70. 7%
exactly) of the maximum circulating current. The higher the circuit Q, the
steeper the sides and the narrower the bandpass. The lower the Q, the
broader the sides and the wider the bandpass.
2-124 THE PRACTICAL PARALLEL L-C CIRCUIT
Comparison with Theoretically Ideal Parallel L-C Circuit
The practical parallel L-C circuit differs from the theoretically resistance-
less version in one major respect: the presence of resistance. It exists in
the inductance, in the capacitance, and in the interconnecting wires. Of these
resistance sources, only the resistance contained in the inductance is im-
portant, so we disregard the others.
THE THEORETICALLY IDEAL THE PRACTICAL

PARALLEL L-C CIRCUIT PARALLEL L-C CIRCUIT
The resistance is treated as if it were a resistance in series with the coil L.

The capacitive branch is assumed to consist of XC only, whereas the induc-
tive branch consists of R in series with X^. In low-frequency circuits, L
could have a great many turns; hence, R could be relatively high. In high-
frequency circuits, L usually is small and therefore R is small; in fact, R is
often so small that it is completely negligible. Yet we must recognize that R
is present, especially (as you will see) when Xl = Xc during resonant con-
ditions. In the theoretically resistanceless circuit, when Xl = Xc, the line
current is zero and the circuit impedance is infinite. In practical systems
using parallel resonant L-C circuits, Xl can equal Xc, yet there is a finite
amount of line current flowing due to the resistance in the circuit.
THE PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUIT 2-125
Branch Currents
In the theoretically resistanceless parallel resonant circuit, the inductive

branch current II lags the inductive branch voltage by 90°, the capacitive
branch current 1^ leads its voltage Ec by 90°, and the line current It is zero.
R in series with L), the capacitive
In the practical version of the circuit (with
branch current leads its voltage Eq by 90°, but the inductive branch no
still
longer is only reactance Xl. Now the branch is impedance Zl made up of R
and Xl in series.
In the study of thebehavior of the series R-L circuit, we found that while the
current is everywhere the same, the voltage across R is in phase with the
current, but leads the current in Xl by 90°. When R is not negligible, the
current in the series circuit lags the voltage across the series combination
by some amount less than 90°. Applying these conditions to the practical
parallel resonant L-C circuit shows that the two branch currents are not 180°
out of phase. Resonance occurs, nevertheless because Xl = Xc- To deter-
mine the inductive branch current, we must first establish the impedance of
the circuit. Assume that E = 12 volts, Xl = 775 ohms, R = 300 ohms (a com-
pletely unrealistic amount, but one which will illustrate the point), and X^ =
775 ohms. Then:
Inductive branch Z. Inductive branch Capacitive branch
We now know that Z = 831 ohms; Izl = 0.0144 ampere (14.4 ma) while Ic =
0.0154 ampere (15. 4 ma). The phase angle between the inductive branch cur-
rent Izl and its voltage El is 68. 8°.
2-126 THE PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANT L-C CIRCUIT
Line Current
To determine the line current the practical parallel resonant circuit, we

It in
must resort to trigonometric means and use vectors.If we show the answers
derived on the preceding page in a vector presentation, the voltages E = El =
Ec form the reference vector OA. Its length is arbitrary. Then we position
the capacitive branch current vector; OB = 15.5 ma, 90° ahead of the refer-
ence voltage vector. The length of the capacitive current vector conforms
with whatever scale is decided upon. In this case, it is 1/8 inch = 1 ma. The
same scale is used for all currents, thereby permitting direct reading of
current values from the dimensions of the lines. Using a protractor, we
locate the inductive branch current IgL vector; OC = 14. 4 ma, at 68. 8° be-
hind the voltage vector. This completes one portion of the branch. Because
of the difference in the phase relationships between Ic and Ec, and IgL and
El, we cannot subtract Izl from Ic and assume that the arithmetical differ-
ence is equal to the line current. To establish the line current, we must lay
down two additional sides — side CD equal and parallel to vector OB, and side
BD equal and parallel to vector OC. Now, the diagonal OD represents the
line current. By measuring its length, vector OD equals 5. 7 ma.
B
til R Izl !
C
o
E
yin
in VECTOR OD = 57 MA, HENCE THE LINE
CURRENT t =57 MA, AND LEADS THE
l
D APPLIED VOLTAGE E BY 15.4°

= 15.4°
>A e = e
l
=e c
SCALE ~ « I MA
o
'
n R s L\
AL q/ 3002 1
775 $jf
]
i
AS 5
S^
<*>/ (
a i
,
X L* 1°
768-8°'
775 fl &
L-I) i_ j
R * 300
IN ANALYZING R'L BRANCH, IT MUST
BE TREATED AS A SERIES CIRCUIT
l
zjfL * 0.0144 AMPERES
Vector OD is located above the reference voltage vector OA; therefore, lj

leads applied voltage E by angle AOD. Using a protractor, we find it to be
1574 *.
FILTER CIRCUITS 2-127
Effects of L and C at Different Frequencies
To aid in understanding the action of the filter circuits, it is best to review

some of the effects of C and L at different frequencies. The diagrams show
the effect of series-connected small and large values of inductance and ca-
pacitance on low-, medium-, and high-frequency voltages.
Low Valueof L
AVAILABLE AT OUTPUT
Low f
—r ooo
Medium f
AA/V VARIABLE X L Most of low f
High
ALL OF
f
SAME VALUE
mwi BECAUSE OF
CHANGING
FREQUENCY /
\f\J\J\f\J\j
Less of
Still
medium
less ot high
f
AVAILABLE AT OUTPUT
Low f
Medium f
/
W\y -imnr>-
VARIABLE X L
BECAUSE OF
Reduced low f
High (
WJWu CHANGING
FREQUENCY \S\S\/\/\/\,
/
Very much
Very
of
little
less
medium
of high
f
ALL OF SAME VALUE
Low f
impm AVAILABLE AT OUTPUT
Medium f
a/w Hh
VARIABLE X c
BECAUSE OF /A /\ /A
^ ^ ^
Very little
Much more
of low f
High f
wi/rn CHANGING of medium f
ALL OF SAME VALUE

FREQUENCY
WUWl »' more of high f
AVAILABLE AT OUTPUT
Low f
Medium f
WA/ HI-
VARIABLE X c
BECAUSE OF
CHANGING
/A
^ ^ ^
/A /A
More
Very
of low
little
of
f
loss
medium
wiA/in,
f
Hi9h f
r
FREQUENCY vir,ua " y no loss
ALL OF SAME VALUE
\Af\Af\Ti of high f
The higher the frequency of the applied voltage for any given value of L, the
larger will be the voltage drop across L; hence, the less the signal voltage
available at the output. The higher the frequency for any given value of C,
the less will be the voltage drop across C and the higher the available signal
voltage at the output.
L and C are used in various ways in different kinds of filters. Sometimes

they form resonant circuits; sometimes they form networks which will pass
a wide band of frequencies and reject others, or reject a wide band of fre-
quencies and pass others. Examples appear on the following pages, with
more detailed discussions in subsequent volumes dealing with receivers and
transmitters.
2-128 FILTER CIRCUITS
Low-Pass and High- Pass Filters
A filter circuit that passes all the low frequencies below a particular fre-
quency, and rejects all higher frequencies, is called a low-pass filter. A
filter circuit that passes all the high frequencies above a particular fre-
quency and rejects the lower frequencies is called a high-pass filter.
The simplest form of low-pass filter is an inductor in series with the line as
in A, or a capacitor connected in parallel with the line as in B. The inductor
presents a low Xl at the low frequencies but a high Xl at the high frequen-
cies. The capacitor presents a high Xq at the low frequencies and progres-
sively less Xc as the frequency increases. When L and C are combined,
they form a low-pass filter as shown in C, with their performance curve
shown in D. The low reactance of L at low frequencies provides an easy path
for the signal. At the same time, the shunt capacitance presents a high im-
pedance to the low-frequency signal currents; therefore, very little is lost
across C. At high frequencies, the high reactance of L presents increasing
opposition to the flow of signal currents. At the same time, the progressive-
ly decreasing reactance of C at high frequencies offers an easy bypass path
for the currents.
Frequency Increase
simplest high-pass fitters PERFORMANCE OF HIGH-PASS FILTER
Frequency Increase
The simplest form of high-pass filter would be either C in series with the
line (as in E) or an inductor across the line (as in F). When combined (G),
the high reactance of C at low frequencies offers high opposition to their
path. The low reactance of L at low frequencies will effectively bypass
them. At high frequencies, the reactance of C is low, and it readily passes
these signal currents. On the other hand, the increasing reactance with in-
creasing frequency of L minimizes signal-current bypass through the coil.
The net result is to pass all the higher frequencies readily to the load, but to
reject the lower frequencies (H).
Q
FILTER CIRCUITS 2-129
Bandpass and Band-Relect Filters
Simplest BANDPASS Filters
Q L2 C2
COMBINED PARALLEL
frequencies
rejected
MAX frequencies
./rejected
FreqUeilCy Q
OUTPUT C|f(( 3
RESONANT AND SERIES frequencies .
passed Bandpass
RESONANT FILTERS EFFECTIVE
BANDPASS FREQUENCY f'H® 1
Simplest BAND-REJECT Filters ii;
r^nnrs
L
parallel I J L 1
V-/ resonant
J}
MAX frequencies The Frequency

COMBINED PARALLEL frequencies rejected
Curve ol
RESONANT AND SERIES passed
\ a Band-Reject
RESONANT FILTERS OUTPUT! frequencies Filter

passed
FREQUENCY-
Bandpass filters permit passage of a narrow band of frequencies while re-

jecting all other undesired frequencies. The simplest form of bandpass filter
would be a series resonant circuit in the line as shown in A. Another simple
bandpass filter using a parallel resonant circuit across the line is shown in
B. Combining the two as in C provides a more effective bandpass filter.
The series resonant circuit offers low impedance and readily passes the de-
sired frequencies, while offering high impedance and blocking undesired fre-
quencies, The parallel resonant circuit offers high impedance to the desired
band of frequencies, preventing any bypass action; the undesired frequencies
find the parallel resonant circuit a low-impedance path and are effectively
bypassed through it. The characteristic curve of a bandpass filter is shown
in D.
Band- reject filters are used to block the passage of a narrow band of fre-
quencies while passing all other frequencies. The simplest form of band-
reject filter would be a parallel resonant circuit in the line as shown in E. A
simple band-reject filter using a series resonant circuit across the line is
shown in F. Combining the two as in G provides an effective band-reject
filter. The parallel resonant circuit offers high impedance to the desired
band of frequencies to be rejected, while offering a low-impedance path to all
other frequencies. The series resonant circuit across the line offers a low
impedance bypass path to the band of frequencies to be rejected, while offer-
ing a high-impedance path to all other frequencies. The characteristics
curve of a band- reject filter is shown in H.
2-130 A-C METERS
Characteristics and Operation
The D'Arsonval moving-coil meter used for measuring voltages and currents
in Volume I is basically a d-c meter. If we apply a-c to it, one half-wave
tries to make it read in the normal way; the other half-wave tries to make it
read backward. As the meter pointer does not have time to move back and
forth so rapidly, it either stands still or vibrates rapidly around zero. How-
ever, the D'Arsonval movement can be used to measure a-c if we first
change the a-c to d-c. This can be done through the use of rectifiers or
diodes. These are electrical devices that have a special characteristic —
they permit current to flow through them in one direction (low resistance),
but not in the other (high resistance). While many kinds of rectifiers can be
used, a-c ammeters and voltmeters most often use the copper-oxide recti-
fier. Adding a rectifier circuit to the D'Arsonval movement gives us an a-c
meter.
Symbol for Rectifier RECTIFIERS
I + (or cathode)
direction of electron flow
COPPER^ COPPER OXIDE Half-Wave — the Simplest Rectifier Meter

• LEAD
Copper-Oxide Type Typical Copper-Oxide Instrument Rectifiers

Dry-Plate Rectifier
Copper-oxide rectifiers generally provide good rectification for a-c up to

about 20, 000 cycles. They are constructed of a series of copper discs
clamped together flat in a stack. On one side of each disc is a coating of
copper oxide which forms a layer of this material between adjacent discs.
Washers made of lead are clamped against each oxide surface to improve the
contact, and the complete assembly is held together by an insulated bolt run-
ning through the center. Two types of rectifier circuits are used in meters
to a great extent — the half-wave and full-wave types.
A-C METERS 2-131
Characteristics and Operation (Cont'd)
In the half-wave type (which uses two rectifiers), one half-wave is bypassed
through one rectifier, while the other half goes through the meter. The
meter pointer will not have time to follow the fluctuations, so it will average
out the current that flows through it.
During one half-wave, no current flows through the meter, while during the
other half-wave, it follows half a sine wave in form. The average of half a
sine wave is 0. 637 of peak value. However, during half the time, no current
goes through the meter; therefore, the average over the whole time will be
half of 0. 637 or 0. 3185. (If an ordinary d-c meter movement is used in this
circuit to measure an alternating voltage, a 1-volt peak — 2 volts peak to

peak — voltage will give a reading of only 0.3185 volt.) In the full-wave
bridge-type rectifier, the meter gets both halves of the wave, and it will read
0. 637 of the peak voltage if a regular d-c meter is used. To provide practi-
cal a-c voltage scales, multiplier resistors must be used in series with the
meter movement and the rectifier, with appropriate shunts connected across
the meter for current measurements.
The electrodynamometer-type wattmeter discussed in Volume I is equally

useful for the measurement of a-c power. Making use of the voltage across
a circuit as well as the current flow through it, this type wattmeter is
ideal
for measuring the actual or true power in an a-c circuit. Since the torque on
the moving coil is proportional to the applied power, the "cosine 0," or phase
angle between the current and voltage, is automatically taken into considera-
tion.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER METER OPERATION
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER METER OPERATION

I Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
A voltage applied
A voltage applied
on these plates
on these plates
causes the
causes the
spot to move
spot to move
Horizontally
EFO
PPL1
LEFT TO RIGHT TRACE
PLATES
HORIZONTAL
PLATE
FLYBACK OR RETRACE
VERTICAL PLATE
Sawtooth wave applied to horizontal
plates makes spot travel steadily from
left to right, then fly back to start agqin.
If the fluctuation applied to the horizontal plates follows a "sawtooth" wave-

form, the spot will move steadily from left to right across the screen, and
then rapidly return to its starting point. By using this waveform as a "time-
base, " in this way, the voltage applied to the vertical plates traces its own
waveform. In this way, we can view electrical waveshapes and, by use of a
scale with the scope, be able to measure actual values of voltages in circuits
under examination.
SUMMARY 2-133
In a parallel resonant circuit, the branch currents cancel, the line current is
a minimum, impedance is a maximum, and the phase angle is 0°.
In the parallel L-C circuit, at frequencies above resonance, Xl is greater
than Xc, Ic Is greater than II, and the circuit acts capacitively; at fre-
quencies below resonance, Xc is greater than Xl, II is greater than Ic,
and the circuit acts Inductively .
The Q of a parallel resonant circuit is the ratio of the current in the tank (II
or Ic) to the current in the line.
A parallel circuit is resonant if Xl = Xc and II = Ic*
The parallel resonant circuit may be used as a bandpass or band- rejection
circuit.
In a parallelL-C circuit, the branch currents are 180° out of phase and can
be subtracted directly: It = II - Ic>
The current in either branch of a parallel L-C circuit may be greater than
the line current.
A tank circuit can be used to simulate the properties of either a capacitor or
an inductor.
In a parallel L-C circuit, the closer Xl and Xc are to equality, the higher
the circuit impedance Zj and the lower the line current Ij.
In the parallel resonant circuit, the circulating current is the same every-
where in the L and in the C circuit.
Circulating current in a parallel resonant L-C circuit is an interchange of
energy between the inductance and the capacitance.
The higher the Q of a parallel resonant L-C circuit, the narrower the band-
pass.
Bandpass filters are used to permit the passage of a narrow band of frequen-
cies while rejecting all other undesired frequencies; band-reject filters
are used to block the passage of a narrow band of frequencies while
passing all other frequencies.
A-C meters use the same D'Arsonval movement as is used in d-c meters,
except that a rectifier circuit is added to convert a-c to d-c.
The most commonly used rectifier in a-c ammeters and voltmeters is the
copper-oxide rectifier, which provides rectification up to about 20 kc.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Whatis a parallel resonant circuit?
2. Give the conditions present in a parallel resonant circuit.
3. Describe the circulating current in a parallel resonant L-C circuit.
4. What is the formula for the impedance of a parallel resonant circuit?
5. What is a tank circuit and why is it so named?
6. How does a parallel L-C circuit act at frequencies above and below the
resonant frequency ? Why ?
7. In a parallel resonant circuit, what relationship exists among the branch
currents, the line current, and the impedance ?
8. What is the nature of the impedance of the tank circuit at resonance?
9. In a parallel L-C circuit, what is the phase relationship between the
branch currents?
10. Define bandpass and band- rejection filter circuits.
11. Basically, how do a-c meters differ from d-c meters?
12. What two types of rectifier circuits are principally used in meters?
NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Angle Sine Cosine Tangent

°
0 0.000 1.000 0.000
° °
1 .018 1.000 .018 46 .719 .695 1.036
° °
2 .035 0.999 .035 47 .731 .682 1.072
° °
3 .052 .999 .052 48 .743 .669 1.111
° °
4 .070 .998 .070 49 .755 .656 1.150
° °
5 .087 .996 .088 50 .766 .643 1.192
° °
6 .105 .995 .105 51 .777 .629 1.235
° °
7 .122 .993 .123 52 .788 .616 1.280
° °
8 .139 .990 .141 53 .799 .602 1.327
° °
9 .156 .988 .158 54 .809 .588 1.376
° °
10 .174 .985 .176 55 .819 .574 1.428
° °
11 .191 .982 .194 56 .829 .559 1.483
° °
12 .208 .978 .213 57 .839 .545 1.540
° °
13 .225 .974 .231 58 .848 .530 1.600
° °
14 .242 .970 .249 59 .857 .515 1.664
° °
15 .259 .966 .268 60 .866 .500 1.732
° °
16 .276 .961 .287 61 .875 .485 1.804
° °
17 .292 .956 .306 62 .883 .470 1.881
° °
18 .309 .951 .325 63 .891 .454 1.963
° °
19 .326 .946 .344 64 .899 .438 2.050
° °
20 .342 .940 .364 65 .906 .423 2.145
° °
21 .358 .934 .384 66 .914 .407 2.246
° °
22 .375 .927 .404 67 .921 .391 2.356
° °
23 .391 .921 .425 68 .927 .375 2.475
° °
24 .407 .914 .445 69 .934 .358 2.605
° °
25 .423 .906 .466 70 .940 .342 2.747
° °
26 .438 .899 .488 71 .946 .326 2.904
° °
27 .454 .891 .510 72 .951 .309 3.078
° °
28 .470 .883 .532 73 .956 .292 3.271
° °
29 .485 .875 .554 74 .961 .276 3.487
° °
30 .500 .866 .577 75 .966 .259 3.732
° °
31 .515 .857 .601 76 .970 .242 4.011
° °
32 .530 .848 .625 77 .974 .225 4.331
° °
33 .545 .839 .649 78 .978 .208 4.705
° °
34 .559 .829 .675 79 .982 .191 5.145
° °
35 .574 .819 .700 80 .985 .174 5.671
° °
36 .588 .809 .727 81 .988 .156 6.314
° °
37 .602 .799 .754 82 .990 .139 7.115
° °
38 .616 .788 .781 83 .993 .122 8.144
39 ° .629 .777 .810 84 ° .995 .105 9.514
° °
40 .643 .766 .839 85 .996 .087 11.43
° °
41 .656 .755 .869 86 .998 .070 14.30
° °
42 .669 .743 .900 87 .999 .052 19.08
° °
43 .682 .731 .933 88 .999 .035 28.64
°
44 ° .695 .719 .966 89 1.000 .018 57.29
° °
45 .707 .707 .000 90 1.000 .000 00
GLOSSARY
Alternating Current (a-c): Electric current which moves first in one direction for a fixed period of time
and then in the opposite direction for the same period of time. Ac changes in value continuously
and reverses direction at regular intervals.
Ampere-Turns: The unit of magnetomotive force. Equal to the number of amperes of current flowing in
a winding, multiplied by the number of turns in the winding.
Autotransformer: A transformer in which part of the primary winding serves as the secondary or in
which part of the secondary winding is also in the primary. It has good voltage regulation under
varying load conditions.
Bandpass Filter Circuit: A filter circuit which passes a desired narrow band of frequencies while re-
jecting all other undesired frequencies.
Bandwidth: The number of cycles that receive approximately the same amplification in an amplifier.
Band-Rejection Filter Circuit: A filter circuit which rejects a desired narrow band of frequencies
while passing all other desired frequencies.
Capacitance (C): That property of an electric circuit which tends to oppose a change in voltage.
Capacitive Reactance (X c ): The opposition offered by a capacitance to alternating current. Measured

c =
in ohms. X l/(27rfC).
Capacitor: Any two conductors separated by a dielectric.
Copper-Oxide Rectifier: A rectifier made up of discs of copper, coated on one side with cuprous oxide.
Allows current flow in one direction and opposes current flow in the other direction.
Counter EMF: A voltage produced by a changing current and which at every instant opposes the change
of current that produces the voltage.
Dielectric: Any insulating or nonconducting material. Air, mica, glass, paper, oil, and rubber are
common dielectrics.
Dielectric Constant: The ratio of the ability of a given material to establish electric lines of force
between two conductors, as compared to dry air.
Distributed Capacitance: Stray or random capacitance that exists between connecting wires, between
components located physically near to each other, and between different parts of a given component.
Eddy Currents: Small circulating currents (power losses) set up by the induced voltage in any conductor
carrying alternating currents.
Electrolytic Capacitor: A type of fixed capacitor which shows polarity, and is used principally in
relatively low-frequency filter circuits at voltages up to 600 volts.
Electromagnet; A coil of wire, usually wound, or a soft-iron core, which produces a strong magnetic
field when current is sent through the coil.
Farad: The unit of measurement of capacitance. One million microfarads (^tf) equals one farad.
Frequency: The number of complete cycles per second that an alternating current undergoes.
Galvanometer: A sensitive instrument used to measure small voltages and currents.
Henry: The measurement of inductance. A thousand

unit of millihenries (mh) equals one henry. A mil-
lion microhenries 0*h) equals one henry.
High-Pass Filter: A type of filter which offers little opposition to the passage of high frequencies, and
high opposition to the passage of low frequencies.
2-136 GLOSSARY
Hysteresis Losses: Energy lost In the core of a transformer by the constant reversing of the alternating
current.
Impedance (Z): Opposition to the flow of alternating current that results from any combination of
resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance, or any two of these factors.
Induced EMF: A voltage produced when a current-carrying conductor is moved through a magnetic field
and cuts across the lines of force, orwhen the magnetic field is moved across the conductor.
Inductance ( L ): That property of an electric circuit or component which opposes any change in current.
Inductive Reactance (X L ): The opposition offered by an inductance to alternating current. Measured
in ohms. (X L = 27rfL).
Kirchhoff's Current Law: States that the sum of all the currents flowing to a point in a circuit must be
equal to the sum of all the currents flowing away from that point.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law: The sum of all the voltage drops around a closed circuit is equal to the
applied voltage.
Left-Hand Rule for Motors: A means of showing the relative directions of magnetic field flux, current
flow in a conductor, and motion of the conductor through the field.
Low-Pass Filter: A type of filter that offers little opposition to the passage of low frequencies, and
high opposition to the passage of high frequencies.
Mutual Induction: Production of an alternating voltage that occurs when two coils are placed close to
one another in such a manner that the magnetic flux set up by one coil links the turns of the
other coil.
Parallel-Resonant Circuit: A circuit in which an inductor and a capacitor are connected in parallel
and have such values that the resonant frequency the
at inductive reactance and the capacitive
• reactance are equal. Line current is at a minimum.
Peak Voltage: The highest instantaneous voltage attained in a circuit in a given period of time. Equal
to 1.414 times the rms value.
Peak-to-Peak Voltage: For any alternating waveform, the total potential difference between maximum
voltage amplitudes of opposite polarities.
Phase: The time difference between any point on a cycle and the beginning of that cycle.
Phase Difference: The time difference between any two cycles.

Q: A measure of the "quality'' of a circuit. Varies inversely with the resistance of the circuit. Equal to X L /R.
Resonant Frequency: The single frequency at which XL = Xc in a circuit.
Right-Hand Rule for Generators: A means of showing the relative directions of magnetic field flux,
motion of a conductor through the field, and of the current induced in the conductor.
RMS Root-Mean-Square
( ) Value: The effective value of an alternating voltage or current. Equal to
0.707 of maximum or peak value. Corresponds to the equivalent d-c value which produces the
same heating effect.
Series-Resonant Cfrcvif; A circuit in which an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series and
have such values that at the resonant frequency the inductive reactance and the capacitive re-
actance are equal. Current is at a maximum.
Skin Effect: The name given to the tendency of high-frequency (r-f) currents to concentrate at the sur-
face of a conductor. Caused by counter-emf's induced in the center of a conductor carrying' high-
frequency currents which forces them to travel at the surface.
Step-Down Transformer: One in which the voltage induced in the secondary is less than that applied
to the primary.
Step-Up Transformer: One in which the voltage induced in the secondary is greater than that applied
to the primary.
Tank Circuit: Any resonant circuit (usually applied to parallel circuits).
Transformer; A device which by electromagnetic induction converts an a-c input voltage higher or
lower^ than the input voltage.
Turns Ratio: A comparison of the number of turns in the primary winding of a transformer to the
number of turns in the secondary winding.
INDEX TO VOL. II

Air-core transformer, 2-47 Condenser, 2-60

Alternating current: Copper losses, 2-55
definition of, 2-1 Core saturation, 2-27
generator, 2-10 Cosine, 2-3
in an inductor, 2-38 Counter emf, 2-24
in an R-L series circuit, 2-39 Coupling, 2-28
in a parallel R-L circuit, 2-42 Current-turns ratio, 2-51
instantaneous value, 2-14 Cycle, 2-11, 2-12
introduction to, 2-1
magnetic field, 2-22
meters, 2-130 Diameter, 2-2
peak value, 2-14 Dielectric, 2-60
power, 2-90 Dielectric constant, 2-71
Alternating voltage, 2-1 Discharge current, 2-64, 2-66
Alternation, 2-12
Altitude, 2-3
Ampere-turns, 2-52 Eddy currents, 2-55
Angular rotation, 2-2 Effective value, 2-16
Armature, 2-10 Electric field, 2-65
Apparent power, 2-91 Electrolyte, 2-76
Autotransformer, 2-56
Average value, 2-15
Farad, 2-69
Faraday, Michael, 2-69
Back emf, 2-24 Ferrite, 2-47
Base, 2-3 Filters:
bandpass, 2-129
band-reject, 2-129
Capacitance: high-pass, 2-128
definition of, 2-60, 2-70 low-pass, 2-128
unit of, 2-69 Frequency, 2-12
Capacitive reactance, 2-80
calculation of, 2-83
Capacitor(s), 2-72, 2-73 Generating ac, 2-8
charging a, 2-61
discharging a, 2-66
Henry, 2-27
electric field, 2-65
Henry, Joseph, 2-27
electrolytic, 2-76
Hypotenuse, 2-3
fixed, 2-73
Hysteresis, 2-55
in parallel, 2-78
in series, 2-79
phase shift in a, 2-68 Impedance:
variable, 2-75 definition of, 2-35
Capacitor color code, 2-74 matching, 2-58

Centertap, 2-54 R-C parallel circuit, 2-88
Charging current, 2-62 R-C series circuit, 2-86
Circle, analysis of, 2-2 R-L parallel circuit, 2-43
Circumference, 2-2 R-l series circuit, 2-37

Coefficient of coupling, 2-29 series resonant circuit, 2-107
Complex wave, 2-14 solving problems, 2-36
1
2-138 INDEX
Impedance matching, 2-58 Reference line, 2-1
Inductance: Resonance, 2-99, 2-106
definition of, 2-25 calculation of, 2-119
flux linkages, 2-25 Right triangle, 2-3
mutual, 2-29 Root mean square (RMS) value, 2-16
parallel, 2-30
self, 2-25
Scalar quantity, 2-4
series, 2-30
Secondary, 2-28
the henry, 2-27
Self induction, 2-23
Induction, self, 2-23
Series capacitance, 2-79
mutual, 2-28
Series circuits:
Inductive circuit, 2-33
L-C, 2-97
Inductive reactance:
L-C-R, 2-103
definition of, 2-31
R-C, 2-84
problems, 2-32
R-L, 2-39
Instantaneous value, 2-14
voltage and current in, 2-34
Iron-core transformer, 2-47
resonant, 2-108
resonant, L-C-R, 2-109
summary of, 2-44
Kirch hoff's laws, 2-40 Series inductance, 2-30
Sine wave, definition of, 2-13
rate of change, 2-18
Leakage current, 2-76 Sinusoidal wave, 2-13
Lenz, H. F. Emil, 2-24 Solenoid, 2-25
Lenz's law, 2-24 Square wave, 2-14
Litz wire, 2-110
Tangent, 2-3
Temperature coefficient, 2-74
Mathematic fundamentals, 2-2 Theta (0), 2-2, 2-3
Maximum value, 2-17
Time constant, R-L 2-92
Mutual induction, 2-28
R-C, 2-94
Mutual inductance, 2-29
Time constant chart, universal, 2-96
Transformer:
action, 2-46
Ohm's law for ac, 2-38
air-core, 2-49
Oscilloscope, 2-132
applications of, 2-57
autotransformer, 2-56
definition of, 2-45
Parallel capacitance, 2-78 eddy currents, 2-55
Parallel circuits: iron-core, 2-49
L-C, 2-112 loaded secondary, 2-48
L-C-R, 2-115 losses,2-55
R-C, 2-87 multiwinding, 2-53
R-L, 2-41 power in a, 2-52
resonant L-C, 2-121 step-down, 2-50
summary of, 2-44 step-up, 2-50
Parallel inductance, 2-30 tapped winding, 2-54
Parallelogram, 2-6 turns ratio, 2-50
Peak-to-peak, 2-14 unloaded secondary, 2-46
Peak value, 2-14 Triangle, 2-3
Phase, definition of, 2-19 Trigonometry functions, table of, 2-134
Power factor, 2-91 True power, 2-91
Power, in an a-c circuit, 2-90 Turns ratio, 2-51
Powered-iron, 2-47
Power transformers, 2-53
Primary, 2-28 Vectors, 2-4, 2-5
Vertex, 2-2
Voltage:
Q, 2-110 distribution, 2-40
effective value, 2-17
Radius, 2-2 generation of, 2-8
Rate of change, 2-18
R-C circuit, 2-84, 2-86 Waveform, 2-12
Reactance, capacitive, 2-80
calculation of, 2-83 XL ,
2.31

of radio.


1


basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Raytheon Company
Author of
VOL. 3

All rights reserved. This book or any parts thereof

may not be reproduced
any language without permission of the publisher.
in any form or in

PREFACE
cult subject.



tricity. Upon this is built an understanding of the slightly more involved
IV PREFACE
in Volume 4, and develop the complete radio receiver,AM and FM. In

;

MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. Ill — BASIC RADIO
ELECTRON TUBES 1
Development of the Electron Tube • Electron Tube Construction • Types of Electron
Emission • Thermionic Emission
THE DIODE 5
The Diode • Space Charge • Plate Current • Plate Voltage — Plate Current Curves
• Diode Plate Resistance: DC • Diode Plate Resistance: AC • Static and Dynamic
Diode Characteristics
THE TRIODE 12
The Triode • Triode • Steady-State Condition of a Triode Cir-
Electrostatic Field in
cuit • Effect of Grid Voltage on Plate Current • Triode Plate Current: Grid Voltage
Curve • Family of Grid Characteristic Curves • Triode Plate Current: Plate Voltage
Curve • Amplification Factor • Plate Resistance * Transconductance (Mutual Con-
ductance)
MULTIGRID TUBES 22
The Tetrode Tetrode Characteristics • The Pentode • Beam Power Tubes • Vari-
•
able-Mu Tubes • Multigrid and Multi-unit Tubes • Vacuum Tube Designation and
Basing
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 30
Electronic Power Supplies •Power Transformers • Rectification • Metallic and Semi-
conductor Rectifiers • The Half-Wave Rectifier • The Full-Wave Rectifier • The
Bridge Rectifier
POWER SUPPLY FILTERS 37

Capacitance Filters Inductance Filters • The Capacitor-Input Filter
• • Choke-Input
Filters • R-C Filters and Bleeder Resistors • Typical Voltage Divider
A-C — D-C POWER SUPPLIES 43
Negative Voltage from Power Supplies • A-C — D-C Power Supplies • The Fusible
Resistor • Half-Wave Voltage Doubler • Full-Wave Voltage Doubler • Voltage Quad-
ruplcr • Heater Circuits for A-C — D-C Receivers • Three-Way Portable Power
Supplies
AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLIES 51

Auto Radio Power Supplies • The Synchronous Vibrator • The Cold-Cathode Recti-
fier and Buffer Capacitor • Auto Radio Rectifier and Filter Circuits
VOLTAGE REGULATORS 55
Gas Tube Voltage Regulation • Voltage Regulators • Zener Diode Voltage Regula-
tion • Electron Tube Regulator
VI CONTENTS
THE LOAD LINE 60
Amplification • Dynamic Characteristics of the Triode • Voltage Drop across Load
• The Load Line • Using the Load Line
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS 65
Dynamic Transfer Characteristics • Plate Voltage and Current Components • Grid
Bias • Operating Point . Linearity of Output Waveform • Calculating Amplification
• Current and Voltage Phase Relationships • Interelectrode Capacitances
CLASS OF OPERATION 74
Class-A Operation • Class-B Operation • Class-AB and Class-C Operation
BIAS 77
Fixed Bias and Self-Bias • Grid-Leak Bias
AMPLIFIERS 79
Audio-Frequency Amplifiers • Amplifier Distortion • The Decibel • Practical uses of
the Decibel • Frequency Response
COUPLING 85
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling • Action in an R-C Circuit • Gain of an R-C
Coupled Amplifier • Impedance Coupling • Transformer Coupling • Direct Coupling
• The Grounded-Grid Amplifier • The Cathode Follower • Decoupling and Bypassing
PHASE INVERTERS 95
Transformer-type Phase Inverter • The Split-Load Resistor • The Paraphase Amplifier
POWER AMPLIFICATION 98
Power Amplifiers Push-Pull Amplifiers • The Practical Push-Pull Circuit • Triode
•
Connection of Pentodes • The Lowering of Distortion • Power Output from a C.lass-A

Stage • Class-B Operation • Impedance Matching • The Output Transformer
FEEDBACK 107
Negative and Positive Feedback • Feedback Circuits
LOUDSPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES 109

The Loudspeaker • The Loudspeaker Circuit • The Carbon Microphone • Dynamic
and Crystal Microphones
RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS .... H3
Radio-Frequency Amplification • Tuned R-F Amplifiers • R-F Amplifier Coupling
Characteristics
ELECTRON TUBE OSCILLATORS 117

Oscillation • Oscillators • Oscillator Grid-Leak Bias • The Tickler Feedback (Arm-
strong) Oscillator • The Hartley Oscillator • Series and Shunt Feeding • The Col-
pitts Oscillator • High-Frequency Oscillators • The Electron-Coupled Oscillator
DEMODULATORS 127
Modulation • Demodulation • The Diode Detector • Action of the Diode Detector
• The
• The Grid-Leak Detector • Plate Detector and Infinite Impedance Detector
Regenerative Detector
GLOSSARY 135
INDEX I 37
ELECTRON TUBES
Development of the Electron Tube
In Volumes 1 and 2, we studied d-c and a-c electricity. In Volume 3, we

learn about the electron tube and its associated circuitry, which takes us
into the field of electronics. The electron tube has made possible the trans-
mission and reception of music and speech over great distances, and its
many applications have given birth to the communications industry. Although
the electronics field has become quite vast, we shall be concerned primarily
with radio communications.
It can be said that the modern electron tube began with the phenomenon of the
Edison Effect. Thomas A. Edison experimentally inserted a metal plate into
the same glass bulb with a carbon wire filament, and connected it to the pos-
itive side of the battery used to heat the filament. Despite the open-circuit
condition prevailing between the heated filament and the plate, Edison still
measured some current flow on the galvanometer (sensitive ammeter) con-
nected in series with the plate. He was unable to explain this situation,
which came to be called the Edison Effect.
In 1899, Sir J. J. Thompson presented his electron theory as an explanation

of the Edison Effect. Thompson said that electrons were emitted by the
heated filament as a result of operating it at incandescence, or white heat.
He said, further, that these electrons, because of their negative charge,
were attracted to the positively charged plate. These electrons formed an
electron current that bridged the filament-plate gap. Later development led
to J. A. Fleming's "valve," a two-electrode, improved version of Edison's
device. Finally, the three-electrode tube called the audion was invented by
Lee De Forest in 1907; this gave the real impetus to the growth of the elec-
tronics industry by its ability to perform as an amplifier in many circuits.
EVACUATED TUBE THE AUDION

liillipplililliipi
If | ipi;||l*i!IlBiiSSi:
til
Sips GRID GLASS ENVELOPE
r
GLASS
«lfami«»w*8
ENVELOPE —£—+ \
PLATE
FILAMENT METAL PLATE
TUBE
TERMINALS
SOCKET
TERMINAL A-BATTERY
i~0h
*\fcr
^lll
'
C-BATTERY
b-batteryN'IiIiI^
BATTERY
TERY
Edison's Two-Electrode Tube 1 Oeforest's Tbree-Elecitode Tube 1

3-2 ELECTRON TUBES
Electron Tube Construction
Before discussing the operation of the various tube types, such as the diode,
triode, tetrode , and pentode, we should become familiar with the basic con-
struction of the electron tube. Because the vast majority of tubes used in
radio communications are highly evacuated, we shall refer to them by their
more popular name: vacuum tubes.
The most common material used in the construction of a vacuum tube enve-
lope is glass. Many tube envelopes are made entirely of glass, and even
in the so-called "metal" tubes, the electrode leads pass through a glass bead
sealed into an eyelet. Some glass tubes, such as octal types, are fitted into
a plastic base for convenience in handling. The electrodes in a vacuum tube
are supported by insulators such as mica and a variety of ceramics. The
electrodes themselves are commonly made from metals such as nickel,
copper, aluminum, molybdenum, and tungsten.
getter and support

grid no.l control grid Pj
top spacer shield
insulating spacer
plate
heater
grid no. 2 screen
cathode
bottom spacer shield
CAGE ASSEMBLY
insulating spacer
contains It elements
the parts of a miniature pentode I BUTTON STEM ASSEMBLY
An important consideration is the creation of a high vacuum. Should there be

a significant amount of air in the tube, the filament would bum up. To ob-
tain the necessary vacuum, special vacuum pumps are used to bring the
pressure in the vacuum tube down to less than 1/1,000,000,000 that of nor-
mal atmospheric pressure.
After a tube is evacuated and sealed, a magnesium or barium getter placed

in the tube is used to remove residual gases by combining with them. The
getter is flashed by an r-f induction process, which often leaves a visible
silvery deposit on the wall of the tube.
ELECTRON TUBES 3-3
Types of Electron Emission
light strikes
electron emission photosensitive surface and
current flow heats
THERMIONIC EMISSION PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
electrons
High voltage primary
ionizes gas atoms. electrons
Electrons are attracted strike
to positive voltage. Heavy surface f secondary
positive ions bombard I electrons
cathode, heating it and are "jarred"

positive causing electron emission from metal
ions
surface
COLD-CATHODE EMISSION SECONDARY EMISSION
In the discussion of the electron or vacuum tube, our starting point is logi-
cally the source of electrons — the filament or cathode. When the cathode is
cold, these electrons roam freely within the cathode material, but generally
do not fly off the metal into the surrounding air. The surface of the metal
forms a "barrier" which prevents electrons from leaving. One way in which
we can force electrons to break through the surface barrier is to increase
their energy of motion. If the electron energy in the cathode material can be
increased sufficiently, the electrons "boil off" the cathode surface in much
the same way as water vaporizes at sufficient temperature. Of the several
methods which exist for speeding up the movement of electrons, four are
most frequently used. Most important is the heating of the cathode material
which causes thermionic emission. The heating, which may be either direct
or indirect, brings about electron emission. The electrons are liberated
from the cathode surface which is covered with a special chemical coating
such as alkaline -earth oxides. A second method (used with certain sub-
stances) is to project light onto the emitting surface to produce photoelectric
emission. A third technique is to bombard the cathode with ions, producing
cold-cathode emission, and the fourth, called secondary emission, is pro-
duced by fast- moving electrons striking a surface and releasing other
electrons.
3-4 ELECTRON TUBES
Thermionic Emission
In a vacuum tube, thermionic emission is obtained when the cathode is heated

inside an evacuated envelope. This is accomplished by using the heating ef-
fect produced by an electric current passed through a conducting wire or
heater. Cathodes may be heated directly or indirectly. In a directly heated
cathode (called a filament, or filament- cathode), the heated element is the
actual emitter of electrons. In an indirectly heated cathode (or heater-
cathode), the heater is used only to heat the cathode to an emission tempera-
ture and does not contribute to the thermionic emission of the tube. Fila-
ments are usually made of pure tungsten or thoriated tungsten, or have a
coating of alkaline -earth oxide.
CATHOOES USED FOR THERMIONIC EMISSION
A :
—AA
filament supports —•U’
['•support wires
IT tube envelope^
filament Filament
heated by
may be
glass stems
tube prongs
A*'
filament
leads
_T 3C
battery or transformer
Directly heated cathodes

heater
}0m cathode sleeve / Heater may be heated
insulated fHIL _
cathode by
"heater IwU cathode coating
f ] tube envelope I
3IIC
battery or transformer
Indirectlyleated cathodes
COMMON RECEIVER-TUBE TYPE HEATER AND 6.3 v at 150 ma
FILAMENT VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 6.3 v at 225 ma
12.6 v at 6.3 v at 1.4 v at 50 ma 6.3 v at 450 ma
300 ma 600 ma 3.15v at 450 ma 6.3 v at 900 ma
rh
SOME HEATERS
ARE
CENTERTAPPED
ft
BOTH
$
BOTH
4.7 v
5 v
5 v
at
at
at
600 ma
2 amps
3 amps
12.6
25 v
35 v
50 v
v at
at
at
150
300 ma
150
150
ma
ma
ma
HALVES IN HALVES IN at
PERMITTING SERIES OR PARALLEL 117 v at 40 ma
Filament-type tubes are seldom used in radio receivers except in power

supply applications; they do, however, find wide use in the higher-power
tubes used in radio transmitters. Pure tungsten filaments are excellent
emitters where high values of thermionic emission are desired, but they re-
quire extremely high operating temperatures of about 2500°C. Thoriated-
tungsten filaments provide somewhat less emission, but operate at lower
temperatures of about 1900°C. The most efficient electron emitters are the
oxide-coated filaments and cathodes. Here, the emission takes place from
the oxide coating, which provides excellent emission for low-power tubes at
temperatures of about 1000°C.
THE DIODE 3-5
The Diode
The simplest type of electron tube is the diode. It consists of two elements,
or electrodes: one is the emitter of electrons and the other the collector of
electrons. Both electrodes are enclosed in a glass or metal envelope which
is then evacuated. Later, we shall study diodes that contain a certain
amount of gas. In calling the diode a two-element tube, we consider the
electron emitter as a single element, despite the fact that it might be a fila-
ment or a heater-cathode combination. The electron collector is the plate,
and is sometimes referred to as the anode. We shall see that when the plate
electrode is positive with respect to the cathode, it will attract electrons
emitted from the cathode.
The primary function of the diode is rectification, about which we shall study
later in this volume. In this function, the diode appears in two general con-
structions - signal diodes and power diodes. The signal types are generally
small both in physical size and in their ability to handle currents and volt-
ages. The power diode is usually relatively large, is built to handle high
voltages and currents, and may become exceedingly hot during operation.
Some diodes have a single cathode and plate, others have a single cathode
and two plates, and still others have two cathodes and two plates. Where two
plates are used in a single tube envelope, the tube is referred to as a duo-
diode. The plate material must be able to withstand relatively high tempera-
tures and usually is metal such as nickel, iron, or molybdenum.
3-6 THE DIODE
Space Charge
Heating a filament or cathode in an evacuated envelope produces electron

emission. But what happens to the emitted electrons? The first group of
emitted electrons gathers in the space surrounding the cathode. The fol-
lowing group of electrons is then repelled by the like (negative) charges of
the electrons already out in space, and start to return to the cathode. A
third group of emitted electrons prevents their return by repelling them out-
ward. The result of this action is a dense cloud of electrons in the space
around the cathode, with fewer electrons further away from the cathode.
This electron cloud is called the space charge.
Space charge is formed
around heated cathode

negative space
e
I 1 I
charge repels 9 ! | | ] |
electrons tfe 0 DIELECTRIC

from cathode
of©! © (VACUUM)
I i
! i !
,e©©0©®©0
9ee®0©e
CATHODE
space charge
battery for X
Cathode is heated
heater
by heater and
emits electrons
At first, it might seem that the electrons will continue to be emitted indefi-
nitely. However, the negative space charge soon becomes so strong that it
repels any additional emitted electrons back toward the cathode. This rep-
resents the maximum amount of electrons that could be emitted from the
cathode unless the cathode temperature were raised. A temperature in-
crease would cause more electrons to be released until a new equilibrium
point were reached. As we shall see, the space charge is very useful in that
it acts as a reservoir of electrons.
We have said that the diode is basically a two-element tube containing a

cathode and a plate. From our study of capacitors, we see that these two
elements, separated by an insulator (the vacuum in the tube), form a capaci-
tor. If we place a difference of potential between cathode and plate, electro-
static lines will be established across the dielectric and will influence the
space charge. If the plate is made positive with respect to the cathode,
electrons from the negative space charge will be attracted to it.
3-8 THE DIODE
Plate -Voltage, Plate-Current Curves
An important relationship in electron tubes exists between the voltage applied

to the plateand the resultant plate current when the cathode temperature is
held constant. If we place an ammeter in the plate circuit of the diode and
slowly vary the voltage on the plate from zero to some high value (depending
on the tube type), we notice a variation in plate current. As the plate voltage
increases from zero to a slightly positive value, the amount of plate current
(lb) begins to increase gradually. As plate voltage (Eb) further increases,
the plate current begins to increase at a fairly regular amount for a given
change in plate voltage. Finally, a point is reached where increases in plate
voltage produce less and less change in plate current. This point is called
"saturation, " and the plate is taking all the electrons available at the cathode
for that given cathode temperature. At this saturation point, further in-
creases in plate voltage produce virtually no change in plate current. Raising
the cathode temperature produces more electron emission, but only at the
expense of overworking the heater element.
If we were to make a graph by plotting the current value for all the plate
voltage values, we would end up with a characteristic curve of the tube. This
Eb-Ib curve provides, at a glance, the entire operating characteristic. Static
curves generally show operation with no "load" or voltage variations in the
tube circuit; dynamic curves generally show tube operation when there is a
load and voltage variations in the tube circuit.
ip
PLOTTING PLATE VOLTAGE-PLATE CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE 'i7k H
TUBE
RAPID SATURATION
INCREASE IN l
b
1*4
(NO CHANGE IN b
t WITH AN INCREASE IN Eh)
plate current meter
<'b>
+~^r * variable
1
plate
SLOW /T voltage (E
b )
INCREASE supply
IN l
b
PLATE VOLTAGE (E
b )
THE DIODE 3-9
Diode Plate Resistance - D-C
The d-c plate resistance of the diode is opposition to the flow of plate current
offered by the tube when a d-c voltage is applied to the plate. From Ohm's
law, we can develop the formula for d-c plate resistance, Rp. Using Eb and
lb for tube voltage and current, we get Rp = Eb/lb • The d-c resistance of a
diode depends upon many things, such as the size of the electrodes, tempera-
ture of the cathode, or distance between electrodes. We can calculate this
resistance from the plate voltage-plate current characteristic of a tube. In
the drawing, we see that when the plate voltage is 10 volts, 14 milliamperes
(0. 014 amp) of plate current flow. Since Rp = 10/0. 014, the plate resistance
at this point is 714. 2 ohms. Going to 20 volts on the plate produces a plate
current of 40 ma, and a diode plate resistance of 20/0.040, or 500 ohms.
Taking one further reading at a plate voltage of 30 volts shows that the plate
current has now risen to 74 ma, for a tube plate resistance of 30/0.074, or
405. 4 ohms.
STATIC OnAnAUtmdMU
USING A TYPICAL DIODE olAIIU CHARACTERISTIC
J TO OBTAIN THE D-C PLATE RESISTANCE Ik
! 1
—
‘’
jgr S I
i§n §gis
si
x ~ -f. i
Ifetis vV
pr 8 12 16
MW'
L'AyW Plate voltage {E
^ )
in volts
From these figures, we see that the resistance offered by the diode to the
flow of plate current is not constant, as in a conventional resistor. The
characteristic shows that the diode resistance decreases as the plate voltage
increases, and increases as the plate voltage is decreased — it behaves non-
linearly. If the Ib-Eb curve were a straight line, the resistance of the diode
would be constant at all points on the curve.
3-10 THE DIODE
Diode Plate Resistance - A-C
We can consider the a-c plate resistance of the diode as the resistance of the
path between cathode and plate to the flow of an alternating current inside the
tube. We use the same curve for finding the diode a-c resistance as we did
for the d-c resistance. However, the a-c plate resistance (rp) is the ratio of
a small change in plate voltage to the small change in plate current that it
produces. Written in the style of Ohm's law, rp = Aep/Aip. The Greek letter
delta (a) means ''a small change in. " Thus, to find the a-c resistance of a
diode, we consider changes in plate voltage and changes they produce in plate
~
current.
USING A TYPICAL DIODE STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
A-
life
A Ar '•
\.«V-
Ak;A
III
•
/3;/V
•p'5 ;’ W'
5Av :
r
.
;'
:
•
V -•
'
: ;
mas
153
it
Iff
§tf
'3
ASA
m
w
"ift
If we change the plate voltage from 8 volts to 12 volts,

there is a change of 4
volts. With 8 volts on the plate, 10 ma
of plate current flowed. With 12 volts
on the plate, 18 ma of plate current flowed. Thus a change of 4 volts (from 8
to 12) on the plate produced a change of 8 ma (from 10 to 18) of plate current.
The a-c plate resistance over this portion of the curve is then: r = 4/0. 008,
p
or 500 ohms. Using the same points on the curve as in d-c plate resistance
and varying the plate voltage 2 volts above and below these points, we get a-c
plate resistances of 333 ohms and 307 ohms over these ranges. From this,
we can see that when the plate resistance of a tube is mentioned, it is always
with respect to a particular point on the tube's characteristic curve.
THE DIODE 3-11
Static and Dynamic Diode Characteristics
So far, we have discussed static conditions in the diode, where no load was
in the circuit. Much more important are the dynamic conditions of the diode
circuit. For a diode, or any tube, to perform its normal function, its ex-
ternal circuit must contain a load. It is through this load that the diode cur-
rent flows outside the tube, and the voltage drop developed across this load
then represents the output of the tube. The load resistance is given the
symbol Rl-
With no load resistance in the circuit, virtually all circuit resistance con-
sists of the diode plate resistance. However, when an external load resist-
ance is added, the total opposition to plate current flow includes the tube
plate resistance plus the load resistance. When the load resistance is many
times greater than the plate resistance, it is primarily Rl that determines
the shape of the characteristic curve. Note that the larger the load resist-
ance, the less the curvature in the characteristic. As we shall learn later,
a linear or straight dynamic characteristic is important because it provides
proportionality between changes in plate voltage and the accompanying
changes in plate current. This in turn provides freedom from distortion -
important in many diode circuits.
3-12 THE TRIODE
The Triode
The invention of the triode was an extremely important advance in electronics

because it permitted electronic "amplification. " Basically, the triode is
nothing more than a diode to which has been added a third electrode - a grid.
Physically, the grid is a ladder-like structure of metal. In most instances,
ithas a helical form and consists of a number of turns of fine wire wound in
the grooves of two upright metal supports. The physical dimensions of the
grid determine many of the operating characteristics of the triode.
CONSTRUCTiONOF
A TYPICAL TRIODE
j VOL TAGES APPLIED TO THE
TRIODE CIRCUIT
The basic function of the grid is to control the movement of electrons between
the cathode and plate, thereby controlling the amount of plate current flowing
in the tube. It is for this reason that this third electrode is given the name
control grid. The control grid may be wound around the cathode in the space
between the cathode and plate, or merely exist as a screen- like mesh between
parallel cathode and plate surfaces. Because it is so very close to the cath-
ode, voltages on the control grid exert much more influence on plate current
than do voltages on the plate. Since the cathode is generally taken as the ref-
erence point, all plate and grid voltages are measured with respect to the
cathode. D-c plate voltages are known as "B" voltages, d-c grid voltages
(called "bias") as "C" voltages, and heater, or filament voltages as "A"
voltages.
)
THE TRIODE 3-13
Electrostatic Field in Triode
The control grid in the triode serves primarily as an electrostatic shield be-
tween the plate and cathode, and allows some, but not all, of the electro-
static field from the plate to get to the cathode. When the grid is at the same
potential as the cathode, it exerts no electrostatic influence, and the triode
acts just as a diode. However, when the control grid is made negative with
respect to the cathode, it sets up an electrostatic field in opposition to the
cathode-plate field. The action of a negative grid is to repel electrons from
the cathode back to the cathode. At the same time, the positive plate acts to
attract electrons from the cathode to the plate. The net effect is a compro-
mise, depending upon the relative grid and plate voltages. Since the grid is
so close to the cathode, a relatively small grid voltage has as much influence
as a much larger plate voltage.
When the grid is made slightly negative, some electrons from the cathode
are repelled back, but many others pass through the wire mesh grid struc-
ture and are attracted to the positive plate. It is possible that, for a given
plate voltage, the grid voltage can be made sufficiently negative to cut off the
flow of plate current completely. On the other hand, the grid (bias) voltage
could be made so positive as to produce plate current saturation, with further
increases in grid voltage having no effect on plate current. When the grid is
positive with respect to cathode, some electrons are attracted to the grid
structure and produce a flow of grid current. The corftrol grid is most
commonly operated at a voltage slightly negative with respect to the cathode.
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS PRODUCED BY TRIODE VOLTAGES

movement
a I
( lone lines indicefe ditection of eleetnn
SLIGHT PLATE INCREASED PLATE HEAVY PLATE

CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
FLOW FLOW FLOW
ll
/wrinrY /Sljjs 11
GRID
CURRENT
1+ FLOWS
% Tr ifjTW
iO
nil'll
,
3-14 THE TRIODE
Steady-State Condition of a Triode Circuit
The basic triode circuit consists of the grid-cathode portion called the input
and the plate-cathode portion called the output. In this circuit, all input volt-
ages or signals are applied between grid and cathode; all output voltages or
signals appear between plate and cathode. Thus, we see that the cathode is
the element common to both input and output circuits. The voltage applied to
the plate or anode of the tube is positive with respect to the cathode and, in
typical circuits, may vary from 100 to 300 volts. In most receiver circuits,
the control grid is kept at a voltage slightly negative with respect to the cath-
ode. Hence, it acts to limit or control the amount of electron flow between
cathode and plate.
| D-C CONDITIONS IN BASIC TRIODE CIRCUIT Kt’-
:&
Wk
Grid-Cathode Plate-Cathode
Wm
r;
;
-
input circuit output circuit

ISf'
-|V,
ggj
PLATE CURRENT FLOWS FROM p
CATHODE TO PLATE IN TUBE.
m bias FROM PLATE, THROUGH BATTERY,
AND THEN BACK TO CATHODE. itt
M
|||
voltage
?. 4
mi#
p WHEN AN A-C VOLTAGE IS

m
||
APPLIED TO THE INPUT CIRCUIT
§ grid
Jf. voltage
plate
voltage
TOGETHER WITH THE D-C BIAS,
THEY COMBINE TO FORM A
NET OR RESULTANT VOLTAGE. ip
>
1.. 1 HI
vV. r ^.
*?
tr
•W’
>-
•
mm
The slight negative voltage applied to the control grid is called the bias volt-
age. For the moment, we shall assume that the plate and bias voltages are
obtained through the use of batteries. With no input voltage applied to the
circuit, a small steady plate current will flow. The amount will depend upon
the values of positive plate voltage and negative grid voltage. This is often
referred to as the steady-state condition of the circuit — when no external
voltage is applied to the input circuit. These conditions change when an a-c
voltage (signal) is applied to the input circuit.
THE TRIODE 3-15
Effect of Grid Voltage on Plate Current
Let us now apply an a-c voltage to the input circuit in addition to the flxed
grid bias voltage. We shall assume that the a-c voltage has a peak of 5 volts,
and that the steady-state d-c grid bias is -6 volts. At 0°, or the beginning of
the input cycle, the 6-volt negative bias permits a plate current flow of 20
milliamperes (ma). At 90° of the input cycle, the a-c component of the grid
voltage has risen to its maximum positive value, +5 volts. This voltage,
added to the steady -6 volts, produces a net grid voltage of -1 volt with re-
spect to the cathode. The grid voltage is still negative, but now it is only
slightly negative, and plate current increases to its maximum of 30 ma.
From 90° to 180°, the input signal returns to zero, which added to the 6-volt
negative bias produces a grid bias of -6 volts. The plate current thus drops
back to its steady-state value of 20 ma. From 180° to 270°, the input voltage
increases to its maximum negative value, -5 volts, which is added to the
fixed bias, producing a total grid voltage of -11 volts. This large negative
grid voltage reduces the plate current to 10 ma. From here, the plate cur-
rent rises back to its steady value of 20 ma as the input voltage also rises
back to its 360° value of zero volts. From this, we see that the plate current
waveform follows the grid voltage, increasing as the grid is made less nega-
tive and decreasing as the grid becomes more negative.
The Input A-C to form the RESULTANT

Signal Voltage Inp ut or Grid- Cathode Vo ltage.
cathode voltage
0 I
combines with the

d-C Bias Voltage
1
cathode voltage Grid Voltage Variation produces
> Similar Plate Current Variation.
^^grid bias
-6
E c = g rid voltage
I
p = plate current
3-16 THE TRIODE
Triode Plate-Current, Grid-Voltage Curve
The relationships among the various voltages applied to the triode arid the
effects they have on the plate current are very important. As in the case of
the diode, these relationships are shown through the use of characteristic
curves. Basically, plate current in a triode is determined by the grid and
plate voltages, assuming that the cathode remains at a constant temperature.
We shall consider the grid voltage first, and assume that the plate voltage
remains constant. We can then construct a plate-current, grid-voltage
(lb- Eg) curve by varying the grid voltage first in a positive direction from
zero, and then in a negative direction. The plate current at various grid
voltages is then plotted. This curve is called the static plate-current, grid-
voltage characteristic, because it represents the tube behavior under no-load
conditions. The plate and grid voltage are simply those of their respective
supply voltages, and there are no voltage drops across load resistors.
PLATE-CURRENT, GRID-VOLTAGE plate current saturation
CHARACTERISTIC OF A TRIODE
PLATE
CURRENT
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
Negative grid voltage Positive grid voltage!^
Note that the curve shown drops to zero at -12 volts. This point is known as
cutoff and represents the minimum negative grid voltage needed to reduce
plate current to zero. As the grid is made less negative, plate current begins
to flow. The rise is gradual at first, then more rapid over the linear portion
of the curve. Finally, the curve reaches a point where further increases in
positive grid voltage produce no further increases in plate current. This is
known as plate current saturation. We will see that most amplifiers operate
on the linear portion of the curve between the cutoff and saturation areas.
THE TRIODE 3-17
Family of Grid Characteristic Curves
A single plate-current, grid-voltage characteristic curve furnishes important

information, but is of limited value. A number of such curves shown on the
same scale for different values of plate voltage give much more information
concerning the effects of various grid voltages on plate current. Such curves,
plotted on a single graph, comprise a "family" of characteristic curves. As
a rule, the grid family of characteristic curves does not involve the positive
region of grid voltage because, for most triode applications, the grid is not
driven positive with respect to the cathode. The family of curves shown are
for the 6J5 triode. These curves are made as just described, except that the
plate voltage was changed for every series of grid voltage variations. Note
the close similarity among the general shapes of the characteristic curves:
each curve has a linear portion and a nonlinear portion.
Grid Voltage (volts)
From this family of grid curves, we can see that the higher the positive plate
voltage, the higher the negative grid voltage required to cut the tube off
(reduce plate current to zero). In addition, the higher the plate voltage, the
more plate current will flow for any given grid voltage. For purposes of am-
plification, we should remember that proportional changes (ratio of plate
current to grid voltage) occur only over the linear (straight) parts of the
curve. The greatest change in plate current per unit change in grid voltage
occurs along the straight (rather than the curved) portion of the characteristic.
3-18 THE TRIODE
Triode Plate-Current, Plate- Voltage Curves
As case of the grid family of curves, we can make use of a plate fam-
in the
ily ofcurves. For every curve in this group, a particular grid voltage is
held constant while the plate voltage is varied. In every instance, the plate
current range shown for a particular fixed grid voltage starts at the point
along the plate voltage axis where the negative grid voltage causes approxi-
mate plate current cutoff. In general, the grid family and plate family of
curves furnish the same information; however, in somewhat different forms.
Where the grid family displays the plate current for small changes or incre-
ments of grid voltage and fixed differences in plate voltage, the plate family
displays the plate current for small increments of plate voltage and fixed dif-
ferences of grid voltage. These family graphs present the relationship be-
tween the different triode electrode voltages under static conditions. As we
shall soon learn, these various curves are of tremendous value in under-
standing the operation of tubes under varied conditions. Virtually every tube
type has its own set of grid and plate characteristics which are often shown
in tube manuals and technical data sheets issued by tube manufacturers.
TYPICAL PLATE FAMILY OF CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

THE TRIODE 3-19
Amplification Factor
Vacuum tubes have special figures of merit called tube constants. As

we
constants are used for tetrodes and pentodes, as well as
shall learn, these
for triodes. The three most commonly used tube constants are the amplifi-
cation factor, symbolized by the Greek letter p, plate
resistance rp, and
meaning and significance per-
mutual conductance g m. Understanding their
design and
mits us to look at tube specifications and determine important
operating characteristics of electron tubes.
Amplification factor tells us of the relative influence of grid voltage as com-

pared to plate voltage on the amount of plate current flow in an electron tube.
We could say that the amplification factor of a triode is equal to the ratio of a
change (A) in plate voltage to a change in grid voltage in the opposite direction,
under the condition that the plate current remain constant. Another way of
to a
stating it is to say that p is equal to the ratio of a change in plate voltage
change in grid voltage that results in the same change in plate current. As a
formula, we say:
or a change in plate voltage divided by change in grid voltage (plate current

remaining constant). For example, suppose that a 1-ma plate current change
could be produced by a change in grid voltage of 0. 1 volt, and a
1-ma plate
current change was produced by a change in plate voltage of 10 volts. Such a
tube would have an amplification factor of 10/0.1, or 100. This is a rela-
tively high p, and such a tube is called a high-p tube. Low-p tubes have an
amplification factor of 10 or so. Between 10 and 30, we have the medium-p
tubes; above 30, a tube is considered to have a high p. As can be seen, the p
is used.
of a tube can vary slightly, depending upon which portion of the curve
3-20 THE TRIODE
Plate Resistance
The plate resistance of a tube describes its internal resistance - that is, the
opposition to electron flow between cathode and plate inside the tube. The d-c
plate resistance expresses the steady-state resistance. This occurs when
fixed voltages are on the control grid and plate. Under such conditions, the
d-c plate resistance (Rp) can be determined by Ohm's law. We can thus say:
E
(d-c plate voltage)
R =
**
*(d-c plate current)
We can find Rp by taking any point on any of the plate family of curves, and
then projecting down to the plate voltage and across to the plate current axes.
We then solve by Rp = Eb/lb-
Finding a-c plate resistance (r ) is somewhat more involved, because this
p
involves changes in plate voltage and plate current. We start by taking any
point on any of the plate family of curves. We project a line horizontally from
the curve - this represents a change in plate voltage. We then project a line
upward vertically back to the curve — this line represents a change in plate
current. By using the a-c equivalent of Ohm's law for plate resistance (r =
Aep/Aip), we get the answer. Note that R concerns itself with a particular
p
p
operating point, whereas rp represents an operating range. Note also that the
higher the applied plate voltage for a particular grid voltage, the lower is the
a-c plate resistance. This is because the curves become steeper as they ad-
vance toward the higher plate voltages. This means that for a particular in-
crease in plate voltage, there will be a disproportionately greater increase in
plate current. The importance of r will be seen in our study of amplifiers.
p
CALCULATING D-C AND A-C PLATE RESISTANCE

THE TRIODE 3-21
Transconductance (Mutual Conductance)
The third important tube constant discussed here is transconductance, also

referred to as mutual conductance. By definition, transconductance is the
quotient of a small change in plate current divided by the small change in the
control grid voltage producing it, under the condition that all other tube volt-
ages remain the same (in a triode this would refer to the plate and heater
voltages). m
As an equation, transconductance, g = Aip/ Aeg. Transconduct-
ance is a measurement of conductance rather than resistance. As such, it is
measured in mhos, mho being the reversed spell ing of ohm. In practical tube
circuitry, the mho is a rather large unit of measurement. To make it more
workable, we use the micromho (umho), one-millionth of a mho.
If a change of 1 volt on the control grid produces a change of 1 ma in

plate current, our formula for transconductance (gm = 0. 001/1) would show
that such a tube had a g m of 0. 001 mho, or 1000 umhos. Transconductance
is an excellent measure of how "good" a tube is. A tube having a high trans-
conductance is capable of furnishing greater signal output than a tube with a
low g , assuming that the same circuitry and voltages are applied to both
m
tubes. The transconductance of most vacuum tubes varies from about 2000 to
9000 pmhos. To calculate g m from the plate family of curves, we project
along a constant-voltage line from one grid voltage curve to another. The
difference in grid voltage divided by the di fference in plate current, projected
across to the plate current axis, gives us the gm over this operating range.
3-22 MULTIGRID TUBES
The Tetrode
TETRODE CONSTRUCTION TETRODE IN TYPICAL CIRCUIT

SCREEN GRID
VOLTAGE-DROPPING RESISTOR
SCREEN O
GRID
Bypass capacitor keeps screen grid
and cathode at same a -c potential
In the triode tube, there are two metallic structures very close
to each
other —
the plate and the control grid. Since a vacuum exists between them,
we have a capacitor — two conducting surfaces separated by a dielectric. As
we shall learn in our study of electron tube circuitry, the capacitance between
the plate (output circuit) and the control grid (input circuit)
can become ex-
tremely troublesome at high operating frequencies and produce undesirable
"feedback. " To prevent this, a second grid is inserted between
the control
grid and the plate to act as a "screen" between the two.
Appropriately, this
second grid is called the screen grid. An electron tube containing
both a con-
trol grid and a screen grid is called a tetrode. The tetrode has a finely
wound control grid surrounding the cathode or emitter of electrons which, in
turn, is surrounded by a coarser screen grid at a considerably
greater dis-
tance out from the cathode. The screen grid, then, is surrounded by the
plate.
To serve as an effective electrostatic shield, the screen grid is usually

at a
signal or a-c potential equal to that of the cathode, so that no voltage
exists
between these two electrodes. This is not to be confused
with the d-C potsil"
tial on the screen grid, which is very often approximately
the same as the
positive plate voltage. To obtain a "zero" a-c potential on the screen grid,
a
capacitor is connected between the screen grid and "ground" or cathode to act
as a short circuit to the signal voltages.
MULTIGRID TUBES 3-23
Tetrode Characteristics
When the proper voltages are applied to the tetrode, electrons are attracted
from the cathode to the plate. The screen grid, being positive with respect
to the cathode, also attracts electrons. However, because of the compara-
tively large space between the screen grid wires, most of the electrons
at-
tracted by the screen grid pass through it to the plate. Thus the screen grid
produces a strong electrostatic force that attracts electrons from the cathode,
leaving the plate with very little electrostatic force on electrons emitted from
the cathode. This results in an important effect: as long as the plate voltage
is higher than the screen voltage, the plate current depends primarily
on the
screen grid voltage. As we shall learn, because the plate current in this tube
is largely independent of plate voltage, it is possible to obtain much higher
amplification with a tetrode than with a triode.
From the plate family of characteristic curves, we note that after an initial
early rise, plate current decreases until the plate voltage is equal to the
screen grid voltage. Following this, plate current increases sharply, and
finally levels off slightly, having a small linear increase with plate voltage.
"Secondary emission" effects are brought about when electrons are dislodged
from the plate by bombardment from regular cathode emission. Dislodged
electrons are then attracted to the screen grid, resulting in a loss of plate
current. These effects produce the decrease in plate current at low plate
voltages and, in effect, give the tetrode a negative resistance over this range.
The amplification factor and plate resistance of a tetrode are considerably
higher than that of a triode; transconductance is not too high. Tetrodes are
seldom used in radio receivers; they do find use, however, in transmitters.
PLATE FAMILY OF p -E p CURVES

l FOR TETRODE
Screen grid
LINEAR PORTION OF TETRODE CURVES
|
m voltage = 90 v
>|— negative resistance area A.
200 300
Plate Voltage (volts)
The Pentode
The pentode is a five-element electron tube containing a cathode, a plate, a

control grid, a screen grid, and a suppressor grid. The suppressor elimi-
nates or suppresses secondary emission of electrons from the plate, thus
removing the major drawback of the tetrodes. In addition, the capacitance
between the control grid and plate now consists of three capacitances in
series: there is capacitance between control grid and screen grid, screen
grid and suppressor grid, and suppressor grid and plate. This reduces the
value of the plate-to-control-grid capacitance still further, enabling the
pentode to operate at still higher frequencies.
The suppressor grid a coarse wire mesh placed between the screen grid
is
and plate. It connected to the cathode, which places it at a negative
is usually
potential with respect to plate and screen grid. Because it is placed beyond
the screen grid, its action does not interfere with that of the screen grid in
attracting electrons. Moreover, because its wires are relatively widely
spaced, it does not interfere with the fast-moving electrons which travel to
the plate. When electrons striking the plate cause secondary emission, the
negative potential of the suppressor grid repels them back to the positively
charged plate, suppressing the secondary emission. Note that for a typical
pentode, when the plate voltage is below 100 volts, there is no dip in the
curve, which merely shows an increase in plate current with an increase in
plate voltage. Above approximately 50 volts on the plate, the curves are
relatively flat. This indicates that changes in plate voltage above this value
have very little effect on plate current flow. Since the plate current is rela-
tively independent of plate voltage, the two important factors to consider are
screen grid voltage and control grid voltage. Screen grid voltage is fixed;
hence, the control grid emerges as the major factor in controlling plate cur-
rent flow. The amplification factor of pentodes may exceed 400, and the plate
resistance is often in excess of 1 megohm. Transconductance of pentodes
compares favorably with that of triodes and tetrodes, often being in the area
of 5000 pmhos.
plate
1
Pentode PLATE FAMILY OF PENTODE CURVES

symbols NOTE: SHARP "KNEE" AT NOTE: CHANGE
/wsV LOW PLATE VOLTAGE IN E bHAS LITTLE
EFFECT ON lb; HENCE
suppressor useful portion VERY HIGH PLATE
rid (G3) of curves are RESISTANCE
screen above knee E Q = -1 V
grid (G2)
G3 may be
T £ .-2 v
connected to •-3 v
K internally,
or brought out -4 v
Q2
(or external -5 v
connection.
"
Beam Power Tubes
STRUCTURE OF A BEAM POWER TUBE
BEAM-CONFINING ELECTRODE
CATHODE
GRID
SYMBOL^ SCREEN GRID
Comparison of PENTODE
PLATE
and BEAM POWER Curves
Plate current is a function of plate voltage
BEAM POWER TUBE

PENTODE
between a tetrode and a pen-

In many ways, the beam power tube is a cross
tode. It is capable of handling high power levels, an ability obtained from
current electrons into
that part of its design which concentrates the plate
the beam power tube, the screen and
sheets or beams of moving charges. In
grids are wound in helical form so that each turn of the screen grid
control
control grid. It is this construc-
is shaded from the cathode by a turn of the
causes electrons emitted from the cathode to be formed into
tion which
beams, and reduces the amount of wasteful screen current flow. The
beam-
forming plates, used to confine the electron beam, are connected internally.
Because the screen grid and plate are operated at approximately the
same
developed in the space
d-c potential, an effect equivalent to a space charge is
cathode,
between the screen and plate. This effect is often called a "virtual
and repels secondary electrons dislodged from the plate back to the plate,
the beam-
allowing high plate current efficiency. In some beam power tubes,
forming plates are replaced with a conventional suppressor grid.
Note that the plate current of the beam power tube rises much
more rapidly
pentode. This shows that the region in which the plate cur-
than that of the
the beam
rent is primarily a function of the plate voltage is much smaller in
plate current becomes independent of plate voltage at much
tube; that is, the
lower values of plate voltage. This characteristic enables the beam power
than an or-
tube to handle much more power at lower values of plate voltage
dinary pentode. The beam power tube is extremely popular for the power
output stages of radio receivers.
Variable -Mu Tubes
The amplification factor of a tube has been described as being equal to Ae /

p
Aeg, with ip remaining constant. This characteristic of a tube is largely
determined by the geometry of the tube; that is, the shape and placement of
the electrodes. Thus, we have gone on the basis that amplification factor is
a relatively fixed characteristic of a particular tube. A fixed amplification-
factor tube represents a problem when large signals are to be handled, since
the grid bias voltage is driven highly negative at times, and the tube goes
close to or into cutoff. To minimize distortion in large signal inputs to elec-
tron tubes, special kinds of high-amplification tetrodes and pentodes are
used. These are known as variable-mu tubes, and they differ from ordinary
tubes in the construction of their control grids.
In these tubes, the grid wires are unequally spaced. The turns are closer
together at the top and bottom of the winding, and wider at the center. This
form of control grid construction produces a tube which does not have a con-
stant gain. Instead, its amplification changes with the value of grid voltage
applied to the control grid. At low values of bias, the grid operates in the
normal manner. As the control grid is made more negative, the effect of the
closely spaced grid wires becomes greater, and the electron flow from the
space charge in this region is cut off completely. The center of the grid
structure also displays a greater effect, but still allows electrons to advance
to the screen grid and plate. The overall reduction in plate current, there-
fore, is gradual. Eventually, with sufficient negative voltage on the grid, all
parts of the grid winding act to cut off the plate current, but the negative grid
voltage required to attain this is perhaps three to four times as much as for
the conventional tube operated at similar screen and plate voltages. Thus,
variable-mu tubes are used where it is desired to control transconductance
by varying the control grid potential of the tube.
6tid Sttuctute of Vntieble-Mu Pentode

Vnwble-Mu Pentode Pmides Cteduel Cutoff
CATHODE
PLATE
VARIABLE-MU GRID
UNIFORMLY SPACED GRID
SCREEN
GRID
^CONTROL GRID -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
'
" 9
SUPPRESSOR GRID CURVE FOR NORMAL AND VARIABLE-MU TUBES
)
Multigrid and Multi-unit Tubes
typical multi-unit tube arrangements
FULL-WAVE
A
TWIN DIODE
1H5
DIODE— HIGH-MU
6SQ7
TWIN DIODE—
DIODE TRIODE HIGH-MU TRIODE
6SN7-GT 6Tt l 6U8 6K8
TWIN TRIODE TRIPLE DIODE— TRIODE-PENTODE TRIODE-HEXODE

HIGH-MU TRIODE
7E7 12CR6 12DL8
mSIBB
TWIN DIODE- TRIODE-HEPTODE DIODE-PENTODE TWIN-DIODE—
PENTODE TETRODE
Our discussion of tubes so far has been related to "conventional" types such
as the diode, triode, tetrode, and pentode. These tube constructions serve
virtually all needs in electron tube receiver circuitry. However, one more
must be considered for completeness - the heptode (7-elements), or pentagrid
tube. This tube contains a plate, five grids, and a cathode (as in the 6BY6)"
or a directly heated filament (as in the 1R5). A tube of this type will very
often have more than one signal input applied to it. (The same is true of the
six-grid 7A8.
Recent years have seen the combining of tube units or sections in one tube
envelope. This permits circuit economy and compactness, since two or more
circuits operate from one tube type. In some instances, the tube units are
completely independent, having separate cathodes. In other instances, two
tube units may operate from a single (common) cathode. Perhaps the
simplest multi-unit tube is the twin diode 6AL5, containing merely two sepa-
rate diodes. Extremely popular is the twin triode 6SN7. An example of
complexity in multi-unit tubes is the 6K8 triode-hexode, which contains a
triode and hexode (four grids) in one envelope. When more than one grid is
used in a tube, they are usually numbered Gl, G2, G3, etc. , beginning with
the grid closest to the cathode. In addition, tubes are often described by k
characteristic or function (low-mu triode, pentagrid converter, etc. ).
Vacuum Tube Designation and Basing
Vacuum tubes have undergone several changes in standardizing their type

styles. In the early days of radio, tube types such as VT1 and 201A were
used. This was followed by a numbering system, such as types 40 or 43.
Since the mid-thirties, however, a more formalized system has been de-
veloped in which the first number of a tube type indicates the heater or fila-
ment voltage. The letters and numbers that follow give an indication of the
tube's function and number of useful elements. However, in recent years,
the heavy flow of new tube types made much of this designation inexact. For
instance, the 35C5 requires a heater voltage of 35 volts; the 6BZ7 requires a
heater voltage of 6. 3 volts; the 1U4 requires 1. 4 volts for its heater; and the
117Z6-GT requires a heater voltage of 117 volts. In all instances, a tube
manual should be referred to in order to determine the exact heater voltage
and current requirements. Some tube types may use suffixes such as -G,
-GT, -GTA, and -GTB to indicate later modifications in the tube structure,
but the tube characteristics remain essentially the same.
Tube manuals show the tube basing as it would be seen while holding the tube
upside down. All pins are numbered in basing diagrams, with the numbers
reading in a clockwise direction. In some instances, special notations are
made where necessary. For instance, some tubes have an internal shield;
this is indicated because it may be necessary to "ground" the pin to which the
shield is connected.
typical basing diagrams and notations
7 pin (miniature) 8 pin octal 8 pin loctal 9 pin (miniature)
F = filament H c = heater centertap

G = grid
K - cathode
P = plate
H = heater
NC = no connection
SUMMARY 3-29
Electron tubes are classified as diodes, triodes, tetrodes, or pentodes ac-

cording to the number of elements they contain.
Four important types of electron emission are thermionic, secondary, photo-
electric, and cold-cathode.
Oxide-coated materials for cathodes are most commonly used because of
their high emission rate.
The important features of a vacuum tube can be seen from its characteristic
curves. A number of curves drawn on the same graph are known as a
family of curves.
Two types of resistance are present in a diode -d-c and a-c plate resistance.
Static characteristic curves generally show operation with no load or voltage
variations in the tube circuit; dynamic characteristic curves generally
show operation under load and with voltage variations in the tube circuit.
The purpose of the control grid in triodes is to control the movement of elec-
trons from the space charge to the plate.
Amplification in a triode occurs when a stronger signal is delivered to the
output circuit than is received in the input.
An electrostatic field exists between the cathode (space charge) and the con-
trol grid in a triode. The direction of this field is such as to pull elec-
trons to the plate when the grid is made positive.
In a triode, the plate is positive with respect to the cathode.
The main advantages of a tetrode over a triode are that it has lower inter-
electrode capacitance between control grid and plate, and it provides
higher amplification.
Plate current saturation is reached when no further increase in plate current
occurs as the grid is made more positive.
The main purpose of the screen grid is to reduce interelectrode capacitance
between the plate and control grid, thereby preventing self-oscillation.
Pentodes use a suppressor grid to reduce the effects of secondary emission.
Secondary emission occurs when electrons from the space charge strike the
plate with sufficient force to dislodge secondary electrons from the plate.
Multi-unit tubes contain more than one set of elements in a single envelope.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name and explain the action of four important methods of accomplishing

electron emission.
2. What is the difference between directly and indirectly heated cathodes?
3. What is emission saturation, and how can it be overcome?
4. Describe the two methods used to control plate current.
5. Explain the difference between static conditions and dynamic conditions
when using graphs to illustrate tube characteristics.
6. Describe the action of a diode in rectifying a sine-wave signal.
7. Explain the following tube constants: (a) amplification factor; (b) plate
resistance; (c) transconductance.
8. What is the relationship between the value ofthe plate load and the tube's
plate resistance in (a) triode tubes, (b) pentode tubes?
9. Why is there a minimum limit for the plate voltage of a tetrode?
10. What is the purpose of a suppressor grid in a pentode?
11. How does a beam-power tube eliminate the need for a suppressor grid?
12. What is the phase relationship between grid and plate current signals?
3-30 RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Electronic Power Supplies
For the proper operation of radio circuits, various a-c and d-c voltages must
be applied to the electron tubes used. As we have seen, the plates and
screens of these tubes require d-c voltages — perhaps as much as 400 volts.
The heaters or filaments can generally use a-c or d-c voltages, although, as
we shall see, a-c voltages are more practical. These voltages may be as
high as 117 volts in radio receivers. In certain circuits, the negative d-c
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 3-31
Power Transformers
The purpose of the power transformer is to increase or decrease the a-c inr
put voltage to the values required by the rectifiers and tube heaters of the
receivers in use. Usually, the power transformer consists of a primary
winding, a high-voltage secondary winding, and a number of low-voltage
windings which supply power to the various tube filaments. Since most vac-
uum tube rectifiers, such as the 5U4, 5Y3, and 5V3, require 5-volt filament
voltage, one secondary on most power transformers is rated at 5 volts and 2
or 3 amperes. The ratings of the other filament windings are determined by
the number and type of tubes to be heated by this transformer. The most
popular heater voltage is 6. 3 volts; however, the current rating varies con-
siderably, with popular tube current ratings of 225 ma, 300 ma, and 450 ma.
The various heater voltages are obtained through step-down windings from the
conventional 117-volt a-c input primary winding.
The high-voltage winding (usually centertapped) is a step-up winding, and

commonly provides a-c voltages as high as 800 volts. Many power trans-
formers have an electrostatic shield between the primary and secondary
which is bonded to the transformer case; this in turn, is grounded to the re-
ceiver chassis. The electrostatic shield prevents high-frequency disturb-
ances in the power line from being fed into the power supply. A current
rating is commonly given for the high-voltage secondary winding. For ex-
ample, a typical power transformer specification might read: "700 volts
centertapped at 200 ma, 5 volts at 3 amps, 6. 3 volts at 5 amps. " Modern
power transformers are mounted in steel cases and impregnated.
po wer ^. transformer
COLOR COVE Schematic diagram

RED of typical
primary tapped
1 RED-YELLOW . high radio receiver
BLACK (common)
S voltage power transformer
5 RED
YELLOW PRIMARY SECONDARY
b YELLOW-BLUE rectifier
BLACK-YELLOW (
I
j High-voltage
filament 700 v a c *°
5 YELLOW | j
a rectifier
GREEN 117-v
|
BLACK-RED amplifier 60~ «
S GREEN-YELLOW input |
(
1
filament Heater voltage
,
two black leads 5 GREEN for rectifier

when primary BROWN
(
|
no. 1
l 5 v
'
» tube
amplifier
is not tapped
»BROWN-YELLOWr M » Heater voltage
1 filament
6.3 v for other
5 BROWN f
J
no. 2 ^ tubes
SLATE
amplifier Electrostatic shield
3 SLATE-YELLOW _
filament
Chassis ground
3 SLATE no. 3
'
Rectification
RECTIFIERSPROVIDE A LOW-RESISTANCE PATH TO

ELECTRON FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION AND A I
I HIGH-RESISTANCE PATH IN THE OTHER DIRECTION |
electron flow is opposite
to arrow head in symbol
metallic or
crystal rectifier
The function of a radio receiver power supply is to provide d-c and a-c volt-
ages for the operation of various circuits. The a-c voltages are obtained
directly from the power transformer, which steps up or steps down the line
voltage as required by the circuits. The d-c voltages, however, are pro-
duced only through a process of rectification and filtering. A rectifier is a
device that permits electron flow in one direction and not in another. Since
the beginning of radio, the most popular rectifier has been the diode vacuum
tube.
The diode vacuum tube makes an excellent rectifier. It permits electron

flow from cathode to plate when the plate is positive with respect to cathode
and does not permit electron flow when the plate is negative with respect to
cathode. Thus, when an a-c voltage is applied across the plate and cathode
of a diode vacuum tube, current flows through the tube only during one -half
of the a-c cycle. Although this current flow has the waveform of the positive
alternation of the a-c voltage, it nevertheless is now direct current — it flows
in one direction only. As we shall learn later, the filter smooths these
fluctuations into a steady d-c power supply output.
There are other types of rectifiers also. Recent years have seen the growth
in popularity of the selenium rectifier, a metallic device that has a high ratio
of forward-to-back resistance. That is, it offers little resistance to current
flow in the opposite direction. Still more recent is the use of germanium and
silicon crystal rectifiers. The use of a single rectifier permits rectification
of half the input cycle. By using more than one rectifier, it is possible to
make use of both halves of the input cycle for conversion of a-c to d-c.
Metallic and Semiconductor Rectifiers
The selemium rectifier is a metallic (dry-disc) rectifier. The basic sele-

nium "cell” is limited in the value of voltage and current it can handle. To
overcome this limitation, selenium rectifiers consist of stacked cells.
Stacking the cells in series increases the value of voltage that can be applied
to them; stacking the cells in parallel increases the value of current that can
flow from them.
The basic selenium cell consists of a microscopically thin layer of crystal-

line selenium between two conductors. The supporting plate has the layer of
selenium deposited on it, which covers allbutthe inner and outer edges. The
selenium-coated plate is heat treated to form a thin barrier layer. An in-
sulating washer at the center prevents the counter electrode from short-
circuiting to the supporting plates.
The action of the barrier layer and selenium is to provide a low-resistance

path which readily allows electron flow when the selenium -coated supporting
plate (anode) is made positive and the barrier coating of the counter electrode
(cathode) is made negative. Reversing the polarities will produce an ex-
tremely high-resistance path, providing virtually an open circuit and no cur-
rent flow. This action is identical to that discussed for diode vacuum tubes.
In addition to selenium rectifiers, the semiconductor action of germanium

and silicon (explained in Volume 5) provides diodes capable of handling the
voltages and currents used in radio circuits. Practical selenium rectifier
stacks can handle applied voltages up to 400 volts (rms), with current ratings
as high as 500 ma (or 0. 5 ampere).
RECTIFIERS
supporting plate
selenium
barrier layer
insulating washer
counter electrode
Sectional view of a Selenium Rectifier Cell

The Half-Wave Rectifier
The basic circuit to convert a-c to d-c is the half-wave rectifier. The output
of the transformer secondary is a sine wave voltage, applied to a load in
series with a rectifier. During alternation A, which makes the plate positive,
the diode conducts. Current flowing through the load resistor develops an IR
or voltage drop which represents the output voltage. During alternation B,
which makes the plate negative with respect to the cathode, the diode does
not conduct.
The output voltage taken across the load resistor is a pulsating wave of one
polarity only. It is called pulsating d-c. The output voltage pulses once for
each cycle. The pulses cause the d-c output voltage to be rippled once each
~~
cycle, producing a 60-cycle ripple frequency.
Different rectifiers are designed to handle various values of voltages and

current. These values determine their ratings. The alternating voltage
rating per plate (rms) is the highest value a-c voltage that can be applied
between anode and cathode. The peak inverse voltage rating is the maximum
voltage that can be applied between anode and cathode when the rectifier is
not conducting. The peak inverse voltage of the half-wave rectifier is equal
to the peak value across the transformer secondary.
The peak plate current rating in a vacuum tube rectifier represents the maxi-
mum value of plate current the cathode can supply. It is an instantaneous
value and cannot be handled for any length of time. The load current or out-
put current rating is that value of current which the rectifier can deliver to a
load during continuous service.
Alternation Selenium Rectifier"^ Alternation
/
r /-.
J_
Power Trantfomer—
F-*c J lni
^7
*
OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF HALF-WAVE E
RECTIFIER CONTAINING 60-CYCLE „
0
RIPPLE FREQUENCY
C . heater
winding'
uv,
r Output
^
VACUUM TUBE RECTIFIER VACUUM TUBE RECTIFIER
USING DIRECTLY USING INDIRECTLY
HEATED CATHODE HEATED CATHODE
The Full-Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier basically contains two half-wave rectifiers. During

alternation A, which places a positive voltage at the anode of diode Dl, it
conducts. Current flowing through load resistor R1 develops an IR drop
which is the d-c output voltage. Diode D2, having a negative voltage at its
anode, does not conduct. During alternation B, which places a positive volt-
age at the anode of diode D2, it conducts. Current flowing through load re-
sistor R2 develops an IR drop which represents the d-c output voltage. Diode
Dl, having negative voltage at its anode, does not conduct. The output volt-
age contains two pulses for each cycle, producing a 120-cycle ripple fre-
quency. The average output voltage is higher than that of a half-wave recti-
fier because the applied a-c voltage is rectified and used for both alternations.
In a practical full-wave rectifier, a single centertapped secondary winding of

the transformer replaces the two individual windings. The two load resis-
tors are replaced with one common load resistor. To obtain the same value
of output voltage in a full-wave rectifier, each half of the transformer sec-
ondary winding has the same value as the single winding used with the half-
wave rectifier. The peak inverse voltage rating of a full-wave rectifier is
equal to the peak voltage across the entire secondary winding. Thus, it
equals twice that of the half-wave rectifiers.
Diagrams show current flow during entire cycle.

Only 1/2 transformer secondary carries
current at any given time. a-c
input
USING A CENTERTAPPED SECONDARY USING A DUO-DIODE

WINDING AND COMMON LOAD RESISTOR VACUUM TUDE RECTIFIER
The Bridge Rectifier
Basically, a bridge rectifier contains two full-wave rectifiers. During alter-

nation A, which places a positive voltage at the anode of diode D2 and a nega-
tive voltage at the cathode of D3, they conduct. Current flowing through the
load resistor develops an IR drop which represents the d-c output voltage.
Diode Dl, having a positive voltage at its cathode, and diode D4, having a
negative voltage at its anode, do not conduct. Alternation B, which places a
positive voltage at the anode of diode D4 and a negative voltage at the cathode
of Dl, causes them to conduct. Current flowing through the load resistor
develops an IR drop which represents the d-c output voltage. Diode D3,
having positive voltage at its cathode, and diode D2, having negative voltage
at its anode, do not conduct.
TWO FUU-WAVE RECTIFIERS COMBINER

—
IfMgfl TO FORM A BR/BOE RECTIFIER - - - -
m
ALTERNATION ALTERNATION
/aVbV^
'
time
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
CONTAINING 120-CYCLE
The output voltage, as in the full-wave rectifier, contains two pulses for
each cycle, producing a 120-cycle ripple. A bridge rectifier requires only
one untapped transformer secondary winding to provide the same value output
voltage as the full-wave rectifier. The peak inverse voltage of a bridge
rectifier is divided by two rectifiers; thus, it is equal to one-half that of the
full- wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers are used more in transmitter power
supplies than in receivers, and will be studied in greater detail later. How-
ever, this circuit occasionally is found in receiver power supplies, and it is
quite popular in instrument-type a-c rectifiers.
POWER SUPPLY FILTERS 3-37
Capacitance Filters
The output of a rectifier (half-wave or full-wave) is not a pure d-c voltage,

but a pulsating d-c voltage containing a ripple component. Filter circuits
remove the ripple and smooth the voltage to obtain pure d-c. The simplest
type of filter is the shunt capacitor connected across the load and rectifier
output. We recall that a capacitor opposes any change in voltage across its
terminals (in this case, the load) by storing up energy in its electrostatic
field whenever the voltage tends to rise, and converting this stored energy
back into current flow whenever the voltage across its terminals tends to fall.
Filtering the Output of a HALF-WAVE Rectifier with a Single Capacitor
The illustrations show the action of the capacitor filter when either half-wave
of full-wave rectifier output voltages are applied to the filter. In both cases,
the capacitor charges up to the peak voltage of the rectifier output during the
time that current pulses are delivered to the filter and load. When the recti-
fier output drops off to zero, the capacitor cannot discharge instantaneously;
its voltage falls off slowly as it discharges through the load. During the next
rectifier current pulse, the capacitor is charged again to the peak voltage,
and the cycle is repeated. The only difference between the half-wave and
full-wave action is that the capacitor discharges more between current
pulses of the half-wave rectifier. Thus, the d-c output voltage of the latter
averages less than that of the full-wave rectifier, which almost equals the
peak voltage. Because of its poor regulation (large output voltage drops for
small load current increases), the simple capacitor filter is not used with
rectifiers which supply a large load current.
3-38 POWER SUPPLY FILTERS
Inductance Filters
The action of a single inductor (choke coil), placed in series with the recti-
fier output (either half-wave or full-wave), is shown in the illustration. This
filter is usually used in combination with shunt capacitors, as we shall see
later. Essentially, any inductor opposes a change in the amount of current
flowing through it by storing up energy in its magnetic field when the current
Filtering the Output of a HALF WAVE Rectifier
with a Single Filter Choke

(d-c output voltage)
MBWaBWmBBBMBWBBWMMBIIIIllllinnillinBl' li
1
I' SB BSSBBgHBlHB lHlMHntlffltfflllH

I Il lSH MHW ItlM BBBS Ul
I l llTIl limmUIIB I
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Filtering the Output of a FULL-WAVE Rectifier
=filter
with a Single Filter Choke
( d-c output voltage)
choke
'/
y^T * /
ft
\ i
^yyy
\ /
>
r \i w u '
i 1 i L
tends to increase, and by taking energy away from the field to maintain cur-
rent flow when the voltage across the inductor tends to decrease. Hence, by
placing a choke coil in series with the rectifier and load, changes in the
amount of rectifier output current and output load voltage are minimized.
Another way of examining this action of the series inductor is to consider
that the coil offers a very low resistance (that of the winding alone) to the
passage of d-c, while at the same time offering a high impedance to the pas-
sage of fluctuating or alternating currents. The d-c passes through, and the
ripple is largely reduced.
As seen in the output waveforms, the load current through the filter (and,
hence, the load voltage) lags 90° behind the rectifier output voltage, and
never reaches its peak value. The average d-c output voltage from a single
inductor is less than that from the capacitor filter, but the voltage does not
fall off as rapidly with increase's in load current as with a capacitor filter.
3-39
POWER SUPPLY FILTERS
The Capacitor-Input Filter
the actions of a
Very effective filtering action can be obtained by combining
capacitance-inductance filter.
shunt capacitor and a series inductor in a
exist, and in all of them, the action of
Various combinations of such filters
the capacitors is to resist changes in output voltage by charging and dis-
oppose any changes in the amount
charging, as required, while the inductors
the action of their associated magnetic field. Equiv-
of the load current by
alently, the shunt capacitors may be thought of as
forming a low-impedance
and an essentially infinite imped-
path from Bt- to B- for the ripple voltage,
inductors (choke coils) can be considered as offering
ance to d-c. The series
low impedance to the passage of d-c and a very high impedance to the
a
in (A) is also called
ripple current. The typical capacitor-input filter shown
because of its schematic arrangement. An important character-
a pi filter,
of this circuit is its high output voltage at low current
drain because the
istic
secondary volt-
voltage is almost equal to the peak value of the transformer
applied each tube. As the load current increases, the output voltage
age to
value of the applied
falls off rapidly and may become less than the effective
other words, we say that the regulation of the capacitor- input
a-c voltage. In
filter is poor.
In the circuit shown, the current pulses flowing

through the rectifier tubes
and filter charge input capacitor C 1 up to the peak voltage of the transformer
secondary. Between current pulses, the voltage across Cl falls off some-
provided by the
what, but never reaches zero. With the additional filtering
becomes essentially constant.
coil and capacitor C2, the d-c output voltage
by increasing the value of Cl,
The ripple voltage may be decreased further
capacitor-input
or by adding another filter section as in (B). In general,
filters are used when low d-c power is desired, as in radio
receivers.
The CAPACITOR-INPUT Filter
rectifier
output
voltage
Choke -Input Filters
The CHOKE-INPUT Filter
choke load
input — H— I
or bleeder
h-
Waveforms
d-c output voltage
voltage + L (20 h)
{[ ~T current in choke (L)
u *
m
j
to filter 1
r output rectifier
t voltage -i _
voltage
/YWA (from I
output
voltage
o- -
f ull-wave
rectifier)
M) Single-Section Choke-Input Filter
A consisting of a 20-henry series inductor and a

typical choke-input filter,
10-microfarad shunt capacitor is shown in (A). When the load draws no cur-
rent, the d-c output voltage of the choke-input filter is nearly equal to the
peak value of the a-c voltage applied to the rectifier, just as in the case of a
capacitor-input filter. This is so because, in the absence of a load current,
no voltage drop is developed across choke coil L; therefore, output capacitor
C charges up to the peak value. However, if even small load current is
drawn, the d-c output voltage drops rapidly to some lower value and then re-
mains fairly constant over a wide range of load current values. The initial
sharp drop occurs because the series inductor prevents the capacitor from
charging to the peak voltage when a load current is drawn. After this initial
drop, there is good voltage regulation of the choke-input filter.
The d-c output voltage across C and the load is fairly constant, as shown in
the diagram, and its value is somewhat less than the peak a-c voltage, de-
pending upon the load current drawn. The ripple in the d-c load current
through the choke can be reduced considerably by increasing the value of the
inductance. In some instances, a "swinging choke" is used that varies its
inductance according to the load. The inductance of a swinging choke is high
at low load currents, and drops off with increasing load currents. As with
capacitor-input filters, improved filtering action may be obtained by using a
two-section filter shown in (B). Choke-input filters are used whenever the
amount of d-c power required is large.
POWER SUPPLY FILTERS 3-41
R-C Filters and Bleeder Resistors
When load current requirements are small and a small d-c voltage drop
filter
across the filter is permissible, the inductance of a capacitor-input
may be replaced with a series resistance. The resulting R-C filter is not as
effective as an inductive filter, since the series resistor offers as much

im-
pedance to d-c as to the ripple voltage. The advantage of the R— C filter is
typical R-C
that a resistance is much less expensive than an inductance. In a
filter, Cl is made sufficiently large to present a very low
impedance to the
ripple frequency, while at the same time offering practically infinite imped-
ance to d-c. The ripple voltage therefore prefers the shunt path through Cl,
and the d-c is forced through R, developing a voltage drop across it. Most
of the remaining ripple is shunted through C2.
The output voltage of a power supply is often developed across a bleeder re-
sistor. The idea is to achieve better voltage regulation
- that is, to prevent
changes in current drain in the receiver from changing the power supply out-
put voltage. The bleeder current is a steady continuous drain, lowering the
amount of change and providing a steadying effect on the power supply current
drain. A bleeder can also be used as a voltage divider by tapping the re-
sistor at different points to provide voltages of different values. Each tap
should have a bypass capacitor from the tap to common to prevent inter-
actions between circuits fed by each tap. The bleeder also acts as a safe-
guard when the receiver is turned off by dissipating the charge stored in the
filter capacitors. In addition, when the receiver is turned on, the heaters of
the tubes do not warm up immediately, and the circuits draw very little cur-
rent. The voltage of the power supply may rise to abnormally high values
under such no-load conditions, causing component breakdowns. The constant
bleeder load prevents this.
R-C FILTERS USING BLEEDER RESISTORS

Output voltage
isreduced by
a voltage drop
o—
Input
rWi
+ + ^> +
L '
fromîl-N
RADIO
Load< yClRCUITS
across R *1pn
rectifier,
„ +AAA^_. - o— — — i
V
Input
VV
+
AJ r
> bleeder
current
BLEEDER RESISTOR B-
from PS >Lood
rectifier C ^
j\• B-
Basie R-C Filter
Capacitor-lnput Filter Tapped Bleeder Resistor Provides Various B+ Voltages

Typical Voltage Divider
A voltage divider connected across the output of a power supply and tapped at
a number of points, can provide a selection of different values of output volt-
age. In the circuit shown, the total output voltage available from the power
supply is 250 volts. The maximum output current is 70 ma. Capacitor Cl is
the output filter unit, and C2, usually of lower value, provides extra filtering
across R2. Load circuit A requires the full 250 volts and draws 40 ma; load
circuit B requires only 160 volts and draws 20 ma. Thus, circuits A and B
require a total of 60 ma for proper operation. Since the voltage divider or
bleeder current should be approximately 10% of the total current, we shall
select 10 ma (for convenience) as the bleeder current. Since only 10 ma is
to flow through R2, and the voltage required across circuit B is 160 volts,
R2 is equal to E/l, or 160/0. 01 = 16, 000 ohms. The voltage across R1 must
then be 250 volts minus 160 volts, or 90 volts. We know the current through
R1 must equal the 10-ma bleeder current plus the 20-ma load current from
circuit B, or a total of 30 ma. With this information, we find that the resist-
ance of R1 = E/l, or 90/0. 03 = 3000 ohms.
The total resistance of the voltage divider will then be R1 + R2, or 19,000
ohms. With no loads connected across the voltage divider, the bleeder cur-
rent through it would be a steady value determined by the resistance of the
circuit and the voltage across it. Thus, under no-load conditions, the bleeder
current would be I = E/R = 250/19, 000 = 13. 2 ma. The power dissipated by
R1 would equal E x I, or 90 x 0. 03 = 2. 7 watts. To avoid overheating, a re-
sistor having about twice the power rating should be used. In this case, a 5-
watt resistor would suffice for Rl. Since R2 passes 13. 2 ma under no-load
conditions, its power rating equals P = I^R = 0. 0132^ x 16, 000 = 2. 79 watts.
Once again, a 5-watt resistor can be used for R2.
VOLTAGE DIVIDER USED AS

BLEEDER ACROSS POWER SUPPLY OUTPUT
A-C -D-C POWER SUPPLIES 3-43
Negative Voltage from Power Supplies
So far, in discussing electronic power supplies, we have considered the out-

put to be some voltage that is positive with respect to chassis or ground. In
certain instances, it is desirable to have a voltage that is negative with re-
spect to ground, such as when a large negative grid bias is required. In dia-
gram A, a negative voltage may be obtained by placing a resistor

we see how
in series with the centertap lead of a full-wave rectifier. The current
passing through the resistor produces a voltage drop that makes the center-
tap side negative with respect to ground. This voltage reduces the total
amount of B voltage available.
In diagram B, we place a ground tap on the voltage divider or bleeder resis-

tor. Point B, or ground, is positive with respect to A, but negative with re-
spect to C. Thus, in this circuit, B- is actually more negative than ground
with respect to B+. The voltage developed between A and B can be applied to
a tube as bias voltage.
Diagram C shows how a conventional power supply can be made to provide a

negative voltage. By grounding the positive side of the load, all other volt-
ages are negative with respect to this ground. From this, we can see that
any power supply can be made to deliver a negative voltage, a positive volt-
age, or both.
3-44 A-C -D-C POWER SUPPLIES
A-C - D-C Power Supplies
The popularity of table model radio receivers has led to the development of
the economical transformerless power supply. It was found that a simple
rectifier circuit could be built that would satisfy the requirements of both an
a-c and a d-c line voltage input. With an a-c line input, the circuit becomes
a simple half-wave rectifier; with a d-c input, the anode of the diode must be
connected to the positive side of the line. The diode then acts merely as a
conductor, permitting the dc to be applied directly to the circuits. A
capacitor-input R-Ctype filter is generally used to provide maximum output
voltage. Very trouble is encountered with the 60-cycle ripple or
little
"hum, " since these receivers have a poor response at this low frequency.
The filter capacitors used have a very high capacitance, usually from 20 to
80 pf. The higher B voltage at the input to the filter can be applied to cir-
cuits that do not require a completely ripple-free voltage.
An a-c — d-c filter is potentially dangerous. Notice that one side of the
power line is connected directly to the power supply. Thus, if the chassis of
the receiver were connected to the "hot" or ungrounded side of the power
line, and a person were grounded by a damp floor (by contact with a cold
water pipe, radiator, etc.), when he touched the chassis he would actually
be placing himself across the power line. To prevent a lethal shock, the
negative or B- terminal in these power supplies is isolated from the metal
chassis, and is called a floating ground. A capacitor is usually placed be-
tween the floating ground and chassis ground to prevent hum pickup. It is
often paralleled by a high-value resistance to provide a leakage path for
static charges.
The Fusible Resistor
Selenium rectifiers should always be protected from surge overload by a

series resistor of low value such as R. An overload may occur as follows:
suppose that the a-c cycle is approaching its peak at the instant that the on-
off switch is turned on. Also, suppose further, that its polarity is such as to
permit current to flow in the forward direction through the selenium recti-
fier, causing C to charge. Without R in the circuit, the resistance in series
with C is very low, so that this capacitor charges almost instantaneously.
To bring a capacitor of this size — 100 pf — up to full charge in a very small
fraction of a second requires an extremely heavy current, all of which flows
through the selenium rectifier. A current of this magnitude flowing through
the selenium rectifier even for a short time is very likely to destroy it. The
introduction of R into the circuit limits the current to a safe value by in-
creasing the time required to charge the capacitor. Modern receivers use
fusible resistors, thus including two protective measures in one component.
Half-Wave Voltage Doubler
While radio circuitry can be designed around a wide range of B+ voltages,

there are limitations to the quality of sound if the circuits must work from
relatively low voltages. Thus, in many receivers, it has become necessary
for the circuit designer to make use of a voltage doubler when slightly
higher B+ voltages are wanted. A frequently used circuit is shown.
We can see how this circuit operates by assuming that line voltage E is ap-
plied to the circuit, with point X being negative with respect to point Y. This
A VOLTAGE DOUBLER SELENIUM

RECTIFIER POWER SUPPLY
would cause current to flow through the switch, resistor Rl, capacitor Cl,
and selenium rectifier Dl, back to point Y. In the process, capacitor Cl
would charge approximately to the value of E, as shown. Thus, point A on the
diagram would be at E volts with respect to point X. On the next half-cycle,
point X would be E volts positive with respect to point Y, or ground. Thus,
since point X is E volts positive with respect to ground, and point A is E
volts positive with respect to point X, then point A is 2E volts positive with
respect to point Y or ground. It is at this time that capacitor C2 can charge
up to the full value of point A through selenium rectifier D2. With this volt-
age doubler arrangement, the difference in potential between B+ and B- is
approximately equal to twice that of the input line voltage.
——
Full-Wave Voltage Doubler
Voltage doublers operate on a-c voltages only. Since they can raise the 117-
volt dine voltage to approximately 250 volts without the use of a power trans-
former, they are often referred to as transformerless power supplies. The
basic action is to charge two capacitors, each to the peak value of the applied
a-c voltage, and to discharge them in series. Assuming a line voltage of 117
volts, the peak value is 1.4 times larger, or 164 volts. With two capacitors
in series, each charged to 164 volts, the voltage available becomes 328 volts.
With circuit losses, the output voltage averages approximately 250 volts.
During alternation A, the polarity of the voltage applied to the full-wave dou-
ber is such as to have the cathode of diode D2 positive, and the tube does
not conduct. The anode of D1 is positive, and it conducts. The current
flowing from the negative terminal piles electrons on the negative plate of Cl.
This drives the electrons off the positive plate of the capacitor through con-
ducting D1 to the positive side of the a-c line. Capacitor Cl charges to the
peak value of the applied voltage. On alternation B, the current flows through
D2 and charges C2 to the peak value of the applied voltage in the same man-
ner. With Cl and C2 in series, their voltages add. The output voltage will
be approximately twice the value of the peak applied voltage. To complete the
circuit, additional filters are added. Capacitors Cl and C2 act as the input
capacitors, and only the filter choke and output capacitor need to be added.
The circuit is called a full-wave doubler. The ripple component is 120
cycles. To ensure that each capacitor receives an equal charge, the capaci-
tors must be alike. A typical value is 20 uf. One side of the 117-volt a-c
line is always at ground potential. Because of this, the B- output cannot be
placed at ground potential. Doing so will short C2, if the bottom line is
grounded, or the entire circuit, if the top line is grounded.
ALTERNATION & \
w/
ALTERNATION
w-IT
117 vk°~
)
p-M
5 ’
OUTPUT
01
a-c : VOLTAGE
60~ +
2 x PEAK
LINE
02
U
- 02
id —nt :c2 VOLTAGE
charge on Cl ^charge on C2
+
1,1 A 2 RIPPLES EACH 1/60th SECOND FOR 120-CYCLE

'
' /
i V
\ /
i
i RIPPLE FREQUENCY AS IN FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
11
a-c
7v
60~ r c ^ m
—w
+jl
D2 “Ir C2
i i
-ORTCP-
B+
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
ADDING A
IT
B-
RIPPLE FILTER
MUST "FLOAT" -
CANNOT PLACED AT 6R0UND'
Cl AND C2 ACT AS INPUT FILTER TO FORM A CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

Voltage Quadrupler
By combining two half-wave voltage doublers a voltage quadrupler circuit is

obtained. During the 1st alternation (X-, Y+), D1 conducts to charge Cl to
the peak value of the line voltage (E) with the polarities indicated. On the 2nd
alternation the negative side of the line (Y) charges C2 with the polarity shown.
Diode D2 conducts to add the charge of Cl to that of C2, charging C2 to twice
the peak voltage, or 2E. On the 3rd alternation electrons flow from the nega-
tive side of the line (X) to charge C3. The charge on C3 is coupled through
D3 to place it in series with the charge on C2, causing C3 to be charged to
3E. On the 4th alternation the negative side of the line (Y) will charge C4,
which when coupled through D4 is placed in series with the charge on C3.
The total charge on C4 is four times the peak value of the line voltage, 4E.
Having reached this steady operating condition, current flow during each half
cycle will be only that required to maintain the charge on the capacitors, this
in turn is determined by the value of the load. In practice, the quadrupler
presents the technical economical limit of voltage multiplication. The regu-
lation becomes progressively poorer and the attained output voltage drops off
rapidly with even small load current increases.
The voltage stress across the capacitors becomes increasingly great, re-
quiring costlier units with high-voltage ratings. Also, since the peak current
through the rectifier must be limited to the rated values, the possible load
current that can be supplied to the tubes becomes less with increasing multi-
plication. Finally, the cathodes of the tubes must be well isolated from each
other, since they are at different potentials with respect to each other. De-
spite these objections, voltage-multiplying circuits using junction diodes are
occasionally used for low-current applications.
j
Heater Circuits for A-C - D-C Receivers
Since a-c— d-c receivers operate directly off the 117-volt power line, special
consideration must be given the electrical connections of the tube heaters.
By far, the most popular arrangement is the "series string, " in which all the
tube heaters of a receiver have the same current rating, and are connected in
series. An ideal situation was reached when the five-tube a-c -d-c receivers
were developed using tubes having heater voltages of 50, 35, 12. 6, 12. 6, and
12. 6 volts, respectively. This totalled 122. 8 volts. Connected directly
across a 117-volt line, this series string operated very well, with the re-
maining 5.8 volts being distributed across the various heaters. Actually,
this is not critical since most power lines vary slightly in voltage. Through-
out the United States, line voltages may range from as little as 110 to as
much as 125 volts.
In some series-string heaters, the total voltage required for the heaters may
total less than 117 volts. For instance, using a 50C5 (50 volts), 12BA6 (12.6
volts), 12BE6 (12. 6 volts), and 12AT6 (12. 6 volts) requires a total heater
voltage of 87.8 volts. must then drop 29.2 volts. Using Ohm's law and
We
finding the heater current from a tube manual, we get R = 29.2/0.150 or 195
ohms. In actual practice, a 200-ohm resistor would be used. The power
dissipated would equal i2r, or P = 0.1502 x 200, or 4. 5 watts. To protect
the receiver completely, a 10-watt resistor should be used. A disadvantage
of this heater arrangement is that 4. 5 watts are actually being wasted.
pilot lamp connected across

tap on 35W4 heater 220X1 lk
o- f— WV-f— VW- -o B+
1 1
Series-Siting
^30 uf 25 juf
4=
20 Mf
Heniets Connected
Actoss PoH/et Line
OB-
mw
0 AAA-r-VW- -ob+
29.2 voltage-dropping
R
0.15
/ resistor T_
W iA
= 195X1
117 v
60~
input
/
—iWvr
1
29. 2v
1
AAA oOC5
i50vft12. 6v
1
12BA6 12BE6
1
12. 6v
12AT6
12. 6v
T
H-heater
Hentet String Uses
Voltege-Dtopping Resisiot
current 150 ma
T
87 .8 v
-o B-
6SI7
A6AQ6
Heniets Moy Be Pntnlleled
Conduct Cutteni ftom
A
150 ma io
6BH6
300 ma 150 ma
r Highet-Cutteni Heniet
3-50 A-C - D-C POWER SUPPLIES
Three-Way Portable Power Supplies
Three-way portable radio receivers are popular because they can be used in
the home on a-c or d-c line voltages, and outdoors on batteries. Special
tubes using filament-type cathodes have been designed for economical battery
operation with 1. 4- volt filaments. Often, the power output tube has a filament
that is centertapped and can be operated at 2. 8 volts in series, or its two
sections can be connected in parallel and operated at 1.4 volts. Atypical
three-way power supply is shown in the illustration. A vacuum-tube rectifier
supplies power when the batteries are not in use. Switch 1 selects a-c, d-c,
or battery operation. This opens or closes the B-battery supply, and selects
either battery power or rectifier power for B+ circuits in the receiver. Since
switch 1 is ganged to switch 2, a single control takes care of all the switching.
Switch 2 completes the A-battery circuit or the a-c - d-c line operation.
When the switch is turned to "battery" position, the B battery supplies power
through switch 1 to the B+ line of the set, and the A battery supplies 7 volts
to the series-filament circuit. When the switch is placed in the a-c — d-c
position, the half-wave rectifier supplies about 100 volts dc from its cathode.
The rectified current passes through current-limiting resistor Rl, where the
lines divide. The main B+ line is connected across filter resistor R2 to the
B+ line of the set. Another branch of the rectifier current passes through the
double-filter voltage-dropping network of R3 and R4, dropping the output to 7
volts for the series-filament circuits. Capacitor Cl is a small noise -filtering
unit which bypasses noise impulses in the power line, preventing them from
interfering with the radio circuitry.
AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLIES 3-51
Auto Radio Power Supplies
\m mmcmoNous mmmi
Radio receivers installed in automobiles receive all their power from the 6-
or 12-volt storage battery used for supplying the electrical system. Although
some modern auto receivers use tubes operating from 12 volts on the plates
and screen grids, together with 12-volt heaters, most automobile radios re-
quire a special power supply that converts the 6- or 12-volts dc into an a-c
voltage. This voltage can then be stepped up or down, as required, for con-
ventional receiver operation. The important device used for making the
conversion is called a vibrator. The vibrator may be compared to a two-
position switch. The vibrator reed is series-connected with the battery and
the transformer primary centertap.
Closing the switch produces current flow through the vibrator coil, primary
winding L2, and the battery. This energizes the vibrator coil and closes
contact points 2-3 by magnetic attraction of the soft-iron pole piece on the
reed to the core of the vibrator coil. The instant contact is made between
points 2 and 3, a direct short circuit is created across the vibrator circuit.
This de-energizes the coil, and the reed springs away from contact 3 to make
contact 1-2. In this position, current flows through primary winding LI,
through the battery, and through contact 1-2. However, just as contact 2-3
was opened, current began to flow through the vibrator coil, energizing it,
and attracting the reed back to contact 3. Thus, the 1-2 contact was made as
the result of the inertia or spring of the reed as it was released from con-
tact 3. Each time contact was made, current would flow through part of the
primary winding, first in one direction and then in the other. This produces
somewhat of a square-wave output from the secondary.
3-52 AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLIES
The Synchronous Vibrator
The important feature of the synchronous vibrator is that it is self-rectifying;

that is, provides a d-c output without requiring a separate rectifying ele-
it
ment such as a tube. Note that initially, the reed rests between two sets of
contacts. When the vibrator circuit is closed, contact is made between points
2-3 and 5-6 as the result of energizing of the vibrator coil. The closing of
contacts 5-6 shorts out the coil, de-energizing it. This releases the reed,
and as it moves upward, it contacts points 1 and 4. In both instances when
contacts are made, the current flowing through contacts 5-6 and 5-4 provides
a current pulse in the primary. This is coupled to the transformer second-
ary by induction.
By the switching action of contacts 2-3 and 2-1, acting as a mechanical

switch, the polarity of the induced voltage in the secondary is such as to pro-
duce a d-c voltage across the output circuit.
vibrator coil
INITIAL POSITION - COIL NO CURRENT FLOWS IN

IS ENERGIZED AND COIL-CURRENT THR0U6H DIRECT
ATTRACTS REED 5-6 PRODUCES CURRENT IN
PRIMARY PULSE SECONDARY
ACTION OF THE
SYNCHRONOUS
VIBRATOR
CLOSING OF UPPER CONTACTS COMPLETES
CYCLE -COIL IS NOW ENERGIZED AND
WILL ATTRACT REED DOWN TO LOWER
CONTACTS 3 AND 6
AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLIES 3-53
The Cold-Cathode Rectifier and Buffer Capacitor
Two important components of auto radio power supplies are the cold- cathode
rectifier and the buffer capacitor. The most commonly used cold-cathode or
ionic-heated rectifier is the OZ4-G, which depends upon gas ionization for its
operation. This tube contains an inert gas at low pressure. When the plate
of the OZ4-G is made positive with respect to cathode, it attracts electrons
from the gas atoms in the tube, creating positive ions that are in turn at-
SECONDARY
THE COLD CATHODE TUBE
electrons are "torn” PRIMARY
from gas atoms and
attracted to plate TO
A-C INPUT TO RECTIFIER
FROM VIBRATOR o
VIBRATOR CIRCUIT
TRANSFORMER GAS ATOMS CIRCUIT
g
UA positive ions bombard

; BUFFER
CAPACITOR
(absorbs
current
negative cathode and
surges)
heat it to incandescence
producing electron emission
POWE
POWER
TRANSFORMER
0Z4-G
tracted to the negative cathode. The relatively large ions bombard the cath-
ode to an extent that the cathode temperature rises quickly to incandescence,
and emits electrons. Thus, this tube makes no use of conventional heater
current. A minimum flow of current must be maintained at all times to keep
the cathode at proper operating temperature for electron emission.
When the points of a vibrator break the circuit, they are subjected to a sud-
den heavy surge of current due to the inductive kickback voltage of the
windings. This heavy current would soon destroy the points unless some-
thing were done to minimize its effects. The function of the buffer capacitor
is to absorb this surge of current, and so protect the circuit components.
The value of the buffer is critical. If the capacitance is too high, excessive
current will flow that could damage the vibrator contact points; if the capaci-
tance is too small, it does not completely absorb the current surge, and
there will be arcing at the contact points. To handle the high values of back
emf, buffer capacitors must have a high working-voltage rating of approxi-
mately 1500 volts. To prevent a short-circuited buffer capacitor from
ruining the power transformer, a resistor is often placed in series; it also
acts as a current limiter.
3-54 AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLIES
Auto Radio Rectifier and Filter Circuits
A TYPICAL AUTO RADIO POWER SUPPLY
The heater supply for a car radio requires a vacuum-tube rectifier with low
heater current drain such as the 6X4 type. It is a vacuum rectifier tube
using an indirectly heated cathode and a 6-volt low-current drain (600 ma) fil-
ament. Another such tube is the type OZ4-A, a cold-cathode gas-filled recti-
fier tube requiring no filament current.
A major problem in auto radios is noise pickup. The auto radio uses the
same battery as the generator, directional signal lights, ignition, etc. This
noise comes in on the hot (ungrounded) lead used to supply power to the auto
radio. Another source of noise is the auto radio antenna. To prevent pickup
of ignition noise, the antenna is placed free and clear above the car. The
metal body of the car acts as a shield between the noise and the antenna. The
antenna lead-in is protected by the use of a shielded conductor. The radio it-
self is constructed of steel or aluminum, tightly enclosed, thus shielding the
radio circuits.
Special filter circuits are used before the current flowing through the hot
lead reaches the centertap of the primary or the tube filaments. A popular
filter is called the spark plate, a specially constructed mica capacitor of
approximately 250 ppf. The chassis is one plate of the capacitor; a metal
plate separated from the chassis by an insulating layer of mica is the other
plate of the capacitor. The construction of the spark plate makes it very ef-
fective in filtering the high-frequency noise generated in the ignition system.
In addition, numerous r-f chokes, wound of heavy wire to pass high current,
provide low values of inductance and sufficiently high reactance to high-
frequency noise voltages to keep them out of the power supply and the tube
filaments. Bypass capacitors of 0. 5 pf are used as additional filters.
VOLTAGE REGULATORS 3-55
Gas Tube Voltage Regulation
One of the most commonly used voltage regulators is the glow-tube or gas-
eous-discharge regulator. This is a two-element cold-cathode tube filled
with one of the rare gases, such as neon, argon, or helium. Voltage regu-
lator tubes (called VR tubes) are frequently used in power supplies where it
is necessary to maintain a constant output voltage in spite of wide changes in
load current. The VR-75 (OA3), VR-105 (OB2), and VR- 150 (OD3), are ex-
amples of these tubes, and provide regulation at specific values of voltage.
The VR numbers give the rated constant voltage which occurs across the
terminals of each tube for a range of current drain. In actual practice, for
example, the OB2 maintains a constant voltage of about 108 volts for current
Symbol for a cold cathode gas diode
A simple voltage regulator
circuit using a YR tube

UNREGULATED
r' Regulation 1 volt for current varying

0: from 5 mo to 30 mo. D-c starting
voltage about 115 volts
variations through it of from 5 to 30 ma. The characteristics of these tubes

are determined by the electrode material, the type and pressure of the gas,
and the placement and size of the electrodes.
If we look at the plate voltage vs plate current characteristic of the OB2, we

notice that there is a slight change in voltage over a wide range of current.
This voltage drop is referred to as the regulation of the tube. In the OB2, the
regulation is 1 volt over the 5- to 30-ma range. That is, the voltage varies
from about 107 to 108 volts. From this characteristic, we see that the in-
ternal resistance of the VR tube decreases as the applied voltage increases.
This makes it possible for the VR tube to maintain a constant voltage across
the load as the load current varies within the rated limits of the VR tube.
3-56 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Voltage Regulators
The degree of ionization in a VR tube varies with the amount of current flow
through it. When a large current flows through the tube, the gas is highly
ionized and the internal impedance of the tube is low; when a small current
flows, the gas is ionized to a much lesser extent and the tube impedance is
high. The product of the current through the VR tube and the internal imped-
mnmmiuzm circuit VR TUBBS CONNECTED IN

unregulated SBRIBS PROVIDE REGULATION
OF HI6HER V0LTA6ES
unregulated
o+
unregulated regulated
-o +
d-c voltage
255 v
input from OA2/
rectifier filter O VVR-150
OB2 + OA2 yS'

load current^ ^
OB2/
must not
VR-105
exceed 30 ma
o
Jumper breaks power-supply circuit
from load if VR tube is removed.
Otherwise, full B+ would be applied
to load, damatfnt components.
ance, which represents the voltage drop across it, remains practically con-
stant over the operating range. An important requirement in the operation of
glow-tube regulators is that a starting voltage somewhat higher than the
value of the voltage at which the tube is rated be present across the tube
electrodes before the tube will function.
In basic circuit A, aVR tube is connected in series with a resistor R across

the output of a filter. Series resistor R limits the current flow through the
tube so that its maximum rated value is not exceeded. When the unregulated
B+ voltage drops below normal, the voltage across the VR tube drops, the
gas in the tube becomes less ionized, the plate resistance increases, and
less current flows through the tube and R. The reduced current lowers the
IR drop across R, dividing the voltage so that 150 volts is once again across
the VR tube. When the applied voltage rises above normal, the VR tube
allows more current flow, its plate resistance decreases, and current flow
through R increases. This increases the IR drop across R, and the 150 volts
across the VR tube maintains a fixed 150-volt drop across it.
—
VOLTAGE REGULATORS 3-57
Zener Diode Voltage Regulation
The zener diode is similar in appearance to the silicon or germanium recti-

fier diode.Most often, it is made of silicon and has a very high back resist-
ance. When a reverse voltage is applied to this diode, virtually no reverse
current flows. However, at a certain reverse voltage point, the zener diode
breaks down completely, and the back resistance drops to a very low value.
Reverse voltage (d-c) VOLTAGE INDICATED IS
— — —— -16
1
-12
1
-8 NEGATIVE DUE TO
1 1
REVERSE POLARITIES
APPLIED
-20 V
z
-30 -
Ul
o B+?-
to
01 u
UJ 3
>
UJ
a
-60
oc z
-70 o
_
U A hermetically sealed
-80
- Zener Diode
-100
zener diode
Typical Zener Diode curve Basie Circuit B+

135 V
Five 4 k
Several diodes may
iN5i7’ S ::
be series-connected 27 v J load
for regulation of each
higher voltages. B-
o-
When this occurs, the reverse current increases very rapidly. The effect of
a rapid increase in current, together with a rapid decrease in resistance,
produces an almost constant voltage drop across the diode. Thus, when
biased in a reverse direction, zener diodes can be used as voltage regulators.
Beyond the breakdown or zener voltage, the zener diode exhibits the charac-
teristics of a gas-voltage regulator, and can be considered an equivalent. To
use the zener diode in a VR circuit, positive voltage is applied (through a
series resistor) to the cathode. (This is opposite to the normal application
of voltage to a diode rectifier. ) The current flowing through R equals the
sum of the current through the diode plus the load current. When the B volt-
age drops below normal, the voltage across the diode drops. This increases
the diode resistance, and less current flows through the diode and R. The
reduced current lowers the IR drop across R, dividing the output voltage so
that 10 volts, for example, is again across the diode. When the output voltage
rises above normal, the diode permits more current flow, its resistance de-
creases, and the current through R increases. This increases the IR drop
across R, and the 10-volt output across the diode is maintained. The load,
connected in parallel across the diode, has a fixed 10-volt drop maintained
across it.
3-58 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Electron-Tube Regulator
A TYPICAL V0LTA6E REGULATOR CIRCUIT
Because an electron tube can be considered as a variable resistor, a very

efficient and effective voltage regulator circuit can be built. In the circuit
shown, the grid bias of the regulator is obtained by the IR drop across R.
Current flows from B- and divides through the load, voltage divider, and
through the VR tube, control tube, and R. The total current flows through
the regulator tube. The voltage drop across the VR tube maintains a steady
voltage on the control-tube cathode, and the grid is connected to a voltage
divider tap. The grid - cathode voltage of the control tube is equal to the
difference between the voltage drop across the VR tube and that across the
lower section of the voltage divider. The voltage divider tap is set to provide
the proper voltage for biasing the control tube.
Ifthe load voltage tends to rise, either from an increase in the input voltage
from the filter or because of a decrease in load current, voltage across the
voltage divider and load also rises, as does voltage at the tap of the voltage
divider. Voltage at the grid of the control tube thus becomes more positive,
with the cathode voltage remaining constant due to the action of the VR tube.
The positive-going grid produces an increase in plate current in the control
tube which causes a larger IR drop across plate load R, and the grid of the
regulator tube becomes more negative. The negative-going grid of the regu-
lator tube increases its plate resistance and reduces the current flow through
the tube. This increases the voltage drop across the regulator tube, and the
voltage across the load is reduced to its correct value. When the applied
voltage drops below normal, the voltage at the grid of the control tube drops
in proportion, reducing plate current in the control tube. The reduced IR
drop across R produces a less negative grid bias on the regulator tube. Its
plate resistance decreases, and plate current increases. The voltage drop
across the regulator tube decreases, and voltage across the load increases
to its correct value.
.
3-59
SUMMARY
high-voltage second-
A power
P transformer usually has a primary winding, a
several low-voltage windings which supply the various
ary winding, and
to plate
vacuum-tube rectifier allows electron flow from
cathode
The diode^
positive with respect to the cathode. When the plate is
when the plate is
is retarded,
negative with respect to cathode, electron flow
peak inverse voltage rating of a rectifier is the maximum voltage tha
The
it is not conducting.
can be applied when
rectifier is the basic circuit used to convert ac
to dc.
The half-wave
rectifiers use a single, centertapped secondary winding
Practical full-wave
of the transformer in place of two
individual windings.
The output voltage of a full-wave rectifier contains two pulses for each cycle,
producing a 120-cycle ripple frequency.
filtering action.
Capacitance-inductance filters provide very effective
used when the amount of d-c power required is
Capacitor- input filters are
small; choke-input filters are used when the d-c
power requirement is
larffG,
to prevent receiver
For better voltage regulation, a bleeder resistor is used
output voltage.
current drain changes from changing the power
supply
floating ground is used to prevent a
In a-c - d-c receiver power supplies, a
the B- terminal from the metal chassis.
lethal shock by isolating
requiring a separate
The synchronous vibrator provides a d-c output without
rectifying component such as a tube. , ,, .
ionization for their

Cold-cathode or ionic-heated rectifiers depend upon gas
operation. .
supplies where is
Voltage-regulator tubes are frequently used in power
it
despite wide load current

necessary to maintain a constant output voltage
chances.
of current flow
The degree of ionization in a VR tube varies with the amount
through it. , ,
..
reverse volt-
Zener diodes have a very high back resistance, but at a certain
drops to a very low
age point, they break down and the back resistance
value.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
rectifier.
1. Describe the operation of a half-wave rectifier; of a full-wave
voltage ripple frequency of a half-wave rectifier Of
.
2. What is the output

a full-wave rectifier?
rectifier tubes
What are the advantages and disadvantages of gas-filled
.
3.
bridge rectifier using selenium rectifiers.
4. Describe the operation of a
used in relation to d-c
5. How are capacitor-input and choke-input filters
power requirements?
of using a bleeder resistor in a power supply .
6. What are the advantages

doubler; a half-wave voltage
7. Describe the action of a full-wave voltage
uuuuici.
circuit.0
. .,
8. Why is a floating ground used in an a-c - d-c power supply

What is the main advantage of a synchronous vibrator power
supply
9.
an auto radio power supply?
10 . Why is a buffer capacitor used in
voltage
11 . What property of a gas-filled tube enables it to be used as a
regulator?
regulator.
12 . Describe the action of a zener diode used as a voltage
'
3-60 THE LOAD LINE
Amplification
THE
VACUUM TUBE
AMPLIFIER output
signal
AMPLIFICATION PROVIDES
voltage
AN INCREASE IN SI6NAL
swmiH between the
amplification
Ar
INPUT ANO OUTPUT SICNALS
power
amplification
i
loudspeaker
Amplifiers may |
low-frequency
mff
be used for
j
amplification
mi
high-frequency
amplification
We have studied the use of the electron tube as a rectifier in power supply
circuits. Now, we shall study the electron tube in its most important appli-
cation — that of an amplifier. The more common expression "vacuum tube"
will be used, since all electron tubes used for amplification of electrical sig-
nals are of the vacuum type. It is the use of the vacuum tube as a device
for amplification that has made radio broadcasting and communications pos-
sible.
There are many ways of classifying amplifiers. In each instance, the vac-
uum tube itself must not be thought of as the complete amplifier, but rather
as an amplifying device which, together with appropriate associated circuitry,
can produce an amplified version of the input signal in its output circuit.
Vacuum tube amplifiers are often classified in various categories according
to the type of operation. Generally, however, there are two classifications
that are most commonly accepted. The first is in terms of voltage and
power. Voltage amplifiers are designed to receive small input voltages and
to put out large -amplitude versions of the input signal. Power amplifiers
are designed to deliver into their output circuit signal power that can be used
by a special device, such as a loudspeaker or an antenna circuit in a trans-
mitter. The second popular classification of amplifiers is in terms of
frequency The general grouping here is low frequency and high frequency.
.
We shall study the differences in tubes and tube circuitry when we amplify
low- and high-frequency signals. To begin our study, we shall return to our
discussion of vacuum tube characteristics.
3-61
THE LOAD LINE
Dynamic Characteristics of the Triode
not seen a triode do any useful work. We

have varied the
Thus far. we have
grid and plate of the tube, and have observed the
voltages applied to the
plate, and from ther ,
amount of plate current flowing through the tube to the not seen
the cathode. But we have
through the external circuit and back to
produced. In fact, we have only studied the
any results that this current has
have developed a number of
behavior of a triode under static conditions and
interesting families of characteristics, which up to now have served no useful
vacuum tube be of any practical use, a load resis t^
purpose. In order that a
circuit. Once a load resistance is present,
ance- must be inserted in its plate voltage drop across it which may be trans-
the plate current will develop a
used directly to do use-
ferred to the input of another tube, or the tube can be
the grid of a tube the plate current
ful work. If an input signal is applied to
version of this signal - or output signal - across
will create an amplifier
such a load resistor.
of a load resistor in the plate circuit

of a triode gives rise to
The presence
tube, which are the actual con-
the so-called dyna mic characteristics of a
practice, and hence, far more important than
ditions of operation used in
we have studied. The dynamic characteristics are
the static characteristics
load. We have illustrated
thus a graphical portrayal of tube behavior under
a load inserted into the plate circuit, assigning
a basic triode circuit with
typical values to the plate voltage and load resistor.
For comparison, the
same circuit is shown without a load.
3-62 THE LOAD LINE
Voltage Drop Across Load
The load resistor Rl is in series with the plate supply voltage Ebb and the
tube itself. Consequently, the electrons on their way back to the tube's
cathode must flow through this load resistor and develop a voltage drop
across it. This is known as the output voltage Erl. By Ohm's law, since
E = I x R, the voltage drop across Rl (Erl) is then lb x rl. You remember
that the sum of the voltage drops around a series circuit must equal the
source voltage. Evidently, then, the plate voltage supply Ebb must equal the
sum of the plate-to-cathode voltage Eb, plus the voltage drop across the load
resistor Erl- In other words, the plate voltage across the tube is the dif-
ference between the plate supply voltage Ebb and the voltage drop across
Erl (equal to IbRL)- This is a very important relationship to remember. It
shows that the plate voltage (Eh) decreases as the plate current increases,
since the plate supply voltage Ebb and the load resistor Rl are both fixed in
value. This is the main difference between the static condition of operation,
where the plate voltage equals the plate supply or battery voltage (Eb = Ebb),
since no load is present, and the dynamic condition of operation with a load,
where the plate voltage is the difference between the plate supply voltage and
the voltage drop across the load [Eb = Ebb - (IbRL)3 •
As an example, imagine first that E

cc is adjusted to such a high negative
value as to cut off With no plate current flow, there is no voltage drop
lb-
across Rl, and the plate voltage equals Ebb or 350 volts. Now assume that
the bias is changed to permit 1 ma of plate current to flow through the plate
circuit. We find that the plate voltage now is 350 - (0. 001 x 25, 000), or 325
volts. In this case, the voltage drop across Rl is relatively low, and the
internal drop across the plate resistance is high (325 volts). Imagine now
that the grid bias is adjusted to a less negative value, to allow as much as 12
ma of plate current to flow through the circuit. The plate voltage is now
350 - (0.012 x 25,000), or 50 volts. For this operating condition, we see
that most of the voltage drop appears across Rl, and very little across the
internal resistance of the tube.
varying grid voltage produces plate voltage is equal to voltage drop across R |_
changes in plate current, which 350 volts less voltage subtracts from battery
in turn, produces changes drop across
voltage applied to plate
in E „ Ib
Ebb = 350 v
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN A TRIODE CIRCUIT

3-63
THE LOAD LINE
The Load Line

circuit can be predicted in ad-
The effect of a plate load connected in a triode
vance. A graphical representation of the load, known as a load line , can be
characteristics of the tube. The load line shows the
added to the static plate
the voltage across the load,
voltage distribution of the plate supply voltage,
values of plate current and grid voltage.
and the plate voltage for different
constructed by joining two points one on the plat -
The load line is usually
the other on the plate-
current axis (corresponding to zero plate voltage),
corresponds to a condition when the tube is at cut-
voltage axis. This point
plate supply voltage E bb equals the
off (zero plate current), and the entire
the current
plate voltage. The point on the plate-current axis corresponds to
supply voltage is the voltage drop across the load,
flow when the entire plate
resulting in zero plate voltage.
For a 6J5 triode tube using a 000-ohm plate load and a plate supply of 350
25,
volts, a typical load line can be drawn on
the same graph as the static plate
characteristics of the tube. The point on the plate-voltage axis is the 350-
Location of the point on the
volt plate supply voltage (zero plate current).
plate-current axis requires the use of Ohm's law. The plate suPP!y ™
the theoretically maximum voltage drop across this 25,000-ohm
(350 volts) is
the plate current:
resistor. Ohm's law is used to find the value of
I = E/R = 350/25,000 = 14 ma
volts and 14 ma.
The second point is then marked at the intersection of 0
intersections; this
Using a straight edge, a line is drawn connecting the two
line is the load line.
25,00Q-0hm Load Line Constructed on a Plate Family of Curves
maximum plate voltage

(plate supply voltage)
3-64 THE LOAD LINE
Using the Load Line
A load line can be used to find the value of plate voltage for a specific value
of plate current, or the value of plate current for a specific value of grid
voltage. For example, with a grid voltage of -6 volts, we check its inter-
section with the load line and find that the plate voltage is 190 volts and the
plate current 6. 4 ma.
We can go further, and observe plate current and voltage during a complete
cycle of input voltage. With the 6J5 biased at -6 volts, a 2-volt peak input
voltage swings the grid bias up to -4 volts and down to -8 volts. Projecting
toward the plate current axis, we see that during this time, plate current
rises from 6.4 ma at -6 volts bias, to approximately 7.6 ma at -4 volts bias,
and decreases to 5. 2 ma at -8 volts bias. At the same time, the plate volt-
age moves from 190 volts at -6 volts bias down to 160 volts at -4 volts on the
grid, and up to 220 volts at -8 volts on the grid. Thus, we see a remarkable
thing. By use of the load line, we have a "picture" of plate voltage and plate
current variations at every instant of the input cycle. For any given grid
voltage variation, we can predict plate current and plate voltage variations.
We thus "see" the dynamic operation of a tube under a given set of conditions.
For different values of load resistance, the load line would take different
positions, and the same input voltage would produce different plate current
and plate voltage variations.
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS 3-65
Dynamic Transfer Characteristics
Although the load line is very important when it is added to the static plate
family, it does not tell the story of dynamic operation as conveniently as
does the static grid family with the effect of the load superimposed. If this
is done, the resulting plate-current, grid-voltage characteristic is known as
the dynamic transfer characteristic. We show the static plate family with
the 25, 000-ohm load line and the static grid family, but with the dynamic
characteristic added. Although this dynamic curve can be developed directly
by the appropriate measurements, we have taken the easy way of simply
transposing the information onto the static grid family. Both figures have a
common plate current (vertical) axis, but the horizontal axis for A is the
grid voltage, while for B, it is the plate voltage. It is, therefore, simply
necessary to plot the plate current values for any particular grid voltage
from the load line of B onto the corresponding plate -current, grid-voltage
points of the graph in A. Thus, we obtain the dynamic transfer character-
istic for a 25, 000 -ohm load.
Notice that the dynamic characteristic is much less steep and less curved
than the static plate-current, grid-voltage curves. The insertion of a load
in the plate circuit has resulted in straightening out the static characteris-
tics, and has made them more linear than before. This is important in re-
lation to the amount of distortion that occurs during operation.
CONSTRUCTION of DYNAMIC TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC for 615
from PLATE and GRID FAMILIES of CURVES (Using 25,000-ohm load)

3-66 CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Plate Voltage and Current Components
Thus far, we have considered the fundamental triode circuit operated with
d-c potentials, although we have, on occasion, varied these potentials in a
more or less mechanical manner to observe the effect on the plate current.
In most applications, however, the triode is operated with an alternating
voltage (usually called the exciting or signal voltage) applied to the grid cir-
cuit, in addition to the d-c grid bias voltage. The effect of this is to vary the
grid-to-cathode voltage of the tube and cause a corresponding variation in the
plate current. The plate current variations, in turn, generate a varying volt-
age across the load resistor, the so-called output voltage of the tube. In
order to understand this dynamic amplifying process, we shall have to modify
our thinking toward an alternating-current viewpoint of the triode tube. Ac-
tually, the triode is no different from the diode in that it is capable of passing
a current in only one direction, from cathode to plate, and only when the
plate is positive with respect to the cathode. Hence, the varying plate cur-
rent and voltages of the tube are all unidirectional, and they never reverse to
negative polarity.
The proper way to consider the varying plate current and voltages, with a
grid signal voltage present, is to imagine them composed of two components.
One component is the d-c or quiescent value of the current or voltage for a
fixed grid bias, with no signal voltage present in the grid circuit. Superim-
posed on this d-c component is a second component of the current or voltage
under consideration, namely, the varying or alternating component caused by
the exciting voltage or signal in the grid circuit of the tube. This last point
is important and often misunderstood. The flow of plate current is direct
current. However, because it rises and falls about a center or zero signal
value, it has an a-c component. Frequently, current of this type is referred
to as pulsating dc.
A-C and D-C PLATE-CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

PLATE VOLTAGE
Eb
1
*=- — v-C or
quiescent value
0
time —*
t
Eb
— /'"y-
\
A-C component
superimposed
*
.
^j ,
time -*•
on d-ft i/flliiA
! PLATE CURRENT
t :
D-C or
b quiescent value
j
1 time —
A-C component
t
plate voltage and plate current b 3 1
'iu i !r
f '.’V
time-*-
Grid Bias
We have seen that the a-c signal voltage is inserted in series with the grid
bias battery E cc . The reason for this is simple. In its basic application as
an amplifier of tiny signal voltages, the triode is operated to consume no
power in the grid circuit, because generally, no power is available from the
extremely weak radio signals. This is one of the features of a tube
— it can
be purely voltage operated in the grid circuit, although power may be avail-
able from the plate circuit. To consume no power in the grid circuit, it is
essential that no grid current flow. To avoid the flow of grid current, the
tube must be operated at a negative grid voltage, or at least, at a voltage
which never rises above zero to positive values, since under those conditions,
grid current would flow and power would be consumed.
This is thereal purpose of the negative grid bias - to prevent the control grid
voltage from ever rising to positive values which results in grid-current
flow. We show an a-c sine-wave signal voltage for grid excitation which
rises to a positive peak of +6 volts, and has a negative peak of -6 volts. In
series with this a-c voltage, we have applied a d-c grid bias of -6 volts.
(From now on, we shall always reserve the term bias for the d-c grid volt-
age. ) The total instantaneous voltage acting between grid and cathode of the
tube (e c ) is the algebraic sum of the a-c signal voltage and the d-c grid bias.
The bias voltage of -6 volts has been represented by a straight line, 6 volts
below the zero-voltage reference line. Note that at no time does the grid
swing positive with respect to the cathode.
Operating Point
DYNAMIC TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC is used
to OBSERVE
OUTPUT i
™'
WMMi
GRID VOLTAGE
10 ' 8 ' 4 '4
(Eg)
' 20
MM
ra nsfiif *1
ta fl
WAVEFORM i L_^k- m m
Wa fiii
t
y m fl
m1 2EX i S! 1 8
E 8 fl M jfl
V
m
i
flB
I i mmfl
P &f M
M r B!
l
1 E
fl
mmm
MMm2i V —
L f N ax im urr p os tiv e _
H OL. NF 111 fl RII3
tiv e — V,
j
IVOLTA~CjE
K
WAVEFORM
t_ 1111
To demonstrate the method of predicting the plate-current behavior from the
dynamic transfer characteristic, it is necessary first to establish an oper-
ating point on the characteristic curve. This is determined by the amount of
fixed grid bias applied to the tube. The bias establishes a steady value of
plate current which exists for a zero-input signal voltage, and is generally
referred to as the quiescent or d-c value of plate current. In the diagram, we
have repeated the dynamic transfer characteristic for the 6J5 with a 25, 000-
ohm load resistor and 350-volt plate supply voltage. This curve portrays
graphically the variations in output plate current produced with a varying in-
put grid voltage. The curve actually shows the behavior of the plate circuit
for a given input signal voltage and a fixed operating point.
If we use -6 volts for the operating point, the a-c signal having a positive
peak of +6 volts will not drive the grid positive; hence, no grid current is
drawn. With -6 volts bias, corresponding to zero voltage input, we obtain a
plate current of 6. 4 ma from the dynamic characteristic. By plotting the in-
put grid voltage swing against the curve, and then projecting point by point to
the plate current axis, we obtain a pattern of the plate current waveform.
Since the plate current flows through Rl, the voltage drop across Rj_, is an
accurate reproduction of the grid input voltage.
,
Linearity of Output Waveform
For low distortion and a faithful reproduction of the input waveform, the plate
current changes must be linear; that is, they must be directly proportional to
characteristic,
the grid voltage changes. If we examine the dynamic transfer
we see that it is quite linear over the major portion; however, the lower left-
hand portion curves somewhat and is not linear On the preceding page, we .
projected the input grid voltage against the linear portion of the curve and
thus obtained an exact replica of the input grid voltage in the form of the out-
put plate current waveform. We shall now move our operating point
down to
-12 volts. In so doing, the input grid voltage reaches a maximum positive
value of -6 volts, and a maximum negative value of -18 volts. In addition, we
see that to the left of the operating point, the grid voltage is projected against
the nonlinear portion of the curve.
When we make a point-by-point projection, it can be seen that the curvature

of thedynamic transfer characteristic has produced a distorted output plate
current waveform, with the negative peak flattened out. This flattening rep-
resents signal distortion. Thus, by properly locating the operating point on
the linear portion of the dynamic transfer characteristic (keeping in mind
the
peak-to-peak swing of the input grid voltage), the output plate current wave-
form can be made an exact replica of the input grid voltage.
OPERATION on NONLINEAR PORTION of CURVE

iff
PRODUCES GRID VOLTAGE (E
g )
DISTORTION
in OUTPUT
o
E
MBm Ta
Z L netir portion
mm
mm
mm
1
m 1Mmm
o A
PFE G W 9 91 99l5_
T IK
POINT dm mmm9 91 V
r
i
»
Lower
11 9 9 991m JL _ portion
m g91 g gE9 F’ j ’
F
r
r 2 i99ii 9msM L 4c of curve
H
ip 9
99
—
—
-
9 -9 G 1
i
+
l
9
4
9 ri 1
o UTPUT PIA
1
1
1
I
2+
r
1
f
1 1
’
iTE
flattened
out
(distorted)
CURRENT
— rI
1
HA
1 1
DR M
1
— B 1
1*.
1
VI:F<
mm
1
1
—— l i iP_
mu m po sit
I
ve
r t
Vic xi
1 1
an
r 1
I
—
rr WAVEFORM
IVOLTAGE]
mm
t [X Mil L_
) 1
Calculating Amplification
We have not yet shown how much the simple triode amplifier has amplified
the input signal voltage in the grid circuit. Although our plate current wave-
form looks bigger than the grid voltage waveform, this is no indication of the
amount of amplification, since we cannot compare the amplitude of a current
with that of a voltage. To obtain the correct amplification, we must compare
the output voltage developed as a result of the drop across Rl with that of the
input or signal voltage applied to the grid. Hence, we can define the amount
of voltage amplification, also known as voltage gain, as the ratio of the output
voltage to the input voltage.
You will note that the equation deals strictly with instantaneous values of a-c
quantities. There are two ways we can determine the output voltage (e out).
One way is to multiply the a-c plate current (ip ) by the load resistance (Rl);
in other words, the a-c voltage across the load (e ou t = ip x Rl). In our ex-
ample, the plate current rises from its quiescent or d-c value of 6. 4 ma for
zero signal to a maximum of 10. 1 ma for the 6-volt positive peak of the a-c
input signal. The peak value of the a-c plate current (ip ), then, is the total
3.7 ma (p«ak)
(butpur)
* +
e out =
^9 2.Vvolts
peak
±_
n
Rl* 0.0037 ot
x 25,000
——
r 25 K|
= 92.5
A = voltage amplification, O -«
or voltage gain
I
e out - instantaneous value (•g) Voltage
of a-c output voltage
across R|. ? T Amplification
eg — instantaneous value ®out

of input signal
i
-M+ ,
1
"57 - T ,5 -4
change in the plate current, which is 3.7 ma (10.1 - 6.4 = 3.7). The peak
output voltage value is 92.5 volts. Thus, we see that the voltage amplification
is 15. 4, which means that any value of the input voltage will be multiplied
by a factor of 15.4 because of the tube's amplification. (We have used peak
values of the output to the input voltage. Actually, any two corresponding
points of the output and input voltage wave could have been compared.
The second way of determining the output voltage is directly from the load
line, and does not involve any calculations whatsoever. Referring back to
page 3-64, we note that the peak grid input voltage is 2, and the peak plate
voltage swing is approximately 30. Hence, a direct reading from the graph
would indicate a gain of approximately 15.
Current and Voltage Phase Relationships
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS IN TRIODE AMPLIFIER
Algebraic
!>>
sum of
ft
grid bias
and signal
m
W
voltage
(Ecc+eg)
+»IN PHASE
8
li
p
1
i
m t
, h
;
!
1 1
1 S
i |
o° 001 or PHASl
%
w
•: -
;
We have seen how the signal applied to the grid of a triode is amplified by the
tube, causing a magnified reproduction of the input signal to appear in the
output (plate circuit). We have shown further, that the plate current - hence,
the output voltage - faithfully duplicates the input signal waveform, provided
that the operating point of the tube is properly chosen. We have not yet con-
sidered the timing, or relative phase, between the various input and output
voltages and currents.
We see five sine waves which depict the phase relationships in a triode am-
plifier circuit. Our previous example for -6 volts bias, 350 volts plate
supply, and 25, 000 ohms load resistance has been chosen againfor continuity,
but the phase relations are true regardless of the particular values of the
voltages and currents. The dashed vertical lines passing through the wave-
forms compare corresponding points at the same instant in time for each of
the waveforms.
)
Current and Voltage Phase Relationships (Cont'd.
As you can see, the phase relations are entirely different for waveform E on
the preceding page, which represents the instantaneous total plate voltage
(eb), existing between plate and cathode of the tube. You will remember the
equation eb = Ebb - ibRL> which shows that for a fixed plate supply voltage
(Ebb), the instantaneous total plate voltage (eb) decreases as the plate cur-
rent (ib) and the total voltage drop across the load, increase. This is so, you
recall, because with increasing plate current and load voltage drops, less of
the supply voltage is available at the tube's plate. On the other hand, the
lower the plate current, the smaller is the voltage drop across the load;
hence, more plate voltage is left over from the fixed supply voltage. It is
evident, therefore, that the total plate voltage is in an opposing or out-of-
phase relation to the plate current and the input signal. This is brought out
by the shape of curve E.
From page 3-64, we see that the quiescent value of the plate voltage (for zero
signal) is 190 volts for a bias of -6 volts and a load of 25,000 ohms. When
the grid voltage rises to 0 volts for a signal of +6 volts, the plate voltage
falls to a minimum value of 97. 5 volts, while the drop in grid voltage to -12
volts for a signal of -6 volts produces a rise in total plate voltage to its max-
imum value of 282. 5 volts. Thus, whenever the signal voltage, eg, is at its
maximum positive value, the plate voltage eb is at its minimum value, and
vice versa. It appears as if the plate voltage has been shifted by one half-
cycle, or 180° with reference to the grid voltage. We can conclude by
stating that the plate current is in phase with the grid voltage, but the plate
voltage is 180° out of phase with the grid voltage. This is generally true for
all types of vacuum tubes that have a control grid.
Interelectrode Capacitances
Although it appears at first glance that all the electrodes in a triode tube are
well isolated from each other, and that they cannot influence each other ex-
cept through the flow of plate current, this is not quite correct. You remem-
ber that we discussed the electrostatic fields existing between the charged
electrodes of a triode, such as the fields between plate and cathode, plate and
grid, and grid and cathode. You may also recall from elementary electricity
that an electrostatic field between any two charged metal plates is the equiv-
alent of an electrical capacitor capable of holding a certain charge. Thus it
is evident that definite capacitances exist between all the metal electrodes of
a triode which, however tiny, do affect the operation of a tube.
The illustration indicates the capacitances existing between the metal elec-
trodes - the so-called interelectrode capacitances. The most important of
these is the capacitance between the control grid and the plate of the tube.
There is also capacitance between the control grid and cathode and between
the plate and the cathode. The values of these capacitances are very small,
generally in the order of 2 to 10 upf. At low audio frequencies (between 20
and 15, 000 cycles), the effect of these tiny capacitances is almost negligible.
CAPACITANCE EXISTS BETWEEN the ELEMENTS of a TUBE
But at higher radio frequencies (from 100 kc up), when their reactance be-
comes low,they play an important role in influencing the tube's operation.
The capacitance between grid and plate may have the very undesirable effect
of coupling the output (plate) circuit back to the input (grid) circuit, resulting
in the feedback of energy from plate to grid.
As we shall learn later in our study of oscillators, energy feedback is useful.

However, the feedback of energy as a result of interaction between the grid
and the plate circuits in an amplifier frequently presents serious problems in
achieving circuit isolation. A reduction of interelectrode capacitances by the
additional shielding of electrodes is achieved in multi-electrode tubes, such
as the tetrode and pentode. Without this shielding, there would still be un-
desirable coupling and feedback effects between the plate and grid circuits.
3-74 CLASS OF OPERATION
Class-A Operation
The position of the quiescent or operating point on the dynamic transfer

characteristic, established by the d-c grid bias voltage, determines the dif-
ferent classes of operation of an amplifier. These are: class-A, -B, -AB,
and -C. In radio receivers, the most commonly used class of operation is
class-A. In a class-A amplifier, the grid bias is such that plate current
flows in the output circuit during 360° of the input grid voltage cycle. In
short, in a class-A amplifier, plate current flows continuously. Minimum
distortion of the output waveform takes place because class-A amplifiers are
generally small- signal low-power units in which the entire operation takes
place over the linear portion of a tube's dynamic characteristic. At no time
does the grid go positive under normal operating conditions, nor does it
swing into the nonlinear portion of the curve on its negative cycle.
Should the control grid go positive on the positive half of the input cycle, part
of the input grid signal would be lost or clipped, and the positive half of the
output plate current waveform distorted. Similarly, should the negative half
of the input grid signal swing beyond the plate current cutoff point, plate cur-
rent would stop flowing and the negative half of the output plate current wave-
form would be clipped, with accompanying distortion. In most instances, the
operating point of a class-A amplifier is in the center of the linear portion of
the dynamic characteristic at about one-half plate current cutoff value. In
terms of plate efficiency, which can be defined as the ratio of a-c power out-
put developed across Rl to the d-c power supplied to the plate, class-A am-
plifiers are quite inefficient. They run as low as 20% or less, due to the high
average value of plate current and, consequently, high plate power dissipation.
CLASS OF OPERATION 3-75
Class-B Operation
In a class-B amplifier, plate current flows during 180° of the input grid volt-
age cycle. That is, a class-B amplifier is biased at cutoff, so that there is
no plate current flow when no signal is applied. Plate current flows only
during the positive half of the input signal. Since the output plate current
waveform represents only the positive half of the input signal, this class of
operation cannot be used where an exact replica of the entire input must be
reproduced in the output circuit. Single-ended (single-tube) class-B ampli-
fiers are used in radio-frequency amplifier stages having a parallel-tuned
circuit as the plate load. This tank circuit provides the second half of the
output cycle by means of L-C charge and discharge action. In audio ampli-
fication, where the output waveform must be exactly like the input waveform
for minimum distortion, two tubes must be used in "push-pull, " an arrange-
ment which we shall discuss later, where each tube supplies that half of the
output waveform not supplied by the other.
Class-B amplifiers are characterized by medium power output, medium plate

efficiency (approximately 50%), and moderate power amplification. Since
the a-c component of plate current is proportional to the amplitude of the
grid signal voltage, the output power is proportional to the square of this
voltage. Being biased at plate current cutoff, the positive cycle must swing
through the nonlinear portion of the dynamic characteristic, producing a cer-
tain amount of distortion in the output. When used in high-power amplifiers,
class-B operation is often such that the positive cycle swings into the positive
grid voltage area, and the grid draws current.
V |
3-76 CLASS OF OPERATION
Class-AB and Class-C Operation
A class-AB amplifier operates in the region between class-A and class-B.

That is, plate current in a class-AB amplifier flows for more than 180° of
the input grid voltage cycle, but for less than 360°. In class-ABl operation,
a limit is set on the input signal swing, so that the grid is not driven positive
during any part of the input cycle. In class-AB2 operation, the input signal
exceeds the negative bias on the positive swing, and the grid goes positive,
causing grid current to flow. Class-AB operation is essentially a compro-
mise between the low distortion of the class-A amplifier and the high effic-
-
iency of the class-B amplifier. Single-tube class-AB operation cannot be

used in audio circuits.
The class-C amplifier is used primarily as an r-f power amplifier in radio

transmitters, and is discussed in Volume 6. The characteristic of a class-C
amplifier is that plate current flows for less than 180° of the input grid volt-
age cycle. As a result, class-C amplifiers are noted for their extreme effic-
iency, upward to 80%. The high distortion of a class-C amplifier is overcome
by the "flywheel" effect of tuned circuits.
OUTPUT-PLATE OUTPUT-PLATE CURRENT

Portion of
CURRENT litSil
7
negative cycle
goes beyond Output Output

cutoff waveform waveform
'
distorted distorted
US
Grid goes
'INPUT-GRID
SIGNAL positive and
draws current
CLASS AB, OPERATION CLASS AB, OPERATION
Bias
« OUTPUT-PLATE
(Operating Point) CURRENT
*
Bias is
beyond cutoff
- 0 + time- CLASS-C
time Gr id Voltage *—
l
OPERATION
INPUT-GRID
SIGNAL
BIAS 3-77
Fixed Bias and Self-Bias
In any amplifier, the location of the operating point on the dynamic charac-
teristic curve (hence, the class of amplifier operation) depends on the d-c
grid bias voltage. Basically, there are two types of bias - fixed bias and
self-bias. Fixed bias is usually supplied from a separate voltage source,
such as cells, or from a negative voltage tap in the power supply. The fixed
bias is generally placed in series with the grid signal input. The d-c bias
voltage is applied so that the grid is made negative with respect to the cath-
FIXED BIAS
ode. The total voltage between cathode and grid is thus equal to the sum of
the d-c bias voltage plus the instantaneous value of the signal voltage. We
should remember, however, that the d-c bias voltage is completely independ-
ent of the signal voltage.
The most common form of self-biasing is cathode bias. This is accom-

plished by placing a resistor (Rk) in series with the cathode circuit so that
all plate and screen current must flow through it. The voltage drop across
Rk is then such as to make the grid negative with respect to the cathode.
With zero signal input, the current through Rk establishes the fixed grid
bias. An applied input signal results in plate current variations, and hence,
variations in the voltage drop across Rk. To prevent these variations and
maintain a steady d-c bias, a bypass capacitor (Ck) is placed in parallel with
Rk- Basically, this is a simple R-C filter. As the voltage drop across Rk
reaches maximum, Ck charges to the full wave. When the voltage drop
across Ck falls off, Ck discharges across Rk to maintain the zero signal
value. The overall effect, as in the case of power supply filters, is to main-
tain a relatively constant voltage drop across Rk. In our study of amplifier
circuits, we shall discuss values of Rk and Ck-
3-78 BIAS
Grid- Leak Bias
Grid-leak bias is another form of self-bias. In circuit A, the value of Cg is

sufficiently large so that at the input signal frequency, its capacitive reac-
tance is small compared to the resistance of Rg, whose value is large. No
bias voltage exists for zero signal voltage. When the a-c signal voltage is
applied, it appears across Rg, making the grid alternately positive and nega-
tive with respect to the cathode.
During the positive alternation of the applied signal, the grid becomes posi-
tive with respect to the cathode. It draws current that flows in the grid cir-
— Path of charging current — Path of discharging current
cuit, charging Cg to the maximum or peak value of the input voltage. The
capacitor plate connected to the grid becomes negative. The charging cur-
rent path is through the tube. During the negative alternation of the signal
voltage, the grid becomes negative with respect to the cathode. Cg dis-
charges slightly through resistor Rg, which has a high value. The top of Rg
becomes negative with respect to the bottom. During the next cycle of the
input voltage, Cg charges up again to full charge, then again slightly dis-
charges, maintaining the voltage across Rg. Due to the action of RgCg, a d-c
bias voltage is developed across Rg and applied to the grid of the tube.
Another means of obtaining grid-leak bias voltage is to connect Cg in parallel

with Rg. The operation of circuit B is similar to the one described above,
but the discharge current path of Cg is through Rg alone. The charging cur-
rent paths are identical. The average voltage drop across Rg is the d-c grid
bias voltage. The total grid voltage is the sum of the d-c bias voltage plus
the input signal voltage. In both grid-leak bias voltage circuits, the value of
the grid bias voltage depends on the signal voltage and the grid resistor.
AMPLIFIERS 3-79
Audio- Frequency Amplifiers
Now that we have discussed the basic amplifier circuit, we can begin the
study of amplifier characteristics. A common classification of audio ampli-
fiers is audio-frequency (a-f) and radio-frequency (r-f) types. We shall take
up first a-f amplifiers (sometimes called low-frequency amplifiers). Basi-
cally they are designed to amplify electrical signals of from about 30 to
15,000 cycles. These are called audio-frequencies because air moving back
and forth at that rate can be "heard" by the human ear. While the range of
hearing varies from person to person, 30 to 15,000 cycles represents an
average hearing range. Certain animals, notably bats, have a hearing range
that extends well beyond 15, 000 cycles.
Two principal types of a-f amplifiers are voltage and power. Primarily, a
voltage amplifier is designed to produce a large output voltage with respect
to the input voltage. A power amplifier develops primarily a large signal
current in the output circuit. Schematically, there is no way of distinguishing
between voltage and power amplifiers except by their types of loads, a power
amplifier in a radio receiver generally being used to drive a loudspeaker. In
most instances, one stage of audio amplification is insufficient to accomplish
most needs. Audio amplifiers must be cascaded; that is, the output of one
feeds into the input of a second. The arrangement of transferring electrical
energy from one stage to another is called coupling, and as we shall see, the
type of coupling used greatly affects the amplifier frequency characteristics.
3-80 AMPLIFIERS
Amplifier Distortion
COMPLEX WAVES CONTAIN TWO or MORE

FREQUENCY COMPONENTS
Fundamental
frequency = f
2nd harmonic - 2f
3rd harmonic = 3f
/ , /
COMPLEX WAVEFORM
4th harmonic = 4f
FUNDAMENTAL
THIRD
/
HARMONIC
(Combination of fundamental
etc.
and 3rd harmonic)
FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER produces

frequency distortion
DISTORTION INPUT OUTPUT
(contains
fundamental and
^ 3rd HARMONIC
not amplified
(contains
fundamental only)
3rd harmonic)
PHASE AMPLIFIER produces

phase distortion
DISTORTION OUTPUT
INPUT
(contains d HARMONIC (3rd harmonic is
shifted in phase shifted in phase with
fundamental and
respect to fundamental)
3rd harmonic)
AMPLITUDE J AMPLIFIER produces

>H amplitude distortion
DISTORTION
I
SINE-WAVE OUTPUT (unequal
Operates on nonlinear amplification
INPUT
portion of characteristic y of amplitude)
Before embarking on our study of coupling, let us give further thought to the
nature of the signal being amplified. Regardless of whether the input signal
voltage consists of a single sine waveform or a complex wave containing
many frequencies, the function of an amplifier is to strengthen the signal
without introducing any distortion in the process. Three types of distortion
that may occur in amplifiers are: frequency, phase, and amplitude or non-
linear distortion.
Frequency distortion occurs when some frequency components of a signal are

amplified more than others. For example, a signal consisting of a funda-
mental and a third harmonic may pass through a two-stage amplifier which
introduces frequency distortion by which only the fundamental has been am-
plified, and the third harmonic component does not appear in the output. In
phase distortion, the output waveform is considerably different from the in-
put because the phase of the third harmonic has been shifted with respect to
the fundamental. If a signal is passed through a vacuum tube operating on
any nonlinear part of its characteristic, amplitude distortion occurs. In
this region, any change in grid voltage does not result in a change in plate
current, which is directly proportional to the change in grid voltage.
AMPLIFIERS 3-81
The Decibel
Various voltage, current, and power gains and losses in electronic equip-
ment are often spoken of in terms of decibels. This is an outgrowth from
the telephone field, where the decibel was used as a mathematical expression
that represented the property of the human ear to respond to ratios of sound
intensity. Mathematically, the decibel is a logarithmic ratio, and is used in
electronics as a shorthand notation for power ratios. The decibel is a
relative unit of measurement that originally was used to express changes in
audio power, and the ability of the human ear to recognize these changes.
For instance, if an amplifier produced an output power through its loud-
speaker of 10 watts, it would then have to increase its output power 10 times
to 100 watts for our ear to detect twice as much "loudness" (2 is the loga-
rithm of 100).
Mathematically, we define the decibel as being equal to 10 x logjQ of P2/P1,

where P2 is always the larger power in watts, and PI is always the smaller
power in watts. The expression "logjo" merely describes the type of loga-
rithms used, generally called common logarithms. Thus, it should be under-
stood that the decibel is only a unit of comparing two levels; it does not give
an absolute value for either. If we compare two voltages, we say that the
decibel gain or loss is equal to 20 x logio of (E2/E1). This is because P has
relationships of e2/r and i2r. Hence, currents would be written as 20 x
log 12/11. This process is simplified by using the table below. For instance,
let us assume that the output power of an amplifier is twice the input power.
We look up the ratio of 2 in our table and find that it corresponds to 3 db.
We then say the amplifier has a power gain of 3 db. The table is designed to
read voltage, current, and power db projected from the ratio axis. When we
have a loss, it is represented as -db.
DECIBELS AND POWER, VOLTAGE, OR CORRENT RATIOS
1000 5000 20,000 100,000
RATIO
RATIO RATIO RATIO
DB P E or 1* DB P E or I* DB P E or 1
1.0 1 26. 1 . 12 4.4 2.75 1 66. 7.8 6 03. 2.46

1.2 1.32 1 . 15 4 . 6 2.88 1.70 8.0 6.31 2.51
1.4 1.38 1 . 17 4 8 . 3.02 1.74 8.2 6 61. 2 . 57
1.6 1.44 1.20 5.0 3.16 1.78 8.4 6.92 2 63.
1.8 1.51 1 . 23 5.2 3.31 1 . 82 8 . 6 7 24. 2.69

2.0 1 58. 1.26 5.4 3.47 1 . 86 8 8 . 7.59 2.75
2.2 1 66. 1.29 5 . 6 3 . 63 1.91 9.0 7.94 2 81.
2.4 1.74 1.32 5 8 . 3 . 80 1.95 9.2 8.32 2.88

2.6 1 82. 1.35 6.0 3.98 1.99 9.4 8.71 2.95
2.8 1.91 1.38 6.2 4 . 17 2.04 9 . 6 9 . 12 3.02
3.0 1.99 1.41 6.4 4.36 2.09 9.8 9.55 3.09
3. 2 2.09 1.44 6. 6 4 57. 2 . 14
3.4 2.19 1.48 6.8 4.79 2.19 10.0 10.00 3.16
3. 6 2.29 1 . 51 7.0 5.01 2.24 20.0 100.00 10.00
3 8 . 2.40 1 55. 7.2 5.25 2.29 30.0 1 000.00
,
31.60
4.0 2.51 1.58 7 4. 5.50 2 . 34 40.0 10 000.00
,
100.00
4 . 2 2 63
. 1 62 . 7 6. 5 75. 2.40 50.0 100 000.00
,
316.00
May be used only when input and output impedances are equal.
AMPLIFIERS 3-83
Frequency Response
It is seldom
that an amplifier is called upon to handle a single frequency.
Much moreoften, it must handle a wide range of frequencies. Because of
various factors, to be discussed later, most amplifiers have a characteristic
of being able to amplify a certain middle range of frequencies
relatively
and then providing less amplification for both the lower and higher
evenly,
range of frequencies. If we draw a graph of this, using the vertical
axis to
represent relative gain, and the horizontal axis to represent frequency,
we
will get what is known as a frequency-response curve.
It is really a "pic-
ture" of how an amplifier will amplify a wide range of
frequencies. The
vertical axis can be measured in terms of current, voltage,
or power, or it
could measure relative gain in terms of db.
The horizontal axis is usually logarithmically spaced rather than linearly

spaced. That is, the distance from 10 cycles to 100 cycles is the same as
the distance from 100 to 1000, or 1000 to 10, 000.
The reason for this type
of scale is that the ratios of the frequency are
important, and a very wide
range of frequencies may thus be shown on the graph. When the
logarithmic
frequency scale is used, the frequency response for. frequencies
as low as 20
cycles can be shown, as well as for 20, 000 cycles. This
is not true of a lin-
ear frequency scale. Very often, the vertical axis is measured
in terms of
decibels, with the maximum amplification at the middle
frequencies equal to
0 decibels. Thus, as the curve falls off at the high and low frequencies, the
graph indicates how much db loss takes place at these frequencies.
TYPICAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE FOR AUDIO

AMPLIFIER
(Decibels)
GAIN
RELATIVE
FREQUENCY (cycles per second)

3-84 SUMMARY
The dynamic characteristics of a tube can be described as a graphic portray-

al of tube behavior under load conditions.
When a signal source and a load are used, the following mathematical re-
lationships hold true: ec = Ecc + eg; eb = Ebb - ibRL; eRL = ibRL-
A load line displays the way in which the output of the plate supply voltage is
distributed between the load and the internal resistance of the tube under
different conditions of plate current.
The dynamic transfer characteristic curve correlates the plate current —
grid voltage relationship with the load present in the circuit.
The total change in plate voltage is always equal to the change in voltage
across the load.
Nonlinearity in electron tubes is a source of distortion and is highly un-
desirable.
If an amplifier is to operate without grid current, the amount of fixed nega-
tive bias must be at least equal to the peak value of the positive half of
the input grid signal.
The effect of interelectrode capacitance can lead to feedback and oscillation.
Gain is the ratio of output to input. The greater the number of stages in an
amplifier, the greater the gain.
An a-f amplifier amplifies frequencies in the audio range.
The amount of distortion in an amplifier depends partially on the linearity of
its dynamic characteristics. The more linear the characteristic, the
less the distortion.
A Class-A amplifier is one in which plate current flows all the time. The
input grid signal operates along the most linear portion of the dynamic
characteristic.
Plate efficiency is the ratio of a-c power output developed across the load to
the d-c power supplied to the plate.
Grid-leak bias is obtained through the action of the input grid signal.
In an electron tube circuit, the a-c grid voltage, plate current, and voltage
drop across Rl are all in phase, and 180° out of phase with plate
voltage.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What dynamic transfer characteristic curve?
is a
2. Fow would you go about drawing a load line for a given set of grid-
family curves?
3. What does a load line indicate?
4. Why does nonlinearity of characteristic curves cause distortion? How
can it be minimized?
5. Is interelectrode capacitance more noticeable at higher or lower fre-
quencies? Why?
6. What is meant by the operating point of a tube ?
7. How developed?
is cathode bias
8. How developed?
is grid-leak bias
9. In a triode amplifier, what is the phase relationship between grid volt-
age, plate current, and plate voltage?
10. Explain Class-A operation.
11. What is meant by an amplifier's frequency response?
12. Compare the plate efficiencies of Class-A, -AB, -B, and -C amplifiers.
COUPLING 3-85
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
The most common type of coupling network for transferring electrical energy
from one circuit to another, is the R-C, or resistance-capacitance type. This
is generally known as resistance coupling. Our diagram shows two triode
amplifiers coupled by an R-C coupling circuit. When a varying signal voltage
eg is applied to the grid of VI, it causes the plate current to vary through the
time and through Rl. The changing current through Rl produces a varying
voltage drop across it. The output signal of VI is the varying voltage between
its plate and ground. This output voltage is equal to the fixed plate supply
voltage minus the varying voltage across Rl- It is desirable to make Rl as
large as possible. As this resistance is increased (within limits), a larger
signal voltage appears across it. As a result, the output voltage from VI is
increased, and the stage is said to have greater amplification. There is a
limit, however, to the value of Rl; if it is made too large, it produces an ex-
cessive d-c voltage drop. This reduces the plate voltage on the tube and the
resultant plate current, so that the VI output is reduced. Typical values for
RL range from about 25, 000 to 500, 000 ohms, with the larger resistances
used in pentode circuits where the internal plate resistance of the tube is
very high, requiring a very high Rl for proper voltage gain.
The output signal of VI is coupled through coupling capacitor C c .This ca-

pacitor blocks the high positive plate voltage of VI from being applied to the
grid of V2. Because C c blocks or prevents the passage of dc, it sometimes
is referred to as a blocking capacitor . Since this capacitor must pass the
varying signal voltage easily, its reactance should be low. Typical values of
C c range from 0.001 to approximately 0. 1 pf. Larger values normally are not
used because of their excessive stray capacitance to ground.
3-86 COUPLING
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling (Cont'd)
-C COUPLED AMPLIFIER USING PENTODES

COUPLING
The a-c sipial coupled through C c is applied to grid resistor R of V2. The
g
V2 input signal voltage drop across Rg is applied in series witn the cathode
bias voltage between grid and cathode of V2. R has other uses beside acting
g
as a load across which the input signal to V2 is developed. R also provides
g
a grid return for the grid of V2. That is, it connects the grid of the tube to
this source of bias voltage — in this case, to one end of the cathode resistance.
In this way the grid does not float. R also provides a discharge path for C
g c,
preventing an improper accumulation of electrical energy. Because R pro-
g
vides a path through which electrons can leak off C
c it is often referred to
,
as a grid-leak resistor. R can also be used as a source of grid-leak bias,

g
and, as we shall learn, contact potential bias. Typical values for R range
g
from 0. 5 megohm to several megohms.
C c and R g form an a-c voltage divider. The output of this is the voltage drop
across R g which becomes the actual signal input to V2. Because of the in-
finite reactance of Cc to dc, all of the d-c voltage drop appears across it,
and no dc from the plate of VI is applied to the grid of V2. The reactance of
Cc at audio frequencies is made much smaller than the resistance of R .
g
Thus, very little of the a-c signal is lost across C c and most all of it appears
across R g . Ct represents the total shunt capacitance of the circuit. It is a
stray capacitance made up of the interelectrode capacitance of the tube, and
wiring capacitances.
R-C coupling is also commonly used for pentode circuits, but screen grids of
pentodes obtain their d-c operating voltages from series-dropping resistors
R sg Capacitor C sg bypasses any a-c signal voltage that appears in the
.
screen-grid circuit, thereby preventing it from causing a fluctuation in

screen-grid voltage. C sg provides a virtual short-circuit for a-c signals
from screen to ground.
o
COUPLING 3-87
Action in an R-C Circuit
To comprehend coupling action in R-C coupling, we must think of C and

fully
c
Rg as being in parallel with Rl, so far as a-c is concerned. While we see
Rl in series with the plate supply voltage, in actual practice this supply
would be bypassed by electrolytic filter capacitors in the power supply filter.
So effectively, with respect to a-c, the low end of R is at ground potential.
L
Thus any variation in voltage across Rl appears across C and Rg in series.
c
From our illustration, we can see that coupling is nothing more than a con-
tinual charge and discharge action of C c as it tries to maintain the voltage
that is on the plate of the preceding stage. In so doing, an a-c voltage is
C c charges to zero
A-C COMPONENT in PLATE CIRCUIT '
4 signal plate voltage
•.
APPEARS ACROSS Current (lows

through Rg only
during charging
GRID INPUT RESISTOR t + process, stops
when C is
— 1 fully cha crged
in FOLLOWING STAGE
INPUT
to
;
When grid becomes less negative following
\
\
...
\
plate current increases
.-voltage drop across R^
...
— — stage
\ increases ... and plate

voltage When grid becomes more negative ...
... plate current decreases ...

..-voltage drop across R^
decreases ...
INPUT and plate voltage

to becomes more
following positive
stage
Decrease in plate INPUT

“ to
voltage causes C c to following
discharge down to lower t
stage
voltage. Current flows through o
Rg making grid of following
stage negative with respect Increase in plate voltage -=L- causes C to
c
to ground charge to higher plate voltage. Current through
R g produces voltage drop that makes grid
of
following stage positive with respect to ground
developed across Rg which becomes the input voltage to the following stage.
In a-f amplifiers, the capacitance of C
c must be made sufficiently large so
that its reactance will be extremely low when compared to the resistance of
Rg. We want an a-c voltage drop only across Rg; this is useful. A voltage
drop across the reactance of C c is wasted. Hence, the reactance of C at the
c
lowest audio frequency to be passed should be less than 10% of the value of
Rg. As can be seen, the capacitance of Cc becomes a low-frequency limita-
tion of a resistance-coupled amplifier.
:
3-88 COUPLING
Gain of R-C Coupled Amplifier
The gain of an amplifier, or its ability to amplify a signal, is generally

greater at one frequency than another. By plotting the gain of an amplifier at
various frequencies, we obtain a frequency response curve or response char-
acteristic which indicates the gain of an amplifier over a wide range of fre-
quencies. Frequency is plotted along the horizontal or X axis, while relative
voltage gain is plotted along the vertical or Y axis. As we see, the response
of an R-C coupled a-f amplifier is flat over the middle range of frequencies
and then falls off at either end. The low-frequency tapering is caused by the
increase in reactance of Cc. As the frequency to be amplified gets lower and
lower, the reactance of Cc gets higher and higher. In the meantime, the re-
sistance of Rg remains constant. Therefore, a greater and greater portion
of the output signal is being dropped across the capacitive reactance of Cc
and less signal appears across Rg, which represents the input source of the
following stage. At the high-frequency end, the interelectrode and wiring
capacitances begin to take on a shunting effect, and more and more of the out-
put voltage is bypassed to ground; hence, amplifier gain decreases.
VOLTAGE GAIN c
a>
CHARACTERISTIC
of an R-C COUPLED Z
<
A-F AMPLIFIER o
o
<
t—
GAIN OF A TRIODE o
1
>
R-C AMPLIFIER UJ
>
t—
A <
A-C plate current Me g
(ip)
r + R
B p L
Output voltage
(eout) .p
x kl
C Substituting for
GAIN OF A PENIODE R-C AMPLIFIER
ip from (A) e ou t
rn+Ri *- Relationship: m
Substituting for u
D Voltage gain A =
in (F) we get A ;
E Thus, substituting Since

for e ou t in (C) we get in a pentode ms much larger than
/tfe R
g L We simplify the gm* p* R L
r
A = r
p
+ RL formula to : A = 7~
e P
g
F The rp factor cancels out
Simplifying, we get; /fR|_
A =
r + RL
and we have: A = 9m R L
p
for the middle range of frequencies
^
COUPLING 3-89
Impedance Coupling
THE IMPEDANCE-COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Shunt
capacitance
--^between
-'=r’ turns
-a. reduces
^high-
frequency
* Impedance-coupling
4_ ''k,
^ gain
-p *L rl
network consists
of 1 Cc ,
and R
L ,
g
Peak due to
COMPARING the
is
resonance of L
RESPONSE CURVES and C shunt
ol the R-C and the Impedance coupling
IMPEDANCE-COUPLED
R-C coupling
AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY
edanCe '
TKhaving a C0UP led amplifier
i
the plate
£n J^H
stead of -
resistive load, we
is an inductor;
>
hence,
have an inductive load. Since all coils
contain a certain amount of resistance,
we refer to the load as an impedance,
L- To obtain as much amplification as possible,
particularly at the lower
U Cie he inductance is made as !arge as is
tvnp nf lnH’ C f 0r 1S generally
practical. A closed- shell
2? used to avoid undesirable magnetic coupling.
°f f”
Because of the low resistance of an inductive
( 1, ,
load, the d-c voltage drop
an a gr6ate am ° unt ° f the suppl volta e
the pSte of the
he plate th? tube.
tube f
?h important
The
y e available at ^
characteristic of an inductive load is that
its impedance changes with
frequency. At low frequencies, its reactance
increase^
16
here frelaUve^n
where
T 7 inc ases the reactance (and hence, impedance)
’T' f -
lmpedaace couplin g is generally used in amplifiers

’
a relatively narrow range of frequencies

,
is
are to be amplified.
Lhop
e ga
^
°i th ® impedance-coupled amplifier
n n developed
r
across Zl to the input
is the ratio of the signal voltage
signal voltage. Hence the low-fre-
en y i itati °n ° f this type of couplin
Zr aand r
n d \the increasing reactance
of C c
S is in the decreasing reactance of
At the higher frequencies, the shunt
.
capacitance between the turns of the inductor

reduces the gain, as well as the
a Ce the CirC lt itS6lf - 111 SOme situations shunt capacitance
mav be
may brssufficient
uU Hp i°/ r with the
to resonate inductance to cause a high peak to
occur in the frequency response curve. The
outstanding feature of this Type
wiSr^ ir that St all ° f the plate suppl voltage

th very little wasted as a voltage
of an inductor places this type of
y appears on the plate
drop across the load impedance. The cost
coupling at a disadvantage to R-C coupling
3-90 COUPLING
Transformer Coupling
A transformer-coupled stage has certain advantages over other types of

coupling. For one thing, the voltage amplification of this stage may exceed
the amplification of the tube, if the transformer has a step-up turns ratio.
Another advantage is that the grid of the following tube is completely pro-
tected from the d-c plate supply voltage through the isolated primary and
Voltage gain of stage is increased
TRANSFORMER-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
secondary windings. Transformer coupling provides much of the frequency

characteristics of impedance coupling in that the primary is an inductor.
The frequency response curve would show that a transformer-coupled volt-
age amplifier has a relatively high gain and uniform frequency response over
the middle range of frequencies, but poor response at both the low and high
audio frequencies. The low- and high-frequency limitations are much the
same as those encountered in the impedance-coupled amplifier. Transformer
coupling has the additional disadvantages of greater cost, greater space re-
quirements, and the necessity for greater shielding. Transformer coupling
is seldom used in voltage amplifiers because its frequency response is poor
compared to the R-C coupled amplifier. The additional voltage gain available
by a step-up turns ratio is generally not sufficient compensation for its poorer
frequency response.
COUPLING 3-91
Direct Coupling
In the coupling circuits we have studied so far, the coupling device isolates
the d-c voltage of the plate circuit from the d-c voltage of the grid circuit,
allowing only a-c components of the output to pass through the coupling
device. In the direct-coupled amplifier, the plate of one tube is connected
directly to the grid of the next tube without any intervening capacitor, trans-
former, or other coupling device. Since the plate of the first tube must have
a positive voltage with respect to its cathode, and the grid of the next tube
must have a negative voltage with respect to its cathode, proper circuit oper-
ation demands the use of a special voltage divider. This is obtained by using
a multitap bleeder resistor across the output of the power supply.
This type of circuit is particularly effective with low-frequency amplification

because the impedance of the coupling element does not vary with frequency.
Thus, a direct- coupled amplifier is capable of amplifying very low variations
of signal input voltage. Note that the plate load resistor of the first stage
acts as the grid resistor for the following stage. When the tube voltages are
properly adjusted to give Class-A operation, the circuit serves as a distor-
tionless amplifier whose response is uniform over a wide frequency range.
The particular disadvantage of the direct-coupled amplifier is in the severe
demands made on the power supply to ensure voltage stability. Any change in
the various voltages produces drift. This is especially troublesome in high-
gain amplifiers, since drift that takes place in the input stage is then am-
plified before appearing in the output circuit.
3-92 COUPLING
The Grounded-Grid Amplifier
All amplifiers discussed so far have made use of a common or grounded

cathode; that is, the input signal is delivered into the grid cathode circuit
with the output taken from the plate cathode circuit. Very often used at
higher frequencies is the grounded-grid amplifier. In this circuit, the input
voltage is applied to the cathode with the grid being grounded, and the output
is taken from the plate and is in phase with the input signal. If the input volt-
age is applied between cathode and grid, it is the same as placing an opposite
voltage between grid and cathode. (Making the grid 5 volts negative with re-
spect to the cathode is the same as making the cathode 5 volts positive with
respect to the grid.) No current flows in the grid circuit because it is nega-
tive with respect to the cathode and repels all electron flow. Current flows
in the cathode circuit and it is the same current as flows in the plate circuit.
In the grounded-cathode arrangement, there is no current in the input circuit;
hence, the a-c input resistance is extremely high. In the grounded-grid am-
plifier, there is current flow, and the input resistance is quite low, for ex-
ample, 2000 ohms. The control grid acts as a grounded shield between the
output circuit, plate to ground, and the input circuit, cathode to ground; thus,
electrical energy transfer is largely avoided between the input and output cir-
cuits through the capacitances of the tube. In the grounded-grid amplifier,
the input voltage is 180° out of phase with the plate current, and is thus in.
phase with the output or plate voltage signal which appears across the plate
load resistor.
The GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER

COUPLING 3-93
The Cathode Follower
CATHODE FOLLOWER (GROUNDED-PLATE) CIRCUIT

Provides no voltage gain
Bypass capacitor
places plate at
ground potential
lat signal frequencies
The cathode follower is essentially a grounded-plate amplifier in which the

load impedance is located in the cathode circuit and the plate is at a-c ground
through a bypass capacitor. The cathode follower is generally operated as a
Class- A amplifier, the output of which appears across the unbypassed cathode
resistor. This introduces degeneration (discussed later) and prevents the
circuit from producing a voltage gain. The grid circuit, in drawing no grid
current, presents a high input impedance. The load impedance, which may
be anywhere from 50 to 20, 000 ohms, presents a low output impedance. This
circuit' then becomes ideal for matching a high-impedance source to a low-
impedance load.
The advantages obtained by the use of a cathode follower exist only at the
price of a voltage gain which is less than unity or 1. However, a power gain
is possible. The name cathode follower is derived from the output voltage
which follows the input voltage; that is, the output voltage not only has the
same waveform, but also the same instantaneous polarity (phase). Note that
the amplifier output voltage ek developed across Zl is in series with the
cathode and grid, and thus has a polarity that opposes the input signal eg.
Thus, the net grid-cathode voltage is e - ek. Hence, the voltage ek devel-
g
oped across the load impedance will always be somewhat less than the signal
voltage e g . However, voltage eg can be developed across a high impedance,
Whereas Ek exists across a relatively small load impedance. In this way, the
cathode follower acts as an impedance transformer in which power amplifica-
tion can be obtained at the same time as the impedance level is reduced. The
cathode follower has excellent response, especially at higher frequencies.
3-94 COUPLING
Decoupling and Bypassing
When amplifier stages are cascaded (that is, the output of one stage is fed
precautions have to be taken in circuits that
into the input of the next stage),
are common to both stages. If the signals from one stage are not isolated
from the signals of a previous stage, electrical energy may be fed back in
such phase as to oppose the amplification of a signal. This undesirable feed-
back can be eliminated by isolating one stage from another in those areas
where feedback can take place easily. The most common location for feed-
back problems is in the B+ lines - those lines feeding the screen grids and
plates. Here, the signals from the various circuits are fed into the common
power supply together with the d-c components. If signals from two success-
ive stages produce voltage drops 180° out of phase across the common
power supply impedance, undesirable feedback is produced. This can be
eliminated by the use of decoupling networks.
The most common form is a simple R-C filter circuit in series with the plate
load of a stage, in which the a-c component is bypassed to ground. To be
effective, the reactance of the decoupling capacitor should be no more than
10% of the decoupling resistance at the lowest frequency to be handled by that
circuit. Should the reactance of the decoupling capacitor become too great,
a significant portion of the a-c component would take the return path through
the decoupling resistor and the power supply to ground, rather than through
the capacitor. When this occurs, degeneration takes place across the power
supply impedance. In some instances, energy may be fed back in phase to
produce undesired oscillation.
PHASE INVERTERS 3-95
Transformer-Type Phase Inverter
CENTERTAPPED SECONDARY provides
TWO EQUAL and OPPOSITE SIGNALS

Centertapped Audio-Frequency
OUTPUT NO. 1
OUTPUT NO. 2
Phase Relationships in Secondary

o
Negative with Positive with
lO l respect to £ respect to
o
o
lO ^
,
\T- o
REFERENCE REFERENCE
o—
KZ> POINT POINT
o ,
-Cw” T Positive with
r'
Negative with
'Ll. o respect to respect to
First half-cycle Second half-cycle
A very popular audio-frequency power amplifier is the push-pull type, which

we shall discuss later. This circuit requires two input signals that are iden-
tical in every respect, except that one is 180° out of phase with the other.
Various circuits are used to obtain these inputs. However, the simplest ar-
rangement is through the use of an a-f interstage transformer in which the
secondary is centertapped. The primary of this transformer, often called an
input transformer, acts as the plate load impedance of the previous a-f volt-
age amplifier or "driver" stage. The secondary has more turns than the
primary, and hence, provides a voltage step-up. The centertapped secondary
assures that the voltages developed between the centertap and each end of the
secondary are equal. Also, since the ends of the secondary are 180° out of
phase, with the centertap as a reference point, the voltage developed between
the centertap and the top half of the secondary will be 180° out of phase with
the voltage developed between the centertap and the bottom half of the sec-
ondary. With the ends of the secondary connected to the two grids of the
push-pull stage, the centertap must go to the negative side of the grid bias
source; very often this is ground. The feature of this system is its simplic-
ity. The secondary centertap provides two equal and opposite voltages.
3-96 PHASE INVERTERS
The Split-Load Resistor
One simple way to make a phase inverter is to connect one half of the plate
load resistance between B+ and plate, and the other half between cathode and
ground. Since these resistances are equal and the same current flows
through both, each produces the same d-c voltage drop and the same audio
fluctuations. For example, if the input signal to the phase inverter goes
since it is part of load resistance
positive, produces an increase in plate current. This causes an increase

it
in voltage drop across the plate resistor, making the plate less positive with
respect to ground. At the same time, this same plate current flowing through
the cathode resistor produces the same increase in voltage drop and makes
the cathode more positive with respect to ground. Taking our two outputs
from the plate and cathode with respect to ground, we have equal and opposite
signals. This circuit is simple, gives good balance, and provides good fre-
quency response. Its disadvantages are that it provides no amplification and
has a small signal-handling capacity.
PHASE INVERTERS 3-97
The Paraphase Amplifier
Another phase-splitting arrangement is the so-called paraphase circuit.

Basically, it uses two tubes. The output from the plate of one tube is fed by
R-C coupling to one grid of the push-pull circuit. From this same point, a
voltage-divider arrangement reduces the voltage and applies it to the grid of
the second paraphase tube, which amplifies the voltage by as much as the re-
sistance divider reduced it, producing an output voltage for driving the second
push-pull grid. For instance, a positive fluctuation of 2 volts at the grid of
the first paraphase tube may produce a negative fluctuation on its plate of,
say, 20 volts. This 20 volts represents the output No. 1 of the paraphase am-
plifier. This 20-volt fluctuation is also divided to produce a negative fluctua-
tion of 2 volts for the grid of the second paraphase tube which, in turn, be-
comes a positive fluctuation of 20 volts at the plate of the second tube. The
positive 20-volt fluctuation represents output No. 2 from the circuit.
For this circuit to operate correctly, the voltage division produced by the
resistor feeding the second paraphase tube must be in exactly the same ratio
as the gain provided by the second paraphase tube. In the example given, the
tube multiplies by 10 and the voltage divider divides by 10. This circuit has
good handling capacity, gives some gain, and provides good frequency re-
sponse. Its principal disadvantage is that the balance between the two outputs
is sometimes difficult to maintain due to variations in circuit components.
CIRCUITRY of the PARAPHASE AMPLIFIER

3-98 POWER AMPLIFICATION
Power Amplifiers
TYPICAL CLASS-A AUDIO FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIER

used as output stage in radio receivers
The primary function of the voltage amplifiers just discussed is to increase

the voltage of a signal to a higher value without distorting the waveform.
Normally, voltage amplifiers consume no power from the preceding stage nor
do they supply any appreciable power to the following stage; they merely pro-
vide voltage gain. The primary function of a power amplifier, however, is to
deliver power to a load, any accompanying increase in signal voltage being of
secondary importance. Output power is proportional to the square of the grid
voltage. Hence, the power amplifier must usually be preceded by one or
more stages of voltage amplification, to raise the signal to the proper value
for operating or driving the power stage. In radio receivers, the power am-
plifier is used as the audio-output stage to drive a loudspeaker, which is con-
sidered the load. When used as a single tube in a-f amplification, the power
amplifier must be Class-A operated.
Tubes used in audio power amplification are generally of the beam power
type, capable of high power sensitivity and high plate current. The typical
a-f power amplifier, used as the output stage of a receiver, looks much the
same as a voltage amplifier, except that the plate load impedance is the pri-
mary of the output transformer. Conventional cathode bias is generally used.
Tubes such as the 6AQ5, 6L6, and 6V6, are capable of providing in excess of
5 watts output to the loudspeaker. Since the human ear is not particularly
sensitive to distortion below about 5%, tills much may be allowed in the output
signal. The term "undistorted" output refers to distortion of less than 5%.
Maximum undistorted power output is often achieved when the load impedance
is approximately twice the plate resistance of the tube, and the plate current
variations are at the maximum permissible value for Class-A operation.
POWER AMPLIFICATION 3-99
Push-Pull Amplifiers
The next step in improving the power output capacity of an amplifier stage is
to use two tubes in a connection known as push-pull. This arrangement uses
transformer coupling, but there are two primaries (the primary winding has
two halves) through which the current flows in opposite directions. B+ is
connected to the center point of the primary, with the plate of one of the tubes
connected to each end. The current therefore, flows from each plate out-
ward through an equal number of turns to the center point. This means that
the total magnetizing effect on the core of the transformer is neutralized as
far as the dc is concerned. (The transformer core only has to carry the
magnetization due to the audio fluctuation.) This simplifies the design and
cost of the transformer, but the big advantage is in the tube operation.
With a single tube, matching the output load to the tube plate resistance
results in a poor output waveform, which is rounded at the bottom and
sharpened at the top. When the tubes are worked in push-pull, the current
flows in opposite directions around the transformer core, and consequently,
what is the top of the current waveform in the upper part of the winding, be-
comes the bottom of the current in the lower half of the winding. Thus both
halves of the current waveform have a sharpened portion added to a rounded
portion, and the effect averages out, producing a much better waveform for
the load value used. To achieve this, we must provide the correct audio
voltages at the grids of the tubes. We shall consider this problem presently.
The Practical Push-Pull Circuit
BASIC PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
TRANSFORMER LOAD
-N> To
LOUDSPEAKER
Centertap assures equal
Common cathode bias voltage to both tubes
resistor can be used
A number of advantages are to be gained by the use of a push-pull amplifier

as the output stage of an a-f amplifier. Second harmonics, and all even-
numbered harmonics, as well as even-order combinations of frequencies,
will be effectively eliminated if the tubes are properly balanced, and if the
frequencies are introduced within the output tubes themselves. Hum from
the plate power supply, which may be present in the single-tube amplifier, is
substantially reduced in the push-pull amplifier because ripple components in
the two halves of the primary transformer are in phase, and tend to counter-
act each other in the output. Plate current flow through the two halves of the
primary winding is equal, and in opposite directions. Therefore, there is no
d-c core saturation, and the low-frequency response is improved. Regenera-
tion is also eliminated because signal currents do not flow through the plate
voltage supply when the circuit is operated as a Class-A amplifier.
The lastvoltage amplifier preceding the push-pull power amplifier stage may
be either resistance- or transformer-coupled to the power stage. If the
power amplifier is operated Class-A or Class-AB, the driver commonly em-
ploys resistance coupling because it affords a better frequency response. A
phase-inverter tube, or section of a tube, must be used in connection with the
resistance-coupled driver to provide the correct phase relation at the input
of the push-pull stage. When the power tubes are operated Class-B, an input
transformer employing a step-down turns ratio is commonly used. The trans-
former not only supplies the grid current necessary for Class-B operation,
but at the same time permits an instantaneous signal voltage of the correct
polarity to be applied to the grids of the two power tubes. Class-B power
amplifiers draw practically no plate current when no signal is applied, and
their plate efficiency is much higher than that of Class-A amplifiers.
Triode Connection of Pentodes
Any pentode-type tube can be made to work as a triode-type tube. This is

done by connecting the second grid directly to the plate, so that both swing
together at the same voltage. Because the screen grid, in combination with
the control grid, is principally responsible for controlling the plate current,
the presence of the suppressor grid between the screen grid and plate does
not materially alter the tube's performance from that of a triode.
Grid 2 voltage when
Extended load line

possible with pentode
With the best possible load resistance with triode-connected tubes, the volt-
age fluctuation between B+ and plate reaches little more than half the B+
supply voltage. Changing the method of connection to pentode alters the
curve so that the zero grid voltage curve is pushed out into a "knee. " This
extends, very considerably, both the voltage and current fluctuation available
in the plate circuit, which, in turn, triples or quadruples the power that any
pair of tubes will give.
The Lowering of Distortion
Using two tubes in push-pull helps the waveform problems, so that the dis-
tortion produced by one tube cancels that of the other. This can be under-
stood better if we think of each tube as having a curved load line. The input
voltages to the grids are equal but 180° out of phase. The plate voltages
likewise are out of phase because of the coupling between the two primary
windings of the output transformer. So the changes in plate current must ad-
just between the tubes to allow this condition, while the two of them supply
the total current fluctuation to the load at all points. The ratio between total
voltage and current fluctuations of both tubes is set by the load resistance
matched to the secondary of the transformer, but each tube feeds a load re-
sistance whose value is constantly changing, as represented by the curves.
This effect can be extended further, to increase the efficiency of the output
stage. Normally the steady plate current is about half the maximum plate
current (which occurs when the grid voltage fluctuation goes from the oper-
ating point up to zero). The current fluctuation in the tube at maximum
power level swings between almost zero current and twice the steady cur-
rent. This sets a considerable limitation on the power-handling capacity of
the tube because the steady component is such a large proportion of the max-
imum current the tubes take. Using a greater negative bias on the grids of
the tubes makes the audio fluctuations carry the current from almost zero up
to a maximum in one direction, and cuts the tube off so that no current flows
in the other direction. This makes possible a considerable increase in
efficiency and available power output.
Power Output from a Class-A Stage
As an example, suppose that in ordinary push-pull (or Class-A with both tubes
conducting current all the time), the operating point for each tube is 250 volts
at 30 milliamperes, and that the load value presented to each tube is 5000
ohms with pentode operation. Disregarding the curves to make the calcula-
tion simpler (if approximate), the audio fluctuation should carry the plate
between 100 volts at 60 milliamperes, and 400 volts at zero milliamperes.
This represents a peak fluctuation from each tube of 150 volts and 30 ma in
each direction, which is a peak power of (150 x 0. 03) or 4. 5 watts per tube, or
9 watts for the two tubes in push-pull. The average power, using a sine wave
to drive the output, will be half this figure (4. 5 watts for the two tubes).
Class-B Operation
If we wish to use an extreme economy measure, known as Class-B operation,

i we bias each tube for approximately zero current. (Actually it does not go
i quite to zero current because of the curvature of the characteristic, but it
i goes to where zero current would be if the tube characteristics were all
straight. (This is called projected cutoff. ) Using the same load line, the
I
operating point for each tube would, theoretically, be 400 volts at zero milli-
amperes. This means that the plate potential voltage will swing from 100
volts to 700 volts. Plate current will swing, during one half-cycle from zero
to 60 milliamperes and back, while in the other half-cycle, no current flows
in that tube.
The permissible maximum voltage on the plate is considerably increased by

this method of operation (from 400 volts to 700 volts). There is less danger
i of breakdown between the plate and some other electrode when no plate cur-
rent is flowing. There is, however, a maximum rated voltage even under
this condition, which sometimes restricts the amount by which this method
of operation can improve efficiency.
Calculations tot
Class B push-pull
Load line each

is for
one
tube, but only !
works at a time on j
alternate halvesSl
of waves.
Impedance Matching
OUTPUT TRANSFORMER PROVIOES CORRECT IMPEDANCE MATCH
The output transformer used with a-f power amplifiers serves as an imped-
ance-matching device. Since the plate resistance of a power amplifier tube
may range from perhaps 1000 ohms to more than 20, 000 ohms, and since the
impedance of the loudspeaker may range down to 4 ohms, the output trans-
former has a step-down turns ratio to provide the correct ratio of primary
voltage and current to secondary voltage and current. The ratio of the two
impedances that a transformer can match is equal to the turns ratio squared.
As a practical example, let us find the turns ratio needed for the transformer
shown inour illustration. Since the plate resistance is 1250 ohms, the pri-
mary impedance is considered as twice this value, to permit maximum un-
distorted power output. The power fed to the 4-ohm voice coil, however,
will be reduced unless the proper impedance is afforded by the transformer.
The turns ratio between the primary and secondary that satisfies this con-
dition is 25. The amount of power that can be handled by a transformer is
determined by the current and voltage ratings of the windings. The primary
frequency contains a d-c component that limits its inductance and frequency
response. In a given transformer, the induced voltage is proportional to the
frequency and the flux density. At low frequencies, the flux density is high
and more distortion is introduced because of the saturation of the iron. The
maximum allowable flux density is determined by the allowable distortion.
The output transformer causes a reduction in the output of a power amplifier
at both the highand low frequencies. The reduced output at the low frequen-
cies results from the shunting action of the transformer primary inductance
on the load. The reduced output at the high frequencies results from the loss
in voltage from the leakage reactances as a result of load current and capaci-
tive current due to shunting capacitance.
The Output Transformer
The most common form of audio -frequency transformer is used in the output
of an a-f power amplifier to match the circuit load impedance (usually a
loudspeaker) to that required by the output tubes. The transformer here
serves the additional purpose of avoiding both supply and audio losses, be-
cause the winding resistances are low compared to their respective imped-
ances. The way impedance reflects in a push-pull transformer depends to
some extent on the way tubes are operated. In Class-A, both tubes are de-
livering part of the power throughout the cycle, so the load is shared between
them. If the ratio makes 16 ohms actual impedance equivalent to 6400 ohms
at the primary, each tube has a load of 3200 ohms average. But in Class-B,
only one half of the primary works at a time. The other is inactive for that
half-cycle because its tube is cut off. The impedance transformation is
based on the ratio to each half winding. If the whole ratio is 20:1, this is
10:1 each half. So 16 ohms connected to the secondary makes a load of 1600
ohms for each tube, but the tube takes the load for only half a cycle. A fur-
ther advantage of push-pull operation in the transformer is that the magnet-
OUTPUT TRANSFORMER
MATCHES HIGH-IMPEDANCE VACUUM TUBE OUTPUT TO LOW-IMPEDANCE LOAD
10:1 EACH HALF EACH HALF

20:1 OVERALL OVERALL
Class A
LOAD
EFFECTIVE 3200 OHMS OHMS |i EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE ON EACH
LOAD 400 X 16
•6400 OHMS OR
HALF AT THE
SAME TIME
I
fill
100 X 16 s 1600 OHMS CONNECTED
TO ONE HALF. EACH TUBE TAKES
THIS LOAD FOR HALF-CYCLE ONLY.
izing effect due to steady plate current cancels, whether the tubes are oper-
ated Class-A or Class-B. In turn, this allows a much smaller core to be used
for providing an adequate primary inductance with the available turns in the
primary winding.
The load reflects an impedance back into the primary. When current flows
through the secondary winding, the resultant magnetic flux opposes the cur-
rent in the primary winding and causes a new "impedance" to appear that was
not present before secondary current began to flow. The effect of this in-
ductive opposition is equivalent to adding an impedance in series with the
primary winding. This impedance is known as reflected impedance. The re-
flected impedance becomes greater as the coefficient of coupling increases.
FEEDBACK 3-107
Negative and Positive Feedback
As the term implies, feedback involves the transfer of electrical energy from
the output of an amplifier back to its input. If the signal is fed back in phase
with the input signal, it is called positive or regenerative , because it adds to
the input voltage. If the signal fed back to the input is 180° out of phase with
the input signal, it is called negative, inverse, or degenerative , because it
Negative feedback Reduces Amplifier distortion
Distortion produced
subtracts from the input voltage. In general, positive feedback is avoided in

amplifiers since it produces oscillation; negative feedback is^ used for the re-
duction of signal distortion. Negative feedback may be used to reduce non-
linear distortion — that is, to make the output waveform more nearly similar
to the input waveform by reducing nonlinearities that are introduced within
the amplifier tube itself.
The input signal applied to the grid of an electron-tube is amplified by an

amount determined by the u of the tube, but any nonlinearities introduced
within the tube are not amplified. If a portion of the output is fed back 180°
out of phase with the input, the distortion component of this feedback signal
will be amplified along with the input signal. The amplified distortion com-
ponent will tend to cancel the distortion component introduced within the tube,
and the output may be practically free of nonlinear distortion. It is neces-
sary that the distortion occur in the plate circuit of the stage across which
negative feedback is to be applied, to separate the distortion from the desired
signal. However, the overall gain of the desired signal will also be reduced.
This reduction may be compensated for by increasing the number of stages.
3-108 FEEDBACK
Feedback Circuits
A popular method of obtaining feedback is shown in (A). This method em-

ploys current feedback. The cathode bypass capacitor has been omitted,
producing degenerative action. When an input signal makes the grid less
negative, plate current increases as does the voltage drop across Rk. Since
Rk is not bypassed, the plate circuit signal currents flowing through Rk add
to the bias produced by the zero- signal component. The grid-to-cathode
voltage on the positive-going half-cycle is thus equal to the difference in the
input and the drop across Rk. Hence, the net grid cathode voltage is not as
great sis it would be without feedback, because the drop across Rk is in-
creased. The fact that an output voltage in phase with the input voltage may
be developed across an unbypassed cathode resistor has been used in cathode
followers and phase inverters.
Negative feedback involving more than one stage may be used. Diagram (B)
shows a negative-feedback two-stage amplifier employing voltage feedback.
In this case, special attention must be paid to the phase relations in
the cir-
cuit. Assume that at a given instant the input voltage is such as to make the
grid of VI less negative. Plate current then increases in VI and plate
volt-
age decreases, making the grid of V2 more negative. At the same time, the
plate of V2 becomes more positive because of the reduction in plate current.
This increase in V2 plate voltage increases the charge of Cl. The operating
current flows through ground, up through R2 and Rl, to the left plate
of Cl,
making the top end of R2 more positive with respect to ground. The voltage
increase across R2 acts in series with the input and the bias across
Rk to
reduce the magnitude of the positive-going signal on the grid. In short, the
grid input signal is reduced by the amount of the feedback voltage, because
these two voltages act 180° out of phase.
Negative-going Positive-going
DEGENERATIVE AMPLIFIER
using CURRENT FEEDBACK
Voltage drop varies with
signal voltage, reducing
net input voltage and
going
signal
DEGENERATIVE 2-STAGE
AMPLIFIER using .
VOLTAGE FEEDBACK
LOUDSPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES 3-109
The Loudspeaker
The conventional radio receiver may be considered as terminating in a loud-

speaker. This is the deyice, often called a transducer, that converts elec-
trical energy into mechanical energy, and finally, into acoustical energy.
When the loudspeaker sets air in motion, the human ear should hear the same
sounds that were emitted at the microphone of the transmitting station. The
Parts of A DYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER
Rigid mounting for
whole assembly has
holes to allow free
passage of air and sound
waves from back of cone

Allows free movement
of cone, but prevents
escape of air
coil
Provides strong field
Located in strong
between N and S,
magnetic field produces
where coil is located Allows coil to move
force up or down,
up and down,
when current flows
but not sideways
diagram shows a cross-sectional view of the conventional loudspeaker in use

today, the dynamic or moving-coil speaker. The voice coil impedance is
usually about 4 ohms, although 8-ohm and 16-ohm voice coils are not uncom-
mon. The voice coil is small and light and is suspended by a light flexible
material that allows free movement at all frequencies. The requirements for
getting maximum force to drive the cone (or diaphragm) are a strong magnet-
ic field and as great a length of wire as is possible in the field.
3-110 LOUDSPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES
The Loudspeaker Circuit
In the permanent magnet dynamic type of loudspeaker, a strong field is es-

tablished between the pole pieces by a powerful permanent magnet. The flux
is concentrated in the air gap between a permeable soft-iron core and an ex-
ternal yoke. The voice coil is mounted in the air gap. When a-c signal
currents flow in the coil, a force proportional to the strength of the current
is applied to the coil, and the coil is moved axially in accordance with the a-c
signal. The loudspeaker diaphragm is attached to the voice coil and moves
in accordance with the signal currents, thus setting up sound waves in the
air. The corrugated diaphragm to which the speaker cone is attached keeps
Audio- PERMANENT Loudspeaker SOFT-IRON POLE PIECES

Output Stage MAGNET
oo mm N PERMANENT
\
““
PAIR GAP ttl
o<
VOICE
COIL
E
"*
ML r
$ MAGNET —
SIGNAL CURRENTS
PERMANENT- MAGNET BASIC COMPONENTS
of HEADPHONES
Many older loudspeakers
FIELD COILS
in place of
permanent magnets.
They acted as inductors
in the power supply
the cone in place and properly centered. An electromagnet may be used in

place of the permanent magnet to form an electromagnetic dynamic speaker.
However, in this instance sufficient d-c power must be available to energize
the field.
Using the relatively sensitive headphone, signals can be heard directly from
the output of the audio voltage amplifier. When no signal currents are pres-
ent, the permanent magnet exerts a steady pull on the soft-iron diaphragm.
Signal current flowing through the coils mounted on the soft-iron pole pieces
develops a magnetomotive force that either adds to or subtracts from the
field Of the permanent magnet. The diaphragm thus moves in or out accord-
ing to the resultant field. Sound waves then are reproduced that have ampli-
tude and frequency (within the capability of the headphone) similar to the
amplitude and frequency of the signal currents.
LOUDSPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES 3-111
The Carbon Microphone
The CARBON MICROPHONE

produces a "PULSATING” DIRECT CURRENT
DIAPHRAGM
MOUTHPIECE MICROPHONE
CARBON TRANSFORMER
GRANULES
Output signal to
input of amplifier
Power comes from battery
Voice signals rarely

Sound waves strike appear as sine waves
diaphragm causing it
to move back and forth
time
PULSATING DC in PRIMARY AC IN SECONDARY
Although the microphone is not primarily associated with radio receivers, it

is helpful to consider the microphone in conjunction with the loudspeaker in
that the microphone is often the origin of electrical signals, and the loud-
speaker the conclusion. The microphone is also a transducer. It converts
acoustical or mechanical energy into electrical energy. There are many
types of microphones, but here we shall consider the three most common —
the carbon, dynamic, and crystal types. We shall compare them in terms of
frequency response, impedance, and sensitivity.
The carbon microphone is the most common. It operates on the principle

that a change in sound pressure on a diaphragm coupled to a small volume of
carbon granules will cause a corresponding change in the electrical resist-
ance of the granules. In the carbon microphone a diaphragm is mounted
against carbon granules contained in a cup. To produce an output voltage,
the microphone is connected in a series circuit which contains a battery and
the primary of a microphone transformer. The pressure of the sound waves
on the diaphragm coupled to the carbon granules causes the resistance of the
granules to vary. Thus, a varying or pulsating direct-current in the primary
produces an alternating voltage in the secondary of the transformer. This
voltage has essentially the same waveform as that of the sound waves striking
the diaphragm. Commercial types of carbon microphones give good response
from 60 to 6000 cycles, and have a relatively high output. Their low internal
impedance requires the use of a transformer. The main disadvantages are
the requirement of an external voltage source and a high degree of noise.
3-112 LOUDSPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES
The Dynamic and Crystal Microphones
The dynamic or moving-coil microphone consists of a coil of wire attached to

a diaphragm and is so constructed that the coil is suspended and free to move
in a radial magnetic field. Note its similarity to the dynamic loudspeaker.
Sound waves striking the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. This vibration
moves the voice coil through the magnetic field so that the turns cut the lines
of force in the field. This action generates a voltage in the coil that has the
same waveform as the sound waves striking the diaphragm. The dynamic
microphone requires no external voltage source and has good fidelity (ap-
proximately 20 to 9000 cycles). Its output, however, is extremely low as is
its internal impedance (50 ohms or less). Its low impedance makes it desir-
able for connection to relatively long transmission lines without excessive
attenuation of the high frequencies.
The crystal microphone utilizes the property of certain crystals such as

quartz or Rochelle salts, known as the piezoelectric effect The bending of .
the crystal resulting from the pressure of the sound waves produces a differ-
ence of potential across the faces of the crystal. This voltage is applied to
BASIC DYNAMIC MICROPHONE
VOICE COIL POLE PIECE
X
X -o
|
N:=i:r:s: Output
to
°
amplifier
MAGNET
DIAPHRAGM ^Pressure of sound waves distorts shape of
5 crystal, producing emf across electrodes

Sound waves striking diaphragm
induce voltage in voice coil BASIC CRYSTAL MICROPHONE
the input of an amplifier. The diaphragm may be cemented directly on one

surface of the crystal or it may be cemented by mechanical coupling. A
metal plate or electrode is attached to the other surface of the crystal. When
sound waves strike the diaphragm, the vibrations of the diaphragm produce a
varying pressure on the faces of the crystal, and therefore, a voltage is in-
duced across the electrode. This voltage is essentially the same waveform
as the sound wave striking the diaphragm. The crystal microphone has a
relatively high output voltage as well as an extremely high impedance (sev-
eral hundred thousand ohms). It is comparatively light, requires no battery,
and has an excellent frequency response (up to 17,000 cycles). Its output is
much higher than that of the dynamic microphone. It is widely used in that it
can take rough handling while producing a high output voltage.
RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 3-113
Radio- Frequency Amplification
Up to this point we have considered amplifiers designed primarily for the

strengthening or amplification of a-f signals; that is, frequencies extending to
about 16, 000 cycles. In radio communications, receivers must also be able
to handle frequencies well up into the megacycle range. For example, the
standard radio broadcast band is from 535 kc up to 1605 kc. Above this there
is the so-called "shortwave" bands which extend beyond 100 me (100,000,000
radio-frequency amplifier response

Amplifier using !|
!
high-Q resonant "''V \
RESONANT
FREQUENCY
RELATIVE I-'
AMPLIFICATION
Frequencies Frequencies
outside outside
passband passband
REJECTED ATTENUATED
FREQUENCY. frequency:
cycles per second). Amplification of these signal frequencies involve two

basic changes: the tubes used are almost exclusively pentodes because of
their low interelectrode capacitances (important at high frequencies) and
methods of coupling. In general, r-f amplifiers utilize tuned or resonant cir-
cuits as grid loads, plate loads, or both.
An r-f amplifier is judged on effective gain at its tuned frequency, frequency

response to signals lying at each side of the resonant frequency, and ability
to discriminate against frequencies immediately adjacent to the passband.
The band of frequencies to be passed by an r-f amplifier is generally a very
small percentage of the resonant frequency. The tuned r-f circuits of a re-
ceiver operating at 1000 kc must pass a band of 10 kc - only 1%. An ideal
r-f amplifier may be viewed as a bandpass filter having a response of that
shown. Practical resonant circuits cannot be made to give this perfection.
However, when the tuning components have a sufficiently high Q, this perfor-
mance can be approached quite closely. The selectivity of a receiver is its
ability to amplify a given band of desired frequencies and reject all others.
The narrowest possible bandpass is not always desired. In some forms of
communications, we purposely broaden the bandpass since the received signal
covers a broad range; in others we make the response as narrow as possible.
This will be covered in our discussion on receivers.
3-114 RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS
Tuned R-F Amplifiers
An important part of the coupling circuit of a tuned amplifier is the resonant

circuit. This is used in plate circuits because it offers a high impedance at
the desired frequency and a low impedance at other frequencies, thus per-
mitting high amplification of a relatively narrow band of frequencies. In ad-
dition, the limitations imposed on untuned amplifiers by interelectrode and
distributed capacitances are used to advantage because these capacitances
become part of the tuned circuit. An r-f amplifier may be single- or double-
tuned, depending on whether the plate circuit only, or both the plate and grid
circuits, contain a tuned circuit. Our diagram shows the three common
forms of tuned-amplifier circuits. In (A), the tuned circuit acts merely as a
parallel L-C circuit, presenting a high plate impedance at resonance and a
lower impedance above and below resonance. We can consider this circuit as
being impedance-coupled. The single-tuned transformer-coupled amplifier
of (B) is commonly used as a Class-A r-f voltage amplifier. Here magnetic
coupling is used, with frequency selection taking place in the grid circuit of
the second stage. Circuit (C) is double-tuned and transformer-coupled, with
tuned circuits in the plate and grid circuits of coupled stages.
OUTPUT
RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 3-115
R-F Amplifier Coupling Characteristics
In tuning, L or C can be varied. C is varied by a vari-

the values of either
able capacitor; L can
be varied by varying the powdered-iron core in the
transformer. The powdered-iron core provides extremely high Q. Circuit Q
is extremely important in that it determines the sharpness of the frequency
response curve. A high-Q circuit gives a very sharp response, coupled with
high gain, because of the extremely high impedance of the parallel resonant
circuit. Using the double-tuned transformer, a relatively narrow band of
frequencies may be amplified and frequencies outside this band are sharply
reduced. These characteristics make this type of coupling highly desirable
in intermediate amplifiers (which are discussed in Volume 4). The fre-
quency bandpass is determined largely by the coupling between the primary
and secondary of the r-f transformer. As can be seen from the curve, the
degree of coupling may be varied to obtain a particular frequency response.
For low-power operation such as required in receivers, pentode r-f ampli-

fiers, because of their low grid-to-plate capacitance, provide the highest
gain with the least tendency to break into self-oscillation. Bypassing and de-
coupling become increasingly important at the higher frequencies. For max-
imum gain, pentode r-f amplifiers use high-Q circuits and tubes having a
high mutual conductance.
DEGREE of COUPLING AFFECTS FREQUENCY RESPONSE

RESONANT FREQUENCY
LOOSE COUPLING CRITICAL COUPLING

(less than critical) maximum gain
gain is decreased at resonance
CLOSE COUPLING
(more than critical)
wide bandwidth - low gain
at resonance
)ouble-tuned
'f\ M1
Iran sformer coup ing
|
RESPONSE CURVE |
FREQUENCY
3-116 SUMMARY
When the output of one stage is coupled to the input of another stage, a cou-
pling network is used for transferring the energy.
One of the most common types of coupling networks is the R-C arrangement.
The plate of one amplifier stage is connected to the grid of the following
stage through a coupling capacitor. Resistors are used as the plate load
and in the grid circuit.
A voltage gain or response characteristic curve indicates the amount of volt-
age gain an amplifier has over a wide range of frequencies.
The response characteristic of an R-C coupled amplifier drops off at the low
frequencies because of the high reactance presented by the coupling
capacitor.
The response characteristic of an R-C coupled amplifier drops off at the high
frequencies because of the low reactance presented by the interelec-
trode, stray, and wiring capacitances.
In a transformer- coupled amplifier, the primary of the transformer is con-
nected in the plate circuit of one tube and the secondary is connected in
the grid circuit of the second tube.
If the feedback signal in an amplifier aids the original input signal, the feed-
back is called regenerative or positive. If the feedback signal opposes
the original input signal, it is called degenerative negative, or inverse.
,
A push-pull amplifier consists of two tubes arranged so that the plate current
of one tube is 180° out of phase with the plate current of the other tube.
The magnitudes of the currents are equal.
The input-grid signals for a push-pull amplifier are obtained from a trans-
former which has a centertapped secondary, or from a paraphase
amplifier.
Compared to single-tube operation, less distortion is obtained in push-pull
operation since its dynamic characteristic is more linear. Also, a
greater grid-signal swing is permissible.
The dynamic loudspeaker operates on the basis of interacting magnetic fields
from the voice-coil signals and the permanent magnet.
If the output waveform of an amplifier is identical with its input waveform,
the amplifier is said to be distortionless. Types of distortion include
amplitude distortion, frequency distortion, phase distortion, and har-
monic distortion.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the fundamental difference between voltage andpower amplifiers?
2. What is the function of a coupling network?
3. What is the function of a d-c blocking capacitor?
4. Why does the voltage gain of an amplifier decrease at the low and high
frequencies?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of transformer coupling?
6. Give an important application of the cathode follower.
7. What is a paraphase amplifier?
8. What advantages are realized from the push-pull amplifier?
9. What is the purpose of impedance matching?
10. Describe the operation of the dynamic loudspeaker.
11. Describe the operation of the carbon microphone.
12. Name some basic differences between r-f and a-f amplifiers.
ELECTRON TUBE OSCILLATORS 3-117
Oscillation
C is charged C discharges C is charged in C again C is charged

by battery through L opposite polarity discharges to original
through L polarity
Decreasing amplitude due to losses
WAVEFORM of DAMPED
OSCILLATION
MjSycle equal to
2 ttIlC
Before embarking on a study of electron tube oscillators, let us first investi-

gate just what we mean by oscillation. If we take a 100-volt battery and place
it across the plates of capacitor C, that capacitor would charge to a value of
100 volts. The actual energy would be in the form of the electrical lines of
force existing in the dielectric between the negative and positive plates. On
the assumption that C is of perfect quality, the charge would remain forever
if the battery were removed. We now place inductor L across C. Since L
represents a d-c path for the electrons, C begins to discharge through the
inductor. The electron flow through L produces a magnetic field. Thus, in
effect, the energy contained in the electric field of C is now transferred
into
the form of a magnetic field about L. When this magnetic field collapses,
electrons flow into C until it is fully charged in the opposite direction, and
energy is once more in the form of electric lines of force. When discharging,
the reverse occurs and one complete cycle has taken place.
The back-and-forth flow of electrons between C and L is called oscillation. If

there were no losses in L and C, these oscillations would continue forever
since all the energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields is returned
to the circuit. However, due to resistance losses, the energy in each alter-
nation is successively lower. In actual practice,
a train of "damped" oscil-
lations occurs, until all the energy is consumed in the form of losses. In the
electron tube oscillator, we make use of the L-C circuit characteristics;
however, we provide enough additional energy to the circuit on each cycle to
make up for the losses during that cycle, giving us continuous oscillations.
3-118 ELECTRON TUBE OSCILLATORS
Oscillators
An oscillator a device capable of converting dc into ac at a frequency

is
determined by the values of the constants in the device. Regardless of its
the frequency-
type, any oscillator may be divided into three basic elements:
load
determining network (often called the resonator ), the amplifier, and the
we see the fundamental oscillator
or output circuit. From the block diagram,
components in greater detail. The output power of the amplifier (divided as
fundamental Oscillator Components

OUTPUT SIGNAL
Provides sufficient gain to overcome circuit losses
'.Vv/rw
.
, . .
kr/ I
Not necessarily in this •rdecj™^'

*
' \
AMPLITUDE- FREQUENCY- S’p PHASE-
LIMITING DETERMINING A
™ SHIFTING
NETWORK
ARRANGEMENT NETWORK
(Grid-leak bias)
^
V
FEEDBACK LOOP
it between the load and the feedback loop) must be sufficiently large to
is
that the
supply both. A second requirement for maintaining oscillation is
feedback energy and the input energy of the amplifier be in phase. These two
specifications can usually be met at only one frequency, since the
resonator
changes both the amplitude and phase of its output at frequencies other than
the one to which it is tuned.
Starting with the amplifier, the assumption is that some circuit

disturbance
produces a small voltage change that constitutes input. The amplifier then
signal raise the output power to an adequately high
acts upon this input to
level, so that both the feedback circuit and the load are properly
excited.
The useful power output remains, of course, in the load. The feedback loop
contains the remaining three elements: the phase- shiftin g network
satisfies
to in-
the requirements of the resonator as far as feedback phase (as related
the resonator comprises the L-C network, either
put phase) is concerned;
lumped or distributed, and establishes the oscillator frequency. Finally the
amplitude-limiting arrangement determines the amount of power to be cir-
neither
culated through the amplifier and feedback loop so that oscillation will
feedback, nor become unstable as a result of
cease because of insufficient
excessive feedback. The amplitude -limiting function is usually performed by
tube biasing.
Grid- Leak Bias
The generation of oscillations starts with tiny chance disturbances such as

non-uniform emission or changes in tube characteristics. The presence of a
large Class-C bias at the outset would make it virtually impossible for oscil-
lations to start spontaneously, since the grid signal must exceed the bias
voltage. This situation is remedied by starting the cycle of events under
conditions of low bias, and building the bias up to Class-C only after the input
signal has become large enough. Class-C bias is used for most oscillators
because of the high efficiency possible under these conditions. Grid-leak
bias provides a natural situation for oscillation. A simple R-C network per-
mits the build-up of oscillation.
In the diagram, the grid of the amplifier is supplied with signal voltage by
way of the feedback network. At the beginning of the process, the grid bias
is zero with respect to cathode, and the tube operates at a point on its char-
acteristic curve at which the mutual conductance is reasonably high. These
conditions encourage easy starting. As the amplitude of the oscillations
grows, the alternating voltage appearing across L-C is applied to the grid in
series with Rg and Cg. Because of the rectifying action of the grid, dc flows
through Rg, causing a voltage having approximately the value of the peak sig-
nal voltage to appear across Cg. The development of this bias voltage con-
tinues to build up until Class-C operation is established. This is determined
by the value of the R-C component in the grid circuit. During the intervals
of zero grid current, Cg tends to discharge through Rg. With too short a
time constant, no steady-state d-c bias appears, since the capacitor closely
follows the variation of the voltage drop across Rg.
GRID-LEAK BIAS
PERMITS EASY BUILD-UP

OF OSCILLATIONS
PLATE CURRENT Average plate current decreases

because of increase in bias
Oscillations
Average plate
begin with
current during
zero bias
normal oscillations
Increasing
CIRCUIT
grid bias Plate current cut off
due to grid swing WAVEFORMS
GRID-
into cutoff region
VOLTAGE DURING BUILD-UP
CURVE
NORMAL BIAS FOR I PLATE -CURRENT and OF OSCILLATIONS
CLASS-C OPERATION ’ GRID-VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS
The Tickler Feedback (Armstrong) Oscillator
TICKLER-FEEDBACK (ARMSTRONG ) OSCILLATOR

can produce a-f and r-f oscillations
TICKLER or FEEDBACK (positive)
One of the simplest types of oscillator circuits is that employing tickler

feedback. Feedback voltage of the proper phase from the plate circuit to the
grid circuit is accomplished by mutual inductive coupling between the oscil-
lator tank coil LI, and the tickler feedback coil, L2. The amount of feedback
voltage is determined by the amount of flux from L2 that links LI, and can be
varied by moving L2 with respect to LI. The frequency-determining part of
the oscillator is the tank circuit Ll-C. The coil and tuning capacitor inter-
change energy at the resonant frequency, and the excitation voltage developed
across the tank circuit is applied to the grid in series with the grid-leak bias
across RgCg.
The tickler coil is coupled to LI in such a manner that there is regenerative

feedback from the plate circuit to the grid circuit. This feedback is sufficient
to overcome circuit losses and sustain oscillations in the Ll-C circuit. The
output or load is generally taken from the oscillating L-C circuit. This has
the effect of loading down a circuit. For this reason, the load is considered
to increase circuit losses. This can be compensated for by increasing the
amount of regenerative feedback. Too great a load damps the oscillations in
the L-C circuit, and can cause the oscillations to die out.
The Hartley Oscillator
Along with the Armstrong oscillator, the Hartley oscillator is the most
widely used type in radio. LI is a part of the tuned circuit made up of LI,
L2, and Cl. It also is used to couple energy from the plate circuit back into
the grid circuit by means of mutual inductance between LI and L2. Cg blocks
the d-c component of the grid circuit from L2, and together with Rg provides
the necessary operating bias. C2 and the r-f choke keep the a-c component
in the plate circuit out of the B supply. The B supply is returned to resonant
tank coil LI. The tuned circuit therefore contains a d-c component of plate
current in addition to the a-c signal component.
Now let us analyze the operation of this very important oscillator. When the
tube warms up, plate current starts to flow, since B+ is applied. Because
the grid is located in the electric field between the plate and cathode at a
point positive with respect to the cathode, a small positive voltage exists on
the grid. The increase in plate current through LI is accompanied by an ex-
panding magnetic field around LI which induces voltage e2 in L2. The polar-
ity of e2 makes the grid more positive with respect to the cathode, and plate
current continues to increase until saturation. During this time, Cl is
charging. Grid current flows as Cg acquires a small charge with the minus
side facing the grid. The grid voltage during this time is e2 minus the volt-
age drop across Cg. Plate current stops increasing at saturation, and the
field about LI stops expanding. As a result, the induced voltage e2 falls to
zero. The positive grid voltage (ez minus the drop across C ) decreases,
g
causing the plate current to decrease, and Cl begins to discharge.
)
The Hartley Oscillator (Cont'd.
As the field about LI collapses, it induces voltage e2 in L2 of opposite polar-

ity toe2 when the field was expanding. Hence, the grid voltage goes negative
with respect to the cathode, and plate current decreases further. The in-
duced voltage e2 aids in the discharge of Cl and C g . Cl discharges fully and
begins to charge oppositely (its polarity reverses). However, Cg cannot dis-
RFC
Wavefornt Analysis
of Hartley
Oscillator Operation
charge rapidly because of the long time constant RgC . Grid voltage swings
g
to amaximum negative condition (point 2 on grid curve), and C g discharges
slowly through R g . Grid current does not flow during this part of the cycle,
and the grid bias voltage is e2 plus the voltage drop across Cg. Plate current
ceases to fall at this point. The field about LI stops changing and e2 falls to
zero. Cl begins to discharge.
The grid bias voltage swings in a positive direction again and plate current
begins to rise. The expanding field about LI again induces voltage e2inL2,
making the grid voltage more positive with respect to cathode. Current flows
from cathode to grid into C g causing Cg to acquire a small additional charge,
,
while plate current rises to maximum (point C on plate curve). From here,
the cycle continues to repeat. On each subsequent cycle, bias voltage builds
up across CgRg until it reaches a steady value. Normal bias indicates Class-
C operation. The flywheel effect of the resonant-tank circuit maintains oscil-
lations during the time that the plate current is zero and no energy is being
supplied to the oscillator circuit.
Series and Shunt Feeding
There are two methods for applying plate voltage to the oscillator tube. The
d-c plate voltage supply can be placed in series with the oscillating plate cir-
cuit, in which case the circuit is referred to as series-fed, or in parallel
with the circuit, and the circuit is then referred to as shunt-fed. In either
case, there must be a d-c return path from plate to cathode for the plate cur-
rent. In the series-fed oscillator, the d-c plate current must pass through
LI before it can return to cathode. The disadvantage of this arrangement is
that the plate supply is placed at a high a-c potential with respect to the cath-
ode. Also, the supply has a large distributed capacitance to ground that is
shunted across tank inductor LI.
The disadvantage of the series-fed circuit can be overcome by keeping the

d-c plate supply and the oscillating plate current separate. This is accom-
plished in the shunt-fed Hartley oscillator where the plate oscillations are
Path of a-c component (...) Path of d-c component ( )
ggipr
||
SERIES-FED
HARTLEY
I#
t m OSCILLATOR
D-C flows through LI
Wtmmw &S5S*-
l ipr D-c path

iA-c path
WM
W
SHUNT-FED
JjSUPPLY HARTLEY
'f
: OSCILLATOR
T ,J1
Only a-c flows through LI (no d-c) 1
Capacitor blocks d-c, passes a-c
coupled to the split-inductance tank through a bypass capacitor. The capaci-

tor prevents the d-c plate current from returning to the cathode through the
tank. The plate current, therefore, can return only through the choke in
series with the supply. This choke prevents any oscillations in the supply
because its reactance is very high at the oscillation frequency. Thus, the
principal advantage of shunt feed is that the high-voltage B supply is isolated
from the tuned circuit.
The Colpitts Oscillator
THE COLPITTS (SPLIT-CAPACITANCE) OSCILLATOR
Grid signal exists C1-C2 FORM CAPACITIVE

across Cl C g VOLTAGE DIVIDER
ne
RFC
Shunt feeding
+ B
SUPPLY
Feedback from |
Blocks d-c, passes a-c
plate circuit
exists across C2
The Colpitts oscillator is similar to the shunt-fed Hartley type, with the ex-
ception that the Colpitts uses a split-tank capacitor as part of the feedback
circuit instead of a split-tank inductor. Colpitts oscillators operate ex-
tremely well at high frequencies, and stable operation at several hundred
megacycles is common. It is a relatively flexible oscillator because various
circuit configurations are possible. Also, it may be made reasonably free of
harmonics, and is easy to adjust. The frequency-determining network con-
sists of L, Cl, and C2, all connected in series. The plate-circuit signal-
return path includes two parallel branches, one through C2 directly to the
cathode, and the other through the series combination of L and Cl. In this
connection, the two tuning capacitors behave as a capacitor voltage divider,
and the amount of plate-to-grid feedback depends upon the ratio of Cl to C2.
To establish a particular frequency with a given inductance L, capacitors Cl
and C2 together must total a specific capacitance; however, the smaller Cl
is made and/or the larger C2 becomes, the greater the voltage coupled back
will be. For this reason, both Cl and C2 are usually variable, enabling the
operator to establish both the frequency and the amount of feedback.
When Rg is large enough (depending upon the bias required), it does not have
much shunt effect upon the signal voltage applied on the grid. In certain fre-
quencies, at which Rg must be small, an additional choke is necessary, and
is inserted in series with Rg.
High-Frequency Oscillators
At very high frequencies, capacitances which are usually ignored, such as

interelectrode and stray types, play an extremely important role. At audio
and broadcast frequencies, the operating frequency is generally determined
by the "lumped" constants of L and C in the circuit. We show a typical high-
frequency oscillator often called the ultraudion. There would seem to be no
proper feedback arrangement in the basic circuit. However, if d-c bias and
plate supply voltages are ignored, and we observe the circuit directly from its
a-c "equivalent, " we see an arrangement similar to the Colpitts oscillator.
The ratio of grid-cathode to plate-cathode alternating voltages is equal to
(Cpk + C2)/(C gk + Cl). The voltage drop across Cgk is appreciable at the
operating frequency, and provides the grid excitation. The total tank circuit
capacitance is equal to the sum of all the "branch" capacitances.
Thus it is obvious that care must be employed in working with high-frequency

oscillators, inasmuch as moving wires can change stray capacitances and the
substitution of one tube for another can change interelectrode capacitances.
The Electron-Coupled Oscillator
As its name implies, the electron- coupled oscillator represents more a form
of coupling than a basically new oscillator circuit. When a load is coupled to
an oscillator tank circuit, the oscillator is subject to frequency variation with
changes in the load. Any changes in the load cause changes in the oscillator
circuit, and consequently a feedback phase shift that tends to make the fre-
quency "drift." Electron couplingis used to isolate the frequency-determining
tank circuit from possible variations due to loading. The use of a pentode
tube, with the screen grid acting as a triode oscillator plate, keeps the plate
circuit independent of the basic oscillator. The oscillations present at the
control grid vary the electron stream flowing from cathode to plate. The
screen grid, however, acts as the primary attracting force for the electrons.
Because of the construction of the screen grid, the major portion of the elec-
tron stream goes past the screen and is attracted to the pentode plate where a
voltage is developed across a tuned L-C circuit. The basic circuit used here
is the Hartley; however, any of the oscillators discussed can be used with
electron coupling.
DEMODULATORS 3-127
Modulation
INTELLIGENCE
MODULATION
is
is
SUPERIMPOSED on
the PROCESS by which
a CARRIER
^WAVE
A Qontinuous Qave
contains NO INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is ADDED to carrier wave by INTERRUPTIONS.
4 Si This is the SIMPLEST form of modulation
Audio Signal
AUDIO SIGNAL superimposed on r-f carrier PRODUCES

a modulated continuous wave (M CW)
This is Qmplitude Modulation
Radio signals are emitted from the transmitting antenna of a radio broadcast
station. Basically, the broadcast station generates a powerful train of os-
cillations called a carrier wave. A circuit in the transmitter called the
modulator causes the amplitude of this carrier wave to vary in accordance
with the audio intelligence being broadcast. The process of making the am-
plitude of the carrier wave vary, is known as amplitude modulation (AM).
Simple intelligence can be produced merely by a make-and-break process of
the carrier wave to form dots and dashes; no real modulator is needed. The
modulator is basically nothing more than a powerful audio amplifier. The
carrier wave gets its name from actually "carrying" the audio modulation; it
serves no other purpose than that. Modulation will be discussed in greater
detail in Volume 6.
3-128 DEMODULATORS
Demodulation
When the transmitted signal is intercepted by the receiving antenna of the

radio receiver, its waveform is identical to that transmitted. It contains the
high-frequency r-f carrier component and the audio component in the form of
varying amplitude. It is the function of the modulator circuit in a receiver to
AUDIO MODULATION The modulation in a modulated carrier wave

"ENVELOPE” represents the transmitted intelligence
But the broadcast signal is at a radio

frequency and cannot be heard directly
^ HEADPHONES
RIC " VING
—
V RECEIVING
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
DEMODULATOR HEADPHONES
we must remove the audio

modulation component
from the r-f carrier
No f-f
’
component
take this radio broadcast signal into its input and produce an audio signal at
its output.
The modulator performs, basically, two tasks: one of rectification, in which

the positive or negative alternations of the carrier are removed, and the
second of filtering in which the r-f fluctuations are removed leaving only the
a-f component or "modulation envelope. " In the demodulator, the audio com-
ponent is still not yet an a-c signal. It is a d-c signal that varies in ampli-
tude at the audio rate.

DEMODULATORS 3-129
The Diode Detector
The simplest and most commonly used demodulator is the diode "detector"
circuit. Its function is to convert the modulated r-f carrier to a direct cur-
rent, varying at the a-f rate of the original modulated signal. The diode (tube
or crystal) represents an ideal circuit device for signal rectification in that
it permits current flow in one direction and not in the other. Because the
diode characteristic is nearly straight, the diode detector is called a linear
detector. However, with weak signals, the output of the detector follows the
"square law", because weak signals force the operation to take place on the
lower curved portion of the characteristic. In square-law detection, the
output is proportional to the square of the input voltage. Detectors are gen-
erally rated in terms of their sensitivity — the ratio of the output signal to the
Anode Cathode (K)
TUNED INPUT
CIRCUIT
FILTER
CAPACITOR f
input signal voltage; linearity - the ability to detect signals throughout the
a-f range without distortion; and signal- handling capacity — the ease with
which a detector circuit handles a signal without distortion.
The diode detector input is generally a tuned circuit. The other basic com-
ponents are the diode load resistor and the filter capacitor. The diode de-
tector can handle large signals without overloading, and it can provide an im-
portant avc voltage (discussed later) without extra tubes or special circuits.
However, it has the disadvantage of drawing power from the input tuned cir-
cuit, because the diode and its load form a low-impedance shunt across the
circuit. As a result, the circuit Q, the sensitivity, and the selectivity, are
reduced. Because the diode detector distorts on weak signals, for optimum
operation considerable amplification is needed before detection.
Let us now analyze the action of the diode detector. The incoming modulated
r-f signal voltage is developed across the tuned circuit of the detector. Sig-
nal current flows through the diode only when the plate is positive with re-
spect to the cathode (only on the positive half-cycles). The rectified signal
r-f pulses, and not a
flowing through the diode actually consists of a series of ~
smooth outline or "envelope. "
3-130 DEMODULATORS
Action of the Diode Detector
THE PROCESS OF
DEMODULATION
Rectified Output
(unfiltered)
DETECTOR OUTPUT
(Audio Signal)
R-F pulsations filtered
from output
On the first quarter-cycle of the applied r-f voltage, Cl charges almost up to

peak value of the r-f voltage (point A). The small voltage drop in the tube
prevents Cl from charging up completely. Then, as the applied r-f voltage
falls below its applied value, some of the charge of Cl leaks through Rl, and
the voltage drops only a small amount to B. When the r-f voltage applied to
the plate on the next cycle exceeds the potential at which the capacitor holds
the cathode (point B), diode current again flows, and the capacitor charges up
to almost the peak value of the second positive cycle at C. Thus, the voltage
across C closely follows the peak value of the applied r-f voltage, and repro-
duces the a-f modulation. The detector output after rectification and filtering
is a d-c voltage that varies at an audio rate. The output voltage across C is
shown somewhat jagged. Actually, the r-f component of this voltage is negli-
gible, and after amplification, the speech or music originating at the trans-
mitter is faithfully reproduced.
The choice of Rl and Cl in a diode detector is very important for maximum

sensitivity and fidelity. Rl and the diode plate resistance act as a voltage
divider to the received signal. Therefore, Rl should be high compared with
the diode plate resistance for maximum output voltage. In addition, the value
of Cl should be such that the R-C time constant is long, compared to the time
of one r-fcycle. This is necessary because C must maintain a voltage
across Rl during the time there is no plate current. Also, the R-C time
constant must be short, compared with the time of one a-f cycle, so that the
capacitor voltage can follow the modulation envelope.
DEMODULATORS 3-131
The Grid- Leak Detector
The operation of the grid-leak detector is similar to that of the diode de-
tector. The signal voltage applied to the grid of a triode is alternately posi-
tive and negative. Grid current flows during the half-cycle in which the grid
is positive with respect to the cathode. As a result, pulsating dc flows
through Rg. Filter Cg smooths the r-f pulses. A d-c voltage is produced
across Rg which varies at an audio rate, just as in the diode detector. This
audio voltage is used as the signal voltage input for the triode amplifier. As
a result, an amplified audio signal appears in the plate circuit of the grid-
leak detector. Capacitor C is an additional r-f filter.
The grid-leak detector is a square-law device, with the output varying as the
square of the r-f input voltage. The development of higher-gain r-f ampli-
fiers led to the replacement of the grid-leak detector by the diode detector.
In comparison to the diode detector, the grid-leak detector has higher sensi-
tivity, because of its amplification ability, and poorer linearity, because of
its operation as a square-law detector. Selectivity is equally poor because it
draws grid current through the tank circuit, lowering the Q, and it has a
much lower signal-handling ability. The principal advantage of the grid-leak
detector is that it provides a stage of audio amplification. The voltage ap-
plied to this circuit must not be so high that it causes the average grid volt-
age to exceed the plate current cutoff voltage for the tube. It is this charac-
teristic that limits the power-handling capacity of the grid-leak detector.
3-132 DEMODULATORS
Plate Detector and Infinite Impedance Detector
The plate detector gets its name because detection occurs in the plate cir-
cuit. Operation is similar to that of a Class-B amplifier. Although cathode
bias cannot produce plate current cutoff, operation at the lower end of the
dynamic characteristic is possible. Normal plate current flows during the
positive half-cycle of the input signal, with most of the negative half-cycle cut
off. As a result, the average value of the plate current varies in accordance
with the audio variations. Capacitor C acts as an r-f filter.
Ifthe plate of the plate detector is connected directly to B+ and the output is
taken across the cathode network, the result is an infinite impedance de-
tector. Although there is no amplification of the signal in this circuit, which
has the advantage of good reproduction, it has good signal-handling capacity
for large inputs. The modulated r-f signal varies the d-c plate current
through the tube. This current returning to the cathode network is filtered
through Ck, and the current passing through Rk is dc, varying at an audio
rate with negligible r-f ripple.
DEMODULATORS 3-133
The Regenerative Detector
When high sensitivity and selectivity are the most important factors to be
considered, a regenerative detector may be used. However, its linearity, as
well as the ability to handle strong signals without overloading, is very poor.
The process of feeding some of the output voltage of an electron-tube circuit
back into the input circuit so that it adds to, or reinforces (is in phase with)
the input voltage, is known as regeneration or positive feedback. The use of
regeneration in a circuit greatly increases the amplification of the circuit
because the output voltage fed back to the input circuit adds to the original
input voltage, thus increasing the total voltage to be amplified by the tube.
A grid-leak detector may be modified as a regenerative detector.

to operate
Because an amplified r-f component present in the plate circuit of the
is
grid-leak detector, regeneration can be obtained by connecting coil L3 (known
as a tickler coil) in series with the plate circuit, so that it is inductively
coupled to grid coil L2. With an r-f signal across L2, an r-f component of
plate current flows through L3. L3 is connected so that the voltage it induces
in L2 is in phase with the incoming signal voltage applied to the grid. Thus,
the voltage gain of the stage is increased.
It is important that the voltage fed back by the tickler coil be in phase with
the incoming signal voltage. Otherwise the feedback will be degenerative,
and amplification will be reduced. Furthermore, if the coupling between L2
and L3 is too great, oscillation occurs. The regenerative detector is the
most sensitive triode detector circuit possible, when it is operated just below
the point of oscillation.
3-134 SUMMARY
To produce oscillations, an electron tube circuit must contain a tuned circuit

having the proper amounts of inductance and capacitance to oscillate at
the desired frequency; it must be capable of amplifying a signal at its
control grid; it must have a means of providing the tuned circuit with
sufficient regenerative energy to sustain oscillations.
The tuned grid oscillator obtains regenerative or positive feedback by cou-
pling the plate circuit to the tuned grid circuit.
There are two basic types of split-tank oscillators - the Hartley and the
Colpitts. The Hartley oscillator has a split- inductance tank divided
between the grid and plate circuits; the Colpitts oscillator has a split -
'
capacitance tank divided between the grid and plate circuits.
An oscillator is shunt-fed when its d-c plate supply is in parallel with the
oscillating plate circuit.
The electron-coupled oscillator replaces the separate oscillator with an
oscillator having "insulation" from loading effects. Coupling to the
output circuit is through the electron stream in the tube.
Bias for r-f amplifiers is usually obtained from the action of the grid draw-
ing current during part of the input cycle.
Oscillators generally use grid-leak bias.
Demodulation is the process by which a circuit separates the modulation
component from the r-f component of a carrier wave.
The simple diode detector is the most commonly used demodulator.
Modulation is the process in which intelligence is superimposed on the r-f
carrier wave at the broadcast station.
The grid-leak detector provides a high degree of sensitivity; however, its
selectivity is poor.
The signal-handling ability of a detector is an indication of the amount of
signal amplitude that can be handled without overloading the circuit.
The sharpness with which a detector can be tuned determines its selec-
tivity. The amount of distortion in the a-f signal as compared with the
original sound is a measure of the linearity of a detector. A detector
providing some amplification has greater sensitivity than one providing
no amplification.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why does a damped oscillation occur in an L-C circuit?
2. Under what conditions can oscillations be maintained in an L-C circuit?
3. What is the function of the amplifier in an electron-tube oscillator?
4. Name the basic types of split-tank oscillators.
5. Explain the operation of the electron-coupled oscillator.
6. Explain how grid-leak bias is developed in an oscillator.
7. Explain the operation of the Armstrong oscillator.
8. Explain the fundamental characteristics of modulation and demodulation.
9. Explain how detection takes place in the diode detector.
10. Explainthe operation of the grid-leak detector.
11. Explainthe operation of the regenerative detector.
12. Compare the sensitivity of the diode, grid-leak, and plate detectors.
GLOSSARY
Amplification Factor: The ratio of a small change in plate voltage to a small change in grid
voltage,
with all other electrode voltages constant, required to produce tthe same change in plate current.
Amplifier: A device used to increase the signal voltage, current, or power, generally composed
of a
vacuum tube and associated circuit. It may contain several stages to obtain a desired gain.
Anode: A positive electrode. The plate of a vacuum tube.
Audio Frequency: A range of frequencies that can be detected as a sound by the human ear.
Beam-Power Tube: A vacuum tube in which the electron stream
is directed in concentrated beams
from the cathode to the plate.
Bias: The average d-c voltage maintained between the cathode and
control grid of a vacuum tube.
Blocking Capacitor: A capacitor used to block the flow of dc while permitting the flow of ac.
Cathode: Negatively charged pole, electrode,

conductor, or element from which current leaves. The
primary source of electrons in a vacuum tube.
Coupfing: The association of two circuits in such a way that energy may be transferred from one to
the other.
Cutoff: The minimum value of negative grid bias which prevents the flow of plate current in a vacuum tube.
Defection: The process of separating the modulation component from the received signal.
Diode: A two-electrode vacuum tube containing a cathode and a plate.
Distortion: The production an an output waveform which is not a true reproduction of the input waveform.
Dynamic Characteristics: The relationship between the instantaneous plate voltage and plate current of
a vacuum tube asthe voltage applied to the grid is moved; thus, the characteristics of a vacuum tube
during operation.
Feedback: A transfer of energy from the output circuit of a device back to its input.
Gain; The ratio of the output power, voltage, or current to the input power, voltage, or current respec-
tively.
Grid: An electrode consisting of a wire mesh placed between cathode and plate in an electron tube, and
used to control the electron flow through the tube.
intermediate Frequency: The fixed frequency to which r-f carrier waves are converted in a super-
heterodyne receiver.
Local Oscillator: The oscillator used in a superheterodyne receiver, the output of which is mixed with
the desired r*f carrier to form the intermediate frequency.
Modulation: The process of varying the amplitude (AM), the frequency (FM), or the phase (PM) of a
carrier wave in accordance with other signals to convey intelligence.
Negative Feedback: The process whereby a part of the output signal of an amplifying device is re-
turned to the input circuit in such a manner that it tends to cancel the input.
Oscillator: A circuit capable of converting dc into ac of a frequency determined by the constants of the
circuit.
Paraphase Amplifier: An amplifier which converts a single input into a push-pull output.
Pentode: A five-electrode vacuum tube containing, a cathode, control grid, screen grid, suppressor grid,
and plate.
Plate: The principal electrode in a tube to which the electron stream is attracted.
3-136 GLOSSARY
Plate-Load Impedance: The impedance in the plate circuit across which the output-signal voltage is
developed by the alternating component of the plate current.
Plate Resistance: The internal resistance to the flow of ac between the cathode and plate of a tube.
It equal to a small change in plate voltage divided by the corresponding change in plate current,
is
and is expressed in ohms.

Power Amplification: The process of amplifying a signal to produce a gain in power, as distinguished
from voltage amplification.
Push-Pull Circuit: An amplifier circuit using two vacuum tubes in such a way that when one tube is
operating on a positive alternation, the other operates on a negative alternation.
Radio Frequency : Any frequency of electrical energy capable of propagation into space.
Radio-Frequency Amplification: The amplification of a radio wave by a receiver before detection.
Rectifier: A device that changes alternating current into unidirectional current.
Self Bias: The bias of a tube created by the voltage drop developed across a resistor through which
either its cathode or its grid current flows.
Shielding: A metallic covering to prevent magnetic or electrostatic coupling between adjacent circuits.
Space Current: The current flowing between cathode and

total all the other electrodes in a tube. This
includes the plate current, grid current/ screen-grid current, and any other electrode current which
may be present.
Static Characteristics: The characteristics of a tube with no output load and with d-c voltages applied
to the grid and plate.
Superheterodyne; A receiver in which the incoming signal is mixed with a locally generated signal to
produce a predetermined intermediate frequency.
Suppressor Grid: An electrode used in a vacuum tube to minimize the harmful effects of secondary
emission from the plate.
Tetrode: A four-electrode vacuum tube containing a cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate.
Thermionic Emission: Electron emission caused by heating an emitter.

Transconductance: The ratio of the change in plate current to the change in grid voltage producing
this change in plate current, while all other electrode voltages remain constant.
Triode: A three-electrode vacuum tube, containing a cathode, control grid, and plate.
Vacuum Tube; Device consisting an evacuated enclosure

of containing a number of electrodes that
control the conduction of electrons through the vacuum.
Variable-mu tube: A vacuum tube in which the control grid is irregularly spaced, so that the grid ex-
ercises a different amount of control on the electron stream at different points within its operating
range.
Voltage Regulation: A measure of the degree to which a power source maintains its output voltage
stability under varying load conditions.
Voltage Amplification: The process of amplifying a signal to produce a gain in voltage. The voltage
gain of an amplifier is the ratio of its alternating voltage output to its alternating voltage input.
INDEX TO VOL. Ill

Ac-dc power supply, 3-44 Decibel, 3-81

Amplification, 3-60, 3-70 Decoupling, 3-94
Amplification factor, 3-19 Degenerative feedback, 3-107
Amplifiers: Demodulation, 3-128
audio-frequency, 3-79 Demodulators, see Defectors
cathode follower, 3-93 Detector linearity, 3-129
class-A, -B, -AB, -C, 3-74, 3-75, 3-76 Detectors:
coupling, 3-85 diode, 3-129
decibel, 3-81 grid-leak, 3-131
decoupling, 3-94 infinite-impedance, 3-132
dynamic characteristics, 3-61 plate, 3-132
feedback, 3-107 regenerative, 3-133
frequency response, 3-83 Diode detector, 3-129
grid-bias, 3-67, 3-77, 3-78 Direct coupling, 3-91
grounded-grid, 3-92 Distortion, 3-69, 3-80, 3-102
impedance matching, 3-105 Duo-diode, 3-5
load line, 3-63 Dynamic characteristics, 3-11, 3-61
operating point, 3-68 Dynamic curves, 3-8
phase inverter, 3-95 Dynamic microphone, 3-112
phase-relationships, 3-71 Dynamic speaker, 3-109
power, 3-98 Dynamic transfer characteristics, 3-65
push-pull, 3-99
radio-frequency, 3-113
Amplitude distortion, 3-80
Edison effect, 3-1
Amplitude modulation, 3-127
Electron-coupled oscillator, 3-126
Anode, 3-5
Electrostatic field, 3-13
Armstrong oscillator, 3-120 Emission, electron, 3-3
Audio frequencies, 3-79
Audion, 3-1
Auto-radio power supplies, 3-51
Feedback, 3-107
Filter, 3-30
Fixed bias, 3-77
B supply, 3-7, 3-30
Frequency distortion, 3-80
Basing, tube, 3-28
Frequency response, 3-83
Beam-power tube, 3-25
Full-wave rectifier, 3-35
Bias, 3-12, 3-67, 3-77
Full-wave voltage doubler, 3-47
Bleeder resistor, 3-41
Fusible resistor, 3-45
Bridge rectifier, 3-36
Buffer capacitor, 3-53
Bypassing, 3-94
Gain, 3-70, 3-88
Gas tube, 3-55
Getter, 3-2
C voltage, 3-12, 3-30
Grid, 3-12
Capacitance filter, 3-37
Grid bias, 3-67
Capacitor-input filter, 3-39
Grid current, 3-13
Carbon microphone, 3-111 Grid-leak bias, 3-79, 3-119
Cascaded-amplifier stage, 3-94 Grid-leak detector, 3-131
Cathode bias, 3-77 Grounded-grid amplifier, 3-92
Cathode follower, 3-93
Cathode, 3-3
Choke-input filter, 3-40
Class-A, -B, -AB, -C operation, see Amplifiers Half-wave rectifier, 3-34
Cold cathode rectifier, 3-53 Half-wave voltage doubler, 3-46
Colpitts oscillator, 3-124 Hartley oscillator, 3-121
Control grid, 3-12
Control tube, 3-58
Crystal microphone, 3-112 Impedance coupling, 3-89, 3-114
Current feedback, 3-108 Impedance matching, 3-105
Cutoff, 3-16 Indirectly-heated cathode, 3-4
3-138 INDEX
quadruples 3-48
Inductance filter, 3-38
regulation, 3-55
Infinite-impedance detector, 3-132
Interelectrode capacitances, 3-73
Power transformer, 3-31
Push-pull, 3-75, 3-99
Load line, 3-63

Quiescent plate current, 3-68, 3-74
Load resistance, 3-11, 3-61
Loudspeaker, 3-109
Radio-frequency (r-f) amplification, 3-113
R-c filter, 3-41
Metallic rectifiers, 3-33
Rectification, 3-32
Modulation, 3-127
Rectifier, 3-30
Moving -coil microphone, 3-112
Reflected impedance, 3-106
Moving-coil speaker, 3-109
Regenerative detector, 3-133
Mutual conductance, 3-19, 3-21
Regenerative feedback, 3-107
Regulation, 3-37, 3-41, 3-55, 3-99
Negative feedback, 3-107 Resistance-capacitance coupling, 3-85
Negative voltage, 3-43 Ripple frequency, 3-34
Nonlinear distortion, 3-80
Saturation, 3-8, 3-16

Operating point, 3-68, 3-74 Secondary emission, 3-3, 3-23
Oscillation, 3-117 Selectivity, 3-113
Oscillators: Selenium rectifier, 3-33
Armstrong, 3-120 Self-bias, 3-77
bias, 3-1 19 Semiconductor rectifiers, 3-33
Colpitts, 3-124 Shortwave bands, 3-113
definition of, 3-117 Space charge, 3-6
electronic-coupled, 3-126 Static characteristics, 3-11
Hartley, 3-121 Static curves, 3-8, 3-16
high-frequency, 3-125 Swinging choke, 3-40
series-fed, 3-123 Synchronous vibrator, 3-52
shunt-fed, 3-123
tickler-feedback, 3-120
Tetrode, 3-22
Thermionic emission, 3-3, 3-4
Three-way portable power supplies, 3-50
Paraphase amplifier, 3-97 Tickler feedback, 3-120
Peak inverse voltage, 3-34, 3-35 Transconductance, 3-21
Peak plate current, 3-34 Transformer coupling, 3-90
Pentode, 3-24 Triode,, 3-12
Phase distortion, 3-80 Tubes:
Phase inverter, 3-97, 3-96 amplification factor, 3-19
Phase relationships, 3-71 basing, 3-28
Pi filter, 3-39 beam-power, 3-25
Plate, 3-5 construction, 3-2
Plate current, 3-7 curves, 3-8, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-23
Plate detector, 3-132 diode, 3-5
Plate efficiency, 3-74 emission, 3-3
Plate resistance, 3-19, 3-20 pentode, 3-24
ac, 3-10 plate current, 3-7
dc, 3-9 plate resistance, 3-9
Plate voltage, 3-7 plate voltage, 3-8
Plate voltage- plate current curves, 3-8 space charge, 3-6
Positive feedback, 3-107 static characteristics, 3-11
Power amplifier, 3-60, 3*98 transconductance, 3-21
Power output, 3-103 tetrode, 3-22
Power supplies: triode, 3*12
ac, dc, 3-44 variable-mu, 3-26
auto radio, 3-51 Tuned r-f amplifiers, 3-114
bleeders, 3-4
filters,3-33 to 3-40
heater circuits, 3-49 Vacuum tubes, 3-2
rectification, 3-32
Variable-mu, 3-26
Vibrator, 3-51
rectifiers:
bridge, 3-36
Voice coil, 3-105
full-wave, 3-35 Voltage divider, 3-42
half-wave, 3-34 Voltage doubler, 3-46, 3-47
metallic, 3-33
Voltage feedback, 3-108
semiconductors, 3-33 Voltage gain, 3-70
vibrators, 3-52
Voltage quadruples 3-48
voltage:
Voltage regulators, 3-55, 3-56, 3-58
divider, 3-42
doubler, 3-46
negative, 3-43 Zener diode, 3-57

of radio.


1


basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Raytheon Company
Author of
VOL. 4

Fourth Printing, 1968

PREFACE
cult subject.
Itwould be impossible to cover in a single book or series of books, the



iv PREFACE

;

MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. IV — BASIC RADIO
RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 1
The Radio Receiver • The Frequency Spectrum • Selectivity • Sensitivity and Fidelity
• Antennas and Antenna Circuits • Basic Crystal Receiver
THE TRF RECEIVER 8

The TRF Receiver • Tuned Circuits • R-F Coils • Variable Capacitors • The Radio-
Frequency Amplifier • Volume Control • Typical Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver*
A Basic TRF Receiver
THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER 17

The Superheterodyne Receiver • The Phenomenon of Hetero-
The Preselector Stage •
dyning • Demonstrating Heterodyning Action • The Local Oscillator • The Mixer

• Mixing Circuits • The Converter • Image Frequencies • The Intermediate-Fre-
quency Amplifier • I-F Amplifier Response • The Second Detector
VOLUME CONTROL 29
Tone Controls • Volume Control • Automatic Volume Control • Delayed AVC • De-
layed and Amplified AVC
SPECIAL SUPERHETERODYNE CIRCUITS 36
Superheterodyne Circuit Refiinements — Loop Antenna • Pushbutton Tuning • AC-
•
DC Superheterodyne Receiver • Electron-Ray Tube • The Electron-Ray Circuit
Superheterodyne Alignment

SPECIAL RECEIVERS 44
Portable and Automobile Receivers • The Superregenerative Receiver • The Trans-
ceiver
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS 47
Communications Receivers Dual Conversion • Multiband Operation • Bandspread
•
Tuning • Adjustable Bandwidth, Crystal Filters • Q Multiplier — Null Circuit • S

Meters • Beat-Frequency Oscillator • Noise Limiters • Squelch Circuit
SINGLE SIDEBAND 59
Single Sideband Signal • Balanced Modulation • Sideband Removal • Single Sideband
Reception

VI CONTENTS
FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION 64
Review of Amplitude Modulation • Frequency Modulation • Frequency Modulation-
Effect of Audio Amplitude • Frequency Modulation — Effect of Audio Frequency •
FM Sidebands • Modulation Index • FM Noise and Interference • Pre-emphasis •
The Basic FM Transmitter
FREQUENCY MODULATION RECEIVER CIRCUITS 74

FM Receivers • FM
Receiving Antennas • Receiving Antenna Dimensions • Transmis-
sion Lines • R-F Amplifier Circuits • Mixer and Converter Circuits • FM I-F Ampli-
fiers • Limiting • Plate Circuit Limiting • Grid-Leak Bias Limiting
Summary and Review- Questions 86
FREQUENCY MODULATION DISCRIMINATORS 87

FM Demodulators — TheSlope Detector • Double-Tuned Discriminator • The Foster-
Seeley Discriminator • Foster-Seeley (I-F At Center Frequency) • Foster-Seeley (I-F
Signal Above Center Frequency) • Foster-Seeley (I-F Signal Below Center Frequency)
• Simplified Foster-Seeley Discriminator
RADIO DETECTORS 97
GATED-BEAM DETECTORS 104
The Gated-Beam Detector • Double-Gate Action • Limiter Grid Transfer Character-
istics • Gated-Beam Tube as An FM Detector • Audio Output From The Gated-Beam
Detector
AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL 110
FREQUENCY MODULATION RECEPTION 113
De-emphasisFM Tuner • The FM
• Basic Tuner • Multiplex Stereo FM
119
GLOSSARY
INDEX 121
RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS
The Radio Receiver
In Volume we discussed electron tubes and electron tube circuits used in

3
receivers
radio receivers. In this volume we will cover in detail the actual
We will see that the fundamental per-
and learn how the circuits fit together.
formance of broadcast receivers is the same. All receivers inter-
all radio
then
cept a radio signal at their antenna, amplify it, demodulate it, and
RADIO BROADCAST RECEIVERS...
* ...demodulate ...amplify reproduce

...amplify
^ ^ ^
the audio
the r-f signal... the r-f signal... the a-f signal...
soundwaves
broadcast
receivers
fall into
two general
types
reproduce the same audio -frequency signal that was emitted at the broadcast
studio of the transmitting station. It is in the various techniques and
proc-
essing of the signal that the receivers differ.
We have spoken of amplitude-modulated signals, but broadcast signals may

for processing
also be frequency modulated, and special circuits are required
many used only with complete radio
FM signals. There are special circuits
together
receivers. These will be covered when we begin connecting circuits
to develop the complete modern radio broadcast receiver.
)
4-2 RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS
The Frequency Spectrum
Radio signals are radiated from transmitting antennas over a range known as
the radio-frequency spectrum The chart shows this very wide range. No
.
one receiver is designed for the entire spectrum. Actually, most receivers
are designed to receive radio signals over a small portion of one of the
bands, although some receivers of the "multiband" type provide a range from
100 kc to 150 me. At the higher frequencies many new circuit techniques and
THE RADIO-FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

frequency range designation wavelength
10-30 kc Very Low Frequency (VLF) 30,000-10,000 meters
30-300 kc Low Frequency (LF) 10,000-1000 meters
300-3000 kc Medium Frequency (MF) 1000-100 meters
3-30 me High Frequency (HF) 100-10 meters
30-300 me Very High Frequency (VHF) 10-1 meter
300-3000 me Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 1 — . 1 meter
3000-30,000 me Super High Frequency (SHF) 1— . 01 meter
FREQUENCY ALLOCATION ( 20kc - 300 me

frequency band uses
10 - 535 kc Government, Commercial, Maritime, Aircraft, Ship-to-Shore,

Transoceanic, High Power, Point-to-Point
535 - 1605 kc Commercial Broadcast
1605 kc - 54 me Ship-to -shore, Amateur, Aircraft, Citizens Band,

Police, Foreign, Experimental, Government
5-4-88 me Television (Channels 2,3,4, 5, 6)
88 - 108 me Frequency Modulation
108-300 me Television, Amateur, Aircraft, Government, Police
tubes come into play, and many of these will be covered here. However, we
will concern ourselves primarily with the radio broadcast band of 535 kc to
1605 kc, and the shortwave bands up to 30 me.
We have discussed operating frequencies. We can also think in terms of

wavelength. Radio waves travel at the speed of 300,000,000 meters per
second. Hence, frequency (in me) is equal to 300/x. (wavelength, in meters),
or wavelength (in meters) is equal to 300/f (frequency, in megacycles).
Thus, a station operating at 30 me may be said to be operating at 10 meters.
The term wavelength is often used at frequencies above 3 me.
RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 4-3
Selectivity
The selectivity of a receiver is a measure of its ability to respond, or select

a particular frequency or band of frequencies while rejecting all others.
Higher selectivity does not necessarily make a better receiver. A radio
broadcast signal consists of the carrier frequency and its sidebands. The
sidebands are sum and difference frequencies produced at the transmitter by
the modulating frequencies. For instance, a 5000 -cycle audio tone might
RECEIVER SELECTIVITY INCREASES WITH NUMBER OF TUNED CIRCUITS
be used to modulate an 800-kc carrier wave. This would produce frequen-

cies of 800 kc, 800 kc plus 5 kc, or 805 kc, and 800 kc minus 5 kc, or 795 kc.
Thus, for the receiver to properly reproduce the entire broadcast signal of
from 795-805 kc, it would have to pass a band of frequencies of 10 kc. A re-
ceiver more selective than this would not pass both sidebands.
Not only must 10 kc be passed in this case, but all other r-f signals must be
rejected. If the nearby sidebands of another station are received by the r-f
circuits, they may "ride" through the receiver and be heard as background
sounds. You may have heard more than one station at a time on receivers
having low selectivity. Selectivity is determined by the tuned circuits in the
r-f section of a receiver. The higher the Q of a circuit, the greater its
selectivity.
.
Sensitivity and Fidelity
Sensitivity and fidelity are two other important characteristics of receivers

The sensitivity of a radio receiver is its ability to respond to weak signal
voltages. It is measured in terms of the voltage that must be induced in the
antenna by the signal to develop a standard output (arbitrarily chosen as 0.05
watt) from the power output amplifier. The sensitivity of broadcast receivers
is seldom higher than a few microvolts in the most sensitive receivers, and
ability to reject
undesired signals
in the less -sensitive sets, is in the order of 100 microvolts. Under the most
favorable conditions, such as in specially designed communications receiv-
ers, the highest usable sensitivity is in the order of less than 1 microvolt.
While sensitivity and selectivity are the measure of a receiver's ability to

intercept a weak signal and to extract the intelligence from that signal to the
exclusion of all others, fidelity is a measure of a receiver's ability to repro-
duce the intelligence of the signal. It must reproduce as faithfully as pos-
sible the signal or program which is received. That is, all the frequencies
in the original input signal at the transmitter should be received and repro-
duced without distortion in the receiver output. With the growth of "high
fidelity" audio equipment, it is becoming increasingly important that the r-f
portions of a receiver do not introduce any distortion into the signal.
.
Antennas and Antenna Circuits
Radio signals are emitted from a transmitting antenna in the form of electro-
magnetic energy. As this energy radiates outward it will induce signal volt-
ages in any conductor intercepting the electromagnetic waves An antenna is .
a specially designed conductor whose function is to intercept this electro-

magnetic energy. As a result, signal currents flow in the antenna which
eventually appear as r-f input voltages to the r-f amplifier. Actually, an
antenna is itself a tuned circu it and provides some selectivity. The formula
for resonance is f = 1/2 v JT^C. Since an antenna contains a certain amount
of distributed inductance and capacitance, it will have a certain resonant fre-
quency. In conventional broadcast receivers the antenna is not variable and
'// /
)
u
/
i \
/
\
!
\
i f
antenna
(intercepts electromagnetic
energy— radio waves)

V antenna
's'/' / / '
/
radio waves
'
/ /
" signal currents
primary
U
from transmitting antenna
flow in j-t
antenna /
TO INPUT
antenna
transformer
OF R-F
AMPLIFIER « K1/ TO INPUT
OF R-F
antenna coil 'secondary forms AMPLIFIER
should be part of tuned
grounded secondary
grid circuit of
r-f amplifier
T
ferrite rod
may be single
antenna
loop or
primary-secondary TO R-F
arrangement — AMPLIFIER POPULAR RECEIVING
ANTENNA CIRCUITS
~ loop antenna
is designed to resonate broadly through the broadcast band. In some more

expensive communications receivers, provision is made for antenna tuning to
obtain maximum selectivity. In general, tuned antennas are used at higher
frequencies
Many portable receivers use a loop antenna that is coupled through an antenna
transformer to the input of the r-f amplifier. A recent innovation is the fer-
rite-rod antenna. This device has an extremely high permeability with excel-
lent "pickup" characteristics. At low frequencies, such as the broadcast
band, a long-wire antenna will produce optimum results.
.
Antennas and Antenna Circuits (Cont'd)
Antenna transformers are used to couple the antenna to the tuned circuit.
Although a transformer, it is most often referred to as the antenna coil. The
primary winding isolates the antenna from the tuned circuit and provides the
proper impedance match to the antenna. Most often the antenna transformer
uses an air core. However, at broadcast band frequencies, a powdered-iron
antenna
parallel resonant
circuit
offers high
impedance to
resonant frequency
shield around
coils usually
grounded
I |
tunes tO desired
~ frequency
use of series
and parallel resonant
circuits as wave
traps
core may be used. Antenna transformer windings are often mounted in

shielded containers with color codes used to identify the leads or lugs.
Wavetraps are often used in antenna circuits to improve the selectivity of the
receiver. A wavetrap is an L-C device for preventing undesired signals
from nearby transmitters or from extra powerful transmitters from drowning
out desired signals from weaker or more distant transmitters. As shown,
these wavetraps may be parallel- or series -resonant circuits. In each case
the tuned trap is used to reject or attenuate the undesired signal. A separate
tuned circuit in the r-f input selects the desired signal. In most instances
the shield can in which the tuned circuit is mounted is grounded to the metal
chassis of the receiver
Basic Crystal Receiver
Among the first "receivers" used in the early days of radio was the crystal
set. It in that it did indeed intercept radio waves, demodulate
was a receiver
them, and reproduce the audio signals. The heart of this receiver was a
mineral crystal such as galena or carborundum. These possess the inter-
esting characteristic of permitting current flow in only one direction in —
short, they act as a diode. In most of the original crystal receivers galena
was used, and many a radio enthusiast spent hours adjusting a "cat's whisk-
er" to the surface of the galena to find the best spot for signal reception.
The diagram shows the basic arrangement of the crystal detector.
The antenna usually consisted of an extremely long wire antenna for maxi-
mum signal pickup or interception. When the radio wave passes or cuts
across the antenna, r-f voltages are induced in the antenna. By mutual in-
Antenna
duction, current flow in the primary induces current flow in the secondary.
The antenna transformer usually has an air core and step-up ratio, per-
mitting a small amount of signal gain. The secondary is a series tuned cir-
cuit, with maximum circulating current at resonance. The crystal rectifies
the signal, with the capacitor acting as the r-f filter in conjunction with the
headphones which acts as the load. With one tuned circuit, this receiver has
very little selectivity, and with no amplifiers, very little sensitivity.
4-8 TRF RECEIVER
The TRF Receiver
The first practical radio receiver in wide use was the tuned-radio -frequency
type. This consisted of an antenna input system, two or more stages of r-f
amplification, a stage of demodulation, and one or more stages of a-f ampli-
fication, followed by a loudspeaker. It had also, of course, a power supply.
The amplitude of the signal at the input of the receiver is small because it
has been attenuated in the space between the transmitter and the receiver. It
consists of the carrier frequency and the modulation envelope. The r-f
BASIC ORGANIZATION OF M TRF RECEIVER
stages amplify the waveform, but they do not change its basic shape. The de-
tector rectifies and removes the r-f component of the signal. The output of
the detector is a weak signal made of the modulation envelope or component
of the incoming signal. The a-f amplifier stages following the detector in-
crease the amplitude of the audio signal to a value sufficient to drive a set of
headphones or a loudspeaker. The TRF receiver was a practical device be-
cause provided amplification, and its various tuned circuits provided good
it
selectivity. While this receiver is largely replaced by the modern super-

heterodyne, the TRF receiver is still used today for certain applications.
Let us now examine the circuitry of the TRF receiver.
TRF RECEIVER 4-9
Tuned Circuits
The TRF receiver introduces many tuned circuits in the r-f stages. All
tuning is done by varying L or C or an LC circuit. Resonance depends on the
value of L and C. Increasing the value of L or C decreases the resonant fre-
quency; decreasing L or C increases the resonant frequency. Changing the
—
value of both may change the resonant frequency it depends on whether the
TUNED CIRCUITS
MAY CONSIST
FIXED L ,||!,,[|||,|iM|| FIXED C

1,111111111111
VARIABLE C VARIABLE L
product of L and C is changed. If L and C are changed so that their product

remains the same, the frequency remains the same. Thus for the same fre-
quency L may be high and C low, or L low and C high. The L/C ratio is
important to the Q of a tuned circuit. Since Q = Z/R, the ratio of impedance
to resistance affects the Q. If the resistance remains the same, raising L
and lowering C gives a higher ratio of Z to R, and a higher Q. A high Q has
the advantage of providing sharp tuning and high gain, thus improving selec-
tivity and sensitivity. If the Q is too high, tuning may be so sharp that it
eliminates part of the sidebands and introduces distortion.
The tuned circuits in the TRF receiver are usually tuned by variable capac-
itors. The capacitors are ganged to be varied simultaneously by one control.
Because the capacitors can be varied over a range of frequencies, the re-
ceiver is provided with its frequency coverage. Variable inductors also tune.
They can be ganged like the variable capacitors.
Coils used in r-f circuitry are designed for minimum loss. They are often
made of woven multistrand "Litz" wire, (a fine, insulated wire). Its a-c
resistance is low, therefore, the Q of the coil is high. Very light cardboard
is used for the coil form. The form is varnished before and after winding to
prevent absorption of moisture The form contains both primary and second-
.
ary windings, with the primary wound near or directly over the secondary.
A shield covers the coil and shields it from electric and/ or magnetic fields
which might induce unwanted voltages. The shield must be a good conductor
to shield against electric fields. Aluminum is usually used because it is
light, cheap, and a good conductor. Shielding of coils results in some reduc-
tion of efficiency, due to eddy currents induced in the shield by the magnetic
field of the coil. These eddy currents produce a magnetic field of their own
which opposes the field of the coil. The shield should be well grounded.
R-f coils usually have air cores. A few, designed for low and medium fre-
quencies have powdered-iron cores. The cores are sometimes adjustable.
As the iron core moves into the coil, inductance increases and the frequency
of the tuned circuit decreases. A brass core can be used for the opposite
effect. As the brass core is moved into the coil, inductance decreases and
frequency increases. In either case, the circuit can be timed by moving the
core. This is called permeability tuning.
TRF RECEIVER 4-11
Variable Capacitors
The plates of variable capacitors, both rotor and stator, are usually alumin-
um, but better receivers sometimes use silver-plated brass capacitors for
improved r-f conductivity. The calibration pattern of a variable capacitor
depends on the shape of its rotor, and falls into three classes --straight-line
capacitance, straight-line wavelength, and straight-line frequency.
With the straight-line capacitance type, capacitance increases directly with

the amount of rotation. Since frequency does not increase directly
with the
decrease in capacitance, calibration puts the upper half of a frequency band
in about 1/8 of the dial rotation. The straight-line wavelength type
wavelength
straight line capacitance straight line wavelength straight line frequency
FREQUENCY CALIBRATION VARIES WITH CAPACITOR SHAPE
increases directly with the amount of rotation. The upper half of the band
appears on 1/3 of the dial rotation. The straight-line frequency type fre-
quency varies directly with the amount of rotation. This permits linear dial
calibration. With this type capacitor a tuned circuit has the same sharpness
of timing over the whole band.
When variable capacitors are ganged it is almost impossible to manufacture

them so that they "track". That is, to maintain equal capacitances at each
setting of the rotor. To compensate for differences, each of the ganged ca-
pacitors is provided with a trimmer an additional adjustable capacitor. It
,
is connected in parallel with the main tuning capacitor. For

further adjust-
ment, the outer rotor plates on each section are slotted for ease in bending
part of a plate and slightly changing the capacitance of one section.
4-12 TRF RECEIVER
The Radio -Frequency Amplifier
TYPICAL R-F AMPLIFIER STAGE
antenna
To input of
2nd r-f amplifier
The electron tube used in r-f amplifier stages is almost always a pentode
type. At the high radio frequencies it is very important that the interelec-
trode capacitances are kept as low as possible to prevent feedback from the
plate circuit back to the grid circuit. Specially designed pentodes such as the
6AU6 provide excellent r-f amplification and isolation between input and out-
put stages. R-f amplifiers in TRF receivers have tunable tanks in the grid
circuits. Thus, the receiver may be tuned so that only one r-f signal within
its timing range is selected for amplification. When the tank is tuned to the
desired frequency, it resonates and produces a relatively large circulating
current. The grid of the r-f amplifier then receives a relatively large signal
voltage at the resonant frequency, and minimum signals at other frequencies.
A typical r-f amplifier is shown in the diagram. The antenna circuit is in-
ductively coupled to the grid circuit of the r-f amplifier. The plate circuit is
also inductively coupled to the grid circuit of the following r-f stage.
TRF RECEIVER 4-13
Volume Control
amplification pos-
In audio amplifiers, we were concerned with the amount of
sible from a particular stage. However, in a receiver we are concerned with
the output
the amount of output. We want to be able to vary the amplitude of
signal as some stations are received with a strong signal, others with a weak
The process of matching incoming signal strength to desired audio
signal.
output involves the use of a volume control. One automatic and two manual
methods of volume control are used.
The manual control of audio is accomplished by using a potentiometer as the

detector-load resistor. The strength of the audio signal applied to the grid of
the first audio amplifier can thus be varied by this means . The output could
MANUAL CONTROL OF AUDIO SIGNAL STRENGTH
also be coupled to the potentiometer by capacitive means. The

amount of
a nriin voltage fed to the grid is that voltage existing across the potentiometer
between ground and the tap connected to the grid.
R-f signal strength can be controlled in the antenna circuit. In each

of the
circuits shown, regulation of the potentiometer controls the amount of signal

applied to the grid.
TRF RECEIVER 4-15
A Basic TRF Receiver
We see on the opposite page the complete circuitry of atypical TRF receiver.
The input signal is developed in the antenna circuit and coupled to the input of
the first r-f amplifier. The incoming modulated r-f signal is amplified by the
first r-f amplifier and fed, through transformer coupling to the input of the
second r-f amplifier. Once again the signal is amplified and this time fed
into the input circuit of a plate detector. The demodulated signal appears
across the plate load resistance which feeds the input to the volume control,
which represents the input to the final stage of audio power amplification. At
this point an output transformer matches the plate impedance of the output
tube to that of the voice coil, and the audio signal is reproduced by the loud-
speaker. The power supply, a transformer-input half-wave circuit provides
plate and screen supply for all stages.
There are three stages of signal selection, with all three tuned circuits
ganged or connected mechanically. Each of the main tuning capacitors has
its own trimmer capacitor connected in parallel for individual adjustments in
total capacitance. Principal variations in this circuit would be three stages
of r-f amplification, other types of demodulators, additional audio stages, and
automatic volume control circuits.
The principal disadvantage of the TRF receiver is that its selectivity, or

ability to separate signals, does not remain constant over its tuning range.
As the set is tuned from the low-frequency end of its timing range to the high-
frequency end, selectivity decreases. Also, the amplification, or gain, of a
TRF receiver is not constant over the tuning range of the receiver The gain
.
depends on r-f transformer gain, which increases with frequency. To im-

prove the gain at the low-frequency end of the band, r-f transformers em-
ploying high-impedance (untuned) primaries are designed so that the primary
inductance will resonate with the primary distributed capacitance at some
frequency slightly below the low end of the tunable band. Thus, the gain is
good at the low end of the band because of the resonant build-up of primary
current.
The near -resonant condition of the primary at the low end more than offsets
the effect of reduced transformer action. However, the shunting action of the
primary distributed capacitance lowers the gain at the high-frequency end of
the band. To make up for the resultant poor gain at the high end of the band,
a small capacitor is connected between the plate and grid leads of adjacent
r-f stages to supplement the transformer coupling. At the low end of the band
the capacitive coupling is negligible The superheterodyne receiver has been
.
developed to overcome many of the disadvantages of the TRF receiver.
The popular superheterodyne receiver does not put the TRF in a position of
antiquated equipment. In fact, there are certain applications in which the
TRF has definite advantages. For one, the TRF does not contain a local os-
cillatorwhich may often produce bothersome oscillations. A superhetero-
dyne often radiates a portion of the oscillator signal from its antenna. An-
other advantage is that the TRF is inexpensive and easy to align. TRF
receivers may contain as many as three radio -frequency amplifier stages,
producing extremely high r-f gain for processing to the demodulator stage.
4-16 SUMMARY
A receiver intercepts a small portion of the radio energy radiated by a trans-

mitter and recovers the intelligence contained in it.
Basically, the receiving antenna intercepts a signal; tuned circuits select the
desired r-f signal; tuned r-f amplifiers strengthen the r-f signal; the de-
tector stage demodulates the signal; following detection, a-f amplifiers
increase the strength of the audio signal; and a reproducer translates
the audio variation into corresponding sound waves, thus reproducing the
original intelligence.
A crystal receiver consists of an antenna, a tuned-input circuit, a crystal
detector, and a reproducer.
A TRF receiver has one or more stages of r-f amplification, a detector, an
audio amplifier, and a reproducer.
All the tuned circuits of a TRF receiver operate at the frequency of the in-
coming signal.
Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to differentiate between the desired
signal frequency and all unwanted signal frequencies.
Fidelity is the characteristic of a receiver which permits it to amplify a
band of frequencies containing the modulation without discrimination or
distortion.
The sensitivity of a receiver is expressed in microvolts for a standard input.
Signal-to-noise ratio iimits the usable sensitivity of a receiver; it is the
ratio of signal strength to noise present at the receiver input.
Interstage coupling between r-f stages can be transformer coupling, imped-
ance coupling, or resistance-capacitance coupling. Tuned-transformer
coupling is most common, although tuned-impedance coupling can be
used in conjunction with permeability tuning.
Trimmer capacitors are connected in parallel with tuned circuits to compen-
sate for small irregularities, and permit tracking of all tuned circuits
throughout the frequency range.
Pentodes in the r-f stages of a receiver have more gain than triodes.
Detection or demodulation is performed by rectifying the modulated carrier
and filtering out the rf. The result is an audio frequency that corres-
ponds to the modulation at the transmitter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the basic functions of a receiver.
2. Describe the essential parts of a TRF receiver.
3. What are the advantages of pentodes as compared to triodes in TRF re-
ceivers?
4. Describe the function of the volume control.
5. Why is interelectrode capacitance an important consideration at high
frequencies?
6. What is a variable capacitor?
7. What function does a shield serve in r-f amplifiers?
8. What is meant by permeability tuning?
9. What is a tuned circuit?
10. What is the function of an antenna?
11. What do we mean by the "sensitivity" of a receiver?
12. What do we mean by the selectivity of a receiver?
THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER 4-17
The Superheterodyne Receiver
Block Diagram And Waveforms Of Basic Superheterodyne Receiver
The superheterodyne receiver, often referred to as a "superhet", is used

almost exclusively in modern radio receivers. We recall that in the TRF re-
ceiver aU the timed circuits were ganged and tuned throughout the entire
range of desired broadcast frequencies In the superheterodyne receiver only
.
the r-f amplifier and mixer or converter stages tune throughout the broadcast
band; the remaining high-frequency stages operate at a single frequency (the
intermediate frequency) irrespective of what incoming r-f are being received.
The superheterodyne receiver uses a heterodyne or "signal beating" principle

to convert the incoming r-f signals to a carrier of a fixed, lower frequency
containing the same audio modulation as the original carrier. This lower
frequency signal is fed to the intermediate amplifier (i-f) section which,
because it is fixed-tuned, can be designed for optimum gain. Also, its band-
pass characteristic can be tailored to any desired response for purposes of
fidelity and selectivity. The incoming r-f signal is selected by a tuned r-f
circuit, amplified as in the TRF receiver, and then fed to the mixer or con-
verter stage. At this point, a locally generated oscillator signal of constant
amplitude heterodynes or "beats" with the modulated r-f signal. A difference
signal is thus produced in the plate circuit of the mixer stage, called the
intermediate frequency .
—
4-18 THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
The Preselector Stage
The a superheterodyne receiver consists of an r-f amplifier.

first stage of
Since selects the desired r-f signal before the signal is fed to the mixer
it
stage, the r-f amplifier is called the preselector
. Communications type re-
ceivers may use two stages of r-f amplification. Besides amplifying the r-f
signals, the r-f amplifier has other important functions. For example, it
isolates the local oscillator from the antenna-ground system. If the antenna
The R-F Amplifier Is The First Stage

Of Signal Selection
ANTENNA-"picks op”
were connected directlyto the mixer stage, a part of the local oscillator sig-
nal might be radiated into space causing interference with other receivers.
—
As we will learn later, the preselector prevents —image frequencies from
being received.
A shown using cathode bias and a variable -mu

typical preselector stage is
pentode. This type tube has a curved characteristic that moves very gradu-
ally toward cutoff. As we will see, this makes it ideal for the application of
automatic volume control (avc), a negative bias that becomes more negative
as the incoming signal gets stronger. LI is the antenna coil, L2 and Cl make
up the tuned input circuit, and C2 is the trimmer used for alignment of the
tuned circuit. C3 provides low- impedance coupling between the lower end of
L2 and the grounded end of Cl, thus bypassing the decoupling filters in the
avc circuit. The r-f transformer in the output circuit consists of an untuned
high-impedance primary L3, and a tuned secondary L4 which resonates with
C5 at the station frequency.
The Phenomenon of Heterodyning
The output of the r-f amplifier or preselector is an amplified version of the

incoming modulated r-f signal. We are now ready to introduce the signal to
heterodyning action; let us see how this occurs. If two adjoining piano keys
are struck simultaneously, a tone will be produced that rises and falls in in-
tensity at regular intervals. This is a result of the rarefactions and conden-
sations produced by the vibrating strings which gradually approach a condition
in which they reinforce each other at regular intervals, while the sound in-
tensity increases. At equal intervals the condensations and rarefactions
gradually approach a condition where they oppose each other, and the intensity
is periodically reduced.
This addition and subtraction of the intensities at regular intervals produces

beat frequencies. The number of beat frequencies produced per second is
equal to the sum and difference of the two frequencies. The production of
HETERODYNING
original
1000 kc
original
1200 kc
sum
2200 kc
difference
This Becomes the Intermediate Frequency
Frequency B - A 200 kc
beats in a superheterodyne is somewhat analogous to the action of the piano,

except that with the receiver the process is electrical and the frequencies are
much higher. While both sum and difference frequencies are produced, we
are interested only in the difference frequency. As we shall learn, the dif-
ference frequency produced when we mix the incoming r-f with the locally
generated oscillator signal is called the intermediate frequency.
gjSE
B
2 3 4 5 6 7
/ft\
ei+e2
The beat frequency is produced when signals of two different frequencies are
combined in the mixer tube. The resultant envelope varies in amplitude at
the difference frequencies indicated by the dashed lines. Frequency fl is 8
cps; f2 is 10 cps. Initially, the amplitudes of fl and f2 add at instant tl, but
at t2 the relative phase of f2 has advanced enough to oppose fl, and the am-
plitude of the resultant envelope is reduced to a value dependent upon fl. At
t3 the relative phase of f2 has advanced enough to permit the amplitudes to
add again. Thus, 1 cycle of amplitude variation of the envelope takes place
in the time interval that f2 needs to gain 1 cycle over fl. We see that f2 g ains
2 cycles in the interval to t5. Therefore, the beat or difference frequency is
2 cycles per second.
The Local Oscillator
The oscillator used in the superheterodyne receiver is often referred to as

the local oscillator since the oscillations are generated locally or within the
receiver itself. The timing capacitor of the oscillator is ganged to the tuning
capacitor of the r-f amplifier in order to maintain a fixed frequency differ-
ence when the two signals are mixed together in the mixer stage. For
instance, if we want the intermediate frequency to be 455 kc (a commonly
used i-f), when the incoming r-f carrier is 500 kc, the oscillator frequency
must be 955 kc; when the incoming r-f carrier is 1600 kc, the oscillator fre-
quency must be 2055 kc. In each case the difference between the incoming
carrier frequency and the oscillator frequency is the intermediate frequency.

Most superheterodyne receivers use variations of the Hartley and Armstrong
circuits for the local oscillators. An important characteristic of a superhet
receiver is its ability to "track". For example, if the difference frequency
between the r-f and oscillator signals is 455 kc at one point of the broadcast
band, it must be 455 kc at every point on the band. If this difference fre-
quency should vary, the i-f would vary, and there would be a loss of amplifi-
cation in the i-f amplifier. The trimmer capacitor in parallel with the vari-
able capacitor is used to adjust the total capacitance for proper tracking. It
is particularly effective at the high end of the band; a padder capacitor is
sometimes connected in series; it has its greatest effect at the low-frequency
end of the band.
The Mixer
The mixer in a superheterodyne receiver mixes the incoming r-f signal with
the locally generated oscillator signal to produce a difference, or intermedi-
ate frequency. Because the mixer tube operates on a nonlinear portion of its
characteristic curve to produce the heterodyning, the circuit is often referred
to as the first detector, since a new signal component is produced, the inter-
mediate frequency. The simplest type of mixer circuit, a triode used as the
mixer, is shown here. The modulated r-f signal is fed into the grid circuit,
with the oscillator signal inductively coupled into the cathode circuit. Effec-
tively both signals are being applied in series and affecting the electron
stream between cathode and plate. As a variation a Hartley type oscillator is
capacitively coupled to the grid of a pentode mixer. One disadvantage is that
the local oscillator is too closely related to the r-f amplifier and variations
in the r-f amplifier can produce a frequency change or drift in the oscillator.
This is undesirable because it changes the intermediate frequency. While the
original signals plus the sum and difference signals appear in the plate cir-
cuit of the mixer, the tuned plate circuit selects only the difference signal.
Mixing Circuits
The problem of interference between the r-f amplifier and the oscillator
caused special tubes to be designed to be used solely as mixers. One of the
earliest was the type 6L7 tube. It is called a pentagrid mixer, because it has
five grids and was designed as a mixer.
A circuit is shown using a type 6L7 pentagrid mixer. The r-f signal is ap-
plied to grid 1, which is closest to the cathode, and has the greatest control
over plate current. The relatively weak r-f signal modulates the electron
stream from the cathode. Together, grids 2 and 4 act as the screen grid,
attracting the electrons from the cathode. Grid 3 has the local oscillator
signal coupled to it. This further modulates the plate current by electron
coupling, resulting in mixing of the two signals. Placing grid 2 between grids
1 and 3, makes it act as a shield, helping to keep the r-f and local oscillator
signals from interfering with each other. Grid 5 is the suppressor grid, and
is tied to the cathode.
The Converter
The mixer stage functions, for economy, as both a mixer and oscillator, using
a multigrid tube, called a converter. While the oscillator can track 455 kc
below the r-f signal, virtually all oscillators track above the r-f signals.
The 6SA7 is a pentagrid converter, with its five grids arranged as shown in
the circuit. Grid 1 is the oscillator grid, and grid 2 is the oscillator plate,
screen grid and shield. Grid 3 has the r-f signal applied to it. Grid 4 is
physically connected to grid 2 and also is the screen grid. Grid 5 is the sup-
pressor grid. The cathode, grid 1, and grid 2 act as a triode oscillator, with
the majority of the modulated electron stream going by grid 2 Grid 3 has the
.
r-f signal applied to it, further modulating the oscillator signal, and thus
mixes the two signals by electron coupling. Grid 4 acts as a screen grid and
is connected to grid 2 . Grid 5 acts as a suppressor grid. In this circuit, the
r-f signal and oscillator signal do not interfere with each other. The sup-
pressor grid increases the efficiency of the tube. The major differences be-
tween the types 6A8 and 6SA7 pentagrid converters are the removal of the
grid used as the oscillator plate in the type 6A8 and the use of the screen grid
as the oscillator plate in the type 6SA7. Considering the triode oscillator
section of the type 6A8 as a virtual cathode, (since it is the source of elec-
trons for the remainder of the tube), only a control grid, screen grid and
plate are left. Thus, it is, in reality, a tetrode-type tube. The action of
combining grid 2 of the 6SA7 as an oscillator plate, screen grid and shield
permitted the addition of a suppressor grid, making this a pentode -type tube.
Hence, superior performance is achieved.
.
Image Frequencies
There is one major disadvantage to superheterodyne operation. If a

local os-
of 800 kc to
cillator frequency of 1255 kc can mix with an input frequency
produce a difference frequency of 455 kc, this same local oscillator frequency
of 1255 kc can also mix with an input frequency of 1710 kc to
produce a dif-
ference frequency of 455 kc. Thus, the mixer section might present to the
i-f amplifier the signal from two different stations at the same time, both
converted to the same i-f.The i-f amplifier would accept and amplify both
of both at the
at the same time. The demodulator would detect the signal
same time. The intelligence of both would be present in the speaker at the
mixture signals would be confusing, if not unintelligible
same time. Such a of
The second signal which might interfere with the desired signal is called the
image frequency. Image frequencies can best be prevented by selective tun-
ing nf thp r-f am plifier. Highly selective r-f amplifier tuned circuits, when
kc
tuned 455 kc below the oscillator frequency, will reject a frequency 455
above the oscillator. Hence, the r-f stage tuned to a frequency of 800 kc re-
262 kc were
jects the image frequency of 1710 kc. Early i-fs of 175 kc and
increased to 455 kc and 465 kc to increase the separation between the desired
and image signals, thus placing the image signal at a lower level of the input
circuit selectivity curve.
The Intermediate Frequency Amplifier
An i-f amplifier is basically an r-f amplifier with a fixed-tuned input and

output. It selects and amplifies the difference frequency signal produced in
the plate circuit of the mixer. The timed circuits act as bandpass filters,
accepting the i-f, but rejecting other frequencies. The fixed-tuned circuits
have a constant Q, and provide high selectivity and sensitivity. Pentode tubes
r^STAGE OF I-F AMPLIFICATION—]

INPUT OUTPUT
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
FROM
MIXER OETECTOR
SINGLE STAGE I-F AMPLIFIER
are used. Most receivers have one to three stages of i-f amplification, de-
pending upon the amount of gain required. These stages operate as class-A
voltage amplifiers.
The output transformer which couples the plate circuit to the grid circuit of
the second i-f amplifier, is tuned by mica or air-trimmer capacitors. In
some instances the capacitors are fixed, and the timing is by movable
powdered-iron core. This method is called permeability tuning. In special
cases the secondary only is tuned. The coils and capacitors are mounted in
small metal cans which serve as shields, and provision is made for timing
without removing the shield. The input i-f transformer has a lower coeffi-
cient of coupling than the output transformer in some receivers, to suppress
noise from the mixer. A typical i-f stage in a broadcast receiver may have a
gain of about 200.
.
I-F Amplifier Response
The i-f signal is identical in every respect to the incoming modulated r-f sig-
nal except for frequency. The heterodyning process in the mixer produces a
fixed difference frequency, but the modulation components remain unchanged.
Hence, the i-f amplifier must pass the carrier and its sidebands which con-
tain the signal intelligence. The sharply tuned circuit of A presents a prac-
tical bandwidth of 4 kc; B shows the characteristic of a circuit with a 10-kc
bandwidth. An overcoupled i-f bandpass characteristic found in high-fidelity
timers is shown in C. The bandpass is 18 kc wide for full sideband reception.
A decrease in output voltage from a 100% level to a 70. 7% level is equivalent
to a 50% reduction in power, since power is a function of the square of the
voltage (P = eVr). This is sometimes referred to as "3-db down".
Local AM broadcast stations in any given area have assigned frequencies

spaced at least 40 -kc apart. They normally have modulation frequency re-
sponse up to at least 7. 5 kc. However, to minimize inter area interference at
night, control noise, and provide low distortion with economical design, the
passband of most AM broadcast receivers is kept to about 10 kc. For spe-
cialized transmission such as ship-to-shore voice communication, high-gain
narrow-bandpass i-f stages are used since 2 kc is the highest modulation
frequency for voice intelligence
The Second Detector
The name "second detector" is given to the demodulator of a superheterodyne

receiver because the mixer or converter stage is often thought of as the first
detector. The term "detector" usually means the audio demodulator . Most
superhets use a diode detector. This type of detector is practical because of
the high gain as well as the high selectivity of the i-f stages. The diode de-
LAST l-F TRANSFORMER
tector has good linearity and can handle large signals without overloading.
To save space and money, the diode detector and first audio amplifier are
often included in the same envelope in modern superhets.
A simple diode detector is shown with the rectified voltage appearing across
Rl, which also serves as the volume -control potentiometer. C2 bypasses the
r-f component to ground, the C3 couples the output of the detector to the first
audio amplifier stage. Tuned circuit L2C1 is the secondary of the last i-f
transformer. The time constant of R1C2 is long compared to the time for
one a-f cycle. If the i-f is 456 kc, the time for one i-f cycle in microseconds
is 1/0.456, or 2. 19 usee. If Rl is 250,000 ohms, and C2 is 100 uuf, the time
constant in microseconds is 0.25 x 100, or 25 usee. C2 discharges through
Rl in one-half the time for one a-f cycle (l/2f). The time required to com-
pletely discharge C2 is 5R1C2 seconds. Thus, l/2f = 5R1C2, or f = 1/10
R1C2. This works out to 4000 cps, as the high audio frequency C2 is capable
of following with distortion. To increase the response of the diode detector,
the time constant of R1C2 must be reduced.
VOLUME CONTROL 4-29
Tone Controls
Tone controls are networks that continually adjust frequency response, by

increasing or decreasing the high- and the low-frequency output. The
tone
control usually actsto boost or reduce the frequencies toward one end of the
bass
range amplified. The treble control acts on the high-frequency end, the
control on the low-frequency end. A tone control is effectively a variable
filter. A simple tone control (A) consists of a series R-C circuit. This
TONE CONTROL CIRCUITS
BASS TREBLE
AUDIO OUTPUT CIRCUIT
B+
simple tone control
combination may be connected between plate and ground or grid and ground
in
the receiver. The value of C will bypass the high-frequency

any audio stage in
components to ground. The setting of the variable resistor determines the
amount of high-frequency energy removed by the tone control circuit. When
R is low, the frequencies are attenuated, when it is high, they appear in the
output.
A more complete tone control (B) is also shown with capacitors in series with
Rl and R2. Lower capacitor C2 develops a considerable audio voltage, par-
the very
ticularly at the low frequencies, resulting in a larger voltage output at
low frequencies than over the rest of the audio range. Putting a capacitor in
frequencies
series with Rl develops the greater part of the voltage at the low
and reduces the amount developed across the lower resistor . This produces
frequencies. Combining the ar-
an attenuation or loss of the extremely low
rangement and using a potentiometer across the two capacitors, provises a
continuous adjustment going from bass boost to bass cut. Many modern tone
control circuits combine the two arrangements with two controls,
one for the
treble boost and cut, the other for bass boost and cut.
4-30 VOLUME CONTROL
Volume Control
We have discussed volume control by tapping off a voltage across the detector
load resistor. Variable bias control used in the cathode circuit of an am-
plifier is another means of volume control. An i-f amplifier with a fixed
cathode bias resistor and a variable control in series is shown. To operate
correctly, this circuit must use a tube with remote cutoff or variable-mu
characteristics, such as the type 6BA6 tube. When the arm is set at the top
converter i-f amplifier
of the control, the minimum resistance of the fixed resistor is in the cathode
circuit to develop bias. The small value of bias developed causes the grid
voltage to go in a positive direction. The result is a higher plate current flow
through the inductive plate load resulting in increased output. When the arm
is set at the bottom of the control, the maximum resistance of both the fixed
resistor and the bias control are used to develop bias. The large value of
bias developed causes the grid voltage to go in a negative direction. The
lower plate current flow through the inductive plate load results in decreased
output.
,
VOLUME CONTROL 4-31
Automatic Volume Control
Manual volume control is not the perfect answer. When tuning from a weak
to a strong station, or vice versa, the increased
or decreased signal strength
volume. To prevent this, an additional cir-
may cause an annoying change in
added to the receiver called automatic volume control (avc). It does
cuit is
to its main function of
not replace the manual volume control, but limits it
loudspeaker volume. The avc circuit prevents changes in the
adjusting the
volume as set by the manual volume control.
relies on the use of remote-cutoff characteristics of a

tube such
Avc action
as the type 6BA6. A variable -bias control acting as a volume control is the
varied so that a weak signal would decrease
basis of avc The
. bias control is
the amplifier stage.
the negative grid bias, thereby increasing the gain of
When a strong signal is tuned in, the grid bias becomes more negative, de-
creasing the gain of the amplifier stage.
with
To make the circuit automatic a voltage is needed which varies directly
the average value of the incoming signal. The simplest
method is to apply a
varying
negative voltage to the grid circuit, where no current is drawn; only a
necessary. The value of the voltage necessary to vary the grid
voltage is
to lower gain is approximately 3 to 5 volts for a pentode

All
from higher .
requirements are available at the output of the second-detector circuit.

these
The voltage polarity developed across the detector load resistor has the out-
put negative with respect to ground. The a-f voltage developed
across the
load resistor varies directly with the strength of the signal received. To use
the available voltage to provide a negative grid bias, we must
remove the
get a steady d-c bias voltage.
variations of the audio signal and filter it to
4-32 VOLUME CONTROL
Automatic Volume Control (Cont'd)
COMPLETE AVC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The resistor and capacitor of the avc filter are in parallel with the detector
load. The voltage developed across the load will also be across R and C of
the filter. The division of voltage is dependent upon the values of R and Xc-
The avc bias voltage is the voltage developed across C. The charge on C re-
mains constant despite the a-f fluctuations. C cannot discharge quickly,
since the value of R is high. The values of R and C are important. The low-
frequency audio signals must not be so long in time as to charge the capaci-
tor to too high a value. The capacitor must still be able to discharge quickly
enough to change the bias value to compensate for fading signals. A typical
C value is between 01 and 05 pf; R ranges from 1 to 3 megohms. The volt-
. .
age across C is a filtered d-c bias voltage, having a polarity negative with
respect to ground, and varies directly with the value of signal strength re-
ceived. This voltage is often applied to the grid of the i-f amplifier and the
r-f grid of the converter.
Applying the avc bias voltage to the grid of the i-f amplifiers presents no
problems. The "low" end of the secondary of the input i-f transformer is
raised, and the avc voltage is applied directly to the grid in series with the
signal voltage. The voltage to the r-f grid of the converter tube is also ap-
plied to the low end of the r-f timing circuit.
VOLUME CONTROL 4-33
Automatic Volume Control (Cont'd)
Applying avc to the r-f grid of the converter through the tuned circuit pre-
sents a problem. The rotor of the r-f tuning capacitor and the rotor of the
oscillator tuning capacitor are on a common shaft and connected electrically.
The rotor at ground potential (A), grounds out (shorts) the avc bias applied
to the r-f grid. To remove this obstacle, the tuned capacitor can be placed
above ground (B), mounted on rubber mountings to insulate it from the metal
chassis. The tuned circuit can then be returned to the avc line with the avc
filter capacitor acting as an r-f return.
A more typical avc arrangement (C) uses a separate connection for the in-
ductive portion of the tuned circuit. The variable capacitors are grounded
and the inductors are connected directly to the avc line. The r-f return is
through the avc filter capacitor. In this way, as far as r-f is concerned,
the inductors are connected directly in parallel with the tuning capacitors,
since the reactance of the avc filter capacitor is negligible at radio frequen-
cies.
4-34 VOLUME CONTROL
Delayed AVC
Weak signals developing avc voltage create a problem. The avc bias voltage
developed cuts down the gain of the amplifier circuits when it is still needed
for weak signals. A circuit is needed to hold back the avc bias voltage until
the signal strength reaches the minimum level. When the incoming signal
develops an avc bias voltage higher than the predetermined minimum level,
avc action takes over and reduces the gain of the amplifier circuits. This
permits weak signals to have full gain, while still maintaining avc action on
strong signals. This is called delayed avc.
A typical delayed- avc circuit is shown, using a duo-diode, such as the type
6AL5 . The rectified output of VIA is the regular audio output signal fed to
the first a-f amplifier. The filter circuit for the avc voltage consists of Rj
and Cj. With no signal received, the path of electron flow from the 3 -volt
battery in the cathode of VlB is important. Assuming no drop across the
diode's plate resistance, the flow of electrons will be through VlB, through
Rl, and through R2 to ground, which is at +3 volts potential. The voltage
drops will divide, with 2 volts across the 1-megohm filter resistor, and 1
volt across the .5-megohm detector load. This places the plate of VlB at -3
volts with respect to ground. The bias is fixed at a -3 volt level, which is
proper for the amplifier stages. When a strong signal is received, a typical
IR drop across the detector load could be a value of 5 volts. This places the
top of the detector load at -5 volts potential with respect to ground. This -5
volts will also be present at the plate of VlB. There is no loss across Rj,
since there is no current flowing. The value of -5 volts at the plate of VlB
puts the plate 2 -volts negative with respect to the cathode; thus, VlB stops
conducting. The value of bias voltage will then be that of the avc voltage of
-5 volts. This increased negative signal applied to the grids of the amplifier
stages will reduce their gain for the strong signal received; the output will
then be normal, despite the strong signal.
The result is that all signals which develop 3 volts or less across the de-
tector load will not vary the bias of the amplifier stages. All signals strong
enough to develop 3 volts or more across the detector load will develop an
avc bias voltage which will maintain the proper gain in the amplifier stages.
In actual practice, the negative voltage required to bias diode VlB may be
taken from a source such as the power supply.
VOLUME CONTROL 4-35
Delayed and Amplified AVC

An ideal davc should operate so that weak signals get full amplification while
strong signals are held to a satisfactory, uniform level. An ideal avc
response is shown at A of the graph. B shows the response of simple avc.
C shows the response of davc when only a few stages are controlled. D
shows davc with more tubes controlled. E shows the response of a special
kind of davc called delayed and amplified avc. Its response comes close to
the ideal. To see how this is achieved, study the circuit for delayed and am-
plified avc. VI is the detector. V3 is a separate davc tube. The i-f signal
is applied to Vl for detection. It is also applied to V2, an i-f amplifier used
to provide a separate channel for the davc circuit. The output of this ampli-
fier is applied to the davc diode. Because of the separate channel i-f ampli-
fier, the i-f signal applied to the davc diode is stronger than the signal ap-
plied to the detector diode. As a result, the avc voltage taken across R
increases more rapidly than the signal strength applied to the detector.
Thus, with proper gain in V2, the response to strong signals is almost
constant.
4-36 SPECIAL SUPERHETERODYNE CIRCUITS
Superheterodyne Circuit Refinements - Loop Antennas
Prior to high-gain tubes and powerful broadcasting stations, the radio antenna
occupied the present home of the TV antenna. Long antennas strung across
the rooftops were required to pick up the maximum value of induced signal.
Today's superheterodyne receivers, with their high sensitivity and strong
broadcast signals, have permitted the use of small loop antennas.
A common type of loop antenna is shown in (A), with its symbol. The pri-
mary of the loop is wrapped around the secondary. The secondary is the
larger winding, and is timed by the r-f section of the variable capacitor.
The signal pickup by the secondary is usually sufficient to provide good re-
Loop Antennas Loop Antenna Symbol
Ferri-loopstick Antenna
ception in strong signal areas. When the receiver is used in weak signal
areas, an outdoor antenna is connected to the primary winding and the loop
performs as an ordinary antenna transformer. The loop is small enough to
fit inside the receiver cabinet, leaving no unsightly wires dangling behind.
In addition, since the loop antenna is part of the receiver, a table-model can
be carried around.
An improved version of the loop antenna, called a ferri-loopstick (B), uses a

small, compact coil with a special powdered-iron core, producing a very
high Q. This permits weak signals to develop a reasonably-high signal volt-
age in the voltage gain of the series -resonant, tuned-rf circuit.
4-37
SPECIAL SUPERHETERODYNE CIRCUITS
Pushbutton Tuning
5
s o 7 o 14 16
push-button tuning
mechanical linkage causes mechanical linkage to push-buttons

all tuning capacitors controls different positions of cores
to vary simultaneously
and to a precise amount pushbuttons 1 — (adjustable for
» l
(mechanical linkage \ each button)

amplifier converter oscillator
r-f amplifier converter oscillator
converter
H
converter circuit
pressing a
push-button
grounds
capacitors
{ t
and completes push- ft
tuned circuits. buttons
I AAA/— 1
f oscillator
circuit
In most areas, there are only a few popular stations.

Pushbuttons are used
without turning the manual tuning control. Push-
to locate them instantly,
buttons are popular in automobile receivers, but have almost disappeared
in
home radios. Pushbutton tuning either causes the inductive or capacitive

component of a tuned circuit to vary in value, or places different values of C
in parallel with one fixed L (or vice versa) for the station.
The mechanical
arrangements in pushbutton tuning are complex. They produce a specific
L-C circuit variation or change when the button is depressed.
power amplifier
amplifier
detector
a-f
diode
AVC
amplifier
i-f
converter
-
4-39
SPECIAL SUPERHETERODYNE CIRCUITS
AC -DC Superheterodyne Receiver
superheterodyne re-
Having discussed the component parts of the modern
ceiver, we can examine the entire unit. On the opposite page is a five -tube
receiver commonly found in table model radios.
AC -DC superheterodyne
provides
Four circuits handle the signal; one, the 35W4 halfwave rectifier,
Signal processing starts at the an-
the operating plate and screen voltages.
circuit, which is a loop antenna acting as an inductance in paraUel
tenna input
frequency in the
with Cl. This antenna input circuit times to the desired
providing the necessary input voltage to the r-f grid of the
broadcast band
oscillator grid, grids
12BE6 converter. Grid 1 of the converter acts as the
a screen and oscillator plate. The feed-
2 and 4, tied together, act as both
tank circuit is magnetically coupled to the winding in
back type oscillator's
the cathode circuit. The screen grid of this tube reaches
B+ by being tied
The tubes in this receiver may have the screen operating
directly to its line.
at approximately the same voltage as the plate which
makes this arrangement
kc. The
economical. The plate circuit of the 12BE6 is tuned to the i-f, 455
i-f amplifier cir-
signal is fed by magnetic coupling to the input of the 12BA6
Through magnetic
cuit. Here the signal receives extreme amplification.
output transformer, the i-f signal is fed to the input of the
coupling of the i-f
together. The
diode section of the 12AV6. Note: the diode plates are tied
so most manufacturers tie these plates to-
circuit does not use delayed avc,
Sometimes the lower plate is grounded or tied to the cathode. The
gether.
with the audio
detector load is also used as the volume control potentiometer,
and fed the triode section of the 12AV6. The high
voltage taken from there to
the diode load represents the takeoff point for the avc line, which is
side of
i-f amplifier and
fed through the R-C avc filter to the control grids of the
audio voltage amplifier is fed to the 50C5 power
converter. The output of the
The output trans-
amplifier which drives the permanent magnet loudspeaker.
former provides the necessary impedance match between the higher imped-
coil of the
ance plate circuit of the 50C5 and the lower impedance voice
loudspeaker.
The 35W4 halfwave rectifier provides the necessary plate and screen volt-
is fed to the plate
ages. Maximum B+, taken from the cathode of the 35W4,
power amplifier. The balance of the B voltages are taken from the
of the
series -string ar-
output of the R-C filter. Note that the heaters are in a
entire line voltage dropped across all the heaters. The
rangement, with the
across part of its tapped heater for connection of the
35W4 has provision
pilot light.Most ac-dc receivers contain additional components, such as
decoupling networks and voltage dropping resistors. This circuit represents
the utmost in simplicity for a five -tube ac-dc
superheterodyne receiver.
might now ask how do more elaborate superheterodyne receivers

differ
We use
from this basic circuit. For one thing, more elaborate receivers will
full-wave rectifier power supply which permits higher plate
a transformer-type
action. In
and screen voltages and greater voltage regulation arid filtering
receiver would have one or perhaps two stages of r-f arnpli-
addition, a better
separate oscillator
fication preceding the converter. It might also have a
oscillator.
mixer circuit which would provide greater frequency stability of the
two or even three stages of i-f amplification,
Furthermore, it might have
for much higher gain and selectivity.
l
Electron -Ray Tube
The electron-ray tube, or "magic eye", contains two sets of elements; one of
which is a triode amplifier, the other a cathode -ray indicator. The plate of
the triode section is internally connected to the ray-control electrode (A) so
that the voltage on the ray-control electrode varies as plate voltage varies
with the applied signal. The ray-control electrode is a flat, metal strip
placed relative to the cathode to deflect some of the electrons emitted from
the cathode. The electrons that strike the anode, or target, cause it to
fluoresce, or give off light. The electron deflection caused by the ray-control
electrode prevents electrons from striking part of the target; thus, a wedge-
shaped shadow is produced on the target. The size of this shadow is deter-
mined by the voltage on the ray-control electrode. When this electrode is at
approximately the same potential as the fluorescent anode, the shadow dis-
appears.
If the ray-control electrode is less positive than the anode, a shadow appears,
the width of which is dependent upon the voltage on the ray-control electrode
with respect to the anode. If the tube is calibrated, it may be used as a volt-
meter, when rough measurements will suffice. The magic-eye tube is used
principally as a tuning indicator in receiving sets and as a balance indicator
in bridge circuits.
SPECIAL SUPERHETERODYNE CIRCUITS 4-41
The Electron-Ray Circuit
Shadow angle width depends on the voltage between the ray-control electrode
and ground, compared to the voltage between an electric field gradient point
and ground near the ray-control electrode, (A).
When no signal is applied to the grid of the triode section, the plate current
is 240 pa (B). The voltage on the ray-control electrode equals the plate
supply voltage less the drop through the 1-megohm resistor, or 250-240 = 10
volts. The electric field gradient is assumed to vary as a straight line,
starting at the cathode with zero potential and ending at the anode with a po-
tential of +250 volts with respect to cathode. A point on the electric field
gradient in the vicinity of the ray-control electrode has a potential of +50
volts with respect to ground. Thus, the ray-control electrode is negative
-40
with respect to the field at this point by an amount equal to -(50-10), or
volts. The negative charge repels electrons and the shadow angle is estab-
lished.
In (C), a 5 -volt signal is developed between grid and ground of the triode
section of the magic -eye tube. The plate current is reduced to 200 pa, and
the potential of the ray-control electrode is equal to 250-200, or +50 volts
B+ +250V
B
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION TARGET
WITH NO SIGNAL RAY-CONTROL
'°v ELECTRODE
shadow angle
i
B+ +250V
200 (JO
TARGET
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION 50V
RAY-CONTROL
WITH SIGNAL
5V sov ELECTRODE
no shadow angle
with respect to ground. Since the potential of a point on the electric field
gradient in the immediate vicinity of the ray-control electrode is also +50
volts with respect to ground, there is no difference in potential between the
control electrode and the field. Thus, the control electrode does not repel
electrons, and the shadow angle closes, indicating the signal voltage applied
to the triode grid.
Superheterodyne Alignment
The superheterodyne receiver contains several tuned circuits operating at

different frequencies. For any given station, there is an incoming r-f signal,
an oscillator signal, and a fixed i-f signal. For maximum gain and minimum
distortion, it is important that all these tuned circuits be properly adjusted.
When they are, the receiver is said to be aligned. Alignment is necessary in
two situations. One, where the set is initially put together by the manufac-
turer; in this case, alignment is done directly at the factory. Second, after a
set has been in use for some time, due to vibrations from the loudspeaker
and changes in temperature and humidity, component values may change
slightly and detune a circuit.
Alignment generally begins with the adjustment of the i-f amplifier. Most
receivers give the i-f directly on the cabinet or chassis. Should the i-f be
455 kc, a signal generator timed to that frequency and containing an audio
r
600 kc— 1400 kc 1 r
(modulated) |
I'f
| ]
First, align the-
signal
tor |
Si ;
then, the |§
adjust for maximum
ALIGNMENT INVOLVES THE ADJUSTMENT

OF ALL TUNED CIRCUITS
FOR OPTIMUM SENSITIVITY AND SELECTIVITY.
modulation is connected to the r-f grid of the converter. The various tuned
circuits of the i-f amplifier are then adjusted, starting from the secondary of
the output transformer to the primary of the input i-f transformer. Adjust-
ment is made for maximum output. It is usually desirable to keep the volume
low so that changes in volume are easily noticed. At maximum response
from i-f alignment, the signal generator is set at the high end of the broad-
cast band, usually about 1400 kc, and connected to the antenna terminals.
The tuning dial is turned to 1400 kc and the tuning capacitors or inductors
aligned for maximum output in the r-f amplifier, converter, and oscillator
stages. The signal generator and tuning dial are set at the low end of the
band, 600 kc, and adjustment for maximum response is made with the low-
frequency padder capacitor. Manufacturers give precise alignment pro-
cedures for their receivers that must be followed carefully.
SUMMARY 4-43
The superheterodyne receiver differs essentially from the TRF receiver in

thatchanges the frequency of the received signal to a lower, fixed
it
to operate
value, at which the tuned amplifying circuits can be designed
with maximum stability, selectivity, and sensitivity.
When a modulated radio signal is heterodyned with a locally generated signal,
the modulation
the envelope of the resulting beat frequency (i-f), contains
of the original radio signal. .
Two r-f signals of different frequency interact only if they

are combined in a
mixer with a nonlinear characteristic. Of the many frequencies produced
mixer stage, only the difference frequency (i-f) of the original sig-
in the
nals is selected by a tuned circuit in the mixer-output stage.
selectivity
The principle of frequency conversion inherently provides higher
than a TRF receiver.
of a superheterodyne receiver are the antenna, the
r-f
The basic components
local os-
amplifier, the frequency converter consisting of the mixer and
cillator, the i-f amplifier, the detector, the a-f
amplifier, and the re-
producer.
and gain of the superheterodyne receiver is con-
The selectivity, fidelity,
trolled largely in the intermediate amplifier stages.
The i-f transformer usually consists of two coupled resonant circuits, whose
bandpass characteristics depend on the degree of coupling. If the cou-
pling is greater than the critical value, a double-peaked resonance
curve
results, which provides substantially uniform response between
peaks.
Most superheterodyne receivers use a diode detector, because its linear
characteristics give it high signal-handling ability with low distortion. A
diode detector, however, has poor selectivity and low sensitivity.
An avc circuit derives a negative bias voltage proportional to the carrier
amplitude by rectifying the carrier with a diode detector.
Push-button tuning permits quick selection of any one of a number of fixed-
tuned stations; it can work mechanically or electrically.
Manual sensitivity control is often incorporated into the r-f stage in the form
the grids of
of a variable cathode resistor, providing variable bias to
remote cutoff amplifier tubes.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State an important advantage of a superheterodyne over a TRF receiver.

2. State briefly the steps involved in the reception of an AM signal by a
superheterodyne receiver.
3. Describe the process of frequency conversion in a mixer stage.
4. Give two methods by which the local oscillator voltage can be injected
into the mixer stage.
5. Define critical coupling. Explain what happens when coupling is greater.
6. Explain the operation and advantage of the diode
detector in a super-
7. What is the purpose of avc and how is it used?
8. What is an image frequency?
9. Describe briefly the alignment of a superheterodyne
receiver.
10. Explain the operation of an electron-ray circuit.
11. What is the advantage of a mixer-oscillator circuit
over a converter?
12. What is the function of a trimmer capacitor?
4-44 SPECIAL RECEIVERS
Portable and Automobile Receivers
Particular consideration must always be given to the power supply of port-

able receivers. Special circuitry and tubes are used with the usual 117-volt
60-cycle supply. Some portable receivers use tubes having 1. 5-volt parallel-
connected filaments, and are driven from a 1.5-volt battery combined with a
POWER SUPPLIES FOR PORTABLE RECEIVERS

1R5 1U4 IU5 3v er tap
Vr;
ilv
IR5 lu4 IU5 3y4
+ to plates
and
±1 ±1 —I “ ||||^
BATTERY PORTABLE
W T l
+
'“and
. to plates
- parallel filaments
screens
BATTERY PORTABLE
7.5 V 90v screens
- series filaments
Vibrator 250 V AC to
WNNlNJ-
> >J» J> INJ
12V DC
o o o m ^
Rectifier w O) 111 fll w for plates
^
12
storage
battery
T V
A
12BA6
C0nve(|}| 0M |
12BE6
£4
12BA6 12AV6 12AQ5
mo bile*
4. %.
poster supply tubes operate with 12 volts
and
screens
"B" voltage
67. 5- or 90-volt battery for plate and screen voltages. Some portables
have
filaments connected in series, driven by a 7. 5- or 9 -volt battery. Others
of
the ac-dc -battery type use a conventional power supply with provision
for
switching to battery operation.
Automobile receivers require special consideration. Because they are sit-

uated close to ignition noise, they must be well shielded. The antenna is
relatively small, and they often operate in poor reception areas, as between
cities, which calls for high sensitivity. Because of these requirements,
"auto"
radios have many stages of amplification, and very often use a preselector or
r-f amplifier stage. The power supply for these units is, of course, the
car's 6- or 12-volt battery (actually 6.6 or 13.2 volts; 2.2 volts to
a fully
charged cell). Originally, all auto radios used a vibrator-type power supply
that converted the dc from the battery to ac that could be fed
to transformers.
However, with the recent development of tubes having 12 -volt heaters and
requiring only 12 volts on the plate and screen, no power supply other than
the battery is needed. Transistors are also used (Vol.
5) that work directly
from the storage battery.
4-45
SPECIAL RECEIVERS
The Superregenerative Receiver
An effective simple receiver of high-frequency CW (continuous wave) signal

When the detector oscillates, the am-
is the superregenerative detector.
oscillation is controlled by the amplitude of the r-f input signals.
plitude of
the quench oscillator,
The time that the detector oscillates is controlled by
and applies an additional signal to the detector
which operates at about 20 kc
oscillates; when negative,

grid. When this signal is positive, the detector
detector oscillates-, a voltage pulse is
the detector is cut off. Each time the
amplitude of this pulse is
developed in the plate circuit of the detector. The
s
signal during the time of the

controlled by the amplitude of the incoming r-f
therefore, vary in amplitude according to the
pulse. Successive pulses,
only the audio voltage is
modulation envelope. Cl filters these pulses so that
applied to the primary of the output transformer.
The quench must operate above the audio range to prevent the
oscillator
of the r-f mpu
quench frequency from being heard in the output. The ratio
100 to 1, to prevent a
frequency to the quench frequency must be at least
large amount of noise from developing. This means that the minimum r-f a
kc. Superregen-
which this type receiver will operate satisfactorily is 2000
detectors have high sensitivity, but poor linearity. They have poor
erative
circuit. Their signal-
selectivity because the grid current loads the tuned
handling ability is very good.
4-46 SPECIAL RECEIVERS
The Transceiver
The transceiver is a piece of electronic equipment that operates as both a re-

ceiver and a transmitter. In this type unit many of the tubes are used for
both receiving and transmitting. Transceivers are often used as portable
equipment, such as mobile radio for amateur use, and for "citizens band"
radio, when the equipment should be as light as possible. The transceiver
uses three general common circuits: A common antenna, for transmitting
and receiving; a common power supply, for the transmitter and for the re-
ceiver; and many of the tubes serve both a transmitting and receiving func-
tion. The transceiver has a transmit-receive switch which places the neces-
TRANSMITTER
sary circuits in their proper position. Since a circuit performs two func-
tions, its design must represent a compromise. Atransceiver will rarely
give the quality of performance of a separate transmitter-receiver combina-
tion.
In a typical transceiver the receiver's audio amplifier system serves as the

modulation system for the transmitter; the r-f amplifier and mixer of the
receiver can serve as the r-f amplifiers of the transmitter; the receiver's
local oscillator can serve as the generator of carrier waves in the trans-
mitter; or, a receiver's regenerative detector can serve as the transmitter's
oscillator.
4-47
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS
Communications Receivers
superheterodyne re-
Fundamentally, a communications receiver is a basic
most often works with very weak
ceiver with special circuits. Because it
microvolt) requires an extremely high order of sensi-
signals (less than 1 it
stages of r-f and i-f amplification are
tivity. To add sensitivity, additional
communications receiver is rarely used for reception of music;

it
used. A (CW) code sig-
reception of speech and continuous wave
is used mainly for
nals. Different type signals require different
bandwidth response curves m
the i-fstage tuned circuits, necessitating some form of bandwidth control.
the desired sijpial

A tuning indicator is used primarily to aid in selecting
The nature the tuning indicator lends itself to
from among many others. of
doubling as a signal-strength indicator. For detection
of CW and smgle side-
called the beat frequency oscillator
band signals, an additional oscillator,
A disturbing factor is the high susceptibility to noise
(BFO), is required.
modulated signal,
due to high receiver sensitivity. Noise is an amplitude-
cannot be removed, but it can be limited
riding in with the desired signal; it
the desired signal. To ease
in amplitude preventing it from drowning out
circuits are used to quiet the audio
periods of extended listening, squelch
being received. Upon transmission
output of the receiver when no signal is
the received signal automatically releases the

squelch circuit, allowing the
audio output can be
detected signal to pass through the audio circuits. The
applied to either a loudspeaker or earphones.
Dual Conversion
The use of a 455 kc i-f becomes a problem when a communications receiver

is operating at high frequencies. The problem is trying to keep the local
oscillator tuned exactly to the difference frequency above or below a typical
high value of frequency such as 24.320 me. In this example the local oscil-
lator, if tuned above the incoming signal, must be set to 24.775 me. At
this frequency the slightest oscillator drift would result in a wrong value dif-
ference frequency. An upwards shift of 1/2 of 1% in the local oscillator fre-
IF
AMPLIFIER
5 me
TUNEABLE
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
5.455 me
19.32 me
quency is equal to a shift of 123.875 kc. The new local oscillator frequency
of approximately 24. 899 me would provide an i-f of 579 kc, completely
out of
the i-f range. To overcome this problem dual conversion is used.
The block diagram shows the high frequency r-f signal mixing with the local
oscillator to produce a high value i-f of 5 me. The wide bandpass of the
5-mc i-f covers any normal drift of the local oscillator. The output is ien'
mixed with 3. fixed oscillator signal at 5.455 me to produce a second and final
i-f of 455 kc. Dual conversion permits increased gain and
relaxes the need
for special oscillator frequency control. It also aids image rejection, which
can be troublesome at high frequencies.
l .
4-49
Multiband Operation
MULTIBAND OPERATION
COIL SWITCHING COIL TAPPING

&
;
| high ?
» frequency
S medium
Hi
fe frequency
low
1
,
frequency
m i
'•
i
ag*
8
mm mm
3-GANG WAFER SWITCH
multiseetion twitch permits
twitching many eircuitt timultaneoutly
com-
Communication receivers require extensive coverage. The average
receiver operates from just above the broadcast band to 30 me
munication
me.
Some receivers include the broadcast band, others range to as high as 50
higher frequencies, various methods are used to lower the
To tune in these
switch in variable
value of the tuned-circuit components. It is difficult to
coils are switched in, or, for
tuning capacitors for each band. Different
tapped for the lower values of inductance nec-
economic reasons, one coil is
essary for high-frequency tuned circuits.
4-50 COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS
Bandspread Tuning
Tuning in a station in the broadcast band results in no apparent crowding.

Since each station is at least 10 kc apart, they are relatively easy to tune.
The broadcast band starts at 535 kc and ends at 1605 kc; thus the entire band
is 1070 kc wide. Switching to a typical short wave band, the dial may read 6
me at one end and 18 me at the other. This results in a bandwidth of 12,000
kc on the same length of dial used for tuning the broadcast band. It becomes
difficult to select stations, as each slight turn of the dial may pass the
desired signal unnoted.
To overcome this difficulty, bandspread tuning is used. Mechanical and elec-

trical bandspread tuning are used. Mechanical -bandspread tuning uses a
special dial with vernier tuning (fine timing). The dial may take up to 100
ELECTRICAL BANDSPREAD TUNING USING SMALL VALUE VARIABLE CAPACITOR IN PARALLEL
turns of the tuning knob to one turn of the variable-tuning capacitor. This
very fine tuning permits reception throughout the band, removing the possi-
bility of passing the desired station.
Electrical-bandspread timing uses a small value variable -tuning capacitor

wired in parallel with the main variable -tuning capacitor. Using the main
variable -tuning capacitor, the dial is set to approximately the desired fre-
quency. Varying the small value variable-tuning capacitor (called the band-
spread capacitor) will, in effect, be making very small changes in the value
of the main variable-tuning capacitor. This permits very fine timing about the
setting of the dial.
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS 4-51
Adjustable Bandwidth, Crystal Filters
200 cycles)
Timing CW signals requires tuning over a narrow (approximately
band of frequencies since the CW signal is an interrupted carrier frequency.
signals the i-f
For such sharp tuning, and to remove close -by interfering
special filter. The band-
stage will often have variable bandwidths, and a
width is varied mechanically by moving the primary and secondary windings
or electrically by loading the
of the i-f transformer closer or farther apart;
across the tuned circuit to lower the Q. Varying
i-f circuits with a resistor
the bandwidth is helpful when nominal interference is present. A crystal
and provide extremely sharp
filter circuit is used to vary the bandwidth
tuning.
at its res-
A crystal filter makes use of the very high Q of a quartz crystal
A crystal cut to resonate at 455 kc and placed in a bridge
onant frequency.
circuit will provide the response curves shown. When the
phasing capacitor
value of the capacitance of the crystal holder the circuit
is set to equal the ,
is balanced and the resonant curve is a symmetrical,

high-Q, very narrow
bandpass curve (A) . Adding or subtracting some capacitance in the circuit
of the
by varying the phasing capacitor will introduce a notch on either side
can be
resonance curve (B andC). By careful tuning an interfering signal
high gain
placed in the notch for rejection while at the same time providing
frequencies. Varying the value of the capacit-
to a narrow band of desired
or in the grid tank circuit varies the overall bandpass of the filter.
Q Multiplier
Crystal filters can be difficult to tune. Adjusting the phasing control also
has an effect on the bandwidth. The Q multiplier circuit takes advantage of
controlled regeneration to increase the Q of a tank circuit, peaking a signal,
or it can use the same tank circuit as a trap to remove a signal.
Positive feedback from plate to grid of VI is controlled to increase circuit

gain, just short of breaking into oscillation. Much of the resistive loss of
NORMAL
M-F BANDPASS
BANDPASS
. SELECTIVITY
\ ADJUSTED
BY R1
Q MULTIPLIER FREQUENCY SELECTION

ACTING AS A PEAKING FILTER
BY TUNING Cl
the tank circuit is made up by the gain of the tube. Since Q = XjjR, and R
is very low in this circuit, the result is a very high Q circuit equivalent to
that found in crystal filters.
Connecting the Q multiplier to the plate of the i-f amplifier places a high-Q,
high-impedance tank circuit in parallel with the primary of i-f transformer
Tl. This places an extremely narrow bandpass filter ahead of Tl.
To vary
the bandwidth of the filter, the gain of VI is varied by the cathode bias
ad-
justment R1 (A). Cl tunes the tank circuit to the i-f, or, if desired, any-
where within the i-f bandpass (B). This allows selection of a desired signal
within the i-f bandpass without re-tuning the receiver. To overcome
losses
in the interconnecting cable, inductor LI times the capacitance
of the con-
necting coaxial cable and associated capacitor to parallel resonance at the
i-f.
4-53
Q Multiplier (Cont'd)-Null Circuit
In place of
Insertion of amplifier V2 inverts the action of the Q
multiplier.
combined circuit now offers negative feedback over the

positive feedback, the
narrow band frequencies. The combined circuit becomes a series
same of
a series reso-
resonant circuit parallel to the primary of Tl. At resonance
nant circuit is effectively a short circuit to ground.
previously peaked the

At the same frequencies in which the high-Q circuit
frequencies, now acts as a short circuit. The narrow band
narrow band of it
l-F
Q MULTIPLIER
ACTING AS A NULL FILTER
of frequencies are notched or nulled out of the i-f bandpass. As before,

tuning Cl moves the notch across the bandpass. In this manner an interfering
it easier to copy the
signal within the i-f bandpass can be nulled, making
a peaking circuit SI is closed, bypassing
desired signal. To resume action as
inverter V2.
S Meters
The original function of an indicating meter was to aid in tuning. However,

its position in thereceiver circuits allows it to provide an indication of the
signal strength of the received signal. To gauge the signal strength the
meters are divided into S units. Most often the circuit is designed so that a
l-F AMPLIFIER
signal of 50 microvolts at the antenna input will provide an S9 reading on the

meter; stronger signals are read in db above S9.
Reception and strength of a signal is indicated by using the change in plate

current in an i-f amplifier tube to which avc bias voltage is being applied.
In the circuit shown, a backwards -reading meter is placed in parallel with
cathode bias resistor Rj^. The avc bias voltage developed when a receiver is
tuned to a signal reduces plate current, causing a smaller voltage drop
across Rjj, and a reduced reading in the parallel placed meter.
A reduced reading on a normal meter causes the needle to swing to the left.
To indicate reception of a signal an S meter needle should swing to the right.
A backward or "right zero" reading meter is constructed so that the zero-
current setting, (and the pointer), is at the right side of the scale when no
current is passing through the meter. The scale is printed normally, with 0
on the left. With no signal (no avc bias) the resulting high plate current
causes the needle to swing full scale (zero scale reading). As a signal is
tuned in the avc, bias results in reduced plate current, causing the needle to
swing toward the right. A variable resistor placed in series with the meter
permits calibrating for zero scale reading with no signal applied.
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS' 4-55
S Meters (Cont’d)
MEASURING SIGNAL BRIDGE TYPE CIRCUIT MEASURES SIGNAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH DIRECTLY
FROM AVC BUS
incoming
signal
makes grid
more negative,
reducing plate
current flow
and voltage
drop across
cathode
resistor with no signal input
*
— these voltages
are equal
Since the avc bias bus varies directly with signal strength, it
would seem an
ideal spot to place a meter, The avc bias voltage however is
derived from a
low-current, high -impedance source. Placing a meter across this
source
would load or place a near short circuit across the source. A meter am-
plifier circuit is used to isolate the meter from the bus,
preventing the AVC
bus from being loaded. The meter used is a backward-reading meter
with the
reading on the left. The variable resistor in series with the
zero-scale
meter is used to set it to read zero on the scale with maximum plate
current,
Reception of a signal causes an increased avc
as set by no signal reception.
current
bias on the amplifier grid, reducing plate current. The reduced plate
indicating an
flow through the meter causes the needle to swing to the right,
increase in signal strength.
circuit; it also
A differential amplifier can be used as a sensitive S meter
good measure of linearity throughout the entire signal range • It
provides a
bias (and resulting fixed-value plate
consists of two triodes, one with a fixed
conducting equally
current), the other with variable bias. With both triodes
the meter wall
there is no difference in potential between the two cathodes;
A
signal causing an increase in the avc bias applied
read zero on the scale.
VIA causes its cathode to be less positive than the cathode of
to the grid of
cathodes is indicated by the
VlB. The difference in potential between the
A
variable resistor is placed in series with the
swing of the meter pointer.
current flow to the maximum meter value. To set the meter
meter to limit
to read zero with no signal, the bias of VlB is set to
provide no difference in
potential between the. cathodes. An advantage of this circuit is its use of a
normal forward-reading meter.
i
Beat-Frequency Oscillator
—
BEAT-FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR
CW
CODE I-F \
SIGNAL 1 kc
AMPLIFIER
MW III Mill! 455 kc AUDIO CODE SIGNAL OUTPUT
^455 kc |
J
456 kc >-f BFO CIRCUIT

AMPLIFIER
BEAT K
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
(450-460 kc)
In voice communication, the r-f carrier is modulated to convey the intelli-

gence. In code communication, as the International Morse code, the r-f
carrier has a constant amplitude, but the carrier is interrupted in accordance
with the code. When a code signal is received, amplified, and fed to the sec-
ond detector, the r-f bypass capacitor filters the interrupted r-f signal,
resulting in _no output at the loudspeaker. To enable code reception, often
referred to as CW
(continuous wave), we must beat the incoming carrier
against another signal to develop an audible beat frequency.
A beat frequency oscillator (bfo) is used. This oscillator tunes from approxi-
mately 5 kc below, to 5 kc above the i-f of the receiver. The output of the bfo
is coupled either inductively or capacitively to the last i-f amplifier, or the
second detector When the code signal is received, and converted to the i-f
.
of 455 kc, it beats with the output of the bfo, producing a difference frequency
or beat note at an audio frequency at the detector. This is then fed to the
audio amplifier. The frequency of the bfo can be varied to change the tone of
the beat frequency, permitting the operator to select the tone most pleasant
for listehing, or a tone that will be most prominent among interfering signals.
Assuming an input i-f signal of exactly 455 kc, with the bfo set for 450 or 460
kc, the audible beat note will be 5 kc. As the bfo frequency is brought closer
to 455 kc the beat-note frequency becomes lower and lower. Atexactly455 kc
there is no beat note; this is zero beat.
When using the bfo, the avc is usually removed by a switch that grounds the
avc line, permitting the r-f and i-f amplifiers to operate at full gain. It pre-
vents the output of the bfo from developing a bias voltage that would be fed
back to the r-f and i-f amplifiers, reducing the receiver gain.
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS 4-57
Noise Limiters
The high sensitivity of communications receivers creates a high background

noise level. Most annoying is static and man-made noise from motors, auto-
mobile ignition systems, oil-burner ignition systems, etc. Since the noise
frequencies are mixed with signal frequencies it is difficult to separate them.
SERIES NOISE LIMITER
ACTS AS
AN OPEN CIRCUIT
TO HIGH-AMPLITUDE
NOISE PULSE
teriet
A common method is to limit the amplitude of the detected signal applied to

the audio amplifiers. This in turn limits the amplitude of a noise signal,
preventing it from drowning out the desired signal.
The circuit shown places the noise limiter tube in series with the detector
output, and the input to the audio amplifiers. Because of this it is called a
series noise limiter.
The cathode of V2 is set negative in respect to the plate by the value desired
to act as a limit on the output signal. In this condition V2 is essentially a
closed switch, allowing the detected signal to pass to the audio amplifiers.
Reception of a noise pulse develops a large voltage across detector load Rl.
Capacitor Cl couples the increased signal voltage to the plate of V2. The
high-value negative pulse places the plate of V2 negative in respect to the
cathode. V2 acts as an open circuit and there is no output to the audio am-
plifiers. When the signal returns to its original level diode V2 again conducts
to pass the audio signal.
Squelch Circuit
When operating a receiver on a fixed frequency over an extended period of

time the constant background of noise and undesired signals can be very
annoying. A squelch circuit automatically cuts off the undesired audio output.
When the desired signal is received, the squelch circuit allows the signal to
be amplified and passed through the audio circuits.
With no signal being received, there is no avc voltage on the grid of the
squelch tube. The squelch tube conducts and its plate voltage drops. The
/ > ACTION OF THE SQUELCH CIRCUIT

CUTS OFF A-F AMPLIFIER
WHEN THE DESIRED SIGNAL IS NOT RECEIVED
A-F
grid bias AMPLIFIER
controlled by
avc voltage
OUTPUT
SQUELCH
TUBE S
SQUELCH
AVC o-W ADJUST
desired
signal /
produces
negative
bias
low plate voltage, through the connecting resistor to the grid of the audio am-
plifier cuts off the audio amplifier, and there is no audio output.
With a signal being received, the negative avc voltage developed is applied to
the grid of the squelch tube, reducing plate current flow and increasing the
plate voltage. The increased plate voltage places a more positive bias on the
audio amplifier allowing it to act as a normal amplifier to provide an audio
output. Varying the screen voltage of the squelch tube varies the point at
which it cuts off the audio amplifier.
SINGLE SIDEBAND 4-59
Single Sideband Signal
In previous discussions of AM we learned that sidebands were generated on

either side of the carrier frequency. These sidebands contain the audio
modulating intelligence . It was also learned that each sideband was a mirror
image of the other. One set of sidebands is discarded at the receiver by the
action of demodulation, and the other set filtered to recover the audio intelli-
gence. Detection by a nonlinear device (diode) is similar to that of a mixer;
the carrier beats against one of the sidebands to recover the audio intelli-
gence. The carrier contains no information. Reviewing the three components
of an AMsignal; the lower sideband, carrier, and upper sideband, we find
that all the intelligence is available in either sideband. The other sideband
(it makes no difference, upper or lower) and carrier can be discarded with no
loss of information. The result is a single sideband (SSB) signal.
CONVENTIONAL AND SINGLE SIDEBAND SIGNALS
conventional so •« m signal with sidebands / * apart
Z* ‘O
» -O K GO O' •— CN CO o
O' O' O' O- O' o
o O o o
*o
o o
O' O' O; O' O' O' O o o o o
O'
CN
O'
CN
O'
CN
O'
CN
O'
CN
O' o
CO
o o o o o
(N CO CO CO CO CO
SINGLE SIDEBAND SIGNAL

USING LOWER SIDEBANDS USIN6 UPPER SIDEBANDS
Power is conserved in a SSB transmitter; there is no power wasted on the

useless carrier and duplicate sideband. A SSB transmitter can operate at
peak power, whereas AM transmitters must operate at average power. Stated
another way, a conventional 100 watt AM transmitter, converted to use its
power on only one sideband, can provide up to 400 watts of peak power. In
addition to conserving power, a SSB signal also conserves spectrum space.
The SSB signal requires one-half the spectrum space taken by an AM signal.
High stability is required of SSB transmitters and receivers. In a SSB re-
ceiver a substitute carrier has to be provided for detection. If the transmitted
signal frequency shifts it will be quickly noticed in the received signal. The
receiver, too, must have a high order of stability to prevent distorting the
detected signal.
4-60 SINGLE SIDEBAND
Balanced Modulation
A basic understanding of the generation of a SSB signal will aid in under-

standing the problems of SSB reception. The main problems are removal or
suppression of the carrier and one sideband. The carrier is most often sup-
pressed by a balanced modulator circuit. The balanced modulator has two
inputs and one output. There is no output unless both input signals are ap-
plied together. Applying only the r-f carrier signal applies the signal in equal
value and polarity to the grids of each tube .
(This causes equal amounts of
plate current to flow in opposite directions, cancelling each other, resulting

in no r-f carrier output signal.) Applying the audio signal causes the circuit
to act as a conventional push-pull amplifier. However, the plate circuit is
timed to the r-f carrier. With no appreciable plate load, there is no audio
output signal.
Applying both the r-f carrier and audio signals results in the audio signal
providing equal but opposite polarity signals at the grid of each tube, placing
one grid positive and one grid negative. With the r-f carrier also applied, it
places the same polarity signal at both grids. When the carrier places a
negative signal on the grid of the tube that has a positive audio signal the
result is cancellation of both signals. The negative carrier signal on the grid
of the tube with a negative audio signal results in an additive signal. Mixing
both the«a-f and r-f signals generates an output signal composed of the car-
rier frequency plus or minus the audio frequency. There will be no output at
either the audio or carrier frequency, only the two sideband frequencies.
This type of signal is called a double sideband (DSB) signal.
SINGLE SIDEBAND 4-61
Sideband Removal
It is necessary to suppress one of the sidebands to obtain a SSB signal from

the output of the balanced modulator. The two most popular methods are
filtering and phasing. A crystal filter circuit of the type shown is called a
lattice filter. Two pairs of crystals are used, each pair timed 1 kc apart to
provide a 2-kc bandpass. The filter bandpass is selected to match the fre-
quencies to be passed. Most speech frequencies are centered within a 0-
2000-cycle range. A suppressed carrier frequency of 8 me, with the lower
4"
USB
sideband suppressed, would have upper sideband frequencies 8 — 8.002 me.

A crystal filter with the center frequency tuned to 8.001 me will pass these
frequencies. The frequencies with in the filter's resonant bandpass receive
very little attenuation. At off -resonant frequencies the high value of Xl or
Xc provides high signal attenuation. The steep-slope narrow-bandpass char-
acteristics of a crystal filter makes for an excellent filter for attenuation and
isolation of undesired sidebands.
Removing a sideband by phasing is done by applying out -of -phase signals to

miving circuits. As shown in the block diagram the modulating audio signal
is applied to a phase-shifting network supplying two equal-amplitude, 90° -
out -of -phase signals. An r-f signal is also applied to a phase-shifting network
to supply two equal-amplitude, 90 °-out-of -phase signals. The two out-of-
phase r-f and audio signals are applied to two balanced modulators. The out-
puts of the modulators provide two DSB signals, with the sidebands of each
output 90° -out -of -phase. The out -of -phase signals are combined, the two
upper sideband (USB) signals being 180° out of phase cancel each other. The
two lower sideband (LSB) signals are in phase to add and produce a SSB sig-
nal. To reverse the output to an upper sideband signal the audio signals to
the balanced modulators are reversed.
4-62 SINGLE SIDEBAND
Single Sideband Reception
Communications receivers with stable oscillators and bandspread tuning can

be used to receive SSB signals. The prime consideration is reinsertion of a
carrier to beat with the incoming SSB signal for detection. This can be done
by using the receiver bfo as a substitute carrier. The output level of the bfo
is usually fixed at a preset level for detection of CW signals. Reception of
SSB signals requires a higher level output than the average bfo can supply.
To overcome this the level of the SSB signal at the detector is reduced by
lowering the gain of the receiver. The incoming signal can be tuned to place
the injected bfo frequency as close as possible to the carrier frequency. For
example, assume the i-f signal to consist of the lower sideband; but the bfo
calibration is defective. At the center position of the bfo tuning knob the out-
put frequency is 456 kc instead of 455 kc (A). With a 1-kc modulating note as
the incoming signal, it would produce a lower sideband frequency at 454 kc.
Beating the 454-kc signal with the 456 kc bfo signal would provide a detected
output signal of 2 kc. The speech frequencies of a gruff -voiced person sound
high, providing a false high-pitched tone.
This situation can be corrected in two ways: retuning the local oscillator to
shift the incoming signal frequency to a different value in the i-f stage; or re-
tuning the bfo to place the reinserted carrier at the exact frequency. In re-
tuning the local oscillator the need for good bandspread tuning becomes ap-
parent when trying to tune to exact frequencies at the higher frequency ranges
of the receiver. The slightest turn of the dial may tune over thousands of
cycles. Receivers designed solely for SSB reception use special detector cir-
cuits. Typical is the balanced demodulator, similar in design and operation
to the balanced modulator. A reinserted carrier is applied as one input, and
the i-f signal as the other input, the difference signal is the detected output.
In addition these receivers may use afc to control oscillator drift.
SUMMARY 4-63
Portable radios are designed to operate from a battery power supply.

Many auto radios use a vibrator type power supply so that the 6- or 12-volt
battery voltage can be stepped-up to higher plate and screen voltages.
The superregenerative detector has high sensitivity, but poor selectivity.
A transceiver is an electronic device that combines the functions of a re-
ceiver and a transmitter, with many tubes serving each function.
A communication receiver is generally a highly sensitive unit that can re-
ceive signals over many different frequency bands. It can usually re-
ceive both AM and CW signals through the use of a beat-frequency oscil-
lator.
Dual conversion involves double heterodyning. It is used for high-frequency
signals where a single heterodyning action is not sufficiently stable.
In multiband operation the basic circuitry remains the same for each band;
however, the tuned circuits of each band are changed.
Crystal filters permit extremely sharp tuning, and removal of close-by in-
terfering signals.
The Q multiplier uses controlled regeneration to increase circuit Q.
S meters are used to give an indication of signal strength.
The beat-frequency oscillator (bfo) is used in communication receivers for
the reception of CW signals. It is a local oscillator that "beats" with the
incoming CW to produce an audible signal.
Noise limiters are used to remove sudden bursts of noise from the signal.
Squelch circuits automatically cut off undesired audio output.
Single sideband transmission involves the partial or complete elimination of
all components on one sideband of a carrier of an amplitude-modulated
wave.
A balanced modulator has two inputs and one output. There is no output
unless both input signals are applied together.
The two most popular methods of suppressing a sideband are through filter-
ing and phasing.
Bandspreading is a means of spreading stations in a single band of frequen-
cies over an entire tuning dial.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the operation of a superregenerative detector.
2. What is a transceiver, and what is its advantage?
3. Give some important characteristics of a communications receiver.
4. Explain the operation of an S meter.
5. How does a beat-frequency oscillator permit the reception of a CW
signal ?
6. Explain the operation of a noise limiter.
7. How does a squelch circuit automatically remove undesired signals?
8. Give two advantages of single -sideband reception.
9. Explain the operation of the balanced modulator.
10. How are sidebands removed in single -sideband operation?
11. What is meant by the expression "5 db above S9"?
12. What advantage is obtained by using a Q multiplier?
4-64 FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION
Review of Amplitude Modulation
Before beginning our study of frequency modulation (FM) let us review what
we have learned about amplitude modulation (AM) so that it can serve as a
basis of comparison. Modulation is the means by which intelligence is
superimposed on the CW carrier wave. In amplitude modulation the modu-
lating signal is used to vary the amplitude of the carrier wave. If we observe
the envelope of the carrier, we see that it is an exact replica of the audio or
IN AMPLITUDE MODULATION MODULATION IS IN TERMS

[AM] OF PERCENTAGE
..THE AUDIO SIGNAL
50 %
MODULATES...
modulation
envelope "touches’
reference line
100%
modulation
...TO PRODUCE AN AMPLITUDE-

distortion produced
MODULATED CARRIER
y
mm over
MMLmodulation
the envelope is the sante shape as percentage max _ e min x 100
the audio signal of modulation = 2 e,
modulating frequency. The larger the audio signal, the greater will be the
amplitude fluctuations in the carrier wave; the higher the frequency of the
audio signal, the greater will be the rate of variation of the amplitude of the
carrier wave.
When the carrier wave is modulated, sidebands are produced. If a 1000 kc

carrier is modulated with a 5-kc audio signal, sidebands of 995 kc and
1005 kc are produced. Thus, the intelligence is actually contained in the
sidebands of the radiated radio signal. The standard broadcast band is 10-kc
wide, permitting modulating frequencies up to 5 kc. In certain instances of
"clear channels", the FCC permits modulation of up to 7.5 kc. Modulation
is measured in terms of "percentage", from 0 to 100%. Modulation in ex-
cess of 100% produces severe distortion.
A severe disadvantage of AM is its susceptibility to noise such as static.

Static amplitude modulates a wave, and rides through as interference super-
imposed on the desired audio signal.
.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION 4-65
Frequency Modulation
AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS OF THE

MODULATING SIGNAL
CENTER ABOVE CENTER BELOW CENTER

FREQUENCY CENTER FREQUENCY CENTER FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
In the process of frequency modulation (FM) intelligence is superimposed on

the carrier by varying the frequency of the carrier instead of the amplitude
A frequency-modulated carrier contains no variations in amplitude. All in-
formation is represented by changes in the carrier frequency. We can see
an immediate advantage in FM
- since noise or static amplitude modulates a
signal, noise modulation will not affect the intelligence on the carrier. As
we will study later, FM demodulators respond only to frequency variations,
and not to amplitude variations. Thus, noise will not affect the fidelity of the
FM signal.
Let us examine the FM signal. As the modulating signal increases from zero
to its maximumpositive value at 90°, the carrier increases from its center
or resting frequency to maximum. As the value of the modulating signal is
reduced to zero at 180°, the carrier frequency returns to its center or
resting value. When the modulating signal varies from zero to its negative
peak at 270°, the carrier frequency changes to its lowest value. Finally,
when the modulating cycle is complete at 360°, the carrier is back to its
center frequency. We can thus see the following basic condition: with no
modulating signal, the carrier wave is at a fixed center frequency. As modu-
lation is applied, the carrier frequency will increase and decrease in accord-
ance with positive and negative alternations in the a-f modulation frequency.
t
)
Frequency Modulation - Effect of Audio Amplitude
We have just learned that the frequency modulated wave is at its highest and
lowest frequency when the audio modulating signal is at its maximum positive
and negative points. We see then, the first important characteristic of an
FM wave - its frequency varies in accordance with the amplitude of the modu-
lating signal. The larger the modulating signal, the greater will be the fre-
quency shift or deviation from the center or resting frequency. For instance,
if the center frequency of an FM signal is 90 me, a weak audio signal may
cause a frequency swing of plus and minus 10 kc, or a range of from 90.01
me down to 89 99 me A strong audio signal may cause a frequency swing of
. .
frmutncv swine is in proportion to moto mnnooi

maximum amplitude maximum amplitude
(positive) —
j ( negative
(A)
. ill.
highest frequency
i
V
— small signal— —large signal—

(small frequency swing) (large frequency swing)
plus and minus 50 kc, or a range of from 90.05 me down to 89.95 me. Note
that the amplitude of the audio signal has no effect on the amplitude of the
carrier; it affects only the amount of frequency shift away from the center or
carrier frequency.
The modulating signals (A) and (B) are the same frequency, but the ampli-
tude (A) is less than (B). The louder signal (B) causes a greater frequency
change in the modulated signal (D), shown by increased bunching and spread-
ing, than does the smaller amplitude (A) on the modulated signal at (C). In
(E) and (F) the modulating waves are superimposed on their respective modu-
lated waves.
Frequency Modulation - Effect of Audio Frequency
The amount of frequency deviation during modulation is determined by the

amplitude (loudness) of the audio signal. The audio signal frequency estab-
lishes still another characteristic of the FM signal — the rate at which the
frequency deviation takes place. For example, if a 1-kc signal is used to
modulate a carrier wave, the carrier will swing to its maximum upper and
lower limits 1000 times per second. We have thus established two important
RATE OF FREQUENCY SWING
IS DETERMINED BY MODULATING FREQUENCY
low frequency high frequency

(low rate of deviation) (high rate of deviation)
points in the nature of the FM wave: the amount of frequency deviation indi-
cates the amplitude of the audio signal, and the rate of the frequency deviation
indicates the frequency of the audio signal.
In the illustration, the frequency of the modulating wave at A is less than that
of B, the time intervals tl and t2 being equal. Note the two groups of fre-
quency changes in the modulated wave at C and the three in the wave at D,
which occur in the same period of time. The modulating waves are super-
imposed on their respective modulated carriers in E and F.
FM Sidebands
In AM broadcasting, the limit of modulation is restricted by the value of 100%
modulation. In FM, there is no limit. A hypothetical case might be that of
an FM carrier of 100 me. A modulating signal of sufficient strength
could cause the carrier to shift 10 me either side of the center frequency.
In practice this would not be done, due to the possibility of signal interference.
The FCC has laid down rules regarding the carrier shift. The maximum
AM carrier
modulating
AM SIDEBANDS
frequency =
upper
3000 cps
3 ke) (100 me + 3 kc)
CN U-> 'O K cn
o o
K CO
O O' O'
oo O'
1 o o
O' O' o<
O*
O'
O' O' 0° rnc 1 o o o o
<b d Cb
°t 6 d d o
O' O' O'
Cb
O'
<b
O' |
<>
o* I i o p .o o
8 7 6 5 4 \
2 0 2 4 5 6 7 8
lower sidebands upper sidebands
FM SIDEBANDS
modulating
frequency =
center frequency or carrier frequency 1000 cps

(MANY)
carrier shift should not exceed ± 75 kc from the center or assigned fre-
quency. In addition, the FCC placed a 25-kc guardband on either side of the
carrier's center frequency. Thus, 75 kc either side of the normal fre-
quency equals 150 kc, plus a 25-kc guardband either side, allows a total of
200 kc for one FM channel.
In FMbroadcasting, a modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to

shift above and below its center frequency. While the carrier is shifting,
sidebands are formed. These sidebands are unlimited in number and stretch
out on either side of the carrier's center frequency. Note that some of the
sideband components have larger amplitudes than the carrier frequency and
other sideband components, indicating that most of the power of an sig- FM
nal is in the sidebands. Although the sideband components are unlimited in
number, only 8 on either side of the carrier frequency are shown. This is
due to the fact that in this case all the sidebands from the 9th on are so weak
as to be totally ignored. All these sidebands are generated from one value of
modulating frequency. The distance between each sideband is equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal. An example would be a 1000-cycle mod-
ulating frequency. Assuming a center carrier frequency of 100 me, there
would be sidebands 1 kc apart above and below the center carrier frequency.
These sideband frequencies would be at 100.001 me, 100.002 me, etc., up
to 100.008 me. In addition to the sidebands above, there are sidebands below
the normal carrier frequency at 99.999 me, 99.998 me, etc. down to 99.992
,
me.
FM Sidebands (Cont'd)
In FM, when a carrier is modulated, a number of sidebands form. The num-

ber of sidebands depends upon both the amplitude and the frequency of the
modulating signal. The number of sideband pairs increases as the amplitude
of the modulating signal increases. The number also increases as the fre~
quency of the modulating signal decreases At first glance, the amplitudes
.
of successive sideband pairs contained in an FMwave seem to vary at random.

Actually, these amplitudes are explained by the Bessel functions of higher
mathematics. While the amplitude of many sidebands close to the carrier
TYPICAL
100
*V unmodulated carrier
SPECTRAL J-g S’
center i
DISTRIBUTION |i
£
« frequency
component,
/
1
maximum deviation 75 kc
OF FM i; audio modulation frequency 15 kc
87654321 12345678
|
unmodulated carrier
maximum deviation 75kc

audio modulation frequency 5 kc
O o.
o. “>
£V o — ^ O
«N
K tN ^
•
O I |
o
TO-
19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
k 190 kc *1
frequency
may be less than that of sidebands farther away from the carrier, at a point
sufficiently distant from the carrier the amplitude of sidebands diminishes
and effectively disappears. The effective edge of the bandwidth of an FM
signal is marked by the last sideband pair, the amplitude of which exceeds
1% of the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier. A detailed sideband distri-
bution is shown where the modulating frequency is 15 kc. With 8 pairs of
sidebands the total bandwidth is 240 kc. Using a lower modulating frequency
of 5 kc, we have 19 pairs of sidebands with a total bandwidth of 190 kc.
Modulation Index
BANDWIDTH
F- FREQUENCY OF
MODULATING SIGNAL
4xF
6*F
8*F
12XF
14xF
16XF
18XF
22xF
24XF
26XF
28xF
30XF
32XF
34XF
36xF
38xF
Modulation in FM is generally expressed in terms of the modulation index.

The modulation index is the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulation
frequency. Thus, if the deviation is 10 kc when modulated by a 5-kc signal,
the modulation index is 10/5 or 2. To see how the modulation index is related
to the number of effective sidebands, look at the chart. Note that the number
of effective sideband pairs increases as the modulation index increases. Since
the modulation index is the ratio of deviation to modulation frequency, it can
be increased either by increasing the deviation or by decreasing the modulat-
ion frequency. If the deviation is increased, the bandwidth increases and the
number of effective sideband pairs increases. If the modulation frequency is
decreased, the bandwidth decreases, while the number of effective sideband
pairs increases.
Since a limit is placed on the amount of deviation and maximum modulation

frequency, there is always a corresponding maximum value of the modulation
index for the maximum modulation frequency. This is called the deviation
ratio. For example, in commercial broadcasting, the maximum deviation of
75 kc divided by the maximum modulation frequency of 15 kc results in a
corresponding modulation index (deviation ratio) of 5. However, a lower
amplitude of a 15-kc modulation signal will produce a deviation less than 75
kc and a correspondingly smaller modulation index, while a 75-kc deviation
produced by a modulation whose frequency is less than 15 kc results in a
correspondingly larger modulation index.
FM Noise and Interference
One of the features of frequency modulation is its ability to provide compara-

tively noise -free communication. While some noise can be avoided by op-
erating at higher radio frequencies, this is not an inherent benefit of FM
alone Of greater importance is the characteristic of noise — it amplitude
.
modulates the FM signal. This in itself is no problem since a special FM

receiver circuit called the limiter removes amplitude variations from the
FM signal. In addition, demodulator circuits such as the ratio detector are
relatively insensitive to amplitude variations and would not pass them on,
thus eliminating noise at the loudspeaker. Unfortunately, however, noise also
produces phase variations in anFM signal which effectively represents changes
in modulation.
These phase variations can be made ineffective by using a large frequency

deviation at the transmitter (the modulation index of the signal should be high
at full modulation). If the signal voltage is larger than the noise voltage, the
modulation index produced by the noise voltage will be quite small, perhaps
less than 1. Thus it is much smaller than the modulation index of the signal
|
noise amplitude- || no noise
modulates FM wave? fit also produces
I phase variations?
LIMITER
CIRCUIT
amplitude modulation can he eliminated by limiters in FM receivers
when the frequency deviation is large. For example, if a 500-cycle modulat-

ing signal produces a 50-kc swing, the signal modulation index is 50, 000/500,
or 100. A noise voltage as much as half as large as the signal would produce
a phase deviation only . 005 times as great as the swing produced by the sig-
nal voltage. Thus the noise voltage which is only slightly weaker than the
signal voltage will be almost completely suppressed. The larger the frequency
deviation of the carrier, the greater will the noise be suppressed. We
FM
see also that as long as the signal voltage is greater than the noise voltage,
the signal-to-noise ratio of a wideband FM system is superior to that of a
narrow-band system.
Pre -Emphasis
In ordinary speech and music, the higher audio frequencies are relatively
weak and thus produce small frequency deviations. This in turn further re-
duces the modulation index of the desired signal at higher modulation fre-
quencies. To overcome this, the amplitude of the higher modulation fre-
quencies are increased before the FM transmitter is modulated. This process
is called pre -emphasis. Basically, pre -emphasis involves increasing the
relative strength of the high-frequency components of the audio signal before

it is passed into the modulator. In this way, the undesirable relationship be-
tween the high-frequency program material and the high-frequency noise is
changed, because while the audio is increased, the noise remains the same.
Thus, the high-frequency signal-to-noise ratio is increased. Of course, in
the process, a defect is introduced —the natural balance between the high-
and low-frequency tones in the program material is upset.
This defect is compensated for at the receiver by the de -emphasis network at

the input to the audio amplifier. The de-emphasis circuit reduces the high-
frequency audio signal exactly as the pre-emphasis increased it. However,
it operates on both the high-frequency program
material and the high-fre-
quency noise. Thus, it does not change the improved high-frequency audio
signal-to-noise ratio obtained by pre-emphasis. It does, however, re-estab-
lish the tonal balance of the program material lost in pre -emphasis. In
FM
broadcasting, the higher frequencies are emphasized in accordance with an
R-L circuit having a time constant of 75 usee.
.
The Basic FM Transmitter
Before beginning our study of FM receivers, we can get a better concept of

frequency modulation by observing a basic FM transmitter. The simplest
form of frequency modulation is that of a capacitor microphone, which shunts
the oscillator -tank circuit LC, as shown. The capacitor microphone is
equivalent to an air -dielectric capacitor, one plate of which forms the
diaphragm of the microphone. Sound waves striking the diaphragm compress
A FREQUENCY MODULATED WAVE CAN BE PRODUCED

BY VARYING THE RESONANT FREQUENCY OF
AN OSCILLATOR TANK CIRCUIT.
transmitting
and release it, thus causing the capacitance to vary in accordance with the
spacing between the plates. This type of transmitter is not practicable
(among other reasons, the frequency deviation is very limited), but it is use-
ful in explaining the principles of frequency modulation. The oscillator fre-
quency depends on the inductance and capacitance of the tank circuit LC and,
therefore, varies in accordance with the changing capacitance of the capacitor
microphone
If the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm at a low frequency, the
oscillator frequency is changed only a few times per second. If the sound
frequency is higher, the oscillator frequency is changed more times per
second. When the sound waves have low amplitude, the extent of the oscillator
frequency change from the no-signal, or resting, frequency is small. A loud
a-f signal changes the capacitance a greater amount and, therefore, deviates
the oscillator frequency to a greater degree. Thus, the deviation frequency
of the oscillator tank depends upon the amplitude of the modulating signal.
4-74 FM RECEIVER CIRCUITS
FM Receivers
The receiver is basically the same as the AM receiver we have studied.
FM
It a superheterodyne type and operates commercially on a band of 88 — 108
is
me. Because of these relatively high radio frequencies, there are some
differences in the antenna, r-f amplifier, and mixer circuits. These are
characteristic of high radio frequencies rather than the frequency modulated
BLOCK DIAGRAM COMPARISON OF AM AND FM

SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS
r-f i-f
mixer
amplifier amplifier
ii
456 ke
local a-f
oscillator
detector
amplifier
AM RECEIVER
r-f
amplifier
88-108 me
limiter discrim-
inator
10.7 me
200 ke bandwidth !
local
oscillator
ratio p
detector
i§®
98.7* 118.7 me
may be used instead
FM RECEIVER of limiter-diseriminator
signal. R-f and i-f circuitry is designed for a broad bandpass compared to
the relatively narrow bandpass used by AM
receivers. The principal dif-
ference lies in the demodulator. Because of the nature of the modulation,
special circuits are required to demodulate the FM
signal. In general, these
circuits are more involved than AM
demodulators. The FM audio amplifier
is like the AM except that it is more elaborate and designed to pass a wider
range of audio frequencies. The reason for this is the higher modulating fre-
quencies transmitted by FM stations.
.
FM RECEIVER CIRCUITS 4-75
FM Receiving Antennas
The AM broadcast band operates at frequencies of 535 - 1605 kc. In this
range of frequencies, one wavelength is extremely long. For instance, at 1
me or 1000 kc, one wavelength is equal to 300/1, or 300 meters (1 meter
= 39.37 inches). At the FM band of 88 - 108 me, the wavelength is much
shorter. For example, at 100 me, one wavelength is equal to 300/100, or 3
meters. This short wavelength permits us to use high-gain "tuned" antennas.
Thus, the different antennas used for FM are not a result of the type of
modulation used, but are types used for those high radio frequencies
The type of antennas used for broadcast AM reception are not critical. AM
stations usually produce a strong signal that can be received with most un-
grounded conductors, including a short length of wire connected to the re-
ceiver's antenna terminal, or even a bedspring. FM stations usually operate
at lower power than AM stations, and reception is frequently limited to dis-

tances within sight of the transmitting antennas. (Antennas are discussed in
detail in Volume 6.) The half-wave dipole antenna for the FM receiver, is
tuned: it provides optimum reception at a frequency whose half-wavelength
dimension equals the length of the antenna. The dipole antenna, is composed
of two quarter -wavelength sections in an in-line arrangement, each quarter-
wavelength section insulated from the others and from ground. The half-wave
dipole antenna is highly directional, and its positioning is sometimes critical.
Because the transmitting FM antenna is positioned horizontally, the receiving
antenna should also be positioned horizontally for optimum reception.
Receiving Antenna Dimensions
The FM antenna provides maximum

signal voltage to the receiver input. Un-
like most broadcast AMreceiver antennas, FM receiver antennas act as
resonant lines having standing waves on them. FM antennas are cut to the
required length to receive a signal of sufficient strength to drive the r-f
amplifier. If a single frequency is to be received, the antenna may be de-
signed for maximum response at that frequency. If, however, a band of fre-
quencies is to be received by one antenna, the antenna length must represent
.
Transmission Lines
As with antennas, the transmission line used for AM broadcast reception is

relatively simple often consisting of nothing more than a length of wire. At
frequencies used for broadcasting FM, special transmission lines are used
to conduct a signal from the antenna into the receiver input terminals of the
FM receiver. Many types of transmission lines are commercially available;
two are used predominantly — twin lead parallel lines and flexible coaxial
WAHSMISSIOH LIMES USED WIIH EM MJEMNAS
cable. As with antennas, transmission lines have their own characteristic

impedance (see Volume 6). What is important at the moment is that we realize
the characteristic impedance of the transmission line must match the char-
acteristic impedance of the antenna for optimum FM reception; hence, the
simple dipole antenna should use a 72 -ohm cable. The folded dipole has a
characteristic impedance of about 300 ohms and should be used with a 300-
ohm transmission line. In areas where signal strength is very high, these
considerations are not particularly critical. However, in fringe areas, even
tiny signal losses in the transmission line may reduce the signal -to -noise
ratio to a point where the reception would be poor
Transmission lines connect to the antenna coil in the receiver input which
is usually designed for 300-ohm or 72 -ohm impedance. The receiver input
impedance is usually stated on the cabinet or chassis of an FM receiver. For
optimum reception, the antenna, transmission line, and receiver input im-
pedances should be the same. Special impedance -matching devices are avail-
able where it is necessary to connect a 300-ohm device to a 72-ohm device.
-
R-F Amplifier Circuits
The typical tuned r-fcircuit used at FMfrequencies resembles an AM

circuit
in the schematic, but there are major differences. There are fewer turns in
the coil; the primary may have only one turn, 3/4-inch in diameter, and the
secondary only two and one -half turns. The tuning capacitor’s value may be
only 7.5-20 M,the trimmer's 1.5-5 upf. The frequencies involved re
39 ppf
FM R-F CIRCUIT
quire small values of inductance and capacitance, bringing about serious

problems of stray inductance and capacitance. Layout and wiring of FM re-
ceiver circuits must be done with care. As in an AMreceiver, an antenna
transformer is used to couple the antenna signal to the grid circuit.
Relatively wide bandwidth response is essential due to the wide range of fre-
quencies, (a 200 kc bandwidth for each channel). The typical high-gain, high-
Q circuit used in an AM receiver cannot be used for FM. A low-gain, low-Q,
wide-bandpass circuit must be used.
Often a tuned r-f stage ahead of the converter in an AM receiver is not needed
due to the strong signals used to reduce interference in AM broadcasting.
Most broadcast AM receivers use only the tuned r-f circuit at the r-f grid of
the converter. Timed r-f amplifier stages in FM receivers are desirable be-
cause of the weaker signals in FM broadcasting. These stages improve the
signal -to -noise ratio, sensitivity, selectivity and image rejection.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
The mixer -oscillator and converter circuits found in FM sets are similar to
those used in AM receivers. The purpose of heterodyning to produce an inter-
mediate frequency is the same in FM as in AM. However, agai n due to the
frequencies used in FM, certain circuit modifications must be made to pro-
duce the proper i-f signal. A typical converter system is shown. The type
6SB7-Y tube used in this circuit is especially designed for high-frequency
work. The circuit is more or less the same as that of an AM converter
system. For instance, the first grid is used as the oscillator grid in a
Hartley oscillator circuit. The third grid is the r-f signal input grid and the
r-f signal input is either fed directly from the antenna circuit or from a pre-
selector stage. There are, however, certain circuit changes or additions ma.de
in these circuits which stem from the high frequencies involved. The coils
contain fewer windings because of the need for smaller values of inductance,
but other changes are also noticeable. For example, the i-f transformer has
a broad frequency response characteristic; at the high end of the band the re-
sponse (gain) falls off. There is a loss of amplification at these frequencies.

Capacitor C is inserted between the high side of the primary and secondary of
the input transformer to increase the coupling at the higher frequencies
and
thus improve the amplification at these frequencies . As the frequencies are
increased the capacitor offers less reactance and consequently the high-fre-
quency currents take this reactive path because it offers a lower impedance
than the transformer. Thus the overall frequency response is equalized. Such
capacitors sometimes are used in the shortwave band of AM receivers.
Mixer and Converter Circuits (Cont'd)
At the frequencies employed in the commercial FM band, the stability of the

local oscillator becomes a major problem. The local oscillator tends to be-
come synchronized with the incoming signals, causing a loss of the i-f output
entirely. For maximum frequency stability, a separate oscillator tube is
used. Even in a normal, well designed FM receiver changes in internal cap-
acitances of the oscillator tube (or oscillator section of a tube), or the ex-
pansion of coil windings and capacitor plates during warmup may cause the
local oscillator frequency and consequently the i-f to drift considerably. A
small shift in oscillator frequency may shift the i-f signal beyond the range of
the i-f stages with a loss in output signal. Various methods are used to com-
bat oscillator drift. For example, the second harmonic of the local oscillator
FM MIXER-OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
frequency is sometimes used for mixing. In this case, the local oscillator
may be operated at a lower fundamental frequency where frequency stability
is improved. Another method is to use capacitors having a negative tem-
perature coefficient. These are connected in shunt with capacitors having a
positive temperature coefficient, to counteract the change in capacitance when
the temperature of the oscillator stage varies. Frequency stability of the
local oscillator in the standard FM band makes it advantageous to operate the
local oscillator at a frequency below that of the incoming signal. However, if
the local oscillator is operated above the frequency of the incoming signal, it
is not as likely to interfere with television receivers in the same vicinity that
are operating on the lower TV channels. Therefore, FM receivers will be
found operating both below and above the incoming signal frequency.
)
FM I-F Amplifiers
I-f amplifiers in FM receivers (as in AM receivers) provide a great deal of

the receiver sensitivity and selectivity. The i-f amplifier gain in an FM
receiver is relatively low. One reason is the use of a 10.7-mc i-f. At this
high frequency it is difficult to get the gain per stage possible at 455 kc. A
bandpass of about 200 kc is required as compared to some 10 kc in AM i-f
amplifiers. This is achieved by using broadly tuned low-Q circuits, making
for low gain per stage. As a result of this, FM receivers generally have
more stages of i-f amplification than AM receivers.
The i-f amplifier serves the function of increasing the signal strength of the
FM signal to a level where it can be applied to the demodulator for removal of
the audio component. It generally employs double -tuned transformers having
TYPICAL FM 10.7-MC I-F AMPLIFIER
i-f amplifier
mixer 6AU6
equal primary and secondary inductances. As in the case of AM

i-f ampli-
fiers, the transformers may be either capacitively or permeability tuned. A
low value of i-f is undesirable because local oscillator drift might force the
receiver to operate outside the i-f range. The frequency of 10.7 me is highly
desirable as an i-f because it is beyond the range of image frequency inter-
ference. (Twice its value is equal to 21.4 me, which is outside the 20-mc
width of the FM band.
FM I-F Amplifiers (Coni' d)
BROADENING THE l-F BANDPASS
Relatively high i-f gain and broad selectivity can be obtained in a number of
ways. In most of these, three i-f transformer networks are used. The num-
ber of i-f stages is a determining factor in the amount of i-f gain, but the
type of coupling and Q of the i-f transformer circuits is the determining factor
in the bandwidth. Three principal types of i-f transformer coupling arrange-
ments are used. In the first, all three low-Q i-f transformers are single
peaked, somewhat under critical coupling, to the same resonant frequency.
In the second, the first and third i-f transformers are single peaked just under
critical coupling, and the second i-f transformer is overcoupled to produce a
double-peaked response curve. All three have the same resonant frequency.
In the third, all three transformers are single peaked but the resonant fre-
quency of each is slightly different. Usually the first transformer has the
lowest resonant frequency, the third has the highest, and the second is be-
tween the other two. This system is known as "stagger timing".
In illustration (A) we see that by using three i-f stages in which two are single
peaked below critical coupling and the other double peaked (overcoupled), a
broad, flat -top overall response curve can be obtained. The response for the
complete i-f system is obtained by combining the individual curves of each
stage. Illustration (B) shows three single-peaked i-f stages stagger-timed.
Their individual curves overlap to produce a broad bandwidth response.
.
Limiting
The limiter in an FM receiver removes amplitude modulation and passes to

the discriminator an FM signal of constant amplitude. As the FM signal
leaves the transmitting antenna it varies in frequency with an audio modulating
signal, but it has essentially a constant amplitude. As the signal travels be-
tween the transmitting and receiving antennas, however, natural and man-
made noises (static) disturbances, are combined with it to produce variations
in the amplitude of the modulated signal. Other variations are caused by fad-
ing of the signal. Still other amplitude variations are introduced within the
receiver itself due to a lack of uniform response of the tuned circuits.
All these undesirable variations in the amplitude of the FM

signal are ampli-
fied as the signal passes through the successive stages of the receiver up to
m mm in an m Ricim cm orr mi amputuoi

VARIATIONS OF TUI INPUT SI6NAL MARINO ITS OUTPUT
the input of the limiter This condition in which both

. FM (desired) and AM
(undesired) are present is shown in the illustration. The character of the sig-
nal after leaving the limiter should be such that all amplitude variations have
been removed, leaving a signal that varies only in frequency
The output of the limiter is fed into the FM demodulator. One of the demod-
ulator circuits in particular, the ratio detector, is quite insensitive to ampli-
tude variations, and when this circuit is used, it is unnecessary to use a
limiter stage; instead, the output of the i-f amplifier is fed directly into the
ratio detector circuit. Limiting action is obtained essentially by overdriving
a tube, and "cutting off" the positive and negative peaks of the FM signal.
Plate Circuit Limiting
Limiting action may be produced by reducing the plate and screen voltages of
a pentode. A sharp-cutoff pentode such as a 6SJ7 or a 6AC7 makes an excel-
lent limiter for both positive and negative amplitude swings of the signal am-
plitude. The input voltage to the limiter comes from the i-f amplifier which
precedes it. The circuit appears as a straightforward amplifier. Note re-
THE LIMITER REMOVES ALL AMPLITUDEl

{MODULATION FROM THE FM SIGNAL
amplitude-
NORMAL TRANSFER CURVE FOR NORMAL
PLATE AND SCREEN VOLTAGES
modulated
FM signal
limiter EARLY SATURATION
WITH LOW PLATE
AND SCREEN
VOLTAGES
THESE PEAKS CUT

oltage OFF BY SHARP PLATE
|
CURRENT CUTOFF THESE PEAKS
dropping > FM and AM CLIPPED BY
resistors o B+ SIGNAL INPUT SATURATION
sistors R1 and R2 . They are sufficiently high in value to drop both the screen
and plate voltages to about 30 volts or less. When this is done, the grid
transfer characteristic curve changes from its normal shape to the flattened
one shown. We see that plate saturation occurs at much lower values of plate
current than previously. This makes it possible for much smaller input
voltages to bring out the saturated condition since the linear portion of the
transfer curve is much shorter than it is in a normally operating amplifier.
The net effect of saturation is that if the signal swings go further negative
than A
and more positive than B, all the peaks outside these lines are clipped
and have absolutely no effect on the output plate current of the tube. In the
negative case these peaks lie outside the cutoff point; in the positive case the
input peaks exceed the saturation voltage, and since maximum plate current
has already been attained, it can cause no further change. Hence the positive
and negative clipping results in an output voltage in which all amplitude
changes have been removed, leaving only FM. A plate circuit limiter, al-
though removing amplitude variations, contributes very little to the gain of
the receiver because of the low voltages.
FM RECEIVER UNITS 4-85
Grid-Leak Bias Limiting
The manner in which a grid -bias limiter functions is shown by the ip -eg
curve. Grid-leak bias is used so that with varying signal amplitudes, the
bias can adjust itself automatically to a value that allows just the positive
peaks of the signal to drive the grid positive and cause grid current to flow.
If a signal having a peak amplitude greater than the cutoff bias
is impressed
on the grid of the tube, a bias voltage having a magnitude approximately

equal to the peak value will be developed. Accordingly, grid current will
flow for a very small part of the positive half cycle at the peak of the signal
swing. Plate current flows for almost the entire positive half cycle. When
the signal amplitude increases, a greater bias is developed, but the grid cut-
off voltage remains the same and the average plate current changes very
grid-leak bias limiter curves
bias increases
with signal
+250 v
little. Thus, the amount of plate current flow in the limiter stage is approx-
imately constant for all signals having an amplitude great enough to develop
a grid-leak bias voltage that is greater than the cutoff voltage.
The frequency variations in the FM signal are maintained in the output be-
cause the plate current pulses are produced at the signal frequency and ex-
cite the plate -timed tank circuit which has a relatively low Q and a wide band-
pass . Because of the flywheel effect, a complete a-c waveform is passed to
the secondary of the discriminator transformer for each input cycle. When
the peak amplitude of the signal is less than cutoff voltage, the limiting action
fails. Thus, the stages preceding the limiter must have sufficient gain to
provide satisfactory limiting action on the weakest signal to be received.
4-86 SUMMARY
In afrequency-modulated wave, the instantaneous frequency varies about the

carrier frequency in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The variations in instantaneous frequency are determined by the frequency of
the modulating wave; the higher the modulating frequency, the greater
the number of deviations in a given time period.
The amplitudes of the sidebands, as well as their frequencies, depend on the
amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal and the frequency devi-
ation of the transmitter.
For a sinusoidally -modulated signal, the sidebands are distributed in sym-
metrical pairs on either side of the carrier frequency at integral multi-
ples of the modulation frequency.
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the frequency of the modulating signal
is called the modulation index.
Frequency modulation is less susceptible to interference than AM because

most interference is in the form of amplitude modulation, which can be elim-
inated without affecting the intelligence contained in the FM.
FM receivers are generally of the superheterodyne type.
The i-f amplifier provides all the selectivity and most of the sensitivity of
the FM receiver. The selectivity depends on the tuned circuits used in
the i-f voltage amplifiers.
Transformer-coupled circuits are used in i-f amplifiers for high-gain, broad
frequency response, and sharp adjacent-channel selectivity. The sta-
bility of the i-f amplifier depends on the shielding, parts placement, and
amount of feedback through the grid-plate capacitance.
Limiter circuits are generally i-f amplifiers operated with low screen volt-
age so that they overload easily on strong input signals. They eliminate
AM, and also some of the noise that appears along with the desired
signal.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the frequency deviation of an FM wave when the ampli-
tude of the modulating signal is increased?
2. If the frequency of the modulating signal is doubled, what happens to the
FM wave?
3. What effect does the amplitude of the modulating signal have on the FM
signal?
4. What is meant by the modulation index?
5. What is the purpose of pre-emphasis?
6. What limiter stage?
is the function of the
7. Explain briefly the operation of a limiter.
8. Describe the three principal types of i-f transformer-coupling arrange-
ments?
9. What is a common intermediate frequency used in FM receivers?
10. What is the frequency range of the standard FM broadcast band?
11. What characteristics make frequency modulation "noise-free"?
12. What is the maximum FM carrier shift permitted by the FCC in com-
mercial broadcasting?
FM DISCRIMINATORS 4-87
FM Demodulators - The Slope Detector
SLOPE DETECTOR
I
1
Just as AM
receivers translate amplitude variations into audio signals, FM
receivers translate frequency variations into audio signals. One of the oldest
and simplest demodulators is the slope detector. This circuit is based on
FM
the carrier frequency of the FM signal falling on the sloping side of the r-f
response in an AM
receiver. The frequency variations of the FM carrier sig-
nals are converted into amplitude variations. This conversion results from
the unequal response above and below the carrier center frequency. Thus,
when the incoming FM
signal is less than the center frequency, the output
voltage is in a positive direction; when the incoming signal swings above the
center frequency, the output voltage is in a negative direction. The resultant
AM signal may be coupled to a regular AM detector where the original audio
voltage can be reproduced.
The slope detector is a simple discriminator in that it responds differently to

various radio frequencies. This circuit is used sometimes in inexpensive FM
receivers where the resonant circuits of the detector input transformer are
tuned slightly off the center frequency, but still close enough that the center
frequency falls on the linear portion of the response curve. Either linear
position can be used. The slope detector, though simple in design, cannot
handle large signals because the linear portion of the response curve is too
short for large -signal operation. Signals beyond the linear portion of the curve
are distorted. In addition, operating on the slope of the response curve of a
tuned circuit means that less than maximum gain is being obtained.
4-88 FM DISCRIMINATORS
Double-Tuned Discriminator
The FM demodulating or detecting circuit must be designed to have its output

vary directly (linearly) with the frequency applied. One of the basic circuits
is called the double-tuned or Travis discriminator. The tuned circuit of LI
and Cl is the plate load of the limiter circuit. It is tuned to the intermediate
frequency of 10.7 megacycles. In the secondary, L2 and C2 are tuned to
10.6 me, 100 kc below the i-f. The output of L2, C2 is fed to a diode detector
circuit consisting of VI, Rl, and C4. The circuit of L3 and C3 is tuned to
10.8 me, 100 kc above the i-f. The output of L3, C3 is fed to a diode detec-
tor circuit consisting of V2, R2, and C5.
The normal response curve of each of the timed circuits in the secondary is
shown. As the signal at the output of the limiter shifts in frequency from
10.7 me towards 10.6 me, the signal inductively coupled to L2, C2 produces
a large current flow. The output detected by Vl develops a voltage across
Rl. The flow of current, determined by the polarity of VI, is such as to
cause an IR drop across Rl, with the top of the resistor positive with respect
to the bottom. When the signal shifts from 10.7 me towards 10.8 me, the
signal inductively coupled to L3, C3 produces a large current flow. The out-
put detected by V2 develops a voltage across R2. The flow of current, de-
termined by the polarity of V2, is such as to cause an IR drop across R2,
with the top of the resistor negative with respect to the bottom. The r-f
voltages developed across Rl and R2 are filtered by C4 and C5.
'
Double -Timed Discriminator (Cont'd)
The lower frequencies at 10.6 me develop an output voltage across Rl positive

with respect to ground. The higher frequencies of 10.8 me develop an output
voltage across R2 negative with respect to ground. The conduction of diode
V2 causes an output voltage indicated by a response curve in a negative direc-
tion, because the output voltage developed across R2 is negative with respect
to ground. The output is zero at the i-f of 10. 7 me. Each tuned circuit con-
ducts slightly, because there is a small degree of overlap of each response
curve at 10.7 me. The resultant low signal voltage output is developed
equally across both Rl and R2. However, being of opposite polarity, the two
equal -value voltages oppose or buck each other, resulting in zero output.
As the input to the discriminator shifts above and below the i-f center fre-
quency at an audio rate, it produces voltages across Rl and R2. The re-
sultant output voltage from the top of Rl to ground follows the variations in
frequency, producing an audio output signal. As the output frequency of the
illfl
EQUAL AND OPPOSITE V0LTA6ES
this voltage
<0 DEVELOPED v ;
ACROSS Rl AND R2 OF DISCRIMINATOR exceeds

this voltage
maximum output of VI
developed across Rl ,
overlap
this
voltage!
exceeds
v this
\ f
r
10.6 voltage >
Ireference center
point, or
SCURVE OF THE
frequency DOUBLE-TUNED
ground
maximum output of V2 DISCRIMINATOR
\ •
'
developed across R2
limiter swings further above and below the i-f, the output voltage across Rl
and R2 increases. Maximum output is produced when the signal is at either
10. 6 me or 10. 8 me; this corresponds to maximum amplitude in the modulating
signal whereby the broadcast station's carrier frequency shifts farthest above
and below its center value.
Actually, the response curve of each tuned circuit in the secondary is repre-
sented as a continuous S curve The resonant frequency is usually extended
.
to provide a wider range of frequencies than from point A to B. This is the

linear portion of the response curve, in which the conversion of to audio FM
takes place. Bandwidth limits may extend as much as ± 120 kc, and the re-
sonant frequency of each tuned circuit may be as low as 10. 55 me and as high
as 10.85 me. This provides a linear portion of the response curve capable of
covering a total bandwidth of 240 kc. The extended range of the linear portion
of the curve also covers drift in the tuned circuits or the local oscillator
which may cause the i-f to be above or below the normal value of 10.7 me.
The Foster -Seeley Discriminator
The double -tuned discriminator just discussed is effective in performance but

comparatively costly to manufacture and is cumbersome to adjust. The pre-
sence of two separately tuned secondary circuits makes alignment difficult
because of the interaction between the two resonant circuits. A modern dis-
criminator circuit which resembles the double -tuned arrangement closely is

the Foster-Seeley discriminator, named after its inventors. This discrim-
inator gained immediate popularity because of its easy adjustability.
Minor variations of this basic circuit are in almost every FM receiver and
TV sound system, but the operation of the discriminator may always be
analyzed by the same set of vectors used in the following discussion. As can
be seen from the schematic of the Foster -Seeley discriminator, there is only
one secondary tuned circuit. Where, in the double-tuned circuit, the total
response was dependent upon the individual differences between two circuits
tuned to different frequencies, in this arrangement, the phase differences be-
tween the secondary and primary voltages are used to affect the diodes in a
maimer which produces usable output. A complete understanding of the proc-
ess can be had by a step-by-step vector analysis.
.
Foster-Seeley (I-F At Center Frequency)
We will analyze the vector development of the Foster -Seeley discriminator

step-by-step, starting with the i-f signal at the center frequency. With the
signal unmodulated (or modulated but passing through dead center frequency
at the instant of consideration), the voltage E developed across the primary
p
winding of the discriminator transformer (A) is taken as a reference voltage
and drawn as a horizontal vector pointing toward the right, away from the
point of origin. Since current through any coil lags the voltage across the
coil by 90°, the current, I , in the primary winding is shown as a vector (B)
p
lagging the E vector by 90°
p
The primary current Ip induces a voltage in the secondary winding (C). Since
the greatest voltage is generated at the time when the rate of change of cur-
rent in the primary is greatest - and this occurs when the current wave is
passing through the zero axis - the secondary induced voltage vector, E s ,
must be shown displaced from the Ip vector by 90®. This places the E s vector
180° out of phase with vector E .
p
Since this is a perfectly resonant circuit (i-f signal at center frequency) at this
instant, the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other, leaving
the series circuit around the tank purely resistive. In a resistive circuit,
current is in phase with the driving voltage. Hence, the series circulating
secondary current Is must be in phase with the secondary induced voltage E s
and is shown as a vector superimposed on E s (D).
When, as a result of the induced voltage, secondary current I s flows in the

split secondary winding, it produces a secondary voltage drop which leads I s
by 90°. This secondary voltage is a reactive voltage drop resulting from the
flow of secondary current. It should not be confused with E s , a voltage gen-
erated by induction.
A
Foster-Seeley (Cont'd)
Since the secondary winding of the transformer is centertapped, the secondary

voltage may be considered as being made up of two separate voltages (Eg
and Esb) of equal magnitude but opposite in phase (A) with respect to the
center. This is a valid consideration because, effectively, the centertap
simply moves the zero reference point from one end of the winding to its
middle, thus providing two distinct voltages with reference to this point; EgA
which is shown to be leading Ep by 90° and Egjj which is shown laggin g E
p
by 90°. (The symbols SB and SA are used to represent, respectively,
secondary-bottom half and secondary-top half so that later reference to
the transformer secondary halves will be clearer.
Consider now the voltage across the coil L. This coil is effectively in par-
allel with theprimary of the discriminator transformer (B), since the capac-
itors Cl, C2, and C4 which complete the connections for parallelism are
large enough to have a negligible reactance at the frequencies used in FM.
Since it is in parallel with the primary, the voltage El developed across the
C4
Primary winding
and L are in
parallel if we
ignore reactances
of capacitors.
Therefore, Ep
is in phase
with E.
coil L is in phase with the primary voltage. (Note: Actually to all intents and
purposes, the primary voltage itself may be considered to be applied to the
centertap of the secondary directly. Coil L is used to provide a d-c return
path, through its low resistance, for each diode circuit and for all direct
currents through the diodes. The high reactance of this coil prevents the
primary voltage from being shorted out, offering a load across which the
primary signal is developed.
Vector illustration (A) shows the new voltage E L superimposed on the primary
voltage vector E mentioned, coil L is in series with each half of the
p As
.
secondary winding in separate circuits through the two diodes. This may be
shown by tracing either circuit; fromthe diode plate, through the top half, then
through L, up through Rl, back to the cathode. The identical circuit exists
through the lower diode and the lower half of the secondary. In a series cir-
cuit like this, the voltages across the two coils must add vectorially (B) Due
.
to the 90° phase relationship between El on the one hand, and Eg^. and Egg
on the other, the resultant r-f voltages which drive direct currents through
the diodes must form the diagonal of the parallelograms of the vectors. These
resultant vectors are labelled Ej)i (top diode) and Ejj2 (bottom diode). The
vectors Egg and Eg^. are equal in magnitude because of the symmetry of the
coil, so that the driving voltages Ejjj and Ejj£ are also equal. Thus the di-
rect currents in the diodes and the d-c voltage drops across diode resistors
Rl and R2 are equal. They thus cancel each other, and the output d-c voltage
between ground and the top of Rl is as it should be for center -frequency op-
eration; exactly zero.
Foster-Seeley (I-F Signal Above Center Frequency)
When a signal is higher than the resonant frequency of the series circuit to
which it isfed, the series circuit acts inductively (A). This is true because,
for the higher frequency, Xl and Xq no longer cancel each other. Xl is
larger, and Xq smaller, than at resonance. Thus, X predominates and the
L
circuit is said to be inductive. When the circuit was in resonance, the in-
above resonance This changes the

(10.7 me) position of the
Xl predominates E SA — e SB vector resultant
voltage
and l
s lags E s
E$A Eni applied to
diode 1
JvL
Lag E P /t >[. resultant
E[
-
^ voltage
Angle
l
Eco
C
SB
—tp2 —
applied to
diode 2
® l-F SIGNAL ABOVE CENTER FREQUENCY

! x
^ fr-lA £> > . -/ '
> n '
Thus: Voltage drop

"net voltage” , across ri is
duced secondary series circulating current I was in phase with the secondary
s
induced voltage E s now, however, with the circuit predominantly inductive,
;
Is lags Es .
The lag of I s reflects itself in the changing vector picture (B) by shifting the
directions of the Eg* and Egg vectors to new positions. These voltages (Eg^
and Esb) are produced by an rx L drop(Is x XL) of either half of the secondary
and must therefore always be out of phase with the current I by 90°.
g
Adding Eg to
each of the two secondary voltages (EgA 311(1 e
Sb) vectorially
(C), the summed
resultants Egj and Ej)2 are again obtained. But this time
E D1 18 much greater than Ep2 80 that a larger direct current flows through
Rl than through R2. Thus, a net output voltage (positive in this case) appears
across the series load resistors Rl and R2. Again, this is the expected re-
sult since the i-f signal is above the center frequency. It is frequency mod-
ulated so that an output voltage must appear if detection is to take place.
Foster -Seeley (I-F Signal Below Center Frequency)
The vector diagrams for the condition in which the i-f signal is below the
center frequency are shown in parts (A), (B), and (C). It must be remem-
bered that the circuit is capacitive rather than inductive, and that the current
Is leads the secondary induced voltage Es . We see that Ej)2 is greater than
below resonance the resultant

(10.7 me) this changes the voltage
position of the applied to
Xc predominates
EdI i° r this condition. Now, a larger current flows through R2 than through
Rl. Again, a net output voltage (negative in this case) appears across the
load resistors.
In summary, it may be seen that a voltage appears across the diode load
which varies in exact accordance with the frequency deviation of the i-f sig-
nal. The greater the frequency excursion on either side of the center fre-
quency, the greater the magnitude of the voltage developed across the diode
load and the louder will be the sound from the loudspeaker of the receiver.
The frequency of this voltage will vary as the rate of the frequency deviation,
thus giving the detected signal.
Simplified Foster -Seeley Discriminator
The original Foster -Seeley discriminator may be simplified by omitting the

return choke L and one of the two diode load bypass capacitors without af-
fecting its operation. At first glance the reference voltage of the primary
seems to have been removed from the secondary diode -detector circuits.
Redrawing one part of the circuit we find the primary voltage coupled thro ugh
Cl to R2, placing the primary voltage in series with Egg. The resultant
voltage is applied to V2 as before. In the other diode circuit, the primary
voltage is coupled through Cl to Rl, with the return path through C3. This
places the primary voltage developed across Rl in series with E
SA The
.
resultant voltage is applied to VI as before. The value of C3 is chosen to

act as a filter for the produced output voltage.
RATIO DETECTOR 4-97
The Ratio Detector
Limiter circuits are costly; they must have sufficient signal amplitude to
operate properly, requiring additional i-f and r-f amplifier stages. Adetector
circuit insensitive to amplitude variations is needed. The ratio detector cir-
cuit meets these requirements.
The diagram shows a basic ratio detector using a double -tuned transformer
and a battery. Note the arrangement of diodes VI and V2. The negative
last i-f
amplifier
terminal of the battery is connected to the plate of VI, the positive terminal
to the cathode of V2. This isolates the battery voltage from the tuned circuits.
Since the values of Cl and C2 are the same, the battery charges each to one-
half the value of the battery voltage. The frequency applied to the secondary
tuned circuits determines which diode will conduct heavier. This, in turn,
charges the capacitor in series with the diode to a higher value. The total
voltage across Cl and C2 cannot exceed the fixed voltage of the battery. Each
capacitor may, at any instant, differ in amount of charge from the other ca-
pacitor, but when totaled, they equal the full value of the battery voltage. The
total remains the same — only the ratio of voltage of Cl to C2 may change.
4-98 RATIO DETECTORS
The Ratio Detector (Cont'd)
RATIO DETECTOR AT IF (10.7 me] RATIO DETECTOR AT 10.8 me
RATIO DETECTOR AT 10.6 me
As the action of the double-tuned detector at the i-f of 10.7 me results in zero
output, the voltage values across Cl and C2 will be equal (A). When the sig-
nal shifts from 10.7 me toward 10.8 me, diode VI conducts heavier than V2,
charging Cl to a higher value. The output of diode V2 is reduced, resulting
in a smaller charge across C2 (B). The total voltage of Cl and C2 still
equals the battery voltage, but the division of voltage across each capacitor
has changed. The ratio of voltage of Cl to C2 is varying. When the signal
shifts from 10.7 me towards 10.6 me, diode V2 conducts heavier, charging
C2 to a higher value. The output of diode VI is reduced, resulting in a
smaller charge across Cl (C). The total voltage of Cl and C2 still equals
the battery voltage. It is only the ratio of voltage of CltoC2 that has changed.
Assume a signal has shifted from 10.7 me to 10.8 me and back to 10.7 me,
then to 10.6 me and again back to 10.7 me. Plotting the various voltages
developed across C2 (D) results in a voltage that varies from -5 to -2, to
-5 to -8, and back to -5, at an audio frequency determined by the modulating
signal. This varying voltage, when passed through a coupling capacitor and
applied to the audio amplifier, appears as in (E).
.
RATIO DETECTORS 4-99
The value of the battery voltage is important. With the ratio detector redrawn
as in (A), we see that the diodes are connected in series to prevent the battery
current from flowing through the tuned circuits. With the battery polarity as
shown, there is a negative voltage at the plate of Vl and a positive voltage at
the cathode of V2. Before either diode can conduct, the signal voltage must
be strong enough to overcome the battery voltage. A high battery voltage would
require a strong signal to overcome the battery voltage and permit the diodes
to conduct. A low battery voltage would result in low values of voltage across
Cl and C2. This would not permit the voltage of C2 to vary by a large
amount, resulting in a low-voltage audio-output signal. To overcome this

difficulty, the average value of the signal the receiver is tuned to is used to
determine this voltage.
By using R2 in place of the battery (B), signal current flowing in the secondary
timed circuits is rectified by Vl and V2. The rectified signal develops a
voltage drop across R2 which is filtered by C3. The values of R2 and C3
are such that it takes a relatively long time to charge C3 - approximately
1/10 to 1/4 of a second. This prevents a sudden change of voltage from
quickly charging C3. The voltages across Cl and C2 must equal the total
voltage across C3. The voltage across C3 cannot change; hence, the voltages
across Cl and C2 will not change. Since interference consists mainly of
short-duration, sharp noise pulses with insufficient time to charge C3, the
voltage of C3 remains substantially constant, and the output does not vary,
eliminating the interference
4-100 RATIO DETECTOR
A practical form of ratio -detector would be based on the phase discriminator,

(A). Diodes Vl and V2 conduct in accordance with the vector sum of the volt-
age across L4 in series with the induced voltage of L2 or L3. The resultant
causes C3 or C4 to charge to a higher or lesser value, resulting in an audio
output as previously explained for ratio -detector operation.
MODIFYING THE RATIO DETECTOR, RFC CHOKE L4 IS REPLACED BY

A SMALL WINDING INDUCTIVELY COUPLED TO LI
A modified version of this circuit is shown in (B). The resistor used to de-
velop a voltage for C5 is divided, with the centertap grounded. Now L4 is not
capacitively coupled to the primary circuit. Instead of being an r-f choke,
L4 now consists of several turns of wire, closely coupled to primary winding
LI for maximum induced signal. The complete path for this signal is through
C6 to ground.
m VECTOR DIAGRAM of Ratio Detector HM

MODIFIED RATIO DETECTOR Vectors ABOVE 10.7 me!
Frequencies ABOVE RESONANCE result

I Induced in L3
in INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT vector diagram
secondary
:
L4'
E Induced in
:
PR1 m Ratio Detector
'
Hill
secondary Vectors BELOW 10.7 me

L2
m
Ratio Detector Vectors AT 10.7 me
Frequencies BELOW RESONANCE result in
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT vector diagram
The voltage inducedin L4 is 180° out of phase with that of Ll. When indicated
on a vector diagram, as shown in (A), the induced voltage of L4 is now in the
same direction as the induced voltage and current of the secondary. Vector
diagram (A) indicates the resonant frequency of 10.7 me. Adding to this dia-
gram the voltages developed across L2 and L3 results in the vector diagram
in (B). Vector diagram (C) shows the relationship of voltages of L4, L3, and
L2, and the resulting vector sum applied to diodes Vl and V2, in (C). At
resonance, diodes VI and V2 conduct equally, resulting in zero output.
With a modulating signal causing the frequency to shift above the resonant
value of 10.7 me, the tuned circuit of L2, L3, and C2 becomes predominantly
inductive. The current lags the voltage, (D). The resultant vector sum
causes Vl to conduct heavier With a modulating signal causing the frequency
.
to shift below the resonant value of 10.7 me, the timed circuit of L2, L3, and
C2 becomes predominantly capacitive, and the current leads the voltage, (E).
The resultant vector sum causes V2 to conduct heavier.
.
4-102 RATIO DETECTORS
Another major difference in the ratio detector is the development of the audio
signal. The circuit has been redrawn in (A). C7 and potentiometer R3 (page
4- 100) are omitted since they only couple and vary the value of audio signal to
the audio amplifier. With the circuit at 10.7 me, VI and V2 conduct equally.
Tracing the current path of VI, we find that C6 is in series with the current
flow (B)
Tracing the current path of V2, we also find that C6 is in series with the cur-
rent flow (C). As both diodes conduct equally at resonance, the current flow
through C6 is of equal but opposite value. The object is to leave C6 with no
charge, resulting in zero voltage across it. This is as desired since, at
resonance, there is zero output.
When the signal frequency shifts above or below resonance, the current flow
of one diode differs from the other. The diode conducting more heavily pro-
duces a charge across C6; its polarity is determined by the heavier-con-
ducting diode. A stronger modulating signal causes larger frequency
shifts. When detected by this circuit, it results in more or less current flow
through either diode. This results in proportionately larger voltages devel-
oped across C6. The frequency of the varying voltage developed across C6
varies directly with the frequency at which the signal shifts above and below
resonance. The result is a varying audio signal voltage across C6, coupled
through C7 and R3 to the a-f amplifier.
The value C6 is important; to develop the IX drop, a typical value of 002

of
C .
of is used. This value has an Xq at 10.7 me low enough to be effectively a

short circuit. At audio frequencies, however, the value of Xq permits a suf-
ficient BCc voltage to be developed.
. 7
The modification of the ratio detector in (A), is probably the most popular
version. For ease of explanation, the coupling circuit of C5 and R2is omitted.
The circuit may then be redrawn as (B). The signal developed across L2, L3,
and C2 causes a rectified current to flow through VI, Rl, and V2, resulting
in a voltage across C3. The voltage value is determined by the signal
strength of the station received.
In addition, there are the signal paths (C) and (D). At the frequency of 10.
me, the reactance of C3 is low enough to constitute a short circuit. As in the
previous ratio detector, the two signal current paths flow through C4, devel-
oping an audio output voltage across it. The modified ratio detector retains
the control or battery voltage, making it insensitive to signal amplitude
changes. The ratio of voltage of two capacitors for an output signal, is re-
placed by a single capacitor whose voltage and polarity depend on the conduc-
tion of diodes VI and V2
4-104 GATED-BEAM DETECTORS
The Gated-Beam Detector
An interesting and popular approach to limiting and demodulation ofFM sig-

nals is through the gated-beam detector. To understand this circuit we must
study the gated-beam tube. Note the unusual shape and placement of the
various electrodes. As the electrons are attracted from the cathode, focus
anode 1, at cathode potential, keeps the electrons from scattering. The elec-
trons pass through anode 1 in the form of a beam. The high positive attrac-
GATED-BEAM DETECTORS 4-105
Double-Gate Action
In a triode or pentode, when plate current cutoff occurs because of a highly

negative control grid, cathode current also ceases to flow because the elec-
trons leaving the cathode fall back on it, making the net current flow equal to
zero.
Should the first control (limiter) grid in the gated-beam tube receive a nega-
tive potential greater than cutoff, electrons still flow back to the power supply
via the accelerator assembly so that, although there may be no plate current,
cathode current is not greatly affected. Similarly, stoppage of plate current

due to a highly negative second control grid (quadrature grid) causes the re-
turn current to flow through the accelerator assembly again, maintaining a
relatively constant cathode current.
The operation of the system may be viewed as a switching action. The electron
beam current is switched to the accelerator when either of the two gates — the
limiter grid or the quadrature grid— is closed, and to the plate when both
gates are open.
.
Limiter Grid Transfer Characteristic
With normal voltage relationships established on the static electrodes, the

limiter grid voltage may be varied while plate current is recorded to obtain
the limiter grid transfer characteristic curve (A). Starting with a cutoff po-
tential on this grid, the plate current is, of course, zero, but the cathode cur-
rent may be quite high since the first gate is closed and the beam current has
been switched to the accelerator. As the negative bias on the limiter grid is
lowered past cutoff, beam current suddenly switches to the plate. This ac-
counts for the extremely sharp rise in plate current. Saturation is reached
quickly, the plate current levels off near zero limiter grid voltage
A limiter requires that the tube cut off sharply with relatively small negative
grid voltages andthat saturation be reached quickly. In the previous circuits,
these conditions were achieved by using grid-leak bias and low plate voltages
which provided limiter action at relatively low gain. Here, however, we have
GRID
LIMITER LIMITING ACTION
TRANSFER CURVE
plate current
saturation
plate current
A ^saturation
plate current plate current

r
wave
rises sharply]
( 10.7 me
signal ]
limiter
y/ limiter
limiter grid
— limiter
grid
voltage
9 fid voltage [-
voltage
^ / )
>
^
9 rid
voltage
limiter grid
(
+]
J
bias voltage
h hrH (+)
'cutoff voltage
O (
limiter grid
voltage wave
10.7 me signal)
the essential kind of curve needed without the accompanying loss of gain com-
mon in standard limiter circuits. Diagram (B) shows the limiting action of
the 6BN6 with an applied signal of 10.7 me, having both amplitude and fre-
quency modulation. Note that the limiter grid is biased near the center of the
linear portion of the curve and that limiting action is good without loss of
gain. In most standard circuits using the 6BN6 gated-beam tube, the limiter
grid bias is obtained by a variable cathode resistor, called a "buzz" control.
Careful adjustment of this control makes almost perfect limiting possible,
removing all forms of AM.
Gated-Beam Tube as an FM Detector

By connecting the circuit of the 6BN6 as shown, the tube serves as both a
limiter and as an FM
detector. The i-f signal is fed to the primary of T, and
limiter action occurs as described. A
resonant L-C circuit (also tuned to
the i-f) is connected between the quadrature grid and ground, and an output
circuit from the plate of the tube has been added. When an electron stream
modulated or varying at 10.7 me passes the quadrature grid, excitation is
supplied to the resonant circuit. To visualize what happens at the quadrature
grid and in the L-C resonant circuit, study the changing electric field around
the quadrature grid and its effect on the resonant circuit. Electrons flowing
from one element in a tube to another produce electric fields of varying in-
tensities around each of the intermediate elements in the path of the stream.
The strength of the field produced is a function of the concentration of elec-
trons in that area at that time.
Assume that a relatively large plate current is flowing in the 6BN6 as a re-
sult of a sufficiently low bias voltage applied to the first (or limiter) grid.
As the concentrated electron stream approaches and reaches the quadrature
grid, electrons are driven out of this grid into the L-C circuit. Aquadrature
grid current, and a voltage across the tank, result from the charge induced
by the moving electrons. This current leads the limiter grid voltage by 90°.
When C has charged to peak voltage, the exciting current has dropped to zero
and C can discharge through L. If nothing else happens, L and C produce a
damped oscillatory wave which will gradually decay to zero. But if the reso-
nant circuit is timed to the same frequency as the varying electron stream in
the tube, it receives a timed pulse of energy causing it to build up once again
to peak voltage .In this manner the electron stream in the tube keeps the
L-C circuit oscillating.
—
Gated-Beam Tube as an FM Detector (Cont'd)
We can now examine the combined effect of limiter and quadrature grids with
respect to the incoming signal. Due to the peak-shearing effect of the limiter
grid, the electron beam current between the limiter and quadrature grids
varies in a square-wave manner (A) Like the incoming signal, the wave is
.
frequency modulated. The voltage at the quadrature grid due to the L-C os-
cillation would by itself have an effect on the beam current (B) Suppose that .
an FM signal at 10.7 me is received. Pulse 1 at the limiter grid and at the

quadrature grid can be represented on a single axis (C) Remembering that .
these grids behave as gates, and that plate output can be obtained only when
both gates are open simultaneously, we can see that plate current flows only
during the overlapping portion of the pulses. This is the only time when both
grids are sufficiently positive to permit passage of the beam to the plate.
Beam Current Modulation

at the Limiter Grid
pulses are
u plate current
i
(
H
arid
ra,ure
Dulse
/plate
. ..
current flows
^
amplitude only when both
frequency modu | 9{ed
grid signals overlap
tpulse No. i
/
saturation limiter
grid pulse at center frequency, 90° phase difference
cutoff
FM Signal Above Center Frequency
0
time
*
— quadrature
Beam
at the
Current Modulation
Quadrature Grid
0 limiter
pulse
grid pulse
time
amplitude
a W eaf at constant
phase difference more than 90°
10.7 me frequency
FM Signal Below Center Frequency
pulse N 0.1
^
1
limiter
M] grid pulse
grid pulse
time
ml time
phase difference less than 90 °
At the next instant, there may be a positive frequency deviation. This in-
crease in frequency means a shorter interval between pulses. With pulses
arriving more quickly than they were at the center frequency (but with the
quadrature grid pulses still occurring at the same rate), the limiter pulse
arrives at the quadrature grid earlier than it did before (D). As the diagram
shows, both gates are open together during an overlap interval which is
thinner than it was before, indicating that the plate current of the tube is
flowing for a shorter time. Similarly, if the incoming signal becomes lower
in frequency, the limiter grid pulse arrives at the quadrature grid later than
before, thus providing a greater overlap of pulses (E). This means that the
plate current flows for a longer time per pulse.
Audio Output From the Gated-Beam Detector
No mention has been made of the function of capacitor C*. Regardless of the
relative occurrence of the gate openings, the plate current magnitude is al-
ways the same. The length of time per cycle during which it flows depends
entirely upon coincidence of the limiter and quadrature pulses or lack of it;
this, in turn, is a function of the frequency of the received signal. A fre-
OUTPUT CIRCUIT OF GATED-BEAM DETECTOR
6BH6
audio output
Aj
Varying charge on C j
Charge on Cj depends
appears as audio voltage
on duration of plate current
variations across R|_
quency higher than that of the resting frequency results in a short-time flow
and a frequency lower than resting yields a plate current flow of longer dura-
tion.
Variations in current time may be translated into proportional variations in

output voltage by an integrating network (Cj and Rl). Since Cj charges
through Rl , it builds up a greater voltage when the current flows for a longer
time. This is reflected as a changing voltage across the load resistor, Rl.
-
The changing voltage represents the audio signal. The time constant of Rl
Ci must be large enough to smooth out i-f pulsations but small enough so that
the audio modulation frequency signal can be built up across Rl- (Sometimes
C is omitted, in which case the circuit and tube shunt capacitance provides
t
the filtering or integration required.) The function of Rl is to improve the
linearity of the audio output signal. If this resistor is not used, output in-
creases somewhat, but linearity suffers.
4-110 AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL
Automatic Frequency Control
BASIC AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL SYSTEM
R-C SERIES CIRCUIT
applied voltage
The automatic frequency control (afc) circuit in a receiver controls the local
oscillator frequency so that the correct i-f will always be produced when a
signal is being received. Two things are necessary for any afc system; a
frequency discriminator capable of changing a frequency variation into the
form of a d-c voltage that can be used for control purposes, and a variable
reactance whose value can be controlled by the d-c voltage changes due to the
frequency discriminator. The variable reactance connects to the oscillator
circuit to control its frequency.
A reactance tube can be almost any tube connected in a circuit so that its a-c
impedance from plate to ground is similar to the impedance of an inductive or
capacitive reactance. The impedance of a reactance causes the current
flowing through it to be 90° out of phase with the voltage impressed across it.
By reproducing this relationship, a tube can simulate a reactance.
In an R-C series circuit, C is a low-value capacitor whose reactance is much

larger than the resistance of R. The current in this R-C circuit is deter-
mined predominantly by C, and leads the applied voltage by 90°. Since the
voltage across a resistor is in phase with the current through it, the voltage
across R will also lead the applied voltage by 90°.
AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL 4-111
Automatic Frequency Control (Cont'd)
In our reactance tube — oscillator circuit, any r-f current flowing from cath-
ode to plate in the reactance tube will also flow through the tank circuit of the
oscillator. The r-f current must flow 90° out of phase with whatever voltage
is applied between plate and ground (across the oscillator tank circuit) . The
oscillator voltage is also applied across the R-C circuit. We just saw that
the voltage across R led the applied voltage by 90°. But the voltage across
REACTANCE TUBE CIRCUIT APPEARS

AS CAPACITOR ACROSS TANK CIRCUIT
REACTANCE TUBE
R is also the input voltage between grid and ground. Thus, the grid voltage,
and therefore the plate current, will be 90° out of phase with the applied volt-
age from the oscillator. Since the plate current leads the applied or plate
voltage by 90°, the reactance tube appears to the oscillator tank circuit as a
capacitor.
The amount of a-c plate current in the reactance tube depends on the gain of
the tube. The gain of the tube can be varied by varying the grid bias. This
controls the amount of plate current drawn by the tube, and thus controls the
value of the "reactance". In determining the resonant frequency of the oscil-
lator, the reactance of the reactance tube plays just as important a role as
the conventional L-C circuit components. The reactance tube — oscillator
circuit is adjusted so that for a given bias voltage on the reactance tube, the
oscillator will operate at a desired frequency. As we will see, by varying
this bias (either increasing or decreasing it), we will change the amount of
reactance "injected" into the oscillator circuit, and thus affect the oscillator
frequency.
4-112 AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL
Automatic Frequency Control (Cont'd)
AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL CIRCUIT
We can now examine a complete afc system. Note the reversal of R and C;
the injected reactance will be inductive, with plate current lagging the applied
voltage. If the oscillator suddenly became unstable and drifted to a lower
frequency, the operating i-f would also decrease in frequency. The discrim-
inator circuit then functions so that at point A, a positive voltage appears,
instead of zero voltage when the oscillator is operating properly. The magni-
tude of the voltage depends upon the amount of detuning that took place. The
positive voltage decreases the reactance tube bias. This increases the mutu-
al conductance (g ) of the tube, and the injected inductance is decreased. If
m
the injected inductance is decreased, the total effective inductance is also de-
creased, and the oscillator frequency increases to its normal value. This
continues until the correction voltage falls to zero. Should the oscillator
drift to a higher frequency, the correction or error voltage wouldbe negative,
and inject more inductance to lower the resonant frequency and correct the
i-f.
FM RECEPTION 4-113
De -emphasis
The transmitted audio signal is pre -emphasized at the transmitter. If this is

not corrected at the receiver, the sound signal has a heavy treble effect. To
compensate, the FM receiver contains a de -emphasis network — a low-pass
filter. As in the case of the high-pass filter, the de-emphasis network also
has a 75-microsecond time constant.
The de-emphasis network can be placed in several places in the FM receiver,

FM
but practice finds it located at the output of the detector circuit. An R-C
filter shunts the higher audio frequencies to ground while affecting the lower
frequencies to a lesser extent. The overall effect of the pre-emphasis— de-
emphasis maneuver is to provide a noise-free signal at the output of the FM
receiver that is a replica of the sound signal at the transmitting studio.
In designing a de-emphasis network, engineers take into consideration the

distributed capacitances. Thus, the "lumped" R-C time constant may not be
precisely equal to 75 microseconds.
discriminator
6AL5
limiter
6BA6
amplifier
6BA6
i.(
mixer 6AB4
uuf
10
C2
amplifier
6CB6
r-f
FM RECEPTION 4-115
Basic FM Tuner
Having discussed the various circuits involved in the reception of FM signals,

let us look at a typical complete FM tuner. The power supply has been
omitted. Any conventional half-wave or full-wave power supply can be used.
In addition, the audio amplifier has been omitted, in that any simple or elab-
orate amplifier can be used.
The input a broadband r-f amplifier. This stage is broadly

of the tuner is
tuned to the 88-108 me FM band. Cl, a coupling capacitor, prevents the
avc line from being grounded out. The output of the r-f amplifier is coupled
through C2 to a timed circuit of the mixer stage. As discussed previously,
C2 provides broader bandpass. The triode mixer is used with the output of
the 12AT7 oscillator, being coupled to it through a "gimmick." This is
nothing more than two insulated wires twisted together. Effectively, this
provides capacitive coupling. Afc is used to stabilize the local oscillator.
The control voltage is obtained from the output of the discriminator. There
are a-f variations in this output, but these are filtered by the RC filter hi .
addition, this tuner contains an afc "defeat" switch. When this switch is
closed, the control voltage line is short-circuited to ground and the reactance
tube does not exert control over the oscillator. The RC phase -shifting net-
work used in this reactance tube is C3 and Rl. R1 is effectively grounded
through C4, a 100 puf capacitor. C4 has little reactance at the extremely
high frequency of the oscillator and the feedback signal easily follows the
path through C4 to ground. C4 has little effect on the phase shift.
The output of the 6AB4 mixer is coupled to the i-f amplifier stage. Here,
the 10. 7 me signal is amplified and fed to the input of the 6BA6 limiter stage.
The limiter stage serves two functions. It removes amplitude variations
while providing a driving signal for the discriminator and, in addition, an RC

network connected to the grid line develops the avc voltage fed to the input of
the i-f amplifier and the input of the r-f amplifier. The discriminator output
also serves two functions. It provides the demodulated FM signal or
the a-f output and, in addition, delivers a control voltage to the reactance
tube for stabilization of the oscillator. Another interesting circuit in this
tuner is the 6BR5 tuning indicator. This circuit receives the avc voltage
which varies with signal strength. Hence, it provides an indication of when a
station is properly tuned.
This tuner is especially interesting in that it shows the closed interrelation-

ship of the various circuits. For instance, should the oscillator drift in fre-
quency, an i-f other than 10.7 me would be produced. This would reflect as
lower gain and, hence, a lower avc voltage. In turn, this would be indicated
by the tuning indicator. At the same time, the oscillator drift would produce
an "error" voltage at the output of the discriminator which would be con-
verted into a d-c control voltage fed to the reactance tube. Finally, this tube
would inject the proper reactance to produce a reversal of the oscillator
drift. Variations in this circuit are widely used, with one major change — the
ratio detector is used in place of the limiter and discriminator circuits.
When this is done, the ratio detector provides the demodulated audio output
signal, the avc voltage, and the control voltage for the reactance tube.
4-116 FM RECEPTION
Multiplex Stereo FM
FM STEREO TRANSMITTING ARRANGEMENT
LEFT AUDIO
RIGHT AUDIO
FM STEREO SPECTRUM ORGANIZATION
15 kc 19 ke 23 ke 38 ke 53 ke
FREQUENCY
A new FCC approved system of multiple transmission (multiplex) of stereo

audio signals by FM stations is shown in block diagram. The left (L) and
right (R) stereo inputs are applied to a matrix section where a sum (L+R) and
difference (L-R) signal are developed. The sum (L+R) is fed to the FM
modulator directly while the (L-R) signal is routed to a balanced modulator.
A 38-kc subcarrier combines with the L-R signals to produce L-R sidebands
centered around 38 kc. The subcarrier is eliminated or suppressed during
transmission. For detection at the receiver, an accurate 38-kc subcarrier
is required. A 19 -kc pilot carrier is sent out to either synchronize a 38-kc
oscillator in the receiver or develop a 38-kc signal by frequency- doubling
techniques. Thus, the spectrum being fed to an FM stereo transmitter might
appear as shown. The pilot carrier is set at 19 kc rather than 38 kc since it
is evident from the diagram that selective filtering is simple, since 4 kc ex-
ists between the pilot carrier and either L+R or L-R signals.
FM RECEPTION 4-117
Multiplex Stereo FM (Cont'd)
At the receiver or "adapter", the discriminator output is routed as follows:

the L+R signal is fed to a matrix; the 19 -kc pilot signal is removed by a
sharply selective trap and doubled to 38 kc for use as a subcarrier during
L-R detection; the L-R signal plus the reinserted 38-kc are detected and ap-
plied to the same matrix as the L+R signal. The matrix accepts L+R and
L-R signals and delivers the original L and R signals. Standard pre-empha-
sis and de -emphasis networks are used at both the transmitter and receiver
for L and R channels to improve signal -to -noise ratio.
The left -right sideband signals would not be heard in a conventional mono-
phonic FM receiver, nor would the pilot signal be heard. The system de-
scribed is completely compatible with present FM broadcasting standards.
-
4-118 SUMMARY
FM demodulation must distinguish between frequency variations as compared

to AM demodulations which must distinguish between amplitude varia-
tions.
In the double-tuned discriminator, one tuned circuit operates above the center
frequency, the other tuned circuit operates below the center frequency.
The combined output of each tuned circuit provides a continuous "S"
curve.
Discriminators are characterized by fair linearity, ease of alignment, and
easily derivable afc and avc voltages.
In the Foster-Seeley discriminator there is only one secondary tuned circuit.
In the Foster-Seeley discriminator, the phase difference between the second-
ary and primary voltages is used to affect the diodes in a manner which
provides usable output. The Foster-Seeley discriminator requires a
preceding stage of limiting.
Ratio detectors require no limiters, since they are relatively insensitive to
AM. The sensitivity is higher than the limiter-discriminator combina-
tion, but the circuit is more difficult to align and has less rejection of
impulse noise.
A ratio detector splits the rectified voltages in such a way that their ratio is
directly proportional to the ratio of the applied i-f voltages which vary
with frequency.
The gated-beam tube operates as an excellent limiter, and as a fair limiter
discriminator combination. The response is linear over a wide range,
with good rejection of AM. It is one of the easiest of all detectors to
align, and has sensitivity comparable to the standard limiter-discrimi-
nator.
The afc system used in some receivers takes a voltage from the discrimi-
nator detector and applies it to a reactance modulator. This modulator
then changes the frequency of the local oscillator to maintain proper
tuning.
The automatic-frequency control circuit maintains the incoming signal in
proper tune, regardless of drift in the receiver oscillator.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What disadvantage of the double-tuned discriminator?
is the principal
2. How is this overcome
in the Foster-Seeley discriminator?
3. Howdoes the ratio detector provide immunity from AM superimposed on
the FM signal?
4. How does the sensitivity of the ratio detector compare with the limiter-
discriminator?
5. Describe the passage of the electron stream in the gated-beam tube.
6. What are the principal advantages of the gated-beam tube as a limiter ?
7. Describe the gating action of the two grids of the gated-beam tube, and
show how audio voltage is derived.
8. How is the audio output derived from a Foster-Seeley discriminator ?
9. How is the audio output derived from the ratio detector?
10. How can an avc voltage be obtained from the ratio detector?
11. Explain the operation of the automatic-frequency-control circuit in FM
receivers.
12. Explain how a tube can be made to appear as a reactance in afc circuits.
GLOSSARY
Align: To adjust the tuned circuits of a receiver for maximum signal response.
Amplitude Modulation: A system of superimposing intelligence on a carrier wave by causing the

amplitude to vary in accordance with the audio.
Antenna: A device used to radiate or absorb r-f energy.
transformers, traps, filters, etc., that couple the antenna to the

Antenna Circuit: The inductances, r-f
input of the first r-f stage.
Automatic frequency Control I AFC): A circuit that holds a radio receiver on the frequency of the
station to which it is tuned.
Automatic Volume Control (AVC): A method of automatically regulating the gain of a receiver so
signal may vary in strength.
that the output tends to remain constant though the incoming
Bandpass: A group ot frequencies passed by a circuit with relatively little attenuation. The bandpass
includes those frequencies whose voltage is not less than about 70% of the maximum.
Beat Frequency: A frequency resulting from the combination of two different frequencies. It is numeri-
equal to the difference between or the sum of these two frequencies.
cally
to 1600 kc. Since
Broadcast Band: A name given to a band of frequencies extending from 540 kc
sidebands, extends
modulation up to about 5 kc is used in this band, the entire bandwidth, including
from 535 kc to 1605 kc.
form of intelli-
Carrier: The r-f component of a transmitted wave upon which an audio signal or other
gence canbe impressed.
a transmission
Characteristic Impedence: The ratio of the voltage to the current at every point along
line on which there are no standing waves.
Continuous Waves (CW): Radio waves which maintain a constant amplitude and frequency.
multi-element vacuum tube used both as a mixer and as an oscillator in a
super-
Converter Tube: A
signal to pro-
heterodyne receiver. It generates a local frequency and combines it with an incoming
duce an intermediate frequency.
between two
Critical Coupling: The degree of coupling that provides the maximum transfer of energy
resonant circuits at the resonant frequency.
Crystal Diode: Mineral or crystalline material which allows electrical current to flow more easily in one
direction than in the opposite direction, thus converting ac into pulsating dc.
Crystal Filter: Circuit using a crystal as a selective component. Used to discriminate

against all signals
except those at the center frequency of the crystal.
and R components to control the passage of signals in one circuit and away
Decouple: The use of L, C,
from another circuit.
low-pass R-C filter usually connected at the output of the demodulator

that
De-Smphasis Network: A
frequencies to a lesser extent.
shunts the higher audio frequencies to ground while affecting the lower
Demodulation: See Detection.
Detection: The process of separating the modulation component from the received signal.
Discriminator: A receiver circuit that removes the desired signal from an incoming FM radio signal by
changing modulations in terms of frequency variation into amplitude variation.
Fidelity: The faithfulness with which a signal is reproduced by an amplifier. High fidelity is synonomous
with low distortion.
frequency Modulation: A system of superimposing intelligence on a carrier wave by causing the fre-
quency to vary in accordance with the audio.

4-120 GLOSSARY
Grounc/x A metallic connection with the earth to establish ground potential. Also, a common return to
a point of zero r-f potential, such as the chassis of a receiver.
Harmonic: An integral multiple of a fundamental frequency. (The second harmonic is twice the frequency
of the fundamental or first harmonic.)
Heterodyne: To beat or mix two signals of different frequencies.
Image Frequency: An undesired signal capable of beating with the local oscillator signal of a super-
heterodyne receiver which produces a difference frequency within the bandwidth of the i-f channel.
It is equal to the r-f signal plus twice the i-f signal.
Intermediate Frequency: The fixed frequency to which r-f carrier waves are converted in a super-
Limiting: Removal by electronic means of one or both extremities of a waveform at a predetermined level.
Local Oscillator: The oscillator used in a superheterodyne receiver, the output of which is mixed with
the desired r-f carrier to form the i-f.
Loose Coupling: Less than critical coupling; coupling providing little transfer of energy.
Mixer: A vacuum tube or crystal and suitable circuit used Jo combine the incoming and local oscillator
frequencies to produce an i-f.
Modufafion: The process of varying the amplitude (AM), the frequency (FM), or the phase (PM) of a
Multiplexing: The simultaneous transmission of two or more signals over the same radio channel.
Padder: A variable capacitor connected in series with the main tuning capacitor to provide frequency
adjustments at the low end of a band.
Preselector: A name given to the r-f amplifier section of a receiver. It indicates the stages that precede
the mixer or converter stage.
Ratio Detector: An FM demodulator that splits the rectified voltages in such a way that their ratio is
directly proportional to the ratio of the applied i-f voltages which vary with frequency.
Reactance Tube: A tube connected across the tank circuit of an oscillator that can act as an inductance
or capacitance, and thus cause variations in oscillator frequency. This is used in afc circuits.
Receiver: Any circuit or group of circuits designed to select a particular frequency or group of frequen-
cies, and obtain from them intelligence.
S Meter: A meter connected in a receiver circuit to indicate signal strength.

Saturation Limiting: Limiting the maximum
output voltage of a vacuum tube circuit by operating the
tube in the region of plate-current saturation (not to be confused with emission saturation).
Selectivity: The degree to which a receiver is capable of discriminating between signals of different
carrier frequencies.
Sensitivity: The degree of response of a circuit to signals of the frequency to which it is tuned.
Shielding A: metallic covering used to prevent magnetic or electrostatic coupling between adjacent circuits.
Sidebands: Frequencies, in addition to the carrier frequency, produced by modulating the carrier with
an audio signal.
Single Sideband: A system of radio transmission in which one set of sidebands (either upper or lower)
is completely suppressed, and the carrier frequency is partly
or completely suppressed.
Squelch Circuit: Circuit for preventing a radio receiver from producing a-f output in the absence of a
signal having predetermined characteristics.
Stagger Tuning: Method of aligning the i-f stages of a superheterodyne receiver to produce wide
bandwidth. This is accomplished by peaking alternate i-f transformers at slightly different frequencies.
Superheterodyne: A receiver in which the incoming signal is mixed with a locally generated signal to
produce a predetermined intermediate frequency.
Tight Coupling: Degree of coupling in which practically all the magnetic lines of force produced by one
coil link a second coil.
Trimmer Capacitor: A small capacitor connected in parallel with the main tuning capacitor to provide
small variations in total capacitance.
Tuning; The varying of an inductance or capacitance to control the resonant frequency of a circuit.
INDEX TO VOL. IV

Ac-dc receiver, 4-39 FM tuner, 4-115

Afc, 4-110 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 4-90
Avc, 4-31 Frequency modulation:
amplified, 4-35 afc, 4-110
delayed, 4-34 basic transmitter, 4-73
Alignment, superheterodyne, 4-42 de-emphasis, 4-113
Amplified avc, 4-35 definition of, 4-65
Antenna circuits, 4-5 demodulators, 4-87
Antennas: deviation ratio, 4-70
dimensions, 4-76 discriminator, 4-87
dipole, 4-75 effect of audio amplitude, 4-66
FM receiving, 4-75 effect of audio frequency, 4-67
ferrite rod, 4-36 FM tuner, 4-115
loop, 4-36 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 4-90

loopstick, 4-36 gated-beam detector, 4-104
Automobile receivers, 4-44 guard bands, 4-68
i-f amplifiers, 4-81
Bfo, 4-47, 4-56 limiter, 4-83
Balanced modulator, 4-60 mixer and converter circuits, 4-79
Bandspread tuning, 4-50 modulation index, 4-70

Beat frequency, 4-17, 4-19 multiplex stereo, 4-116
noise and interference, 4-71
Cat whisker, 4-7 pre-emphasis, 4-72
Communications, receiver, 4-47 ratio detector, 4-97
Converter, 4-24 reactance to, 4-110

pentagrid, 4-24 receiver, 4-74
Crystal filters, 4-51 receiving antennas, 4-75
Crystal receiver, 4-7 r-f amplifier, 4-78
sidebands, 4-68
De-emphasis, 4-113 slope detector, 4-87
Delayed avc, 4-34 Frequency spectrum, 4-2
Detector, first, 4-22
Detector, second, 4-28
diode, 4-28 Galena, 4-7
time constant, 4-28 Gated-beam detector, 4-104
Deviation ratio, 4-70
Dipole antenna, 4-75
k'ial conversion, 4-48 Heterodyning, 4-19
Electron-ray circuit, 4-41

Electr on . ra amplifier, 4-26
y tube, 4-40 l-f
bandwidth, 4-27
response, 4-27
Fidelity, .
4.4 Image frequencies, 4-18, 4-25
1
4-122 INDEX
Interelectrode capacitance, 4-12 Reactance tube, 4-110
Intermediate frequency, 4-17 Receiver, radio, 4-1
Receivers:
ac-dc, 4-39
Limiter, 4-83 automobile, 4-44
grid-leak bias, 4-85 communications, 4-47
plate circuit, 4-84 crystal, 4-7
Litz wire, 4-10 frequency modulation, 4-74
Local oscillator, 4-21 superheterodyne, 4-17
Loop antenna, 4-36 superregenerative, 4-45
Loopstick, 4-36 TRF, 4-8, 4-15
Mixer, 4-22 S meters, 4-54

pentagrid, 4-23 Selectivity, 4-3, 4-4
Modulation index, 4-70 Sensitivity, 4-4
Modulator, balanced, 4-60 Shielding, 4-10
Multiband operation, 4-49 Single sideband, definition of, 4-59
Multiplex stero, FM, 4-116 reception, 4-62
Slope detector, 4-87
Squelch circuit, 4-58
Noise limiter, 4-57 Superheterodyne alignment, 4-42
Null circuits, 4-53 Superheterodyne receiver, 4-17
Superregenerative receiver, 4-45
Padder capacitor, 4-21

Permeability tuning, 4-10 TRF receiver, 4-8, 4-15
Portable receivers, 4-44 Tone control, 4-29
Pre-emphasis, 4-72 Tracking, 4-11
Preselector, 4-18 Transceiver, 4-46
Push-button tuning, 4-37 Transmission lines, 4-77
Trimmer capacitor, 4-11
Tuned circuits, 4-9
Q, 4-3, 4-9 Tuning, push-button, 4-37
Q multiplier, 4-52
Variable capacitor, 4-1

Volume control, 4-13, 4-30
Radio-frequency (r-f) amplifier, 4-12
Radio receivers, 4-1
Ratio detector, 4-97 Wave traps, 4-6

of radio.


1


basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Raytheon Company
Author of
VOL. 5
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC, NEW YORK

All rights reserved. This book or any parts thereof may not
be reproduced
in any form or in any language without
permission of the publisher.

PREFACE
cult subject.
Itwould be impossible to cover in a single book or series of books, the



a-c electricity. Equipped with this information the reader is ready to study
IV PREFACE

;

here. The most patient, and long-suffering was my wife Celia, who
typed,
MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. V — BASIC RADIO
SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 1
The Transistor: Introduction Atomic Structure of Semiconductors • Semiconductor

•
Crystals • N-Type Semiconductors • P-Type Semiconductors • Characteristics and

Properties of Holes
THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE 7

The Junction Barrier • Operation of P-N Junction: Reverse Bias • Operation of a
P-N Junction: Forward Bias • The Junction Diode as a Rectifier
THE POINT-CONTACT DIODE 11
The Point-Contact Diode
P-N-P AND N-P-N TRANSISTORS 12

What is a Transistor?
THE ALLOY-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 13

The Diffused Alloy- Junction Transistor
THE GROWN- JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 14

The Grown-Junction (Rate-Grown) Transistor
TRANSISTOR BASING 15
Transistor Basing and Construction
P-N-P TRANSISTOR OPERATION 16

Operation of the P-N-P Transistor
N-P-N TRANSISTOR OPERATION 18

Operation of the N-P-N Transistor.
POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR OPERATION 19

The Point-Contact Transistor
TRANSISTOR OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS 21

Collector Voltage — Collector Current Characteristics • Current Amplification Factor:
Alpha • Transistor Voltage Gain • Transistor Power Gain • Transistor Frequency
Response: Alpha Cutoff • Transistor — Vacuum Tube Analogy • Temperature Effects

VI CONTENTS
BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS 29
Three Basic Transistor Circuits
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS 30
The Common-Base Amplifier • The Common-Emitter Amplifier • The Common-Col-
lector Amplifier
BIASING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 36

Transistor Biasing
ANALYZING TRANSISTORS 38
Transistor Analysis Using Characteristic Curves
COUPLING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 40

Interstage Coupling
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 43
The Transistor Receiver: Transistor Oscillators • A Practical Local
R-F Amplifier •
Oscillator • The Mixer • The Converter • The I-F Amplifier • I-F Amplifier with
Overload Diode • The Detector: AVC • The Power Detector • The Reflexed I-F
Audio Amplifier • The Audio Amplifier • Direct-Coupled Amplifiers • Single-Ended
Audio Output Stage
PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS 56
The Push-Pull (Double-Ended) Amplifier • Asymmetric Push-Pull Amplifier • Com-
plementary Symmetry Push-Pull Circuit
TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLIES 59

Battery-Operated Power Supplies
TRANSISTOR RECEIVER 60
A Typical Transistorized Receiver
GLOSSARY 63
INDEX 65
SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS
The Transistor --Introduction
Developed after many years of laboratory research, the transistor has grown
in popularity at an astounding rate. Transistors are made of se mi conductor
materials; that is, materials whose ability to conduct an electric current
falls somewhere between that of an insulator such as mica or glass, and that
of a conductor such as silver or copper. Silicon and germanium are the most
widely-used materials in the manufacture of transistors. These materials,
which in their pure state are very poor conductors, gain important electrical
conductivity characteristics with the addition of certain impurities.
The Relative Resistances of
CONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTORS INSULATORS

c
»
Silico h.
>*
.Germaniur Germaniun
Wire Transistor v>
0
Resistance
Copper Platinum
Wood Glass u _>*

Pure Pure
0
1
m
a.
m
.
!>
I0 4 K>6 tO8 I010 IZ
1 !
100 !
I0
Resistance i n ohms per cubic centimeter
The transistor was a laboratory curiosity, of interest mainly because

at first
it that could be made to amplify. Improvements,
was a "solid-state" device
particularly in the manufacturing process, rapidly made it a practical de-
vice. The transistor has already achieved a prominent place in the electron-
ics field and is replacing the vacuum tube in numerous applications. In
comparison to vacuum tubes, the transistor is extremely small, lightweight,
does not require filament power, is virtually immune to mechanical shock
and, in general, can operate well at relatively high temperatures. In the
following pages, we will discuss semiconductors, transistors, and practical
radio circuits containing transistors. We start with a study of semiconduc-
tors because this is the "stuff" of which transistors are made.
5-2 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS
Atomic Structure of Semiconductors
An atom of any substance consists of a nucleus made up of neutral particles

(neutrons) and positively-charged particles (protons) surrounded by a group
of negatively-charged particles (electrons). The electrons travel in orbits
around the nucleus. In a neutral atom there are as many electrons as protons.
,
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAMS OF ATOMS ^

GERMANIUM SILICON INDIUM ANTIMONY
©© 4 electrons 4 electrons 3 electrons

j
5 electrons
(Only outermost orbits are shown)
In our study of semiconductors, we will be primarily concerned with the sili-

con, germanium, indium, and antimony atoms. The silicon atom has a total
of 14 electrons in 3 orbits. Four of these electrons are in the outermost
orbit. The germanium atom has 32 electrons in 4 orbits. Again, there are
four e lectrons in the outermost orbit. The indium atom contains 49 electrons
in 5 orbits, with three electrons in the outermost orbit. Of the 51 electrons
in the antimony atom (also arranged in 5 orbits), five are in the outermost
orbit. The outermost orbit of these atoms can hold 8 electrons. Thus, none
of the above atoms has a complete outer orbit.
In dealing with semiconductors, we are concerned only with the nucleus and
the outermost electrons. When shown in the simplified diagram, the atoms
of germanium and silicon appear identical because they have the same num-
ber of electrons in their outermost orbits. We are concerned primarily with
the electrons in the outer ring or orbit (called valence electrons) because
they determine the chemical characteristics of the atom or element. Since
germanium and silicon have the same number of valence electrons, they have
similar chemical characteristics.
SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 5-3
Semiconductor Crystals
In a single crystal of pure germanium or silicon, the individual atoms are

aligned in a structure which we descriptively call a lattice The lattice effect
.
is created because all adjacent atoms are symmetrically equidistant. Each

atom is held in place by bonds formed between each of its outermost electrons
to each of the four adjacent atoms. Each outermost electron thus becomes
linked in an electron-pair bond. Thus, a perfect germanium crystal has
neither an excess nor a deficiency of electrons. All of the electrons in the
crystal are either bound to the nuclei of the atoms or to each other in electron-
pair bonds.
From the illustration, it might appear that the electrons in the outer ring can
easily be displaced by the application of a voltage. This is not the case. By
forming covalent bonds, or electron pairs, between neighboring atoms, the
atoms behave in many respects as though their outer ring were complete (8
electrons). This makes them extremely inactive since there are no free elec-
trons; their outer orbits each contain four electrons, and they "share" four
additional electrons.
Election-pah bonds
A perfect is an electrical insulator and of very little use

germanium crystal
in transistor work. However, with the addition of a small amount of chem-
ical impurities, heat, or light energy, the conductivity of the germanium is
improved and it becomes a semiconductor.
N-Type Semiconductors
If we introduce an impurity such as an atom of antimony (which has five

electrons in its outer orbit) into a crystal of germanium or silicon, the cry-
stal lattice as a whole is not changed. The antimony atom merely replaces
a germanium or silicon atom, with four of its outermost electrons joining in
covalent bonds with those of adjacent atoms. The remaining electron is free
to move through the crystal. This free electron aids the conduction of elec-
tricity; the antimony -enriched germanium or silicon crystal conducts current
more easily than does a pure crystal. Because only small quantities (about
1 part in 100, 000, 000) of impurities are added, the crystal does not become
a good conductor; rather it falls somewhere between a conductor and an insul-
ator. For this reason, these crystals are called semiconductors.
o<v>o<x>o<xxxxxx^vwvws^s^ ^s***<vvyyyyx>
<
If an atom of is added to a germanium
Making an N-TYPt CRYSTAL
Since the introduction of antimony adds a free electron to the crystal, anti-
mony is called a donor Although the crystal itself remains neutral, it has
.
available an unbound negative charge and, therefore, is called an n-type

semiconductor. The adding of controlled amounts of impurities to a pure
crystal is called doping. Because antimony has 5 electrons in its outer ring,
it is called a"pentavalent" material. Another pentavalent substance frequent-
ly used is arsenic.
When a voltage is applied across a piece of n-type semiconductor material,

there will be an electron flow through the crystal, constituting an electric
current. The free electrons will flow toward the positive terminal and be
repelled away from the negative terminal. If the voltage were reversed in
polarity, all conditions would remain the same except that the direction of
current would be reversed. N-type material is a "linear" conductor.
SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 5-5
P-Type Semiconductors
If we add a single atom of indium to a crystal of germanium or silicon, a

different type of crystal results because indium has only three electrons
(trivalent) in its outer orbit. When the indium atom replaces one of the ger-
manium or silicon atoms in the lattice, the crystal becomes deficient in one
electron. To fill the vacancy thus created, an electron must be borrowed
from some other part of the crystal. The borrowed electron moves into the
hole created by adding the indium. In moving to fill the hole, the borrowed
ilectron leaves another hole behind it. Thus, while the electrons move in
one direction, the holes left by them move in the opposite direction. Because
the loss of an electron (which is a negative charge) results in effect in aposi-
tively -charged particle, holes maybe thought of as free positive charges that
can act as current carriers.
’if an atom of added to a germanium

I
or silicon crystal,
indium
an electron vacancy or
holt is left in the lattice.
This holt nets as a free
charge
Mak ing a
p-rypE CRysTAL
Because the indium atom takes an electron from some other atom in the cry-
stal, it is called an acceptor. Since the crystal has a free positive charge
available for electrical conduction, it is called a p-type semiconductor. The
crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral.
When a voltage is applied across p-type material, the holes, having an effec-
tive positive charge, will be attracted to the negative terminal and repelled
from the positive terminal. This drift of holes constitutes an electric cur-
rent, and is equivalent to a flow of electrons in the opposite direction. Each
time a hole reaches the negative terminal, an electron is emitted from the
negative terminal into the hole in the crystal to neutralize it. At the same
time, an electron from a covalent bond enters the positive terminal to leave
another hole in the crystal. This hole then begins its drift toward the nega-
tive terminal.
Characteristics and Properties of Holes
For an understanding of transistors, we must think of a hole as a specific

particle. Holes in motion are the same as electrons in motion--they both
make up an electric current. However, we must consider the differences that
do exist. A hole can exist only in a semiconductor material such as silicon
or germanium because it depends for its existence on a specific arrangement
of electrons (electron-pair bonds) and atoms as found in crystal materials.
Holes do not exist in conductors such as copper. Another important consider-
ation is that holes are deflected by electric and magnetic fields in exactly the
same way as electrons. However, since holes possess a charge equal and
opposite to that of the electron, the direction of deflection of the hole is oppo-
site to that of the electron.
I MOVEMENT of a HOLE through a SEMICONDUCTOR
When a hole is filled by a free or excess electron from an adjacent electron-

pair bond, the hole no longer exists. When a voltage is applied across a
piece of p-type germanium, holes are repelled by the positive terminal and
attracted to the negative terminal. When ahole reaches the negative terminal,
an electron from the battery (see illustration) enters the germanium and fills
the hole. When this occurs, an electron from an electron -pair bond in the
crystal near the positive terminal breaks its bond and enters the positive ter-
minal. The breaking of the bond creates another hole which begins to drift
towardthe negative terminal. This action provides a continuous flow of elec-
trons in the external circuit and holes in the germanium.
THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE 5-7
The Junction Barrier
If an n-type crystal is joined to a p-type crystal, electrons do not flow across

the junction to fill or neutralize the holes. The antimony atoms (actually,
Ions) in the n-type crystal are positively charged because they have given up
electrons. Thus, they repel the positive holes in the; p-type crystal. Sim-
ilarly, the indium atoms in the p-type crystal, in accepting an electron, be-
come negatively charged and repel electrons in the n-type crystal. Free
electrons and holes in the n- and p-type material therefore move away from
the p-n junction rather than toward it; the junction may be thought of as a
barrier to the passage of current carriers. The combined crystal thus acts
as if a small equivalent battery were placed across the junction, thereby es-
tablishing a small voltage across it. If the current carriers are to pass, the
barrier must be eliminated.
A p-n junction cannot be formed merely by placing a piece of n-type material

against a piece of p-type material. The junction is formed by taking a single
crystal of pure germanium and treating one section with a ttivalent impurity
and one section with a pentavalent impurity. The semiconductor device we
get from this process is called a junction diode .As we shall see, this p-n
junction is no longer a linear device] Current will flow much easier in one
direction than in the other.
5-8 THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
Operation of P-N Junction — Reverse Bias
Let us review an important point. It might be thought that in time, the elec-
trons in the n-type germanium would, by diffusion, occupy the holes in the
p-type germanium, thereby neutralizing the entire crystal. This does not
occur because the electrons and holes tend to drift apart. In n-type material,
the atoms of the pentavalent impurity have apositive charge; in p-type mater-
ial, the atoms of the trivalent impurity carry a negative charge. These rela-
tively fixed atoms repel the charges in the opposite piece of material--the
positive atoms in the n-type material repel the holes or positive charges in
the p-type material, and vice-versa. This action provides a battery equiva-
lency across the p-n junction.
REVERSE BIAS RAISES the JUNCTION BARRIER

and HO current flows
Let us now connect an external battery across our p-n crystal with the same
polarity as the junction-barrier voltage. The external battery voltage will
add to the equivalent junction voltage. The negative terminal is connected to
the p-type germanium and the positive terminal to the n-type germanium.
The positive holes are attracted toward the negative terminal and the nega-
tive electrons toward the positive terminal. Note that in both attractions, the
holes and the electrons are attracted away from the p-n junction. This action
effectively increases the junction barrier height. With electrons and holes
repelled away from the junction, there will be no current flow of electrons
or holes through the germanium. As we will see, current flow takes place
only when the holes and electrons pass through the junction barrier.
With the battery connected as shown, the p-n junction is biased in the non-
conducting or reverse-bias direction. Should the reverse bias be excessive-
ly high, the crystal structure may break down and be damaged permanently.
^
THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE 5-9
Operation of a P-N Junction- -Forward Bias
We will now connect the positive terminal of the external battery to the p-type
germanium and the negative terminal to the n-type germanium. The holes
are now repelled from the positive terminal of the battery
and drift toward
repelled from the negative terminal of
the p-n junction. The electrons are
and also drift toward the junction. Under the influence of the battery
the battery
voltage, the holes and electrons penetrate the junction and
combine with each
an electron and a hole, an electron from the
other. For each combination of
negative terminal of the external battery enters the n-type germanium and
from an electron -pair bond
drifts toward the junction. Similarly, an electron
positive terminal of the external battery, breaks its
in the crystal, near the
electron that
bond and enters the positive terminal of the battery. For each
breaks its bond, a hole is created which drifts toward the junction. Recom-
battery
bination around the junction region continues as long as the external
is connected.
KIBSI1D BUS LOWERS the UNCTION BARRIER

and CURRENT HOWS «-e
V\s? PR (~)
1
+
Battery equivalent
of the junction
AMMETER
H
EXTERNAL BATTERY 3 I I I
Current—
Note that there is a continuous flow of electron current in the external circuit.
The current in the p-type germanium consists of holes; the current in the
n-type germanium consists of electrons. In this condition, the p-n junction
is said to be biased in the forward direction. If the forward bias is
increased,
the current is increased.
In forward bias, the external battery voltage opposes and overcomes the
junction-barrier voltage, which may be only a few tenths of a volt. This
lowering of the junction barrier permits a free flow of current. Of course,
excessive forward bias would produce excessive current, with a possibility
of a crystal-structure breakdown.
5-10 THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
The Junction Diode as a Rectifier
We have seen that the p-n junction is a unilateral device; that is, when for-
ward biased, it will permit current to flow, and when reverse biased, it will
not permit current to flow. These, then, are the basic ingredients of a diode.
Below, we see a curve showing current flow through a junction diode as the
bias voltage is varied and reversed in polarity. Note that current flow in the
forward-bias direction is quite high- -measured in milliamperes. However,
current flow in the reverse -bias direction, although very low and measured
in microamperes, is not zero. The reverse-bias current flow occurs be-
cause some acceptor ions and their associated holes occur in the n-type ger-
manium, and some donor ions and their associated excess electrons occur in
the p-type germanium. The holes found in n-type germanium and the excess
electrons in the p-type germanium are called minority carriers because they
are so few in number, compared with the holes found in p-type material and
the electrons in n-type germanium, which are called majority carriers .
iRECTIFIER ACTION in VAttlllM TllbFand jllHCflftW DIME!

Current flew
P N
LOAD
LOAD
Ne
©
eurreet flew
LOAD
Chart ef current tkreujli end

jg
voltage across e P-N junetien f i
CRYSTAL
BREAKDOWN
Note that when a very high reverse bias is applied, a high reverse current
flows. This current is not due to the minority carriers, but to a breakdown
of the crystal structure. The point at which the reverse voltage is high enough
to break down covalent bonds and cause current flow is called the Zener break-
down voltage. This voltage has the same importance as the inverse voltage
rating of a vacuum tube, since it defines the maximum reverse voltage that
can be applied to a junction without excessive current flow.
THE POINT -CONTACT DIODE 5-11
The Point -Contact Diode
Up we have given all our attention to the junction diode. There

until this point,
is a second type commonly —
used the point-contact diode. This unit is an
outgrowth of the old galena crystal detector, which consisted of a piece of
galena (a lead ore) mounted so that an irregular surface was exposed to the
point of a wire (cat whisker). The wire was moved around to find a sensi-
tive spot for optimum radio detection.
pN-TYPE germanium diode Symbol
Jhe "Fomed" P-TYPE germanium

% (formed by heat
Poinf-Conticf from current surge)
Diode
cat
The modern counterpart of this is the germanium crystal point -contact diode.
Here, the germanium replaces the galena, and the cat whisker consists of
a length of wire such as tungsten about 0. 005" diameter. In a modern unit
such as the 1N34 or 1N81, the cat whisker is fitted to the germanium crystal
at the factory, and the entire unit is sealed. In practice, the germanium
consists of n-type material. The unit is "formed" by passing a large momen-
tary surge of current across the junction of the wafer and the whisker. The
heat produced by this current forces some electrons away from the area of
the point, leaving holes. This produces a small p-type region around the
point of the cat whisker.
COPPER CLAD Construction of a Typical
Point Contact Diode
A. Copper-clad wire
B. Nickel silver pin
This end marked X C. Glass-filled plastic case
connects to germanium D. Germanium crystal
which corresponds to E. Tungsten cat whisker
cathode of vacuum tube F. Moisture-resistant impregnating wax
Thus, we have all the ingredients of a junction diode --a p- and an n-region.
However, since the p region is so tiny, there is very little capacitance across
the junction. A typical shunt capacitance might be as low as 0. 8/iLif. This
makes the point -contact diode highly desirable for high-frequency work such
as in video detectors and microwave mixers.
5-12 P-N-P AND N-P-N TRANSISTORS
What is a Transistor ?
So far, we have discussed p- and n-type materials and their actions. Going
one step further, we have observed the action of p-n junctions under condi-
tions of forward and reverse bias. We are now prepared to study the tran-
sistor. We can consider a junction transistor as being composed of two
separate p-n junctions "tied" together. One basic type of junction transistor
is known as the p-n-p In this transistor, there is a very thin layer of n-type
.
semiconductor sandwiched between two much thicker layers of p-type semi-

conductor material. The second basic type of junction transistor is the n-p-n.
Here, the opposite condition exists. A thin layer of p-type semiconductor
material is sandwiched between two much thicker layers of n-type material.
As we will see, it is very important that the center layer of semiconductor
material be made extremely thin.
P-N-P and N-P-N TRANSISTORS
Once a p-n-p or n-p-n junction transistor is formed, electrical connections

are made to the layers. The connection to the thin center layer is called the
base, and can be compared roughly to the control grid of a vacuum tube.
The connection to one of the outer layers is called the emitter often com-
,
pared to the cathode of a vacuum tube. The connection to the other outer layer
is called the collector, often compared to the plate of a vacuum tube. In
some transistors, the outer layers are symmetrical and can be used either
as the emitter or collector, depending upon circuit biasing voltages. How-
ever, it is much more common practice to make the junctions asymmetrical,
and the manufacturer will identify each lead as being either the emitter, the
base, or the collector. The illustration shows the physical representation
of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors together with their circuit symbols.
THE ALLOY -JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 5-13
The Diffused Alloy-Junction Transistor
The ALLOY-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (P-N-P)
A p-n junction cannot be made merely by joining a pellet of p-type crystal to

a pellet of n-type crystal. Special techniques must be used and have been
developed. For example, to make a p-n-p alloy-junction transistor, the pro-
cess starts with a piece of germanium about 10 mils or 01" thick. A small
.
pellet (impurity) of trivalent material, such as indium, is then placed near

the center of the two opposing faces of the germanium wafer. This combina-
tion is then heated in an oven to a temperature somewhere between the mel-
ting temperature of germanium and indium. This causes the indium pellets
to diffuse into, or alloy with, the germanium wafer, to form areas or regions
of p-type conductivity separated from each other by a thin layer having n-type
conductivity of the original wafer. Connecting leads are then soldered to each
indium pellet and to the germanium crystal. The assembly is then hermeti-
cally sealed in a lightproof container. Since the collector is usually required
to have a greater heat dissipation than the emitter, the indium pellet used as
the collector is larger than the emitter.
To make n-p-n alloy -junction transistors, the same technique is used except
that the impurity added is usually arsenic, a pentavalent element.
5-14 THE GROWN -JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The Grown -Junction (Rate -Grown) Transistor
The grown-junction or rate -grown transistor is made, basically, by pulling

a bar of germanium from a bath of molten germanium. In this process, both
acceptor and donor impurities are present in nearly equal amounts throughout
the entire crystal. One is made preponderant over the other by changing the
conditions of growth, particularly the temperature and the rate of withdrawal
of the crystal.
THE GROWN-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Pulls and rotates
PROCESS 6ermanium bar or seed
JUNCTION
Grown P-TVPE germanium
IMPURITY INJECTOR
Grown N-TYPE germanium
Molten germanium
HEATING COIL
CRUCIBLE
A small crystal or "seed" is dipped into the molten germanium and slowly
raised. The molten germanium "sticks "to the seed and forms a long, single
crystal. During the process, the crystal is rotated and impurities added
so that the germanium changes from p-type to n-type, depending upon the
temperature of the molt and the rate of pulling. As acceptor and donor
impurities are alternately added, the p- and n-type layers are formed. The
bar is then sawed into pieces with -- for n-p-n transistors -- a thin p-type
layer in the center and long n-type layers on each side. An advantage of
rate-growing is the excellent control over the base region, which can be made
extremely thin- -a few tenths of a mil thick. These junctions are very good
for high-frequency work.
TRANSISTOR BASING 5-15
Transistor Basing and Construction
Several transistor outline drawings are shown on this page to illustrate the
various physical shapes to be found in the transistor field, together with the
location of the emitter, base, and collector leads. Among the typical tran-
sistors shown, note that the diameter may be as little as 0. 322", or less than
one -third inch. The leads are generally thin, tinned wires that must be han-
dled carefully. On some large power transistors (to be discussed later), the
collector may be connected to the case and the entire unit bolted to the chassis.
Viewed from the Side or Bottom, the TYPICAL TRANSISTOR

Looks Like This
To identify the leads, an index or color dot is often placed next to the collec-
tor terminal. Sometimes, a small index tab is used. It is always good prac-
tice to check the manufacturer's schematic for transistor lead identification
before any testing is done.
COLLECTOR
Basing Identification
used in Transistor Radios
- COLLECTOR
EMITTER
BASE
EMITTER - bellow
base - Black
COLLECTOR - Red
Internally connected to
5-16 P-N-P TRANSISTOR OPERATION
Operation of the P-N-P Transistor
BIASING EMITTER-BASE AND BASE-COLLECTOR JUNCTIONS
Let us observe the action of a p-n-p transistor. In this unit, there are two
p-type sections, the emitter and collector, separated byathin layer of n-type
material, the base. Note that the emitter-base p-n junction is biased in a
forward direction. In this connection, the external battery opposes the inter-
nal (barrier junction) voltage developed at this junction. In short, with the
emitter biased positively with respect to the base, we say this p-n junction
is forward biased. The p-n collector-base junction is biased in the opposite
direction. In this way, the external battery aids the internal junction vol-
tage, and we say that the collector is biased negatively (reverse bias) with
respect to the base.
If no voltage were applied to this transistor, the holes in the emitter would
move to the left and the electrons in the base would move to the right, both
because of the internal junction barrier voltage. However, when an emitter-
base forward-bias voltage is applied, the holes in the emitter and the elec-
trons in the base move toward the junction, both moving in the direction of
the battery terminal which attracts them. At the emitter -base junction, some
holes and electrons combine with each other and are neutralized. However,
because of the extreme thinness of the base layer, and because of the attrac-
tion of the relatively high negative collector voltage, almost all of the holes
pass or "diffuse" through the base and produce a "hole current" between the
emitter and the collector.
P-N-P TRANSISTOR OPERATION 5-17
Operation of the P-N-P Transistor (Cont'd)
The amount of holes combining with electrons in the emitter-base junction

region is quite small- -usually less than 5%. However, because of this com-
bination, there is a small emitter-base current, and the collector current is
less than the emitter current by that amount. For example, if the emitter
current is 1 ma, the collector current would be about 0.95 ma. Holes reach-
ing the negative battery terminal at the collector combine with electrons from
the battery. At the same time, new holes are formed at the emitter by elec-
trons breaking their electron bonds and entering the positive battery terminal.
Thus, while the current carriers within the transistor consist of holes, the
external current consists of electrons.
ACT!0H in a P-N-P TRANSISTOR

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P N P
o Hole
Electron
© Positive ion (donor)
© Negative ion (acceptor) Electron from electron-pair bond
As we maximum effectiveness of the transistor takes place when

shall see,
all the holes or current carriers from the emitter pass through the base
region and on to the collector. Loss of some of these current carriers is
unavoidable because of the electrons in the base region. However, by making
the base sufficiently thin, the percentage of the holes that diffuse through
without combining with electrons may reach as high as 99%. The holes that
combine with base electrons set up an "undesirable" emitter-base current,
with electrons leaving the emitter to flow into the emitter-base battery, and
electrons leaving the battery to flow into the base.
5-18 N-P-N TRANSISTOR OPERATION
Operation of the N-P-N Transistor
The functioning of an n-p-n transistor is very similar to that of the p-n-p type.
The important difference is that the current carriers are now electrons in-
steadof holes. Here again, the internal junctionbarriervoltage intheemitter-
base region is offset by the externally applied bias voltage which forces the
electrons to the right and the holes to the left. The electrons from the emitter
enter the center or base region, which has a p-type conductivity, and here,
a small percentage of them combine with holes. Those electrons that do not
combine with holes pass, or diffuse through the base region into the n-type
collector under the influence of the high positive collector voltage. These
electrons constitute the collector current.
Since a certain number of electrons combine with holes at the emitter-base

junction, the collector current will be somewhat less than the emitter cur-
rent. Actually, the amount of emitter current that enters into combination
is usually less than 5% of the total current. Generally, the collector current
is proportional to the collector voltage for small collector voltages. How-
ever, fora given emitter current, the number of current carriers is constant;
above a certain collector voltage, the collector current is nearly constant.
The fundamental differences between n-p-n and p-n-p operation areas follows:
The emitter-to-collector current carrier in the p-n-p transistor is the hole;
in the n-p-n transistor, the emitter-to-collector current carrier is the el-
ectron. Also, the bias voltage polarities are reversed, resulting from a
reversal of n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.
I BASIC Whiskers
CONSTRUCTION
Of the
H
POINT CONTACT
TRANSISTOR Base Connection
TINNED LEADS (0.017 DIAM.
METAL-GLASS HEADER
The liberated electrons are immediately attracted to and enter the positive
emitter terminal. These electrons are the emitter current carriers, and
each leaves a hole behind. This creation of holes is called hole injection,
since the effect is the same as if the holes were injected into the transistor
through the emitter. The holes immediately diffuse toward the collector be-
cause of the negative potential at that terminal. Some of these holes combine
with free electrons and cease to exist- -an undesirable situation.
5-20 POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR OPERATION
The Point-Contact Transistor (Cont'd)
ACTION in a POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR

N-Type INTERNAL POTENTIAL BARRIER
EMITTER CONTACT COLLECTOR CONTACT
Donor Atoms
( Surface Bound
Electrons \
=lt
IK ±r
.© ©
. N-TYPE GERMANIUM •
BASE CONTACT
Electrons ° Holes
At the collector, the surface -barrier potential produced bythe surface -bound
electrons limits the current flow between collector and base. However, holes
that reach the collector area combine with the surface -bound electrons in that
area and reduce the surface -barrier potential. This permits the collector to
inject more electrons into the germanium, increasing the collector current.
Thus, holes injected by the emitter affect collector current without acting
as current carriers themselves. The electrons that flow between the collec-
tor and the base are the collector current carriers. The point-contact tran-
sistor is made by placing two sharp, metallic wire points called "cat whiskers"
against the face of a pellet of n- or p-type germanium. The wires are very
fine and usually made of some springy, conducting material such as phosphor-
bronze. They each contain a kink, to force them against the crystal surface
under pressure. The points of the cat whiskers make contact with the semi-
conductor crystal about 002" apart. The connection to the crystal is called
.
the base lead; the two wire leads become the emitter and the collector.
The current flow in the collector circuit is greater than the flow in the emitter
circuit, the difference representing the gain of the transistor. While the
maximum current gain in the junction transistor is 1, a typical point-contact
transistor may have a current gain of 2. 5. An advantage of these transistors
is their ability to operate well at high frequencies due to the low capacitances
between the point contacts and the base.
TRANSISTOR OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS 5-21
Collector Voltage -Collector Current Characteristics
Ifwe connect a simple transistor circuit as shown, we can vary the collector
voltage while observing its effect on the collector current. As we start from
zero collector voltage and increase it, there is a rapid and constant increase
in the movement of free current carriers, with a resultant increase in collec-
tor current. A further increase in collector voltage will produce still more
current carrier activity with a greater increase in collector current. How-
ever, a point soon is reached where a still further increase in collector vol-
tage will result in very little change in collector current. This condition can
be compared with that of plate current saturation in a vacuum tube. Actually,
in transistors, a point is reached where the number of free current carriers
available (electrons in n-type material and holes in p-type material) is no
longer great enough to permit a significant increase in collector current.
From this point on, the curve is almost horizontal.
We know from Ohm's law that R = • We learned also that the plate resis-
y
tance of a tube can be measured by Ep/I p We can therefore find the collec-
.
tor resistance by Vc/Ic. (In transistor terminology, voltage is expressed as

"V" rather than "E". ) In the very early portion of the curve, the rise is very
great, indicating a low collector resistance. After the "bend”, there is very
little change in collector current for a given change in collector voltage, in-
dicating a very high collector resistance. This is similar to the high plate
resistance of the pentode. In practice, the collector is almost always biased
in this region of high resistance. The resistance in this area maybe as high
as 1 or 2 megohms.
) .
5-22 TRANSISTOR OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Current Amplification Factor --Alpha
The current amplification of a transistor can be compared with the voltage

amplification factor (p) of a vacuum tube. This, as you recall, is a measure
of the relative ability of the grid voltage and the plate voltage to produce an
equal change in the plate current ( Aep/ A eg). Note that the voltage in the
output circuit is directly related to the input voltage For this reason, vacuum
tubes are considered as voltage -operated devices. Similarly, it is character-
istic of transistors that the current flowing in the output circuit is directly
related to the input current .Therefore, transistors are considered as cur-
rent-operated devices. Thus, in discussing transistors, we think in terms
of input and output current . This does not mean that transistors cannot be
used as voltage amplifiers. Actually, they are, and we will see how voltage
gain is obtained in transistor amplifiers.
The change in collector current caused by the change in emitter current,

assuming a constant collector voltage, is called the current gain of a tran-
sistor. This current gain, or alpha (a), is expressed: a = i c /i e . Since
every transistor will have some emitter-base current, alpha cannot reach
unity or 1 in a conventional junction transistor. However, alphas of between
0. 95 and 0. 99 are obtainable. For a point-contact transistor, alpha can be
as high as 2. 5. As we will see, current gain ( a applies primarily to com-
mon-base amplifiers.
Another item of interest related to transistors is resistance gain. With the

emitter-base circuit biased in the forward direction, the internal resistance
of the input circuit is low. When the base -collector circuit is biased in the
reverse direction, it has, as we have seen, a very high internal resistance.
As we shall see, this resistance gain is very important. The resistance gain
of a transistor is expressed as the ratio of the emitter-base internal resis-
tance divided by the collector -base internal resistance. Said in another way,
it is the output resistance divided by the input resistance (RG =^L).
, —
Transistor Voltage Gain
In our study of current gain (alpha), we learned that any change in emitter
current produces a change in collector current alpha times as great. Thus,
in a junction transistor, current "amplification" is generally limited to about
0.95 or so. Therefore, current "gain" in the usual sense is not obtainable.
However, voltage gain is. For purposes of explanation, let us consider a
junction transistor having a current gain of unity, or 1. Thus, any a-c com-
ponent in the emitter circuit will produce the same a-c current fluctuation in
the collector circuit.
VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
o— w
p h1 p
assume:|
6—
rj = 5012
Rl = 5K §§ R L| 5K
OUTPUT
a =0.95 I 0.095,
t—s
n
v
AikINPUT o
V7° 001V i#
+
Ijlllll 19^0
6 Gain
Voltage -ax INPUT RESISTANCE 1
H
= 0.95 X 5000 _ 95
50
Let us now assume that an input signal voltage of 1 millivolt is applied to the
input (emitter-base) circuit. Because of the forward bias, the input circuit
resistance is low--say 50 ohms. Now we can compute the emitter current
(i e ) flow, using Ohm's law: i e = .001/50, or 20 microamperes. Since the
current gain of this transistor is 1, the collector current ic also would be
equal to 20 pa. However, because of the reverse bias, the collector circuit
has a very high internal resistance. This high resistance is important be-
cause it permits a high-value load resistor to be used in the collector circuit
without affecting the output current. This, then, is the key to voltage am-
plification in transistor circuits. Since the output voltage across the load
resistor is equal to the output current times the load resistance, say 5000
ohms, the output voltage is equal to 20 pa times 5000 ohms, or 0. 1 volt.
Since the input voltage was 0. 001 volt, this represents a voltage gain of 100.
Thus, we can sum up voltage gain by saying it is equal to alpha times the
ratio of load resistance to input resistance. In the above example, if alpha
was 0. 95, voltage gain would have been 0. 95 x 100, or 95.
Transistor Power Gain
From our discussion of voltage gain in a transistor, we can move easily to

an understanding of power gain. The input power delivered to the input cir-
cuit of a transistor can be obtained from Ohm's law formula, P
= E2/R. In
terms of our transistor circuit, this would be equal to the input voltage squared
divided by the input resistance (the resistance of the emitter-base circuit),
or Vin 2 /ri- The power delivered to the external collector load circuit would
be equal to the output voltage squared divided by the load resistance,
or
V 2 The power gain of the amplifier is, then, the ratio of output power
out /RL-
divided by input power.
TRANSISTOR POWER GAIN is EQUAL to the
CORRENT GAIN (ALPHA) SQOARED TIMES the RESISTANCE GAIN
LOAP RESISTANCE
Power Gain =0C X
INPUT RESISTANCE
TRANSISTOR
in
AMPLIFIER v
0 ,
P6 = a * ve
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Power Gain = (XX
INPUT VOLTAGE
Pwe/*6aia
Since voltage gain is equal to a times RL/Ri> it follows that power gain
would be equal to a 2 times Ri/Ri, sincepower is also equal to l2R. Sim-
plifying it still we can state
further, that power gain is equal to a times
Vout/Vin- This reasonable,

is for if the voltage gain of an amplifier is the
ratio of V 0 ut/ V in, and if the current gain is equal to a the power gain must
,
be the product of these two; that is, a V out/Vi n Since the power gain in a
-
junction transistor is equal to alpha times the voltage gain, we can see that
the power gain will always be slightly less than the voltage gain.
Transistor Frequency Response — Alpha Cutoff

The time it takes electrons and holes to pass from the emitter to the collec-
tor (input to output circuit) is called the transit time. The transit time of
these current carriers is one of the major factors limiting the high-frequency
response of transistors. The movement of holes or electrons from the emitter
through the base layer to the collector requires a short but finite time. In
the transistor, the electron does not have a clear or unimpeded path from
emitter to collector. As a result, the transit time is not the same for all
electrons injected into the emitter at any one instant. If the transit time for
all electrons were the same, there would be a simple delay in time between
the input and output signals. Since the injected carriers do not all take the
same path through the transistor, those produced by a single pulse at the
emitter do not all arrive at the collector at the same time. The resulting
difference is very small and unimportant in the audio-frequency stage. How-
ever, at the higher frequencies, the difference becomes a significant part
of an operating cycle and causes partial cancellation between carriers. This
causes a reduction in amplitude of the higher frequencies. The decrease in
the output signal means a decrease in alpha, the current gain. In addition,
the degradation in frequency response becomes steadily worse as the opera-
ting frequency is increased, until eventually there is no relationship, and no
gain, between input and output waveforms.
Another limitation of high-frequency response is the capacitance between

transistor regions, as well as between transistor leads. As the frequency
increases, capacitive reactance decreases, and there is a tendency for sig-
nals to be shunted across the emitter-collector circuits.
The alpha cutoff frequency is the frequency at which current amplification has
fallen to 0. 707, ora loss of 3 db, from its low-frequency value, usually mea-
sured at 1 kc or lower. The alpha cutoff frequency is generally considered as
the highest "useful" frequency amplified by a transistor, and is determined
largely by the size of the emitter and collector electrodes, and the thickness
of the base region.
Transistor -Vacuum Tube Analogy
is controlled by
|
the 6UH6llt passing

between these
elements
THE TRANSISTOR spared to THE TRIODE TUBE
There are certain comparisons that could be made between the transistor and
the vacuum tube. If we consider the triode vacuum tube, we have first the
cathode, an element that emits electrons. At the other end of the tube is the
plate or anode, at a positive potential, which attracts and collects the emitted
electrons from the cathode. Between them, close to the cathode, is the con-
trol grid. This is a voltage-operated element that controls the flow of elec-
trons between cathode and plate by means of an electrostatic charge between
these elements. By applying comparatively small voltage changes between
grid and cathode, we are able to obtain large voltage changes in the output
circuit between plate and cathode.
In the transistor, we again have three elements. Here, the emitter is the
supplier of current carriers, either electrons or holes. The collector col-
lects the electrons or holes, and the base controls the flow of these charges
by controlling the charge concentration in the base region. Thus, in a very
general sense, we can compare the operation of a transistor with that of the
vacuum tube. However, we must keep this in mind: that while the vacuum
tube is primarily a voltage amplifier, the transistor is basically a current
amplifier. As such, certain important differences exist. These will become
more apparent in our further study of transistors.
Temperature Effects
Transistors are generally quite sensitive to increases in temperature. As

the temperature of a semiconductor rises, an increasing number of electrons
in the crystal are freed, producing an increase in collector current unrelated
to the emitter or base currents. (This leakage current is normally quite
small. ) Leakage current flow can cause a further rise in the collector tem-
perature, which releases still more electrons, again increasing the leakage
current. Once started, this process (called thermal runaway) continues to
repeat itself, regenerating until the transistor overheats and destroys itself.
Because of this danger, the power -dissipation ratings of transistors are al-
ways given for a particular range of temperatures. Silicon transistors are
usable at far higher temperatures than are their germanium equivalents.
Using the CHASSIS

as a HCAT SINK
HEAT SINK
FIAT
MOUNTING
SURFACE
Power transistors are often mounted on a heat sink (usually a separate piece
of metal or the chassis of an amplifier), to carry off the heat and to prevent
the temperature of the transistor from rising above that of its surroundings.
One power transistor, for example, requires a 6” square of 1/8" aluminum
as a heat sink when dissipating 8. 5 watts. If no heat sink is used, its maxi-
mum permissible dissipation in air is 1. 5 watts. In many power transistors,
the collector is connected internally to the case or shell. This acts as a
considerable aid toward heat dissipation. Because the current in a transis-
tor increases with increasing temperature, a thermistor (a component whose
resistance changes inversely with temperature) may be used in the emitter
bias circuit to limit the current to a safe level for the temperature at which
the transistor is operating.
5-28 SUMMARY
The smallest part of an element which can take part in chemical changes
an atom.
is called
Atoms consist of positively-charged particles called protons, negatively-
charged particles called electrons, and uncharged particles called
neutrons.
A semiconductor has a resistivity between that of a conductor and an in-
sulator. Examples of semiconductors are germanium and silicon.
In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in a specific pattern called alattice.
Electrons shared by adjacent atoms in a crystal form electron-pair bonds
(covalent bonds).
N-type germanium contains donor impurities--materials having five val-
ence electrons. One of these electrons cannot form an electron -pair
bond, and is called an excess electron.
Common donor materials include arsenic, antimony, and boron.
P-type germanium contains acceptor impurities --mate rials havingthree
valence electrons. Since four valence electrons are needed to com-
plete all adjacent electron-pair bonds, a hole is created.
A hole can be considered a positive charge which diffuses or drifts through
a crystal. The drift of holes constitutes a current.
Forward bias of a p-n junction causes heavy current (flow of majority
carriers). Reverse bias causes very low current (flow of minority
carriers).
Holes constitute the principal current through the p-n-p transistor. Elec-
trons constitute the principal current through the n-p-n transistor.
The emitter, base, and collector of the transistor are comparable to the
cathode, grid, and plate of the vacuum tube.
The emitter-base junction is normally biased in the forward (low resis-
tance) direction.
The base -collector junction is normally biased in the reverse (high re-
sistance) direction.
Collector current depends upon the emission of carriers from the emitter-
base barrier.
Alpha (a) is an expression of current amplification, and is a measure
of a change in collector current to a change in emitter current, with
the collector voltage kept constant. It is used primarily in the com-
mon-base amplifier.
The alpha cutoff frequency indicates the point where the gain of a tran-
sistor has fallen to 0. 707 of its maximum gain.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by covalent bonds?
2. Explain the differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
3. What is a junction barrier ?
4. Explain the operation of a p-n junction during conditions of forward bias
and reverse bias.
5. How does a junction diode act as a rectifier?
6. Explain the basic construction of a transistor.
7. Explain the operation of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors.
8. What is the meaning of alpha and what is its significance?
9. How is a voltage gain acheived in a junction transistor circuit?
10. What is meant by the alpha cutoff frequency?
5-29
BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
Three Basic Transistor Circuits
The three -element transistor we have been studying (p-n-p or n-p-n) can be
connected into three basic type circuits- -common base, common emitter, and
common collector. Since there are only three connections to a transistor,
and since each transistor circuit must have an input circuit requiring two
input leads and an output circuit requiring two output leads, it
follows that
one of the three transistor leads must be common for both the input and out-
Very often, the common lead is used as a reference point for the
Dut circuits.
entire circuit, and is thus connected to chassis or ground. This
gives rise
to the expressions grounded base grounded emitter and
, ,
grounded collector.
Common and grounded mean the same thing. In some instances, the element—
emitter, base, or collector— will be connected directly to ground. Where
this occurs, the element is at both a-c and d-c ground. Where the
element
goes to ground through a battery or resistorthat is bypassed by a capacitor,
the element is at a-c ground only.
COMPARING TUBE AND TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

COMMON BASE i
COMMON EMITTER j
COMMON COLLECTOR
5-30 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
The Common-Base Amplifier
We will begin our study of transistor amplifiers with the common-base cir-
cuit, since it is this configuration we are most familiar with, having used it
from the beginning of this book. With the emitter-base circuit forward biased
and the collector-base circuit reverse biased, current will flow as shown in
the diagram. Using an n-p-n transistor, note that the collector current is
95% of the emitter current, with the remaining 5% flowing in the base circuit
as a result of electrons from the emitter combining with holes in the p-type
base. The details of transistor action have already been discussed.
With no signal input, a certain collector current will flow, producing a vol-
tage drop across Rl- This voltage drop is in opposition to the collector
battery voltage V cc and places the collector voltage V c at some value lower
,
than the battery voltage. Now, we inject a signal into the emitter-base cir-
cuit. We will assume that the first half cycle is positive -going and the second
half cycle negative -going. Since the emitter is negative with reference to
the base, the positive -going half cycle will oppose the negative bias voltage.
With a reduction in forward bias, the emitter current will be reduced with
consequent resulting reduction of collector current. Since the collector cur-
rent is reduced, the voltage drop across Rl is reduced. We said that the
collector voltage V c is equal to the battery voltage V cc minus the voltage drop
across Rl- Thus, since the voltage drop across Rl is decreased, the collec-
tor will become more positive. Hence, we see an important point: as the
input cycle varies through its positive half cycle, the output signal developed
at the collector also varies through a positive half cycle.
m a r
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS 5-31
The Common-Base Amplifier (Cont'd)
Now we observe the input signal as it goes through its negative half cycle.
As the emitter goes negative, forward bias is increased, collector current
is increased, and the voltage drop across Rl is increased. Since this vol-
tage opposesthe positive potential of Vcc, the collector goes more "negative",
or less positive. We can thus conclude: In a common-base circuit, the in-
put and output voltages are in phase - -there is no phase reversal. This is
exactly the same relationship that exists in the grounded or common-grid
vacuum tube circuit.
As we have seen, the current gain ( ) of the common-base amplifier is low,
always being less than unity. However, by proper design of the center layer
of semiconductor material, values as high as 0. 98 are commonly reached.
A factor which compensates considerably for the low current gain is the ex-
tremely high resistance gain of this circuit. The common-base amplifier
has a very low input impedance of from 30 to 150 ohms, and a very high out-
put impedance of 300 K to 1 megohm. Since approximately the same current
flows in the emitter and collector circuits, a very high load resistance (Rl)
can be placed in the collector output circuit, resulting in considerable voltage
gain. Actually, voltage gains up to 1000 are not unusual in this circuit arrange-
ment. Relatively good power gains are also available, with gains of 20 to 30
db (100 to 1000) common. A disadvantage of the common-base circuit is the
difficulty involved in matching impedances because of the extremes in input
and output resistances. However, it is ideal for applications such as am-
plif ying the output of a low-impedance magnetic phono pickup, where no match-
ing transformer would be required.
COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES to 9 COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER

Note that the collector current never exceeds the emitter current
Flatness of corves indicates very high collector resistances
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COLLECTOR-TO-BASE VOLTS
—
The Common-Emitter Amplifier
In the common -emitter circuit, once again we have a forward-biased base-

emitter circuit and a reverse -biased collector-emitter circuit. Note that
the emitter lead is now common to both the input and output circuits. Using
the same n-p-n transistor circuit, the current in the collector circuit is again
95% of the emitter current, with the balance flowing in the base circuit.
INPUT AND OUTPUT SIGNALS ARE 180° OUT OF PHASE

N-P-N c 0.95 I
0.05 I
mm the m
iff COMMON^ A-C
PAMPUF/E
EMITTER* OUTPUT
1|^
+ i
—
Applying the same input signal, note how the positive half cycle aids the input
circuit forward bias. As this positive -going half cycle is applied between
base and emitter, it increases forward bias with a resulting increase in col-
lector current. This produces an increased voltage drop across Rl, which
subtracts from Vcc, making the collector voltage Vc less positive (more
negative).
During the negative half cycle, the input signal opposes the forward bias of
the input circuit, thereby reducing the emitter and collector current. With
a drop in collector current, the voltage drop across output load resistor Rl
decreases, making the collector more positive. We now see the phase rela-
tionship in the common-emitter circuit the input and output voltages are
180° out of phase This is exactly the same relationship that exists in the
.
common-cathode vacuum tube circuit.
The input and output impedances of the common-emitter circuit are consid-
erably less severe than that of the common-base circuit, and impedance
matching is much simpler. For instance, the input resistance to the common-
emitter circuit may range from 500 to 1500 ohms, while the output resistance
is usually in the range of 50 K ohms. Since the resistance gain of the com-
mon-emitter is so much less than that of the common-base circuit, it would
seem that the available voltage gain would be much less. This is not the case.
The Common-Emitter Amplifier (Cont'd)
In the common-emitter circuit, current gain is measured by control of the

collector current by the base current; the term for current gain in this cir-
cuit is beta (/3). The beta is equal to a change in collector current divided
by a change in base current, or (3 = delta I c /delta Ifc>. In its more common
form, the current gain of the common-emitter circuit is stated in terms of
alpha; that is, beta = alpha/(l - alpha).
(Current gain in
AIC
/3 = common-emitter amplifier)
A Ih in terns of ALPHA
COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

for a COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
From this, we can see that extremely large beta gains are possible when the
alpha characteristic of a transistor is high. For instance, the beta current
gain of a common-emitter transistor when alpha is 0. 95 is 0. 95/(1 -0. 95), or
19. If alpha is as high as 0. 98, then the beta current gain is 0. 98/(1 - 0. 98),
or 49. Since an alpha of 0.98 is somewhat high, the current gain of most
common-emitter amplifiers is in the range of 35, with values up to 60 attain-
able. Because of this very high current gain, and even though the resistance
gain is very low compared to the common-base amplifier, the voltage gain
is still quite respectable, being usually slightly lower than that of the common
base. Common-emitter voltage gains of 250 to 500 are attainable. Since
power gain is a function of the current squared, very high power gains are
possible in this high-current gain circuit. Power gains of up to 40 db (10, 000)
are common.
The Common-Collector Amplifier
In the common-collector circuit, the collector lead is common

to both the
input circuit (base-collector) and the output circuit (emitter-collector).

Note
that the load resistance Rl is in the emitter lead and the output is
taken from
in the
the emitter. You will recall this being the same situation that exists
vacuum tube cathode -follower circuit. In our circuit, using an n-p-n tran-
sistor, when we apply a positive -going signal, the input circuit forward bias
is increased, resulting in an increase in collector current. This current

flows through Rl in the emitter circuit, making the emitter more positive.
When the incoming signal is negative going, the input circuit forward bias is
reduced, lowering the emitter and collector currents. This reduces the vol-
tage drop across the emitter or load resistor, making the emitter negative
going, or less positive. Since the output signal is taken across the load re-
sistor between emitter and ground (or common), we see that the output vol-
tage will vary in step with the input signal. From this, we make the observa-
tion: In the common-collector circuit, the input and output voltages are in
phase This, of course, is exactly the same situation as exists in the common-
.
plate or cathode -follower circuit.

The Common-Collector Amplifier (Cont'd)
The common-collector circuit is interesting in that it is so different from the

two previous circuits. The input resistance of the common-collector circuit
is extremely high, ranging from 100 K to 500 K ohms, while the output re-
sistance is low, in the range of 100 to 1000 ohms. The input resistance is
high due to the high resistance of the base -collector circuit; the output resis-
tance is low due to the low resistance of the emitter-collector circuit. This
circuit makes an excellent isolation network between a high-impedance and a
low-impedance circuit, such as a transmission line. In so doing, of course,
it is acting as an impedance -matching device.
As in the case of thevacuum tube cathode follower, the voltage gain of the
common -collector amplifier willalways be less than unity(l), and no real gain
is obtained. This is due to the degenerative effectof the load in the emitter cir-
cuit. Since the input and output signals are in phase, the output signal acts
to oppose changesin input circuit bias produced by the incoming signal. Prac-
tically, we can say this circuit is capable of unity voltage gain.
I
SUMMARY OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
i
INPUT OUTPUT CURRENT VOLTAGE

IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE GAIN GAIN
POWER GAIN
|
COMMON 300,00011- Less 300-

30-150 a 20-30 db
BASE 1 Megohm than 1 1000
COMMON 250-
500-1500 A 50,000 A 35 40 db
EMITTER 300
COMMON 100,000 - 100- Less

35 15-30 db
COLLECTOR 500,000 a 1000 A than 1
The value of currenLgain for a common-collector amplifier is not very dif-

ferent from that fora common-emitter amplifier. When alpha is nearly unity,
a /(I - a ) is not very different from 1/(1 - a ). In spite of this high current
gain, however, the common-collector gives less than unity voltage gain be-
cause the input resistance is so high compared with the load resistance. Cur-
rent gains of 35 or so are commonplace. The power gain of this circuit is
very low, falling in the range of 15 to 30 db.
-
5-36 BIASING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Transistor Biasing
AH transistor circuits discussed so far have used two voltage sources (bat-
teries)--one for the emitter-base bias and one for the base -collector bias.
Obviously, these two bias voltages are necessary. However, there are prac-
tical means by which we can eliminate the need for two batteries. In doing
so, we must be careful that our biasing methods provide the same voltage
stabilization provided by batteries. In the comparatively seldom-used com-
mon-base amplifier, a simple voltage dividercanbe used to establish emitter
base bias. Two resistors connected across the collector supply will provide
the necessary voltage distribution. Note that with the p-n-p transistor, the
voltage drop is of such a polarity as to make the base negative with respect
to the emitter; this is as it should be for forward bias. A disadvantage of
this type of bias is its inefficiency. The constant voltage -divider bleeder
current represents a waste of power.
COMMON-BASE OUTPUT
INPUT
AMPLIFIER mini Rl and R2=
Voltage
[drop across R1 VOLTAGE DIVIDER
constitutes
voltnie-diyidet emitter-base
bias
O
The extremely popular common-emitter circuit requires more consideration

in the design of its bias arrangement. One method, often called fixed base-
current bias, has the base resistor connected directly between the base and
the "high" side of the collector battery. Base -bias current will flow in this
circuit through Rb and produce a voltage drop opposite in polarity to that of
the collector supply; the difference is applied between the emitter and base
to provide the necessary input forward bias.
FIXED-BIAS OPERATION IN BIASING for

COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER
Another biasing arrangement for common-base amplifiers involvesthe placing

of a resistor in the base circuit between the base and the high side of the col-
lector supply. This biases the emitter positively with respect to the base,
and establishes the proper emitter current. Normally, there would be signal
degeneration as a result of this resistor, but this is avoided by placing the
base at a-c ground potential through a bypass capacitor.
BIASING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 5-37
Transistor Biasing (Cont'd)
The connection of the fixed-bias circuit permits a degree of instability to

enter, in that the bias voltage changes with changes in ambient temperature
which in turn cause transistor current variations. To improve this condition,
we use a circuit called self bias Here, the base resistor is connected di-
.
rectly between base and collector. In this circuit, we improve stability by

introducing degeneration (negative feedback) similar to that produced by an
unbypassed cathode resistor in vacuum tube circuits. This degeneration, in
transistor circuits, is a form of automatic control of the base bias. In this
circuit, base -bias resistor Rb establishes the value of collector current and
prevents excessive shifts in the collector d-c operating point due to tempera-
ture change or transistor replacement. In the self-bias circuit, a change in
temperature may cause an increase in collector current. This would cause
an increase in voltage drop across the load resistor, reducing the collector
voltages. This, in turn, would produce a decrease in the base -bias current,
thus compensating for the change. Should there be a decrease in collector
current, causing a rise in collector voltage, base -bias current would increase.
The self-bias circuit offers much higher stability than the fixed -bias arrange-
ment. However, the self -bias circuit produces a-c feedback through the bias
network which reduces the gain slightly. This feedback is often reduced by
using two series resistors in place of Rb, and bypassing the tap to ground
through a capacitor.
Stillanother popular method of providing bias stabilization in transistor cir-

cuits is through a bias resistor placed in the emitter circuit. It is another
form of self bias, and is generally used in conjunction with base bias. If the
collector current flowing through the emitter resistor tends to increase, say
as the result of an increase in temperature or a change in transistors, the
voltage drop across Re would increase. This would reduce the base-emitter
bias voltage, resulting in a collector current decrease. The opposite would
occur should the collector current decrease. The voltage drop across Rg
reproduces a signal loss through degeneration. The emitter stabilizing re-
sistor is often bypassed however, to avoid a-c signal degeneration. In this
respect, the network operates similar to that of a bypassed cathode resistor
in vacuum tube circuits.
5-38 ANALYZING TRANSISTORS
Transistor Analysis Using Characteristic Curves
We are familiar with the construction of load lines in vacuum-tube circuitry

and the analysis we can make from them. In transistors, a similar situation
exists: we can construct a load line and use it for circuit analysis. Using
a common-emitter circuit, we will calculate the current, voltage, and power
gain from the output characteristic curves. These curves plot the collector
current against the collector voltage for different values of base current.
We will assume the following conditions: collector supply voltage (Vcc) is
10 volts; load resistor (Rl) is 3000 ohms; emitter-base input resistance (ri)
is 500 ohms; peak -to-peak input current is 20 microamperes. The operating
point (X) is 25 pa base current •
COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
and its OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVES with LOAD LINE
3 6 -*
.
Our first step in constructing a loadline for Rl on the output characteristic

curve is as follows: when Ic is zero, there is no voltage drop across Rl,
and the collector voltage (Vc) is equal to the full 10 volts. We make this
point Z on the collector voltage axis. When V c is zero, the total V C c is being
dropped across Rl- Under this condition, Ic is equal to 10/3000 or 3. 3 ma.
We call this point Y on the Ic axis. C onnecting points Y and Z establishes the
load line. We now establish our desired operating point on the load line where
lb equals 25 pa. Vc is equal to 4. 8 volts.
,
ANALYZING TRANSISTORS 5-39
Transistor Analysis Using Characteristic Curves (Cont'd)
Since the input current is 20 jua peak-to-peak, it will deviate between 10 /ia
and below the operating point. Thus, the input current waveform will vary
between 15 /ia and 35 /ia. Following this, we can construct the output current
waveform by projecting across to the collector -current axis. The output cur-
rent will swing between 2. 3 ma and 1. 1 ma. Projecting downward, we get
the output voltage waveform and note that it swings between 3.1 and 6. 7 volts.
Current Gain In the common-emitter amplifier, this is the ratio of the change
:
in collector current to a change in base current From our construction curve

.
we find this is 1.2 ma/0.02 ma, or a current gain (amplification) of 60 .
Voltage Gain In the common -emitter amplifier, this is the ratio of the change
:
in collector voltage to a change in base voltage. We can determine the change

in base voltage since it is equal to a change in input current (20 /ia) multi-
plied by the input impedance (500 ohms), or 0. 01 volt. The voltage gain is
thus equal to the ratio of 3. 6 volts ( A V c )/0. 01 volt ( AVb), or an amplifi-
cation of 360 .
Power Gain This is equal to the voltage gain multiplied by the current gain
:
(360 times 60), or 21, 600. The power input isthus increased 21, 600 times in
going through the transistor. In terms of decibels, this is approximately 33 db.
Another important curve for studying transistor characteristics is the dyna-

mic transfer characteristic curve, in which collector current is plotted against
base current for a given collector voltage. This curve is similar to the Ip-
Eg vacuum tube curve. When the proper operating point is determined, and
if the change of base current is within the linear portion of the dynamic trans-
fer characteristic curve, the transistor operates linearly. This is called
class-A operation, and the output signal will be an exact replica of the input
signal.
T
5-40 COUPLING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Interstage Coupling
(Other transistor symbols COUPLING TQO -
used include X and Q) CAPACITOR I M To

It
foUomni
I
‘
L2‘
f
\ RESISTANCE-
COUPLING CAPACITANCE
RESISTOR
COUPLING
VSAr
POWER
SUPPLY
”*
—X
•= Ji
cc
DECOUPLING^l^ BYPASS
NETWORK CAPACITOR
We have examined the basic types of transistor circuit arrangements. How-

ever, to obtain sufficient amplification or gain, more than one amplifier is
required. As in tube circuits, two or more circuits can be cascaded for
greater gain. The most popular methods of coupling transistor circuits are
through R-C and transformer arrangements.
A typical two-stage R-C coupled common -emitter amplifier is shown. This

type of coupling is desirable for the amplification of low-level or weak sig-
nals, where transformers would be more susceptible to hum pickup. Another
feature is the fact that resistors and capacitors take up much less room than
transformers. In our R-C coupled circuit, fixed bias is used together with
emitter stabilization. The collectors of TR1 and TR2 are connected to the
battery through load resistors RL1 and RL2. Since the coupling capacitor
must be able to pass the lowest frequencies, and the input and output resis-
tances are relatively low, the coupling capacitor must be fairly large in order
to present a low reactance. Values of 1 to 10 pf are common. These capaci-
tors are generally electrolytic types, something rarely ever used for coupling
in vacuum tube circuits. Being electrolytic, polarity always must be observed.
Fortunately, the larger leakage currents of these capacitors are not as criti-
cal as in tube circuits.
To prevent feedback, a decoupling network is often used. This can be done

merely by placing a resistor in serieswith the base resistor and then bypass-
ing the resistor. The time constant of this network must be long enough to
fully bypass the lowest frequency. Since R must be kept small so as not to
lower the battery voltage to the preceding stages, a very large decoupling
capacitor of about 50 to 100 pf is frequently used. To prevent feedback be-
cause of the voltage drop across the internal resistance of the battery, a by-
pass capacitor is placed across it. Another popular means of coupling tran-
sistor circuits is with transformers. Since the collector impedance of a tran-
sistor is high compared to the base input impedance, a transformer offers an
excellent means of matching impedances and thus providing maximum power
gain.
COUPLING TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 5-41
Interstage Coupling (Cont'd)
Although a stepdown transformer is used, this does not mean that there will
be a signal loss. Since the transistor is a current device, the voltage step-
down transformer will actually provide a current gain for the signal. This
action is similar to the output transformer in an amplifier that feeds a loud-
speaker. A typical circuit might include a voltage divider for base bias and
an emitter-stabilizing resistor, bypassed to prevent signal degeneration.
The primary winding (including the a-c reflected load from the secondary) is
the collector load impedance of TR1. The secondary winding introduces the
a-c signal to the base and also acts as the base d-c return path.
Because there is no collector load resistor to dissipate power, the power

efficiency of the transformer -coupled amplifier is high. However, the fre-
quency response of this type of coupling is not as good as that of the R-C
coupled stage. The primary winding shunt reactance at low frequencies re-
duces the low-frequency response. High-frequency response is reduced by
collector capacitance and leakage reactance between primary and secondary.
TR1
The impedance -coupled amplifier offers a compromise: an inductor replaces

the collector load resistor. Thus, the d-c power loss is virtually eliminated;
however, the low-frequency response is reduced by the shunt reactance of the
inductor. The high-frequency response is reduced by the collector capaci-
tance. Frequency response is better than that of the transformer arrange-
ment, but not as good as that of the R-C coupled amplifier.
The direct -coupled amplifier is used for amplification of d-c and low-frequency
signals. Its principal feature is that it retains the d-c component of a signal.
Note that coupling capacitors are eliminated. Coupling resistor R acts as
both the collector load resistor for TR1 and the bias resistor for TR2.
5-42 SUMMARY
Since there are both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors, a separate graphical
symbol is used to represent both.
The transistor can be connected as a common-base, common-emitter, or
common-collector, amplifier.
The circuit of the common -emitter amplifier is similar to that of the
vacuum tube common-cathode amplifier.
The circuit of the common-base amplifier is similar to that of the com-
mon or grounded-grid vacuum tube amplifier.
The circuit of the common -collector amplifier is similar to that of the
common-plate or cathode follower vacuum tube amplifier.
Each transistor arrangement may be biased with either two batteries or
a single battery.
The common-base and common -collector amplifiers do not provide a
phase reversal of the input voltage signal.
The common-emitter amplifier provides a 180° phase reversal of the
input voltage signal.
The d-c electron flow in the base lead may be toward or away from the
base region, depending on the relative magnitudes of the base -emitter
current and the saturation current.
Reverse -bias collector current (Ic bo)> also called saturation current,
increases rapidly at high temperatures and causes increased emitter
current.
D-c negative feedback can be usedto minimize variations in emitter cur-
rent caused by temperature changes.
The current, voltage, and power gain of a transistor amplifier can be
calculated from the output static characteristic curves on which a load-
line has been drawn.
The loadline indicates the way in which the collector supply voltage is
divided between the load and the collector under various conditions of
collector current.
The dynamic transfer characteristic curve may be usedto determine the
linearity and nonlinearity of the output signal to the input signal for a
specific operating point and a specific load resistance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the three basic -type circuits in which transistors canbe connected.
2. Avery low input impedance and a very high output impedance are charac-
what type of amplifier configuration?
teristic of
3. Give one important disadvantage of the common-base amplifier.
4. What is the phase relationship between the input and output voltages in
the common-emitter amplifier?
5. In what type of circuit configuration are very high power gains possible?
6. Which circuit arrangement has a very high input resistance?
7. Which circuit arrangement always gives less than unity voltage gain?
8. What 'is meant by fixed base -current bias?
9. What is meant by self bias?
10. What is the function of the emitter-stabilizing resistor?
11. Give an advantage and a disadvantage of transformer coupling in transis-
tor circuitry.
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS 5-43
The Transistor Receiver — R-F Amplifier

Basically, the transistorized receiver is the same as the vacuum-tube type;
it performs stage by stage all the functions of the superheterodyne recei-
ver. We will now study the transistorized receiver, starting with the r-f
amplifier stage, and examine the circuitry.
Transistor r-f amplifiers, like their vacuum tube counterparts, are most
often used for improving the gain, overall signal -to -noise ratio, and selec-
tivity characteristics of a multistage circuit. The design is basically the
same as that of an i-f amplifier. The chief problem is in the selection of a
transistor having a sufficiently high alpha cutoff. Early r-f amplifiers were
used only for broadcast band work up to 1600 kc. However, recent improve-
ments have permitted the design of shortwave transistor receivers in which
the r-f amplifier operated at frequencies up to 18 me and higher. Generally,
the r-f amplifier in a transistor radio is considered a luxury, and is found
most often on multiband receivers requiring high r-f gain.
A typical r-f amplifier circuit is shown. Using a high-gain ferrite -rod an-
tenna in the antenna tuning circuit, the input signal is fed to the transistor
base circuit through magnetic coupling. Through transistor action, the sig-
nal is amplified and then transformer-coupled to the input of the following
mixer or converter stage. The stepdown r-f output transformer provides an
impedance match between the high impedance of the r-f amplifier collector
circuit and the low impedance of the following base or emitter circuit. Note
that the collector is connected to some point on the output transformer pri-
mary. This is a design feature which permits finding the optimum point to
present the best output load impedance for the collector.
FERRITE ROD ANTENNA

ANTENNA TRIMMER 'Antenna input circuit R_F output
f-f If magnetically coupled transformer
# w to r-f input
Input to mixer
R-FTUNING -*_ "

L f8 or converter
CAPACITOR 7
l— • r J
TRIMMER
TRANSFORMER
<ll 2k0.05>2.2K SHIELD
PBIAS
A
/A
p STABILIZATION
NETWORK
2.7K sfco.oi
X vcc
SIGNAL DECOUPLING NETWORK
AVC
To avc / pv DECOUPLING
or NETWORK RADIO-FREQUENCY
bias^
*lT. IK AMPLIFIER
5-44 TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Transistor Oscillators
Oscillators have two principal sections; a frequency-determining section and

an am plifying section. The frequency-determining (feedback) section usually
consists of an L-C or R-C network. The amplifying section is usually a tube
or transistor amplifier having sufficient gain to compensate for losses in the
frequency-determining section. This arrangement provides us with positive
feedback, which in turn produces oscillation. Thus, we can say that a tran-
sistor oscillator is nothing more than an amplifier that has a portion of its
output signal feeding back, in proper phase, to the input.
With the transistor acting as an amplifier, the input signal is amplified, with
a portion of the output energy fed back to the input to supply the necessary
input power to overcome circuit losses. When this is done, the transistor
supplies its own input signal and oscillates at a frequency determined by the
value of the feedback components. The transistor oscillates because any
small current change in either the input or output circuit is transferred from
one to the other through the transistor and feedback network.
COMPARISON of HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

Ll = OUTPUT CIRCUIT Transistor provides 180° phase inversion
12 = INPUT CIRCUIT Positive feedback circuit provides /
additional 180° phase shift and /
sustains oscillations /
Tnatitfot Cimift =
Let us compare the popular vacuum-tube Hartley oscillator with its transis-
torized counterpart. In the tube circuit, positive feedback is accomplished
by arranging the resonant tank to be common to both the input grid and output
plate circuits. The equivalent transistor circuit, using a common-emitter
connection, provides positive feedback by placing the resonant tank so that
it is common to both the input-base and output-collector circuits.
A Practical Local Oscillator
The common -emitter oscillator shown is a popular Hartley-oscillator type

used in many transistor radios. It generates the unmodulated signal against
which the modulated incoming signal is heterodyned in the mixer stage. The
frequency-determining network consists of coil L and the oscillator tuning
and trimmer capacitors. The oscillator coil, from point A to point C, reso-
nates with the capacitors. Effectively, point C is at ground potential for a-c
due to the low reactance of Cl at radio frequencies. This capacitor also
prevents the collector bias from shorting to ground. The portion of the coil
between points B and C forms the output circuit since it falls between the
collector and the emitter. The portion of the coil between C and E forms the
input circuit since it falls between the base and the emitter. The emitter, of
course, is grounded through the stabilizing bypass capacitor and thus, is
effectively at point C. Point D is used as a takeoff point for feeding the out-
put of the oscillator to the mixer stage through capacitive coupling. Its exact
position is determined by the circuit designer to provide the best combina-
tion of maximum signal output with optimum impedance match.
Fixed base bias is obtained by a voltage -divider network comprised of a 10K-

and a 4. 7 ohm resistor in parallel, with emitter stabilization provided by the
1000-ohm emitter resistor. Signal degeneration across this resistor is pre-
vented by bypassing it with a 05-pf capacitor. The 001 -pf blocking capaci-
. .
tor permits the signal to be fed to the base from point E, while blocking the
full bias voltage from the base through points D and E in coil L.
The Mixer
The function of the mixer stage is to heterodyne or mix the unmodulated local
oscillator output signal with the incoming signal from the r-f amplifier. Many
frequencies will be present in the output circuit as the result of the hetero-
dyning process, and it remains for the i-f amplifier to select the desired
frequency. The mixer stage, basically an amplifier having a tuned output
circuit, is biased on a nonlinear portion of its characteristic curve (linear
amplification does not produce heterodyning). By having a separate oscilla-
tor stage, the oscillator is usually apt to be more stable and unaffected by
changes in other circuits.
In the typical circuit, the output from the r-f amplifier (or directly from the
antenna) is fed to the base of the mixer circuit. The output from the oscilla-
tor is fed to the emitter of the mixer circuit. Thus, effectively, the two
signals are mixed in series. Coupling capacitor Cl permits the passing of
oscillator energy while blocking the low resistance of the oscillator coil from
shuntingthe stabilizing resistor. The oscillator is acommon tickler -feedback
type, with energy from the collector circuit inductively coupled back to the
emitter. The base of the oscillator is effectively at a-c ground. The usual
bypass capacitor across the stabilizing resistor is eliminated to prevent the
oscillator signal from being shunted to ground.
The Converter
In this circuit, the functions of mixer and oscillator stages are combined in
a single unit. Its principal advantage is in the saving of a separate transis-
tor which would have to be used as an oscillator. As in the mixer, the r-f
input is fed into the base and the oscillator input is fed into the emitter. How-
ever, in the converter, the output from the collector serves two functions:
it provides an output signal tothei-f transformer; and it feeds
some of the out-
put signal back into the emitter, or oscillator-input circuit. The energy fed
back sustains oscillations. Once again, the stabilizing resistor is unbypassed
to avoid shunting the oscillator coil.
FERRITE ROD
This circuit is popular since most radios do not require a stage of r-f am-
plification. Thus, this circuit and variations of it are found in virtually all
economy-type" receivers. There can be many variations of the oscillator
circuit, but almost all operate on the principle that there
is positive feed-
back from the collector -output circuit to the emitter -input circuit.
Biasing
is arranged so that the base-emitter characteristic is no nlin ear
resulting
in heterodyning action. The 1st i-f transformer is tuned to
the intermediate
frequency, usually about 455 kc. This transformer is a stepdown unit
pro-
viding both a current gain and an impedance match between the converter
col-
lector circuit and the first i-f amplifier input circuit.
The I-F Amplifier

amplifier
As we have learned from our study of vacuum-tube circuits, the i-f
amplifier. Its function is to select one
is nothing more than a fixed-tuned r-f
present in the output circuit of the converter
of the many signal frequencies
selected signal
stage, and to produce high amplification of this signal. The
between the incoming r-f signal and the
represents the difference frequency
Being fixed-tuned, the i-f amplifier need not amplify a
oscillator output.
fre-
wide range of frequencies, but merely be tuned to one the intermediate
circuits in the i-f amplifier (usu-
quency (usually 455 kc). As such, all tuned
ally permeability tuned) are adjusted to peak at one single frequency,
and
provide maximum gain at that frequency. The Q of the coils used in these
to
stages can be quite high, since the band of frequencies passed need be only
10 kc (± 5 kc from the i-f).
Because of the high gain of the i-f amplifier, the stages often tend to become
unstable and oscillate, causing howling in the audio output. To avoid this,
many i-f amplifiers use negative feedback; that is, they return a portion of
the output (out of phase) to the input. In the circuit shown, negative feedback,
or collector neutralization, is accomplished through a capacitor connected
between collector and base in each stage. This cancels any positive feedback
voltages developed. Two stagesof i-f amplification are typical for most tran-
sistor receivers. In some circuits, the avc voltage is applied to both stages;
in others it is applied to only one. Note that in this circuit, the emitters are
returned to a positive voltage and the collectors to ground. This indicates
that the negative side of the battery is grounded.
I-F Amplifier With Overload Diode
The two-stage i-f amplifier shown here incorporates an interesting feature

—
found in many transistor radios the use of an overload diode .Indicated in
the diagram as Dl, it is connected from the collector of the converter to a
tap on the primary winding of the first i-f amplifier output transformer. In
this position, the diode is effectively connected across a portion of the pri-
mary of the converter output transformer, and acts as a variable r-f load on
the transformer. Dl is biased so that it will not conduct on weak signals.
As we will see, this diode prevents overloading on strong signals.
PREVENTS OVERLOAD on STRONG SIGNALS

OVERLOAD DIODE 1st I-F AMPL 2nd I-F AMPL
Using p-n-p transistors, the base is always biased negatively with respect
to the emitter. When a strong signal is received, the positive avc voltage
applied to the base of the first i-f amplifier is increased, thus decreasing
the forward bias on that transistor. The decrease in forward bias results
in a decrease in collector current, which in turn lowers the voltage drop
across Rland increases the collector voltage on the first i-f amplifier. This
produces a reduction in bias across Dl. On strong signals, the i-f amplifier
collector voltage will approach the collector voltage of the converter stage.
When this occurs, the overload diode bias is cancelled and Dl begins to con-
duct and load down the primary of the first i-f transformer. This damping,
or loading down, lowers the gain of the circuit and compensates for the very
strong signal. Also note in this circuit the feedback capacitors. This neu-
tralization or feedback is not required for all circuits and depends upon tran-
sistor and circuit characteristics.
.
The Detector — AVC
DIODE DETECTOR and AVC CIRCUIT

l-F TRANSFORMER
DIODE DETECTOR
From 2nd or
final l-F AMPL

VOLUME
CONTROL
To A-F
Hsptm AVC nlto$e

for N-P-N tronsiston
converter
NOTE: In some
diagrams the term
AGO {automatic
gain control) is
used in place of
AVC (automatic
volume control).
Both mean the
same.
150 K
-VW cc
The purpose of the detector is to obtain from the modulated i-f an undistorted
copy of the modulation waveform, which represents the signal intelligence.
Frequently, the detector also has to produce an output signal proportional to
the carrier amplitude which can be used for automatic volume control
Both diodes and transistors can be used for detection and age. Agc is used
to minimize the effects of fading, and to obtain approximately the same out-
put volume from signals of different strengths. This control is obtained by
feeding back to one or more i-f stages a voltage proportional to the carrier
Strength at the detector load. The control voltage has the effect of reducing
the gain of the controlled stages. The most popular method of doing this is
by reducing the emitter current in these stages.
In our typical circuit, the i-f signal is rectified by the diode detector, the
i-f component being bypassed by the 0. 1-pf capacitor. The audio component
isthen developed acrossthe 10, 000-ohm volume-control potentiometer. When
p-n-p transistors are used as i-f amplifiers, the base is biased negatively
with respect to the emitter. Thus, since the function of the age voltage is to
reduce the gain of the amplifier, the age voltage fed to the base must be posi-
tive so as to reduce the forward bias on the transistor. In n-p-n transistors,
the age voltage must be negative. This can be done merely by reversing the
polarity of the diode connection. The age filter removes signal variations
and tends to keep the age voltage steady.
The Power Detector
The transistor detector offers the advantage of detection plus amplification

over the diode detector. When used as a detector, the transistor is biased
at or near cutoff, thus operating in a nonlinear portion of its characteristic
curve. We can think of detection as taking place in the input or base -emitter
portion of the transistor, with amplification occurring in the output or emitter-
collector circuit. Operating as a class-B amplifier, this circuit provides a
significant audio power gain, as well as the avc voltage. When the modulated
i-f signal enters the detector, the signal is rectified and amplified. The i-f
component is removed by a bypass capacitor, and the resulting audio signal
is applied to the audio amplifier stage. In addition, the d-c component of
the signal remains in the output and is used as the avc voltage.
3r«l I-F 0.05 jif COUPLING
In the circuit shown, cutoff bias is applied to the base of the detector through
Rl, R2, and voltage divider R3-R5. When the incoming signal strength in-
creases, the signal fed to the detector base -emitter circuit increases. This
produces an increase in detector current during the conducting half cycle,
and current will flow up from ground through Rl, R2, R3, and then from
emitter to collector in the detector. This increase in current through Rl
produces an increase in positive bias which can be applied to the emitter of
an n-p-n transistor or the base of a p-n-p transistor, reducing the forward
bias and lowering the gain of the i-f stage. Cl and R2 act to present the pro-
per time constant for avc filter action. The opposite will occur when a weaker
signal arrives at the detector.
The Reflexed I-F Audio Amplifier
A single transistor stage, used to amplify both the intermediate and the audio
frequencies, is the feature of an unusual but popular circuit called a reflexed
amplifier.
In the circuit shown, the third stage operates as a standard transformer-

coupled i-f amplifier. The i-f signal in the secondary of T2 is detected by
a crystal diode in the following manner: When the i-f signal is positive with
respect to ground, the diode conducts and charges capacitor Cl. When the
i-f signal reverses direction, the diode does not conduct and Cl discharges
through resistor R2. Thus, the voltage across R2 is the rectified i-f signal
(audio component). The amplitude of this voltage depends upon the setting of
volume control R3 and upon the strength of the received signal. This voltage
is fed to the base of the second i-f stage through C2, R4, and the secondary
of Tl. The audio signal and the i-f signal appear simultaneously at the base
of the transistor, and are amplified together. Volume control R3 (in the
emitter circuit) controls the gain of the i-f and the a-f signals.
The REFLEXED I-F - A-F AMPLIFIER

I-F ui A-F
AT BASE
DRIVER
TRANSFORMER
No interaction takes place between the two signals because they use separate
input and output loads. The driver transformer has many more turns and a
higher inductance than the i-f transformer. Thus, the small i-f transformer
presents little impedance to the audio signal, while the audio acts as though
the i-f transformer primary was shorted. As far as i-f is concerned, C3
presents a low impedance to the i-f, decoupling the i-f from the primary of
the audio transformer. Thus, only audio appears in the primary of the dri-
ver transformer. The transformers therefore do not offset each other and
may be connected together.
The Audio Amplifier
The Single-Stage Audio Amplifier
The output of the detector stage consists of an extremely weak audio signal
that represents the modulation of the incoming r-f signal. What is required
at this point is a stage of audio amplification to build up this small audio sig-
nal to a point where it can drive the power output stage. The power output
stage, usually push-pull, requires far more driving power than can be de-
livered by the detector stage directly, except in some cases where a power
detector is used. In most cases, one stage of audio amplification is required;
however, a two-stage re si stance -coupled amplifier is not unusual.
In the typical audio driver stage shown, the input signal is taken from the
sliding contact of the volume control and fed to the base of the audio ampli-
fier through a 10-/uf coupling capacitor. This capacitor isolates or blocks
the d-c base-bias voltage of the audio stage from the detector and volume-
control circuitry. The base is biased through conventional voltage -divider
bias, and the emitter contains a50-juf capacitor bypassing a 220-ohm stabili-
zing resistor. Transformer coupling is used to match the high collector
output-circuit impedance of the audio amplifier to the low input impedance of
the output stage.
An interesting feature found on many sets is the earphone jack in the audio
stage. While the output of this stage is insufficient to drive a loudspeaker,
it can actuate earphones. When the phones are not inserted, the jack is
short-circuited and there is normal circuit action. When the phones are in-
serted, the primary of the driver transformer is open and the phone imped-
ance forms the collector load of the audio stage. Cl is used to stabilize the
collector circuit and prevent oscillation; it also actsto improve tone response.
Direct-Coupled Amplifiers
To obtain high audio amplification together with good low-frequency response

and simple circuitry, direct-coupled amplifiers sometimes are used. In the
first circuit, using two p-n-p transistors, the first amplifier stage is an
emitter -follower. The signal developed across load resistor R1 is directly
coupled to the base of the second stage. Since the input impedance of the
emitter -follower is high, a much better impedance match is obtained between
the detector and the audio driver, reducing signal distortion. Since R1 is the
load resistor, it cannot be bypassed. However, R2, which is not the load re-
sistor for the second stage, is bypassed to avoid degeneration. The voltage
fluctuations across R1 represent the signal input to the base of the second
audio stage.
In the second circuit, also using two p-n-p transistors, both stages are com-
mon-emitter class-A amplifiers, with the input to TR1 180° out of phase with
the input to TR2. R1 lowers the collector voltage of TR1 so that the base of
TR2 is less negative than its collector. R2 provides negative feedback from
TR2 toTRl. This reduces the gain ofTRland cuts down on high signal peaks.
A negative -going signal applied to the base of TR1 produces an increase in
collector current and a voltage drop across Rl, making the base of TR2 less
negative. This reduces conduction in TR2 and the voltage drop across R3.
Thus, a small positive -going voltage is fed back through R2 to the base of
TR1. This positive change opposes the negative voltage that was fed to TR1,
thus reducing distortion and stabilizing d-c operating conditions.
Single -Ended Audio Output Stage
Most transistor radios use a push-pull output stage to supply the necessary
power needed to drive the loudspeaker. However, it is not unusual to see
a single -ended stage. To prevent distortion, it is necessary that this stage
be driven as a class-A amplifier, where collector current flows throughout

the entire input cycle. While termed a "power" amplifier, the typical porta-
ble receiver using a single transistor in its output stage is only capable of
—
about 100 milliwatts output small by vacuum tube standards but adequate for
small 3 -inch speakers. Where an appreciable amount of heat is to be dissi-
pated by a power transistor, a heat sink is required. This is a metal con-
ductor that will remove the excess heat. Often, the metal chassis is used
as a heat sink. Without an adequate heat sink, thermal runaway may develop.
This condition occurs when excessive heat causes increased collector cur-
rent, which in turn causes still more heat and still more current.
In the typical single -transistor audio output stage, the input can come directly
from the detector, or from a previous audio amplifier. The signal is coupled
volume control forming part of the
to the base of the output stage, with the
base -bias voltage divider. Here again, the emitter stabilizing resistor is
bypassed to avoid signal degeneration. A conventional output transformer
matches the collector impedance to the speaker coil impedance. The trans-
former primary is bypassed to ground to avoid noise voltages and prevent
high-frequency distortion. The jack permits listening with earphones and
muting the speaker.
5-56 PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS
The Push-Pull (Double-Ended) Amplifier
DOUBLED-ENDED (PUSH-PULL) OUTPUT STAGE

FEEDBACK RESISTOR
This amplifier consists of two transistor circuits operating 180° out of phase,
but with their outputs combined. It can be operated either class A or class
B, with the latter offering the advantage of efficiency in that collector current
f lows in each transistor only during alternate half cycles. A feature of push-
pull circuitry is the elimination of even-order harmonics and the d-c com-
ponent in the load. In class-B operation, the output power can be as much as
four times the collector dissipation of each transistor.
In our circuit, each transistor is biased near cutoff (class B), and a split-
secondary input transformer feeds out-of-phase signals to TR1 and TR2.
Amplification takes place during the half cycle that each transistor conducts,
and the outputs are combined in the secondary of the output transformer.
Note the thermistor connected in parallel with one of the base -bias resistors.
The thermistor resistance decreases as the temperature of this resistor in-
creases, thus lowering the resistance of the parallel combination (which in
turn reduces the base-bias voltage). The reduction in base bias limits cur-
rent flow in the collector circuits, keeping the power dissipation of the tran-
sistors within the proper limits for the temperature at which they are opera-
ting. The feedback loop from one end of the output transformer secondary to
the driver-stage emitter provides some inverse feedback which stabilizes
overall operation of these circuits.
PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS 5-57
Asymmetric Push-Pull Amplifier
This interesting and popular push-pull circuit has the output transistors con-
nected in series across the collector supply battery, and the load resistance
(loudspeaker voice coil) connected between their junction and a centertap on
the battery. Separate secondary windings are needed on the input transformer
for the two bases because of the special base -bias connections. No
output
transformer is required.
PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER REQUIRING no OUTPUT TRANSFQRMER
Both transistors are biased near cutoff so that with no signal input, neither
is conducting. Out -of -phase signals are fed to the base circuit of each tran-
sistor from the driver transformer. Each transistor thus conducts on alter-
nate half cycles of the incoming signal. As a result, the collector currents
of TR1 and TR2 flow alternately through the speaker voice coil. Base bias
for TR1 is produced by current flow from ground (-) through R1 and R2, the
speaker voice coil, and to the positive (+) terminal of the battery. Bias for
TR2 is produced by current flowfrom the positive (+) terminal of B2, through
the voice coil, and through R4 and R3 to the negative (-) terminal of B2. Re-
sistors R5 and R6 provide the necessary d-c stabilization. The proper value
of these resistors permits the d-c operating point to be fairly independent
of changes in transistors and temperature fluctuations. Capacitors Cl and
C2 provide degenerative feedbackto improve the overall frequency response.
The principal advantage of this circuit is that no output transformer is required.
5-58 PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Circuit
This unusual circuit has no parallel in vacuum-tube circuitry. It depends

upon the complementary nature of transistors. That is, an n-p-n and a p-n-p
transistor can be made with identical characteristics except for the difference
in polarities required. This permits the use of a push-pull circuit having
neither an input nor an output transformer. This amplifier contains an n-p-n
THE COMPLEMENTARY PUSH -PULL AMPLIFIER

- No Transformers
and a p-n-p transistor, each connected in a common-emitter stage. Con-

ventional voltage -divider base bias is used for each transistor, with bypassed
stabilizing resistors in each emitter circuit. A single input feeds the same
signal to the base of each transistor, and a high -impedance loudspeaker voice
coil acts as the output load.
We can analyze this circuit by considering it as a class -A am plifier Thus,

with zero-signal input, both transistors are forward biased and collector
current flows. Under this condition, there is perfect balance, and current
flows from B2 (-) through R2, TR2, TR1, Rl, and back to B1 (+). Since
this now acts as a balanced Wheatstone bridge, no current will flow through
the load or speaker coil. With a positive -going signal applied to both tran-
sistors, forward bias on the p-n-p transistor decreases, while forward bias
on the n-p-n unit increases. Since the forward bias on TR2 is now greater
than that on TR1, collector current from TR2 will flow through the speaker
coil. When a negative -going signal is applied, the opposite
occurs, and TR1
collector current flows through the coil. Thus, the current fluctuations
through the coil are determined by the amplitude and frequency of the in-
coming signal, and audio signals are reproduced by the loudspeaker.
TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLIES 5-59
Battery-Operated Power Supplies
Virtually all transistor radios are battery operated. These batteries are
made up of several cells connected in series or a single battery. The most
common voltages used are 6 and 9 volts, while voltages of 3, 4, 5, and 9 are
not unusual. The most popular cell is the 1. 5 -volt zinc -carbon dry cell.
Another popular source of power is the mercury cell, having a voltage rating
of about 1. 34 volts. This also can be connected in series for higher voltage
ratings. Because of the low current drain from a typical portable transistor
radio --often less than 10 ma— battery life often may be as long as 400 hours
using large cells such as the D-size zinc-carbon unit. Another popular cell
is the 1. 25 volt nickel -cadmium type. This is a secondary cell and can be
recharged often by plugging it into a 117-volt a-c supply. Another popular
innovation is the solar cell, which produces a voltage when exposed to the sun
or artificial light. Conventional solar batteries produce a voltage of 4 to 5
volts that can power a transistor radio directly, or can charge a battery which
in turn powers the radio.
DECOUPLING CIRCUIT
Solar Supply ON-OFF switches ganged to voiante control
It is most important that battery polarity always be observed. Whether n-p-n

or p-n-p transistors are used, a battery can have either its positive or nega-
tive terminal grounded or common. Failure to observe this may cause instant
damage to the transistors. For instance, a p-n-p transistor requires that the
collector be negative with respect to the emitter. If the positive battery ter-
minal is grounded, the emitter will be connected directly or through a net-
work to ground. If the negative terminal is grounded, the collector circuit
will connect to ground. Most transistor receivers have an on-off switch ganged
to the volume control, and connected so as to open and close the battery circuit.
5-60 TRANSISTOR RECEIVER
A Typical Transistorized Receiver
This receiver uses all p-n-p type transistors and has the negative side of the
battery grounded. Antenna coil LI is of the ferrite-rod type and is tuned to
the incoming signal by Cl. Coil L2 is inductively -coupled to LI and applies
the incoming signal to the base -emitter circuit of the converter through a
.047 pf coupling capacitor. Voltage divider R1-R2 provides base bias to this
stage. Collector current flows through the oscillator coil and the first i-f
input transformer. The tuned portion of the oscillator circuit consists of the
oscillator coil in parallel with the oscillator tuning capacitor. Thistuned cir-
cuit is ganged with the antenna tuning capacitor and is fed in-phase energy
from the collector portion of the oscillator coil. This energy is amplified
after being capacitively coupled to the emitter of the converter. Thus, the
collector circuit of the converter contains both the incoming r-f signal and
the local oscillator signal. The "beat", or i-f signal, is selected by the pri-
mary of the first i-f input transformer.
Two stages of transformer -coupled i-f amplification are used. The first i-f
amplifier is base -biased by the avcline from the diode detector. In addition,
fixed-emitter bias is provided by voltage divider R3-R4. R3 is bypassed to
prevent signal degeneration. An overload diode (Dl), which effectively shunts
a portion of the first i-f transformer primary, varies the gain of the incoming
signal should it exceed a certain amplitude. Negative feedback is provided in
this stage by C2. The second i-f amplifier uses conventional voltage -divider
base bias, and transformer-couples its output signal to crystal diode detector
D2.
The detector circuit is connected to the base -emitter input of the audio amp-
lifier, with the avc line taken from the emitter lead. Capacitor C3 bypasses
the i-f component of the incoming signal. The audio amplifier is a grounded-
collector type, with the volume control acting as the load for this stage. The
base is voltage -divider biased. A 10-pf capacitor couples the audio signal
from the volume control to the input circuit of the driver. The driver stage
is transformer coupled to the push-pull output stage, and supplies the neces-
sary power for the operation of the output stage.
The secondary of the driver transformer is centertapped, with equal and

opposite signals being fed to the base circuits of each push-pull transistor.
Voltage divider R5-R6 provides base bias for the output stage, with an unby-
passed 10-ohm emitter resistor providing stabilization through negative feed-
back. Both output transistor circuits are stabilized by capacitors connected
between base and collector. The output transformer couples and matches
the high impedance of the collector circuits to the low impedance of the loud-
speaker. Provision is made for connection of an earphone. When the earphone
is connected, the loudspeaker circuit is open, and only the earphone is in
the circuit. This push-pull output circuit is operated class B, and battery
current will increase significantly with an increase in input signal strength.
The entire receiver is powered by a 6-volt battery.
2.7K
5-62 SUMMARY
The higher the collector voltage, the higher the noise factor of a transis-
tor.
Interstage couplingmay make use of R-C, impedance, or direct coupling.
Conventional push-pull amplifiers require a centertapped secondary
winding input transformer or a phase inverter as a driver.
Complementary symmetry eliminates the need for a centertapped secon-
dary-input transformer and a ph 'se -inverter driver.
Because the transistor is essentially a power amplifier (even at high fre-
quencies), impedance matching between the output of one stage and the
input of the following stage is important for maximum gain.
Impedance matching is achieved by selecting the proper turns ratio of
the primary and secondary winding in the transformer coupling.
Positive feedback occurs in a transistor amplifier through the collector-
base junction capacitance At high frequencies, the amount of feedback
.
may be sufficient to sustain oscillations.

Neutralizing circuits are used to eliminate the possibility of oscillations
in high-frequency tuned amplifiers.
Automatic volume control of a transistor amplifier is usually achieved by
controlling the emitter d-c current or the collector d-c voltage.
The mixer stage is fundamentally an amplifier having a tuned output cir-
cuit, and biased on a nonlinear portion of its characteristic
curve.
To avoid oscillation, many transistor i-f stages use negative feedback.
To prevent overloadingon strong signals, an overload diode isoften used.
Avc works in transistor radios to reduce the gain of the controlled
stages
by reducing the emitter current in these stages.
The transistor detector offers the advantage of detection plus amplification.
The reflex amplifier is a single transistor stage used to amplify both
the
intermediate and the audio frequencies.
Direct-coupled amplifiers provide good audio amplification together
with
good low-frequency response and circuit simplicity.
Where an appreciable amount of heat is to be dissipated by a power tran-
sistor, a heat sink is required.
In class-B operation, the output power can
be as much as four times the
collector dissipation of each transistor.
In the asymmetric push-pull amplifier, no output
transformer is required.
Popular cells used in transistor radios include the zinc -carbon,
’
mercury ’
nickel-cadmium, and the solar type.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of the transistor r-f amplifier

stage?
2. Explain the basic operation of the transistor oscillator.
3. What is the function of the mixer stage ?
4. Basically, how does the converter differ from the mixer?
5. Explain the operation of the overload diode.
6. What is the advantage of the power detector over the diode detector?
7. Explain the operation of the reflexed amplifier.
8. What are the advantages of direct -coupled amplifiers?
9. What is meant by thermal runaway and how is it controlled?
10. Explain the operation of the complementary symmetry
push-pull circuit.
11. Whyisit important to observe battery polarity in a transistorized
circuit?
GLOSSARY
a p-type impurity.
equal
connected in o common-base circuit. Alpha is
Alnhn la)-The current gain factor of o transistor when collector voltage.
emitter current change for a constant
\o the ratio of collector current change to
at a junction.
Barrier: The electric field between the acceptor ions and the donor ions
one side of a barrier to the other.

Barrier Height: The diHerence in potential from
transistor. The base is com-

a double junction (n-p-n or p-n-p)
Base: The center semiconductor moteriol of
parable to the grid of an electron tube.
common-emitter circuit. Beta is equal to the
Beta The current gain
9 factor of a transistor connected in o
chon"^ -,; collector current to a change in
base current for a constant collector voltage.
ratio of a
applied to an element of a transistor. Bias current establishes the
Bias: The d-c operating voltage or current
operating point of a transistor.
Coi/ector: The end semiconductor material

with respect to the
of a double junction (n-p-n or p-n-p)
base. The
transistor
collector is comparable to the plate of an

'JT tube.
electron
^
reverse-biased
base common to the input and output circuits.

Common-Base Amplifier: A transistor amplifier in which the is
This circuit is comparable to the grounded-grid triode circuit.
the collector is common to the input and output

Common-Collector Amplifier: A transistor amplifier in which circuit.
circuits. This circuit is comparable to the
cathode follower electron-tube
common to the input and output

Common-Emitter Amplifier: A transistor amplifier in which the emitter is
electron-tube circuit.
circuits. This circuit is comparable to the conventional common-cathode
of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors that provides push-pull operation

Complementary Symmetry: An arrangement
makes use of the similar, but opposite characteristics of p-n-p
Horn a single input signal. Such a circuit
and n-p-n transistors.
alpha of a transistor falls below 0.707 times the maximum gam.

Cutoff frequency: The frequency at which the
substance with electrons in the outer orbit of its

atom which when added to a
Donor: A
crystal. A donor is an n-type impurity.
crystal, provides a free electron in the lattice structure of a
Typical donors are antimony and arsenic.
from each of two adjacent atoms.

Electron-Pair Bond: A valence (covalent) bond formed by two electrons, one
junction (p-n-p or n-p-n) transistor that is forward-biased

Emitter: The end semiconductor material of a double
to the cathode of an electron tube.
with respect to the base. The emitter is comparable
junction so that the barrier is lowered and relatively

forward Bias: An external potential applied to a p-n
high current flows through the junction.
rapidly dissipate the heat energy produced

Heat Sink: A mass of metal or other good heat conductor used to
by a transistor.
5-64 GLOSSARY
Hole: A mobile vacancy in the electonic valence structure of a semiconductor. The hole acts similarly to a
positive electronic charge having a positive mass.
Impurity: A substance added to a semiconductor to give it a p-type or n-type characteristic.
Junction: A point or area of contact between n- and p-type semiconductors.
Junction Transistor: A device having three alternate sections of p-type or n-type semiconductor material.
Lattice Structure; In a crystal, a stable arrangement of atoms and their electron-pair bonds,
Majority Carriers: The holes in p-type semiconductors or free electrons in n-type semiconductors.
Minority Carriers: The holes in n-type semiconductors or excess electrons in p-type semiconductors.
N-P-N Transistor: A
device consisting of a p-type section and two n-type sections of semiconductor material,
with the p-type in the center.
N-Type Semiconductor: A semiconductor crystal into which a donor impurity has been introduced. It contains
free electrons.
P-N Junction; The area of contact between n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.
P-N-P Transistor: A device consisting of an n-type section and two p-type sections of semiconductor material,
with the n-type in the center.
Point Contact: A physical connection made by a metallic wire on the surface of a semiconductor.
P-Type Semiconductor: A semiconductor crystal into which an acceptor inpurity has been introduced. It pro-
vides holes in the crystal lattice structure.
Reverse Bias: An external potential applied to a p-n junction to raise the barrier and prevent the movement
of majority current carriers.
Saturation (Cutoff) Current: The current flow between the base and collector or between the emitter and
collector, measured with the emitter lead or the base lead open.
Semiconductor; A conductor whose resistivity is between that of metals and insulators. It exists in crystalline
form.
Stabilization: The reduction of variations in voltage or current due to undesirable circuit changes.
Transistor: A semiconductor device capable of transferring a signal from one circuit to another and producing
amplification.
Zener Diode: A p-n junction diode reverse-biased into the breakdown region, used for voltage stabilization.
INDEX TO VOL. V

Asymmetric push-pull amplifier, 5-57 Diode:

Acceptor, 5-5 junction, 5-7
Automatic volume control) point-contact, 5-11

Age (see
Alloy-junction,5-13 Direct coupling, 5-41, 5-54
Alpha, 5-22, 5-25 Donor, 5-4

cutoff frequency, 5-25 Doping, 5-4
Amplifiers (transistor): Double-ended amplifier, 5-56
Dynamic transfer characteristic curve, 5-39
asymetric, 5-57
audio, 5-53
output, 5-55
common-base: Earphone jack, 5-53, 5-55
definition of, 5-29 Electron-pair bond, 5-3
operation of, 5-30 Emitter, 5-12
common-collector, 5-29, 5-34
common-emitter, 5-29, 5-32
Forward bias, 5-9
complementary symmetry, 5-58
direct-coupled, 5-54
i-f, 5-48 Galena crystal, 5-11
mixer, 5-46 Germanium, 5-2
overload diode, 5-49 Grown-junction transistor, 5-14
push-pull, 5-56
refiexed, 5-52
r-f, 5-43 Hartley oscillator, 5-44
Antimony, 5-2, 5-4 Heat sink, 5-27
Audio amplifier, 5-53 Hole characteristics, 5-6
Audio output stage, 5-55 Hole properties, 5-6
Automatic volume control (avc), 5-50
l-F amplifier, 5-48

Base, 5-12 Impedance coupling, 5-41
Barrier, 5-7 Indium, 5-2, 5-5
Battery, circuits, 5-59 Interstage coupling, 5-40
Beta, 5-33
Biasing, 5-36
Junction-barrier, 5-7, 5-8

Junction-diode, 5-7
Cat whisker, 5-20 rectifier, as a, 5-10
Characteristic curves (transistor), 5-38
Collector, 5-12
voltage-current characteristics, 5-21 5-3
Lattice structure,
Common-base amplifier, 5-29, 5-30
Leakage current, 5-27
Common-collector amplifier, 5-29, 5-34
Load line, 5-38
Common-emitter amplifier, 5-29, 5-32
beta, 5-33
i-58
Complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier,
Majority carriers, 5-10
Construction, 5-15
Minority carriers, 5-10
Converter, 5-47
Coupling, 5-40
Mixer stage, S46
Covalent bond, 5-3
Crystals, 5-3
Current gain, 5-22, 5-39 N-type semiconductor, 5-3, 5-4
Negative feedback, 5-48
N-P-N transistor:
definitionof, 5-12
Detector (transistorized), 5-50
operation of, 5-16, 5-18
diode, 5-50
symbol, 5-12
power, 5-51
1
5-66 INDEX
Neutralization, 5-48 Thermistor, 5-27
Neutrons, 5-2 Transformer coupling, 5-40
Transistor:
alpha, 5-22
Operating characteristics, 5-21 cutoff frequency, 5-25
Oscillator (transistorized) 5-44 amplifier:
local (transistorized), 5-45 a-f, 5-53
Output stage, 5-55 asymetric, 5-57
Overload diode, 5-49 complementary symmetry, 5-58
direct-coupled, 5-54
i-f, 5-48
P-type semiconductor, 5-5 push-pull, 5-56
Pentavalent, 5-4 r-f, 5-43
P-N junction: basing and construction, 5-15

forward bias of, 5-9 beta, 5-33
operation of, 5-7 biasing, 5-36
reverse bias of, 5-9 fixed base-current, 5-36
P-N-P transistor: self, 5-37
definition 5-12
of, characteristic curves, 5-38
hole current, 5-16 circuits, (see Transistor circuits)
operation of, 5-16 converter, 5-47

symbol for, 5-12 coupling, 5-40
Point-contact diode, 5-1 current amplification, 5-22
cat whisker, 5-20 current gain, 5-23, 5-39
hole injection, 5-19 definition of, 5-1, 5-12
Power amplifier, 5-55 diffused alloy-junction, 5-13
Power detector, 5-51 frequency response, 5-25
Power gain, 5-24, 5-39 grown-junction, 5-14
Power supplies, 5-59 heat sink, 5-27
Protons, 5-2 leakage current, 5-27
Push-pull amplifier, 5-56 mixer, 5-46
N-P-N type, 5-12
oscillators, 5-44
local, 5^45
Rate-grown transistor, 5-14
point-contact, 5-19
R-C coupling, 5-40
cat whisker, 5-20
Receiver (transistorized), 5-43
hole injection, 5-19
Rectifier, 5-10
— P-N-P type, 5-12
Refiexed i-f a-f amplifier, 5-52
Resistance gain, 5-22
power gain, 5-24, 5-39
rate-grown, 5-14
Reverse bias, 5-8
resistance gain, 5-22
R-F amplifier (transistorized), 5-43
temperature effects, 5-27
thermal runaway, 5-27
vacuum tube analogy, 5-26
Seed crystal, 5-14
voltage gain, 5-23, 5-39
Semiconductors:
Transistor circuits:
acceptors, 5-5
converter, 5-47
atomic structure of, 5-2
coupling of, 5-40
covalent bond, 5-3
detector, 5-50
crystals, 5-3
grounded (common) base, 5-29, 5-30
definition of, 5-1, 5-4
grounded (common) collector, 5-29, 5-34
donors, 5-4
grounded (common) emitter, 5-29, 5-32
doping of, 5-4
mixer, 5-46
electron-pair bonds, 5-3
oscillators, 5-44
holes, 5-5, 5-6
reflexed amplifier, 5-52
lattice structure of, 5-3
r-f amplifier, 5-43
majority carriers, 5-10
Transit time, 5-25
materials, 5-2
Trivalent. 5-5
minority carriers, 5-.10
Typical transistor receiver, 5-60
N-type, 5-3
P-type, 5-5
Silicon, 5-2
Valence electrons, 5-2
Voltage gain, 5-23, 5-39
Temperature effects, 5-27

Thermal runaway, 5-27
Zener voltage, 5-10

of radio.


1


basic
radio
by M. TEPPER
basic radio
by MARVIN TEPPER
Raytheon Company
Author of
YOL. 6

Third Printing, 1968

PREFACE
cult subject.



a-c electricity. Equipped with this information the reader is ready to study
IV PREFACE
conductors. The last volume of the course. Volume 6, covers the long-
neglected subject of transmitters, antennas, and transmission lines. Inas-
much as it is devoted primarily to transmitters, the space given to trans-
mission lines, propagation, and antennas, is of necessity limited.

required for the understanding of this series; it is self-contained. Embrac-
MARVIN TEPPER
Malden, Mass.
September 1961
CONTENTS
VOL. VI — BASIC RADIO
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMITTERS 1
Communication by Radio • Kinds of Radio Signals • The Basic Radio Transmitter (Radiotelegraphy)
TRANSMITTING TUBES 4
Transmitting Tubes: The Emitter-Grids-The Plate • Transmitting Tube Ratings • Transmitting-Type
Rectifiers: Organization of Gaseous Tubes • Transmitting-Type Gaseous Rectifiers
TRANSMITTER OSCILLATORS 10
The Oscillator • Oscillator Losses • Oscillator Characteristics • Hartley Oscillator • Colpitts and Clapp
Oscillators • The Tuned-Plate Tuned-Grid Oscillator
CRYSTAL CHARACTERISTICS 17
Action of Crystals • Crystal Cuts • Temperature Coefficient • Oscillator Harmonics • Crystal Holders
• Crystal Characteristics
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS 23
Basic Crystal Oscillator • Pierce Oscillator • The Crystal-Overtone Oscillator
SPECIAL OSCILLATOR CONSIDERATIONS 26

The Variable-Frequency Oscillator (VFO) • Oscillator Coupling and Loading
CLASS-C AMPLIFIERS 29
The Class-C Amplifier • The Class-C Tuned R-F Amplifier • Class-C Amplifiers: The Plate Circuit
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS 34
Buffer Amplifiers • Frequency Multipliers • Frequency-Multiplier Amplifiers • Tuning Frequency
Multipliers
INTERSTAGE COUPLING 39
Interstage Coupling
R-F POWER AMPLIFIERS 41

Neutralization
The Tuned R-F Power Amplifier •
The Tuned R-F Amplifier and Driver Stage •
• Power-Amplifier Input Circuits • Input Circuits for Push-Pull Amplifiers • Single-Ended Power
Amplifiers • Push-Pull Power Amplifiers • Power-Amplifier Output Circuits • Output Coupling
• Bias
Voltages • Metering • Output and Input Power • Tuning Procedure
TRANSMITTER KEYING 58
Keying
CW TRANSMITTER 62
Basic CW Transmitter
AMPLITUDE MODULATION 64
AM Transmission • Percentage of Modulation • Sidebands • Power Distribution in an AM Wave
VI CONTENTS
THE AM TRANSMITTER 69
The Basic Amplitude-Modulated Transmitter • Modulation Levels • Heising Modulation • Transformer
Coupling: Plate Modulation • Control-Grid Modulation • Screen-Grid Modulation • Modulation
Checking
MICROPHONES 77
Microphones: Carbon and Crystal — Dynamic and Ribbon
MODULATOR CIRCUITS 79
Speech Amplifiers • Modulator Driver • Modulator Stages • Speech Clipping and Filtering
CW-AM TRANSMITTER 84
Basic CW-AM Transmitter

FREQUENCY MODULATION 86
Direct FM Indirect FM • The Armstrong Phase-Modulation Circuit • Phase Modulation (PM)
SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 91
Basics of Single-Sideband Transmission • Carrier Suppression by Balanced Modulators • Carrier
Suppression by Balanced-Bridge Modulators • Sideband Suppression: Bandpass Filters • Crystal Filters
• Phasing Method • Linear Amplifiers • Basic SSB Transmitters
POWER SUPPLIES AND CONTROLS 100

Transmitter Power Supplies • Transmitter Controls • Transmitter Control System
TRANSMISSION LINES 107

Transmission Lines Types of Transmission Line • Inductance and Capacitance in Transmission Lines
•
• Characteristic Impedance of the Infinitely-Long Transmission Line • Terminating the Transmission
Line • The R-F Transmission Line Transports Electromagnetic Energy • Electrical Wavelength • Electrical
Wavelength and Velocity of Propagation • Transmission Lines Terminated in Characteristic Impedance
• Transmission Line Not Terminated in Characteristic Impedance • Resonant Transmission Lines:
Open Circuited • Resonant Transmission Lines: Short-Circuited • Properties of Transmission Line
Sections • Typical Applications of Transmission Line Sections
WAVE PROPAGATION 121

Radiation • and Magnetic Fields in Free Space • The Free-Space Wave: Velocity-Frequency-
Electric
Wavelength • The Wavefront • Practical Wave Propagation • Ground, Ground-Reflected, and Direct
Waves • Line-of-Sight Propagation • Temperature Inversion • Sky-wave Propagation: The Ionosphere
• Angle of Radiation and Skip Distance
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS 130

The Fundamental Antenna • The Dimension • Resonance in the Half-Wave Dipole
Half- Wavelength
• Voltage and Current in the Half-Wave Dipole • Antenna Impedance • Antenna Input Impedance and
Radiation Resistance • Directivity of Resonant Half-Wave Dipole
ANTENNAS 137
ParasiticArrays: Yagi Antennas • Operation and Characteristics of the Parasitic Array • The Folded
Dipole • The Vertical Antenna • The Long-Wire Antenna • The V Antenna • The Rhombic Antenna
• Feeding the Antenna (SWR)
GLOSSARY 147
CUMULATIVE INDEX 149

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMITTERS
Communication by Radio
In thebroadest sense, "communication by radio" means the transfer of intel-

ligence from one point to another through space, using radiated electromag-
netic energy (radio waves) in the frequency spectrum of from about 10 kc to
about 30,000 me. The transmitting antenna radiates these waves and the re-
ceiving antenna intercepts them. This extremely broad span of frequencies
embraces many different techniques which come within the meaning of radio
communications. In some of them the nature of the intelligence transmitted
differs greatly from that dealt with in this book. But even so, there are many
similarities in the organization and operation of the different transmitters
used in the various radio services. Understanding the theory of operation of
the conventional radio transmitter will help in comprehending the functioning
of all other kinds of transmitters.
6-2 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMITTERS
Kinds of Radio Signals
We have already established that communication by radio is accomplished by

electromagnetic energy (electromagnetic waves) which travel from a trans-
mitting antenna to the receiving antenna. This broad statement does not,
however, identify the kinds of radio signals that come within the boundaries
of electromagnetic waves. The differences among radio signals arise prin-
KINDS of RADIO SIGNALS

Emission Pictorial
Designation Representation Description
Continuous oscillations of constant amplitude

AO and frequency. Nonmodulated waves.
Continuous oscillations of constant amplitude

and frequency, interrupted (keyed) in a
A1
sequence which corresponds to an
Dot Dash Dot Dash International code.
Modulated telegraphy in which an audio tone

amplitude modulates a carrier.
A2
The audio tone is keyed in accordance
with an International code.
Dot Dash Dot
Telephony. Constant-frequency
A3 oscillations modulated by
the intelligence being transmitted.
cipally from the techniques employed in making the intelligence part of the
radiated signal prior to radiation.
These differences give rise to different identifications. The identity of each

type of radio signal is called a type of emission . Modern communication
technology has given rise to a great many kinds of modulation; hence, kinds
of emission. This being a course in basic radio, only the broadly applicable
techniques are discussed. Where variations warrant mention, they are dealt
with separately.
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMITTERS 6-3
The Basic Radio Transmitter (Radiotelegraphy)
The most fundamental radio transmitter is the radiotelegraph transmitter.

It consists of a vacuum-tube generator of radio-frequency energy (the oscil-
lator); a source of operating voltages (the power supply); a signaling key
whereby the generation of oscillations can be started and stopped at will, and
an antenna. In the strict sense the antenna is not part of the transmitter, but
it is a necessary adjunct, without which a transmitter is useless.
The basic transmitter made up of the abovementioned parts has many short-
comings. Its greatest deficiency is its inability to keep the oscillator con-
stant on a precise frequency setting; in other words, the radiated signal is not
constant in frequency, and consequently the received signal is difficult to
"read". Also, the signal power derived from the oscillator is low, which
limits the distance over which communications can be carried on.
Manipulating the signaling key to close and open the circuit in accordance
with the radiotelegraphy code causes the oscillator to generate corresponding
bursts of energy. This energy radiates from the antenna to "transmit" the
message. Transmitters used for radiotelegraph purposes are called contin-
uous wave or CW transmitters.
6-4 TRANSMITTING TUBES
Transmitting Tubes: The Emitter
jjThoriated-tungsten filaments
-
1 Its mm
Iff | „ ![
% " \
Many of the tubes used in radio receivers are also used

transmitters. in radio
This is especially true in low-power However, due
many high-
units. to the
power circuits used in transmitters, a separate "breed"
of tubes known as
transmitting types are used. Generally, they are of special construction to
handle the larger amounts of power. They are larger, specially shaped, have
rugged plate, grid, and filament elements, and special basing arrangements.
The high plate current generally found in transmitting tubes necessitates the
use of emitters rich in sources of electrons. Both indirectly-heated cathodes,
and directly-heated filaments are used. The cathode emitters are barium-
oxide or strontium-oxide coated surfaces, brought to electron-emitting tem-
perature by an associated heater. Directly-heated filaments are made of
tungsten, with thorium oxide impregnated in the metal during manufacture, or
nickel, coated with an emitting material. The thoriated-tungsten filament is
extremely popular, but must be operated within 5% of its specified voltage
rating. For this reason, many transmitters have a "filament voltage" meter
and adjustment to permit monitoring of this voltage.
6-5
TRANSMITTING TUBES
Transmitting Tubes: Grids
in a transmitting-tube type resembles its

receiving tube
The control grid
tubes the control
counterpart - a spiral form, or ladder structure. In some
grid is a cage-like structure that surrounds the emitter.
Materials used for
grids include pure metals such as tungsten, molybdenum, or tantalum, or
located between heat radiators
various alloys of these metals. With the grids
they may emit primary electrons when bom-
such as the filament and plate,
by ions from gas in the tube. To prevent this the grids are often
barded
can withstand
coated with gold or platinum. Platinum is preferred because it
higher temperatures without vaporizing. Carbon is also commonly used.
grid-bias
Control-grid electrodes are subject to several ratings. One is the
which may be negative or zero, depending on the kind of tube and how
voltage,
it is used. Another, is the safe peak amplitude of the input- signal voltage.
can
Excessive input-signal voltage can not only impair tube performance, but
damage the tube. Another- rating encountered in certain amplifying applica-
tions in transmitters is called driving power or r-f excitation,
and is ex-
application demands that the input-signal voltage ex-
pressed in watts. If the
d-c grid current flows
ceed the applied negative grid bias, a unidirectional or
between the emitter and the control grid inside the tube, and around the con-
the grid current
trol grid — emitter circuit outside the tube. The product of
and the peak positive grid - emitter voltage is the driving power (in watts)
that is consumed in the grid circuit.

Transmitting Tubes: The Plate
The plate or anode of a transmitting tube is the point of greatest difference

between receiving and transmitting tubes. In transmitting tubes the plate is
subjected to tremendous impact by tube current, and accounts for much of the
heat produced in the tube. To withstand high temperatures, the plate must
radiate the heat, and a variety of materials and constructional features are
>b
Total Plate Power Input
- D-c plate voltage * d-c plate current
= Eb x |
b
= 3000 x 0.150
= 450 watts
used. Materials used for plates are such metals as nickel, tantalum, and
molybdenum. Nickel may be coated with carbon, and sometimes the entire
plate is made of graphite. The carbonized coating aids the heat -radiating
ability of the metal. In some tubes, pure copper plates are used. The usual
run of plates are large, some with radial fins attached, or with radiating sur-
faces formed of edgewise wound metal ribbon. Often metal plates operate
while glowing cherry red. For tubes up to about 250 watts (power input to
plate), ordinary air circulation is sufficient for cooling; for ratings up to
several thousand watts, forced air-draft cooling is used. For very high
power tubes, circulating distilled water is often used for drawing off heat.
A phrase often used in conjunction with transmitter operation is plate -power

input. This is the total amount of d-c power (in watts) supplied to the plate
circuit. It is from this that the output- signal power delivered to the load of a
tube is derived, as well as the power lost or dissipated as heat in the plate
circuit inside the tube.
TRANSMITTING TUBES 6-7
Transmitting-Tube Ratings (CCS, ICAS, and Typical Operation)
Exclusive of the filament or heater voltage and current, both of which are fixed
for any given tube regardless of use, the safe maximum operating voltages
applied to the control grid, screen grid (where applicable), and the plate elec-
trodes, as well as the safe maximum amounts of current permitted to flow in
these circuits, are determined by two standard conditions of use of the tube.
They are called CCS ratings and ICAS ratings. Both are usable for guidance.
The letters CCS stand for Continuous Commercial Service, which means con-
tinuous, around-the-clock operation consistent with maximum tube life and
dependability. In contrast, is the ICAS rating. These letters stand for Inter-
mittent Commercial and Amateur Service, by which is meant alternate peri-
ods of "on" and "off" operation, each theoretically lasting for five minutes.
In practice, time is disregarded during the "on"-"off" periods. The philos-
ophy behind the ICAS rating is highest signal output from the tube with only
limited concern for long tube life.
In addition to the CCS and ICAS ratings of safe maximum values of voltage and
current, there is always still another set of operating conditions known as
typical operation. The typical operating values can conform with CCS opera-
tion or with ICAS operation, depending upon the circumstances. But which-
ever it is, the typical operating voltage and currents are in almost all in-
stances below the CCS or the ICAS ratings. We show, for comparative pur-
poses, CCS and ICAS ratings, and typical operating conditions for a standard
transmitting tube. Those tubes not intended for ICAS service bear only CCS
and typical operating specifications.
EXAMPLES of MAXIMUM CCS and ICAS RATINGS and
TYPICAL OPERATION of 814 TORE used as R-F POWER AMPLIFIER
Maxi mum Typical

CCS ICAS Operation
D-c Plate Voltage 1250 1500 1250
D-c Screen-Grid Voltage 400 400 300
D-c Control-Grid Voltage -300 -300 -80
D-c Plate Current 150 ma 150 ma 144 ma

IlifSttll! D-c Control-Grid Current 15 ma 15 ma 10 ma
Plate Input 180 watts 250 watts 180 watts
SiBl, Screen-Grid Input 10 watts 10 watts 10 watts
gjgtijf 65 watts 45 watts
Plate Dissipation 50 watts
Driving-Power Control Grid 1.5 watts
Transmitting-Type Rectifiers (Organization of Gaseous Tubes)
The gas -filled or gaseous rectifier is a two -element tube (diode) consisting of
an indirectly-heated cathode, or a filament and a plate (anode) in a glass en-
velope. Also within the envelope is a small amount of gas such as argon, neon
or xenon among others, or a small amount of liquid mercury. The rectifier
that uses the liquid mercury is known as a mercury-vapor tube because the
liquid mercury vaporizes when the hot emitter raises the temperature of the
envelope sufficiently. The xenon-filled, and the mercury-vapor diodes are
standard half-wave rectifiers.
Gaseous rectifiers are used in transmitter power supplies when the d-c volt-
age required is at least 1000 volts, and the current requirement is at least
150 milliamperes dc. They are used in rectifying circuits similar to those
interna! Structure of Mercury-Vapor Rectifiers
used with high-vacuum tubes, namely, half-wave, full-wave, and bridge ar-
rangements. Because of the manner of functioning, the gas-filled rectifier
does not permit the simultaneous ”on" and "off" application of the heater and
plate voltages. When the tube is placed into service for an operating period,
the heater voltage must be applied first, without application of the plate volt-
age, for at least 30 seconds. Then the plate voltage is applied. The time in-
terval stated is necessary to allow the tube to heat sufficiently, and especially
to allow the mercury to vaporize. Once the emitter has reached the proper
temperature, the plate voltage can be applied or removed at will. The heater
voltage must remain on all the time the power supply is in service, even
though the plate voltage is not applied.
.
TRANSMITTING TUBES 6-9
Transmitting-Type Gaseous Rectifiers (Theory)
Assume a half-wave gaseous rectifier with the hot cathode emitting electrons,
and no voltage on the plate. The gas or the mercury vapor content of the tube
corresponds to a cloud of atoms of the substance dispersed throughout the
tube. The electrons from the cathode form a space charge around the
Ionizi ng potential (C)
15-20V
NO PLATE VOLTAGE IONIZING POTENTIAL
creates positive ions
NO PLATE CURRENT which move to space
charge and neutralize it
° Electrons ° Electrons
• Atoms of gas
• Atoms of gas
• Positive ions
emitter. Now assume 5 to 10 volts positive applied to the plate. Electrons

are drawn out of the space charge and advance to the plate as plate current,
just as in the high -vacuum tube. At the same time, an equal number of elec-
trons leave the emitter and enter the space charge
If now the positive -polarity plate voltage is increased to perhaps 15 to 20

volts, electrons drawn out of the space charge have a higher velocity, collide
with the atoms of gas, and knock electrons out of the atoms, thus making them
positive ions. The voltage at which the electrically neutral atoms are
changed to positive ions is called the ionizing potential . The positive ions are
repelled by the positively -charged plate and are attracted to the space charge
which, consisting of electrons, is the equivalent of a negatively-charged
cloud. When the positive ions enter the space charge, the space -charge elec-
trons are attracted to the positive ions, thus making the latter electrically
neutral, and neutralizing the space charge. In effect, there is no space
charge. Now all the emitted electrons move to the plate as plate current. If
the positive -plate voltage falls below the ionizing potential, de-ionization of
the gas occurs and space charge reappears. Gaseous rectifiers have excep-
tionally low internal plate resistance. This makes them useful for high cur-
rent rectifiers.
6-10 TRANSMITTER OSCILLATORS
The Oscillator
Oscillators are the heart of a transmitter, often the transmitter itself. It

would be best to begin by a review of the basics of oscillator circuits. An
inductance and a capacitance is the basis of an oscillatory circuit. Assuming
C to be fully charged, it will discharge, building a magnetic field about L.
When C is fully discharged the energy of the circuit is in the magnetic field
about L. With C discharged there is no longer any difference of potential to
keep the current flowing through the circuit. The field about L collapses,
inducing a back EMF. The induced back EMF causes the current to again
flow in the original direction. The collapsing field then recharges C, but in
the opposite polarity to that with which it was originally charged.
When the field about L has completely collapsed, all the energy of the circuit
is once again stored in C. The capacitor again discharges. The action of
building a field about L is repeated, as is the collapsing field that again
charges C. The polarity of the charge on C now is the s^me as that with
which it started, completing the cycle.
Plotting the capacitor current flow from the initial point where no current is
flowing, through the point where maximum current is flowing as C discharges,
back to the point where no current is flowing as C is recharged in the opposite
polarity, provides one alternation of a sine wave. When the cycle is repeated,
it provides an alternation in the opposite polarity. Combining the two alter-
nations results in a sine wave of current flowing in the circuit.
OSCILLATORY DISCHARGE PRODUCES SINE WAVE

Opposite polarity
idl±±+
1 f 1
1
1
L ---
l 1
1
c
III' C L
l 1 \ '
C c
111
III
' i
i
i
i i
i
|
^
i
l
l
l
l
l
•
III
• •
*
=1
r 1
C is charged; C has discharged; Magnetic field of L has

energy is in electric field energy is now in collapsed, and energy is
of C magnetic field of L stored in electric field of C
This sequence
produces 1st alternation
.
TRANSMITTER OSCILLATORS 6-11
Oscillator Losses
Assuming perfect capacitor and inductors, there would be no loss in an L-C

circuit, or "tank" circuit; the oscillations would continue indefinitely. The
frequency of the oscillations is dependent upon the values of L and C. A
large value C takes more time to charge and discharge, producing a low fre-
quency. A large value of inductance offers greater impedance to the flow of
current, thus also lowering the time of each alternation. The frequency of
oscillation then, is determined by the value of L and C
No coil is a perfect inductor; it must have the d-c resistance of the turns of
wire making up the coil. This resistance is the major source of loss in an
oscillator tank circuit. If not overcome, this loss causes the oscillations to
die out, or become "damped". We have learned that the Q of a coil is equal
to Xl/R. Hence, a low-Q coil has a high value of resistance compared to its
reactance; it will quickly "dampen" the train of oscillations. A high -Q coil
having a low value of R compared to its Xl, permits oscillations to continue
for a longer period of time.
)
Oscillator Losses (Contd.
BASIC OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
To maintain constant amplitude of the oscillations in the tank circuit the

damping effect of the resistance of the coil must be overcome. Applying the
oscillations of the tank circuit to the grid of a vacuum-tube amplifier makes
available at the plate circuit an increased amount of power at the same fre-
quency as that of the tank circuit. A controlled amount of energy from the
amplified output is fed back to the tank circuit. This energy is fed back in
phase, called regenerative feedback. The output of the plate circuit being
180° out of phase with the grid circuit, it must be shifted another 180° to
place it in phase with the grid circuit.
The output plate current signal is inductively coupled from the tickler (feed-
back) coil to the tank circuit, in phase, to maintain oscillations in the tank
circuit. If the feedback of the tickler coil is not in phase, the circuit will
not oscillate. The amount of feedback required is small, only enough to
make up for the tank circuit losses. It is analogous to the pendulum of a
clock; once swinging, it needs only a small push to make up the losses due to
friction. With only a slight "push" requiredto make up for circuit losses, the
output signal applied to the grid need not be the complete sine wave. To pro-
vide this slight push a class-C amplifier is used.
Oscillator Characteristics
The oscillator is self - starting

. When voltage is first applied, there is no
flows
grid bias, causing heavy plate current flow. The large pulse of current
thr o ugh the tickler coil, building a strong field about it. This induces a volt-
called
age in the tank circuit, which starts to oscillate. The procedure is
shock excitation. The signal swing at the grid circuit causes the grid to draw
current on the positive alternations, building up to the required bias.
The tank circuit may be coupled to another circuit. The coupling could cause
the tank circuit to become "loaded down", reducing the amplitude of the
os-
cillations. The signal swing being reduced, the tips of the positive alterna-
current
tions may not drive the grid voltage positive. There is then no grid
flow. The capacitor discharges and for a short time maintains the proper
The OSCILLATOR IS SELF REGULATING

Normal Loading does not
Disturb Operation
of Oscillator OUTPUT
PULSES
Load is coupled
to oscillator
NORMAL -
INPUT PULSES
OPERATION
bias. Soon the capacitor discharges to a point where the grid-bias voltage
is
greatly reduced. After a few cycles the bias will have gone sufficiently
positive -going to cause the tips of the alternations to drive the grid positive,
grid-leak
causing grid current to flow again. The voltage drop across the
resistor again develops the correct bias. At the same time the positive grid
causes increased plate-current pulses to flow, maintaining the feedback. The
end result is to have the oscillator again running with its original values.
Hartley Oscillator
One of the most popular oscillators is the Hartley, named after its inventor.
It uses a single tapped coil and capacitor in the tank circuit.
Taking one alternation of the circuit, the top, or plate end of the coil is posi-
tive, the bottom, or grid end is negative. The cathode is placed at the tap on
the coil. To vary the feedback the tap can be moved. This controls the value
SERIES-FED Mmm
lpl§
im HARTLEY
-)h
B+ ~
m
mm
?Mk
OSCILLATOR
fkte .in
§t§Jli
feedback portion
dm
*hm.
of feedback signal applied between cathode and grid. With the grid signal
negative with respect to the cathode, the output pulse at the plate is 180° out
of phase, or positive. Coupling the output pulse to the positive end of the coil
provides the proper in-phase feedback. For the following alternation the top
of the tank coil is negative; the bottom positive. The grid has a positive sig-
nal with respect to the cathode. The pulse at the plate is 180° out of phase,
or negative -going. This is coupled to the negative end of the coil, again
giving the proper in-phase feedback.
It is desirable to free the plate of the plate load and feedback task, using it
merely as an attracting force for the electron stream. In the circuit shown,
feedback is accomplished by plate current flow through that portion of the
coil that is in the cathode circuit.
Colpitts and Clapp Oscillators
The most popular type of capacitive -coupled oscillator is the Colpitts, also
named after its inventor. To prevent plate current from flowing through the
tank circuit, it is shunt-fed. Its operation is similar to that of the Hartley
oscillator. Instead of a tapped coil, there is the equivalent in two variable
capacitors forming a voltage divider for the signal voltage. The voltage de-
veloped across the reactance of the grid circuit capacitor Cg, is applied be-
tween the grid and cathode. As shown, the grid is negative in respect to the
cathode. The signal at the plate is a positive -going pulse which provides the
in-phase feedback to the positive end of the coil. To vary the value of feed-
back the relation of the voltage division between the two capacitors must be
varied. To vary the frequency of the tank circuit, both capacitors should be
varied. Quite often the frequency of the tank circuit is varied by using a
slug -timed coil to change its value of inductance.
The Clapp oscillator closely resembles the Colpitts oscillator. The major
differences are the use of a pentode, with the plate bypassed, placing it at a-c
ground potential. With no plate load, the plate voltage is relatively constant,
where the plate voltage of a triode varies, in turn varying the transconduct-
ance of the tubes. Another difference is the use of a series -timed resonant
circuit. This allows the use of fixed values of capacitors for the voltage
divider. The Clapp oscillator provides stability of a high order.
-.
The Tuned-Plate Timed-Grid Oscillator
The tuned-plate tuned-grid (TPTG) oscillator uses a tuned circuit in both the
plate and the grid circuits; the circuits are not inductively coupled. This
type of oscillator may be used over a wide range of frequencies. However,
because of reduced feedback between plate and grid at low frequencies, the
TPTG oscillator is not particularly satisfactory at low frequencies. The
feedback necessary to maintain oscillations is coupled from the plate circuit
to the grid circuit by means of the interelectrode capacitance between plate
and grid. Conventional grid-leak bias is used, with the r-f signal bypassed
around the power supply.
In general, the frequency of oscillation is determined by the tuned L-C circuit

having the higher Q. In most cases this is the grid-tank circuit. However,
the natural oscillation frequency of the grid tank is lowered by the presence
of the large effective input capacitance in parallel with the tank capacitance
To compensate for this, the grid-tank circuit must be tuned to a frequency
slightly higher than called for, by reducing the capacitance of C. The plate
tank circuit must be tuned below the operating frequency to obtain the proper
phase relations for oscillation. When redrawn, the similarity of the TPTG
to the Hartley oscillator becomes apparent.
CRYSTAL CHARACTERISTICS 6-17
Action of Crystals
Types of crystals occasionally abbreviated as "xtal" exhibit the piezoelectric

effect. The word piezo is a Greek word for pressure, or pressing. Piezo-
electric then is "electricity from pressure". This describes the action of a
quartz crystal. When squeezed, or compressed, a difference of potential is
developed between its two faces. Increased pressure results in increased
or stretched along length along length if

produces charge produces Opposite electrical charge causes
||1
across crystal opposite charge mechanical change in crystal shape
|f|
potential difference. Compressing a piece of quartz crystal in its width (A)

causes itto develop a potential with each side having an opposite polarity.
When the crystal is squeezed so that it bulges outward (B), the charge across
each face reverses polarity.
In addition to generating a voltage, application of an alternating voltage to the

two sides of the crystal causes it to vibrate mechanically. These vibrations
become very strong when the frequency of the applied voltage is the same as
the mechanical resonant frequency of the crystal (determined by its size and
shape). These strong vibrations at the resonant frequency in turn generate a
strong alternating voltage at the same resonant frequency. When the applied
alternating voltage is sufficient to overcome the mechanical losses of the
vibrating crystal, the generated alternating voltage of the crystal appears as
a constant -frequency signal voltage that can be used as an L-C tank in an os-
cillator circuit.
Many crystals exhibit the piezoelectric effect, but three particular types have
been found to be most useful; Rochelle salt, tourmaline, and quartz. Rochelle
salt is the most active crystal, generating the greatest amount of voltage for
a given mechanical strain. However, quartz crystal is the most common type
used for crystal oscillator circuits. It is inexpensive, rugged, stable, and
can withstand reasonably high temperatures.
.
6-18 CRYSTAL CHARACTERISTICS
Crystal Cuts
QUARTZ CRYSTAL AXES AND CUTS

HEXAGONAL CRYSTAL
C\> }
X AXIS Y A XIS
x x'
vXT
W” x'
electrical
X
axes mechanif
1
X
X-CUT CRYSTAL Y-CUT CRYSTAL
Natural crystals are found in various shapes, but those used for electronics
are six-sided, or hexagonal. The crystal is divided and identified by various
imaginary axes r unning through it. The Z axis, sometimes referred to as the
optical axis, runs from end-to-end of the crystal. Strain or stress applied
six
along the Z axis causes no piezo effect. Drawing a line from one of the
corners to an opposite corner produces an X axis. The three combinations of
corners are labeled X, X', and X". The X axes are called the electrical
axes because they provide the greatest piezoelectric effect. Joining opposite
faces produces Y axes.
or
Crystal wafers are cut from the natural crystal, called the mother stone,
wafer, and the method in which it is cut or
crystal. The thickness of the
oriented to the mother stone will determine its frequency and temperature
characteristics. The thinner the crystal wafer, the higher the frequency at
which it can vibrate. A crystal wafer cut so as to have its two flat sides, or
faces, facing an X axis, is called an X-cut crystal. An X-cut crystal is sliced
from the mother crystal at a Y-axis angle. A crystal wafer having its two
faces perpendicular to a Y axis is called a Y-cut crystal. Y-cut crystals are
sliced at mi X-axis angle
.
Temperature Coefficient
To obtain improved characteristics a wafer may be cut from the mother crys-
tal on axes that are neither X, Y, or Z. The wafer may be cut to appear
similar to a Y-cut crystal, but actually be tilted about the X axis at a 35°
clockwise angle. This changes the notation of the crystal to an AT -cut When
.
the wafer is similar to a Y-cut crystal but is rotated to a 49 ““counterclock-

wise angle, it is called a BT-cut .
A vital characteristic of a wafer crystal is its temperature coefficient This.
refers to the change in frequency that occurs when the temperature surround-
AT CUT CRYSTAL BT-CUT CRYSTAL
ing the crystal changes. An increase in temperature causes the crystal to

expand, ch an g ing its resonant frequency (the crystal "drifts")
The variations in frequency are expressed in p/m (parts per million), some-
times written as ppm, or cycles per me, for an increase in temperature of
1°C. The combined notation reads p/m°C .The change in frequency, or
drift, may be upward to a higher frequency for a positive or plus coefficient,
or it may be downward to a lower frequency for a negative or minus coeffi-
cient. A crystal wafer having no frequency drift with changes in temperature
is rated as having a zero temperature coefficient.
Some crystals have poor temperature coefficients. An example might be a

rating for a crystal of -20 cycles per me per degree centigrade, abbreviated
-20p/m°C. This indicates that the crystal will provide an output resonant
frequency 20 cycles lower per me for each “C increase in temperature. The
exact value of drift varies with the type of cut and the thickness of the crystal.
The AT-cut, and BT-cut wafer crystals have better temperature coefficients
than the X-cut, and Y-cut crystals. An AT-cut crystal may have a rating of
0 p/m°C at 45 °C. This means that keeping the temperature of the crystal
close to 45“C will keep the output frequency constant. When operated at 85°C
the same crystal may drift as high as +20p/m°C.
Oscillator Harmonics
When the crystal wafer has applied to it an a-c signal of the same frequency
to which the crystal is mechanically resonant, the crystal develops strong
vibrations. If not controlled, the vibrations may become excessive and frac-
ture the crystal. When the entire crystal vibrates, the frequency at which it
vibrates is called the fundamental frequency.
The same size crystal may vibrate in two motions, or wavelengths of the
fundamental. This provides a frequency that is two times the original funda-
mental frequency, called the first overtone, or the second harmonic. When
the same crystal vibrates in three wavelengths of the fundamentals, the sec - '
ond overtone or third harmonic, is generated.

,
The physical direction in which the crystal wafer vibrates, called mode, may
vary. When the entire crystal wafer vibrates at its fundamental frequency it
is oscillating in a flexure mode. When vibrating so as to have each face move
in an opposite direction, the crystal is oscillating in a shear mode. When
vibrating so as to have the two faces compress and expand, varying the thick-
ness of the crystal, it is oscillating in a compressional mode, sometimes
called longitudinal mode.
VARIOUS CRYSTAL MODES and OVERTONES
FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY
t (Flexure mode)
\
FIRST OVERTONE
or
< t K SECOND HARMONIC
/
V N /
m
\
SECOND OVERTONE
n
f
or
V A 9
\ y \
>\
y\ / THIRD HARMONIC ft Slipi
SHEAR MODE
COMPRESSIONAL
or LONGITUDINAL
MODE
Crystal Holders
CONSTRUCTION of "PRESSURE SANDWICH”

TYPE MOUNT
COVER
The crystal wafer is carefully ground to exact thickness for resonance at the
desired frequency. The crystal must be kept perfectly clean and placed in a
special crystal holder. A basic holder consists of two metal electrodes to
make contact with the faces of the crystal, with an air gap to minimize damp-
ing of the vibrations. The clamp holder is identical to the basic type, except
that the crystal is firmly clamped between the two electrodes. The symbol
for a crystal holder closely represents its physical construction.
The physical construction of the crystal holder varies widely, some taking
the shape of a "pressure sandwich" in which the crystal is clamped in a
spring-mounted sandwich and then placed in a holder of the type shown.
Other holders may clamp the crystal between tuned lengths of wire, or clamp
the crystal at its edges.
The holder may take other forms such as that shown enclosed in a vacuum,
which mounts in a standard octal socket. Other holders use various sockets
depending upon their pin dimensions; most crystal holders will fit in standard
tube sockets.
A special crystal oven can be used to maintain the crystal at a near -constant
temperature to prevent oscillator drift. The crystal oven is designed to keep
the temperature of the crystal at a constant higher value than the surrounding
or ambient temperatures. This prevents ambient temperature changes from
affecting the oven-controlled crystal. Operating the crystal at a higher tem-
perature is of little consequence; more important is that the oven tempera-
ture be held constant.
-
Crystal Characteristics
The crystal wafer, in its crystal holder, represents a circuit component.

When shown as a symbol in a schematic diagram it appears merely as a slab
of crystal between two electrodes .As a circuit component it appears vastly
different, having the properties of a resonant tank circuit, with appropriate
EQUIVALENT CRYSTAL CIRCUIT

Series capacitance introduced by
values of L, C, and R. The capacitance of the electrodes, or crystal mount-

ing device is Cm The series resonant action of the crystal is represented by
.
L, C, and R. R represents the electrical equivalent of the mechanical fric-

tion present when the crystal is vibrating; C represents the electrical equiv-
alent of the mechanical compliance (stiffness) of the crystal; L represents the
electrical equivalent of the vibrating mass of the crystal. L and C of the
crystal determine its series -resonant value.
The capacitance of Cm is high, and in parallel with the series -resonant cir-
cuit of the crystal, forming a parallel-resonant circuit. The series -resonant
circuit of the crystal is lower in frequency than the parallel-resonant circuit.
When a series -resonant circuit is above resonance, the increased reactance
of L, and decreased reactance of C, causes it to appear as an inductive cir-
cuit. The parallel-resonant circuit of the combined crystal holder capacit-
ance, and the crystal, is slightly higher in frequency than that of the series
resonant crystal itself. At the higher resonant frequency of the parallel-
resonant circuit, the crystal appears as an inductive circuit.
Parallel resonance occurs when the Xq of C mis equal to the Xl of the

series -resonant circuit of the crystal. The actual values of resonant fre-
quencies of both the series -resonant circuit of the crystal and the parallel-
resonant circuit of the crystal and holder, is fairly close. This results in a
parallel-resonant circuit of extraordinarily high Q. A normal high-Q L-C
tank circuit might have a Q of 100; the Q of a crystal-tank circuit could well
be 30,000.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS 6-23
Basic Crystal Oscillator
Note the resemblance of the crystal oscillator to the TPTG type. The crystal
replaces the grid tank, and feedback is through grid-plate capacitance. The
high-Q grid circuit requires critical plate-tank circuit adjustment for correct
oscillator operation. As the tuning capacitance in the plate circuit varies
from min imum to maximum capacitance, the first signal of plate current re-
duction, A, indicates the start of oscillations. As capacitance is increased,
the oscillations grow stronger, indicated by a continuous decrease of plate
current, until B is reached. When capacitance is increased beyond B, os-
cillation ceases, and plate current immediately rises to maximum.
Optimum operation occurs between points A and B. Operating too close to

these points causes critical conditions where small changes in circuit con-
stants may stop oscillation. When the circuit is loaded (energy is coupled to
another circuit), the plate -current dip is not as great. However, the dip is
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
BASIC
CIRCUIT
Off-re$onance UNDER
plate current
Ul
- H-
/ Oscillation ceases
< z
— UJ
i
Oscillation
begins
RESONANCE a. ec
^ Oscillation amplitude
maximum, but
Optimum is
CURVE setting circuit is unstable

MIN PLATE TANK MAX
TUNING CAPACITANCE
PENTODE
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
stillthere, and careful tuning is required to place the plate current value
between A and B. In addition to monitoring plate current, the grid current or
bias voltage developed across the grid resistor may also be monitored. Grid
current values are the opposite of plate current values — as the plate current
dips, the grid current rises. Use of a beam -power pentode increases output,
but the crystal receives less feedback due to the reduced plate-to-grid inter-
electrode capacitance of a pentode. However, a small-value external capaci-
tor may be placed from plate to grid for sufficient feedback.
.
6-24 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
Pierce Oscillator
The Pierce -oscillator circuit provides high stability with a simple circuit
that requires no L-C tank circuit. The lack of a tank circuit makes the os-
cillator convenient for use with numerous crystals that may be switched into
position as desired. With the circuit redrawn, the crystal represented as a
tank circuit, and the interelectrode capacitance as shown, the circuit is

identical with the Colpitts oscillator
The use of a pentode for a Pierce oscillator is quite common. The circuit is
identical with regard to placement of the crystal. The additional components
(aside from the screen-bypass capacitor and voltage -dropping resistor) are
the cathode-bias resistor, cathode -bypass capacitor, and the coupling capaci-
tor between the plate and crystal holder. The small bias developed in the
cathode circuit is merely a safeguard. With the crystal removed the tube will
have a small amount of bias to keep the plate current from reaching an ex-
cessive value. The capacitor between the plate and crystal holder removes
B plus from the crystal holder and crystal.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS 6-25
The Crystal-Overtone Oscillator
Sometimes the desired frequency of operation is so high that a crystal ground

so that its fundamental frequency is the desired frequency, would be so thin
as to be easily fractured. An alternative method of achieving crystal control
of the high frequency is to use an overtone crystal. An overtone crystal is a
special cut that affords more than the normal output at a particular overtone
or harmonic frequency. It may be labeled 33.3 me and be used to generate
this frequency although its mechanical resonant or fundamental frequency is
11. 1 me. Thus the crystal is operating at its third harmonic.
The Butler overtone oscillator is a popular circuit for an overtone oscillator.

It simple and has high frequency stability. Tube VI is a cathode follower,
is
while tube V2 is a grounded-grid amplifier. The cathodes of the two tubes
are coupled to each other via the crystal, which, at its overtone frequency, is
series resonant and therefore presents very low impedance (resistance). The
In the BUTLER OVERTONE OSCILLATOR

the OUTPUT FREQUENCY is an OVERTONE of the FUNDAMENTAL
-e — FEEDBACK PATH
plate tank Ll-Cl in the grounded-grid amplifier plate circuit is tuned to the
overtone or oscillator output frequency. Note that the plate of the amplifier
stage (V2) is coupled to the control grid of the cathode follower (Vl). A pulse
appearing in V2 when the operating voltage is first applied, develops an out-
put voltage that is fed back to Vl, there to cause a voltage to appear across
the cathode resistor Rl. This voltage starts the crystal vibrating. The
resultant voltage developed by the crystal appears across R2. With the con-
trol grid of V2 connected to ground, the crystal voltage applied across R2
appears between the cathode and control grid of V2 .An amplified version
appears in the plate circuit of V2 and is fed back to Vl. The action is re-
peated until sustained oscillations are generated.
.
6-26 SPECIAL OSCILLATOR CONSIDERATIONS
The Variable -Frequency Oscillator (VFO)
Many transmitters are designed to function anywhere within one or more

bands of frequencies. Amateur radio stations, also known as "ham" stations
use such transmitters, as do some other services. To permit such operation
the oscillator portion, as well as other parts, of the transmitter are made
A BASIC VARIABLE-FREQUENCY L-C ELECTRON-COUPLED OSCILLATOR
tunable over bands of frequencies. An oscillator of this kind is known as a

variable -frequency oscillator, or vfo .
Variable -frequency oscillators are L-C oscillators. Most often they switch
in different values or taps on a coil to select the desired band of frequencies.
The variable C affords the choice of the exact desired frequency. When used
in transmitters, variable -frequency oscillators are similar to the variable
frequency heterodyning (local) oscillators used in superheterodyne receivers
The number of frequency bands covered by a variable -frequency oscillator

may be from one to as many as allowed for in the design. Usually the vfo is
an integral part of the transmitter. Sometimes it is a separate device con-
nected to the remainder of the transmitter. We show one type of circuit used
for generating oscillations, but the variable -frequency oscillator may use any
one of a number of other circuit configurations.
SPECIAL OSCILLATOR CONSIDERATIONS 6-27
Oscillator Coupling and Loading
To use the oscillator circuits previously discussed the signal must be coupled
to additional circuits. Although the output of an oscillator circuit could be
coupled to an antenna, it most often is coupled to additional circuits. Shown
here is direct coupling of the output tank circuit to the grid of the following
stage. Direct coupling is rarely used; it provides no isolation between stages,
and requires careful application of voltages. Inductive coupling has the out-
put coupled to a secondary winding of a transformer .
Quite often the second-
ary is also a tuned circuit for maximum signal coupling. Capacitive coupling
will couple the full output signal to the succeeding stage.
The stage following derives its energy from the oscillator circuit. The re-
moval of energy from the oscillator is termed loading. Oscillator circuits
are to a degree self -regulating, and normally make up for circuit loading.
Despite this, loading of the oscillator circuit can make itself felt in other
OSCILLATOR UPf o.eiu.t.,
COUPLING
Capacitive Coupling
directions. Coupling to the output circuit is paralleling the output circuit;

this changes the values of the output -tank circuit causing it to be mistimed,
requiring realignment. Loading the oscillator output-tank circuit also re-
duces the Q of the circuit, reducing the feedback and efficiency of the oscil-
lator. A low-Q tank circuit can readily have its output frequency shifted,
since the tank circuit will easily resonate over a wide band of frequencies.
To keep adverse effects to a minimum it is best to load the oscillator output

as little as possible. Minimum loading is often accomplished by the use of
electron coupling. The electron-coupled oscillator separates the frequency-
determining portion of the oscillator from the output -tank circuit, providing
a minimum of loading.
6-28 SUMMARY
Basically, the radio transmitter is a device that generates an electrical sig-

nal that can be fed to the antenna, and from there radiated into space.
Large transmitter tubes produce large amounts of heat which must be re-
moved to prevent damage to the tubes and associated circuits. This heat
is produced mainly at the plate, but also at any grid drawing current.
Heat removal can be accomplished by natural air currents, forced-air cool-
ing, or water cooling. Blackening the plate also assists in heat removal.
Grids drawing large currents are constructed with internal tubing through
which water is circulated.
Materials with a high melting point, such as molybdenum, tantalum, and
tungsten, are used in the construction of grids.
Typical plate materials are graphite, copper, molybdenum, nickel, tantalum,
and tungsten. Nickel is used for low-power transmitter -tube plates,
graphite and molybdenum for medium-power, tantalum for high-power,
and tungsten for extremely high-power.
To produce oscillations, an electron-tube circuit must have the following
characteristics:
1. A tuned circuit having the proper amounts of inductance and capaci-
tance to oscillate at the desired frequency.
2. A tube capable of amplifying a signal at its control grid.
3. A means of providing the tuned circuit with sufficient regenerative
energy to sustain oscillations.
The tuned-grid oscillator obtains regenerative feedback by coupling the plate
circuit to the tuned-grid circuit.
The tuned-plate oscillator has its tuned circuit on the plate side. Regenera-
tive feedback is obtained by coupling a part of the oscillation to the plate
circuit.
In the tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillator, regenerative feedback occurs through
the grid-to-plate capacitance of the tube.
There are two basic types of split-tank oscillators — the Hartley, and the
Colpitts.
Certain types of crystals, such as quartz or tourmaline, can be used as tuned
circuits in oscillators. Crystals are used to give frequency, precision,
and stability.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the basic function of a transmitter?
2. Basically, how do transmitting tubes differ from receiving tubes?
3. State two methods of removing heat from a transmitting tube?
4. What type of filament material is used in high-power transmitters?
5. How is energy coupled from the plate circuit to the grid circuit in the
TPTG oscillator?
6. What are the proper conditions for producing regenerative feedback in
the TPTG oscillator?
7. What is the function of a crystal as used in an oscillator?
8. What are the characteristics of an X-cut crystal?
9. What is meant by the "piezoelectric" effect?
10. What is meant by the temperature coefficient of a crystal?
11. What effect does the crystal mounting have on the equivalent circuit of
the crystal?
12. How does the Hartley oscillator differ from the Colpitts oscillator?
CLASS-C AMPLIFIERS 6-29
The Class -C Amplifier
A class -C amplifier is biased well beyond (1. 5 to 4 times) cutoff so that plate
current flows for less than 180° of the input cycle. On the positive peaks of
the grid-input signal the grid is generally driven positive, and as a result,
draws current. In the absence of any input-signal voltage, the plate current
is zero, and remains zero until the signal voltage has a positive amplitude
greater than the applied grid bias. When the input signal is applied and grid
current flows, the rise in plate current takes place along the linear portion of
the characteristic curve — ideally up to, but not exceeding, the saturation
level.
A feature of the class-C amplifier is that it affords higher plate circuit ef-
ficiency than any other class of amplifier. This is the efficiency with which
the d-c power supplied to the plate circuit is converted into amplified a-c
energy. The class-C amplifier (biased beyond cutoff) consumes power only
during a portion of the input-signal period. The efficiency of a class-C am-
plifier may be as high as 80%. This amplifier cannot be used to reproduce
variations in the waveform of the driving signal because, regardless of the
input-signal voltage, the plate current appears as individual pulses. When
amplifying sine-wave signals, the high distortion introduced by the class-C
amplifier is overcome by the flywheel effect of the timed-plate circuit.
CLASS-C AMPLIFICATION
)
CURRENT and VOLTAGE in CLASS-C AMPLIFIERS
GRID
Cutoff
VOLTAGE
(«g)
PLATE
VOLTAGE
(eb)
*
'>. - v •» T'
.
J
TOTAL
SPACE
CURRENT
vwnixkM •
+•
|
M .* 1.
Average i s
PLATE + A •'
: v.vv-;Vv.'.y
'
Average ib
"t-
£•*
At
CURRENT
‘
•.
'•
7
v
Ant .1
-
• .• :
.s
(ib) /V-
:
^
:
' '
,4 I
[. .
...
+1 ' I
GRID I
|
Average ic
CURRENT
(ic) 0 -wu-T *
0g—H M-
I
PLATE + Plate input (eb x i

b
Plate
6
POWER loss
!
I /Sfi Useful output

x b )
RELATIONS tjjj (*P !
i, . i
T I
GRID I
I
Total drive
POWER Grid
id I
loss Bias loss

RELATIONS
o
)
Class -C Amplifiers (Contd.
A typical class -C amplifier is shown, with the input signal supplied through
tuned transformer Tl. The output is developed by the r-f signal appearing
across the parallel resonant circuit T2. The various voltage and current
relationships in the circuit are shown beneath the circuit. The signal volt-
age e c is developed across the tuned circuit Tl.
The class -C amplifier operates with grid bias much greater than cutoff.
Therefore, the grid excitation voltage causes plate current to flow during only
part of the cycle. During the remainder of the cycle the voltage on the grid
is below the cutoff value, the plate current ib is zero, and the corresponding
plate voltage eb rises to its highest value, or Ebb- Since no plate current
flows, the voltage drop across the plate -load impedance must be zero. The
voltage drop across the load, therefore, is 180° out of phase with the grid
voltage. The a-c components of the plate and grid voltages are sinusoidal
because of the sharply -tuned resonant circuits.
Plate current flows when the grid voltage eg rises above cutoff. The angle of
flow of plate current is 0p and is always less than half a cycle. Grid current
flows during the angle Qg when the grid voltage eg becomes positive. The sum
of these two currents, ib + i c is the space current, i s and represents the
, ,
total current leaving the cathode. The angle of grid current flow depends on
the ratio of the grid bias to the peak signal amplitude . This is equivalent to
saying that, in a particular amplifier, the value of the grid bias chosen deter-
mines the angle of plate current flow for a given input signal. Short angles
of flow give high efficiency and low power output, whereas large angles give
low efficiency and higher power output.
At any moment the total power input to the plate is the product of the total
voltage eb supplied to the plate, and the instantaneous plate current ib. The
power output is equal to the product of the load voltage and the plate current.
The power loss at the plate is the difference between the input power and the
output power. The efficiency of a class -C amplifier is the ratio in percent of
the output to input power, and is usually between 60% and 80%. This high ef-
ficiency is possible because the plate current flows only when most of the
voltage drop is across the output circuit. Therefore, only a small part of the
supply voltage is wasted as a voltage drop between the plate and cathode of
the tube.
Since the grid of the tube swings positive and draws current during part of
the cycle, power is absorbed from the excitation circuit, which is the product
of the exciting voltage e c and the grid current i c
. Some of this power is lost
at the grid, and the remainder is dissipated in the bias battery. If grid-leak
bias is used, the remainder is dissipated as heat in the grid-leak resistor.
Special emphasis was placed on the action of the class -C amplifier because it
represents an extremely important transmitting circuit. We will discuss it
further in its numerous applications of voltage amplification and power am-
plification, together with methods of timing and circuit variations.
.
6-32 CLASS-C AMPLIFIERS
The Class-C Tuned R-F Amplifier (The Grid Tank and Grid Drive)
The class-C amplifier as used in transmitters is a timed r-f amplifier. A

distinguishing feature is the variable -tuned parallel-resonant L-C circuit in
the plate circuit. This tuned circuit is generally referred to as the plate
tank . The control-grid circuit of the same amplifier stage may or may not
contain a similar variable -timed L-C circuit. When it is present it is called
the grid tank . For purposes of explanation let us consider a class-C pentode
tuned r-f amplifier with grid and plate tanks - LI -Cl in the grid circuit, and
Power consumed
= GRID DRIVE
GRID DRIVE is FURNISHED by

PRECEDING STAGE
L2-C2 in the plate circuit. The different methods of procuring the negative
bias are discussed later
Assume a signal voltage of a single frequency "f" coupled to the grid tank.
The magnitude of the signal voltage delivered to the control grid will depend
on the tuning of LI -Cl. When the grid tank is tuned to frequency "f", maxi-
mum signal voltage is delivered to the input circuit of the tube. If the level of
the signal derived from Ll-Cl is sufficient to override the applied negative
grid bias, the positive peaks of the signal will drive the control grid positive
and cause grid current to flow. The current will be maximum when the grid
tank is timed to resonance with the incoming signal, and will drop off rapidly
each side of resonance If we measured the signal voltage delivered to the
.
control grid, and multiplied this voltage by the grid current, the product
would be a certain amount of electrical power which is consumed in the grid
circuit. This power is known as the grid drive , and is expressed in watts.
Tetrode- and pentode -type amplifiers require less grid drive than triode-type
amplifiers. In all cases, however, class-C amplifiers bear a rating that
states the amount of signal power (grid drive) that must be delivered to the
control grid to derive maximum power from the tube. In the absence of
adequate grid drive to override the applied bias, the tube will be inoperative.
. :
Class-C Amplifiers — The Plate Circuit
When the voltage between control grid and cathode is below cutoff, plate cur-
rent flows. For any given value of applied plate voltage, the plate current is
determined by the fixed grid bias, the amount of grid drive, and the state of
resonance of the plate tank L2-C2. The plate tank is a parallel-resonant cir-
cuit which serves as the load for the plate circuit of the tube. As such, it
presents maximum impedance at resonance.
Let us view the plate -cathode circuit inside the tube as a source of pulses of
plate current, each of which consists of a number of frequencies. One of
these is the fundamental frequency "f", corresponding to the frequency of the
signal fed to the control grid of the tube. The others are even and odd har-
monics of f, or 2f, 3f, etc. If we now visualize the plate tank tuned to the
fundamental frequency of the plate current pulses, i.e. , to f, then L2-C2 will
present maximum impedance to the flow of this frequency component of the
plate current, and theoretically zero impedance to the flow of the other fre-
quency components of the plate current. The overall result is minimum plate
current. A d-c milliammeter connected in series with the plate circuit would
show minimum plate current. If the plate tank is detuned from this frequency,
the impedance it presents to the flow of plate current is greatly reduced, and
the plate current rises very sharply. In fact, in high-power amplifiers it can
become so high as to damage the tube
A reduction in plate current would occur if the plate tank were timed to the
second harmonic, rather than to the fundamental, except that now the decrease
would not be as great as when L2-C2 was tuned to the fundamental. The
reason is that the amplitude of the 2f component of the plate current is much
less than the f component. Limiting the 2f component has a lesser effect on
the total current than limiting the f component. The resonant plate tank would
present maximum impedance to the flow of the 2f component, and theoretically
zero impedance to the f component, and to frequency components higher than
2f. A corresponding action develops when the plate tank is tuned to 3f or to
higher harmonics.
FUNDAMENTAL and HARMONICS in

f - 2f - 3 - 4f ... fundamental and
CLASS-C AMPLIFIER harmonics appear in plate
reads minimum when circuit
L2 - C2 tuned to f
0
is
-
C2 L2
it
L,
EZp' \
Tank circuit tuned to f,
presents high Z only to f

6-34 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS
Buffer Amplifiers
For increased power and isolation of the oscillator, a stage of amplification

isplaced between the oscillator and the antenna or following stages. This
stage is called a buffer amplifier. Its basic function is to simply amplify,
making no frequency changes. Isolating, and reducing the loading of the os-
cillator, improves its frequency stability. Any changes in the buffer output
caused by loading from the succeeding stage is not reflected back to the os-
cillator; hence, buffering action.
The buffer amplifier is generally biased to operate class-A. It is designed so

that the grid will not go positive and draw grid current. By doing this, the
grid circuit of the buffer stage always presents a high-impedance load to the
oscillator feeding it. This minimum loading produces high oscillator stabil-
ity. Coupling from the oscillator to the buffer amplifier is usually of the R-C
type. The output -plate circuit of the buffer has a tank circuit tuned to the os-
cillator frequency. The grid circuit does not use a tuned circuit, since it
would then resemble a TPTG oscillator and may start oscillating. In the
typical buffer circuit shown, the cathode-bias resistor is not bypassed thus
providing degeneration. This acts both to keep the signal undistorted and to
prevent any possible regeneration from the plate to grid circuit. In some
low-power transmitters frequency multiplying is sometimes done in the
buffer stage, and it may be operated class-C.
BUFFER AMPLIFIER
USING a BUFFER AMPLIFIER for ISULATIUN

Changes in this stage
.
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS 6-35
Frequency Multipliers
6 me
FRECtUEHCy MULTIPLICATION
1 me
At the higher frequencies, oscillator frequency stability becomes difficult to

maintain. Hence, it has been found best to keep the oscillator stage operating
at a lower frequency, while arriving at the desired frequency by frequency
multiplying. If the plate -tank circuit of the buffer amplifier is timed to the
second harmonic of the driving signal applied to the grid, the stage becomes a
frequency doubler and the output voltage has a frequency equal to twice that of
the input. Likewise, the buffer amplifier may become a tripler or a quad-
ruples Where a greater amount of frequency multiplication is desired, two
or more stages of frequency multiplication are operated in cascade
The output of a frequency multiplier is a harmonic of the input signal. The

harmonic output of a class -C amplifier can be controlled by controlling the
value of the peak plate current. The harmonic output increases at first, as
the width of the plate current pulse is decreased, but will then start to de-
crease as the pulse width is decreased still further.
Frequency-Multiplier Amplifiers
To act as a doubler, the plate -tank circuit must be tuned to twice the input
frequency. As shown, following the plate-current pulse, the circulating cur-
rent of the tank will carry the oscillations through two complete cycles before
the next reinforcing plate -current pulse. With plate -current pulses applied
at every other cycle, the output power available when operating as a doubler
OPERATION of a FREQUENCY DOUBLER
will be approximately one-half of that available when the amplifier is oper-

ated straight through.
The action of the circuit as a tripler and quadrupler is identical. The effi-
ciency of a tripler will be less than that of a doubler, approximately one -third
the output power available from a straight-through amplifier. The output of a
quadrupler is similarly reduced in value to approximately one-fourth.
Despite the reduced output power from the higher-order harmonic frequency
multipliers, use of a high-Q output -tank circuit keeps the damping of plate-
tank circuit oscillations to a minimum, and permits ample output power.
)
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS 6-37
Frequency-Multiplier Amplifiers (Contd.
When even -order harmonics are produced, the second harmonic contains ap-
proximately one -half the energy contained in the fundamental frequency, with
the fourth and sixth harmonics proportionally reduced. Circuits designed to
produce even-order harmonics will not generate odd-order harmonics.
Odd-order harmonics can be produced by application of sufficient bias and

signal level to cause plate current saturation and "square" the input signal.
Assuming plate current conduction for 180° of the input cycle, there will be
output pulse energy present at various odd -order harmonics of the funda-
mental frequency. As shown, the third harmonic contains approximately one-
half the energy contained in the fundamental frequency, with the fifth and
seventh harmonics proportionally reduced. A circuit operating with the bias
set as shown, provides an excellent frequency tripler.
Fundamental
ENERGY of EVEN-ORDER HARMONICS
frequency
J
Second harmonic
Fourth harmonic
Sixth harmonic
V77X
MULTIPLIER OPERATING at SATURATION PRODUCES

.
Tuning Frequency Multipliers
PUSH-PUSH DOUBLER
The PUSH-PUSH CIRCUIT or QUADRUPLER
may be USED EITHER as
OUTPUT
a FREQUENCY DOUBLER
INPUT BIAS
or QUADRUPLER
c
CIRCUIT CANCELS the EVEN-ORDER
therefore it is BEST USED

Output tank is
as a FREQUENCY TRIPLER tuned to three times the input frequency
Plate current pulses in the frequency multiplier are usually of much shorter
duration than in the conventional class-C amplifier. In this way the frequency
content of the plate current pulses is enriched. The conduction angle in fre-
quency doublers is about 110°-130°; in triplers 80-90°; and in quadruplers
60-70° of the input cycle. Timing the frequency multiplier is like tuning the
conventional class-C tuned r-f amplifier. Resonating the plate tank to a har-
monic component of the plate current introduces a high impedance into the
plate circuit at that frequency, thereby causing a fall (dip) in plate current.
The deepest dip for a harmonic frequency occurs when the plate tank is reso-
nant to the second harmonic of the fundamental. The dips become shallower
as the order of the harmonic increases. Care must be taken when tuning the
plate tank so as not to miss the point where the plate current falls. This is
especially true if the multiplier is loaded by another stage.
Neutralization is not required in the triode -frequency multiplier because of

the widely different frequencies in the input and output circuits Two other
.
circuits are occasionally used for frequency multiplication. They are the
push-push and the push-pull class-C tuned amplifiers. The push-push circuit
uses push-pull input and parallel connected output. The circuit is a predom-
inantly even-order harmonic generator, hence is very useful as a doubler or
quadrupler, especially the latter. The push-pull circuit eliminates even har-
monics in the output, hence is a very efficient frequency tripler
INTERSTAGE COUPLING 6-39
Interstage Coupling
There are two main methods of coupling between stages of a transmitter -

capacitive and inductive (transformer) . Coupling is designed to provide the
maximum transfer of energy with minimum loading. In capacitive coupling,
also known as R-C coupling , the capacitor provides a low impedance path for
the signal while simultaneously blocking the d-c plate voltage. To obtain a
better impedance match the capacitor may be placed at various positions, or
tapped down the coil. Inductive or transformer coupling consists of using the
primary as the plate -tank coil, and the secondary as the grid coil for the next
stage. The closeness of the coils determines the degree of coupling, and
therefore the loading. The positions of the coils relative to each other also
changes the degree of coupling. When parallel to each other, the coupling is
maximum; when placed at right angles coupling is minimum. Coupling is
unity or perfect when the coils are wound so that the wires are interwound.
Then the tuning of the plate circuit also tunes the grid circuit.
In another form of inductive coupling, known as link coupling , a coil is con-

nected at each end of the transmission line, and serves to link two tuned cir-
cuits. Long distances are permitted between the coils, since the transmission
line impedance is low. The closeness of each coupling may be varied. The
r-f signal developed across both the plate and the grid coils finds the top ends
hot with respect to the bottom end which is cold (being at r-f ground). The best
place to couple to the tuning coils is at the cold ends to prevent r-f voltage
arcing. To keep developed harmonics to a minimum, one end of the link is
grounded. This also reduces capacitance coupling between the timed circuits.
In push-pull or balanced circuits, the centertap is the coil coupling point.

Link coupling is also of advantage when coupling is required from an unbal-
anced to a balanced circuit.
LINK COUPLING of TWO CIRCUITS
LINK COUPLING TWO

BALANCED CIRCUITS
LINK COUPLING an
UNBALANCED to a
BALANCED CIRCUIT
)
6-40 INTERSTAGE COUPLING
Interstage Coupling (Contd.
Since the action of impedance coupling is so dependent upon the use of r-f
chokes, it is worth discussing them separately.
R-f chokes are a special form of inductance, usually consisting of many turns
of fine wire wound either as a single coil, called a solenoid or in a layer,
,
called a pie winding, or a series of interconnected pie windings. They are

specifically designed to have the least amount of possible stray capacitance
between the windings. Every r-f choke has one frequency at which the value
of inductance will resonate with the stray capacitance This frequency should
.
be much lower, or much higher than the frequency of the circuit in which it is
placed. Some r-f chokes are designed to be used over a wide range of fre-
quencies. Care must be taken with these chokes to see that nowhere in the
range of frequencies used will there be a frequency that is resonant with the
stray capacitance. Also, sufficient reactance must be offered at all fre-
quencies. The higher the frequency, the higher the value of Xl with a given
value of choke. This means that at high frequencies it is easy to obtain a
large value of reactance, and therefore high-frequency r-f chokes usually con-
tain only a small number of turns. The size of the wire used to wind the
choke will determine how much current it can handle safely.
Using the r-f choke as a plate load, the entire signal is coupled through a
capacitor to the tuned-input circuit. To vary the coupling the tap on the input
coil is varied.
To vary the tap on the plate coil of a tank circuit, exposure to the d-c plate
voltage becomes unavoidable. By using the r-f choke to provide a parallel
path for the application of the B plus voltage, a parallel plate -feed circuit is
obtained, freeing the tank circuit of the d-c plate voltage.
SOLENOID WINDING A SERIES of
PIE WINDINGS
R-F CHOKES (RFC)
R-F POWER AMPLIFIERS 6-41
The Tuned R-F Amplifier and Driver Stage
The FINAL STAGE of a TRANSMITTER is the POWER AMPLIFIER

Loudspeaker
RECEIVER \
POWER [
1
STAGES AMPLIFIER
|
TRANSMITTER!
STAGES \
M POWER
AMPLIFIER
1 Antenna
the final stage of a transmitter drives the antenna
The r-f power amplifier, sometimes referred to as the "final", is a class-C

tuned amplifier . It is the last stage in the chain of amplification between the
oscillator and the antenna. A transmitter may or may not include the buffer
amplifier and frequency multipliers, but every transmitter, regardless of the
kind of intelligence that it processes, contains an r-f power-amplifier stage.
Sometimes the input signal required by the power amplifier is greater than
that which might be obtained from a buffer stage or from a frequency multi-
plier. In this event a driver stage is used ahead of the power amplifier The .
driver stage is generally a straight-through amplifier, i.e., the timed circuit

in its plate circuit is resonated to the frequency of the signal fed to the control
grid of the same stage. In almost all respects the driver stage is a low -power
version of the r-f power amplifier, differing from the latter mainly in the am-
plitude of the signal it processes, and in the lower values of grid bias and
plate voltages used. While all transmitters contain a power amplifier stage,
the amplifiers are not identical in all cases. They differ in the type of tube
used to satisfy the output-signal power requirements, and in the operating
voltages made necessary by the type of tube.
Several organizations of continuous wave (CW) transmitters are shown in

block diagram form on this page. The relationship of the power amplifier to
the rest of the circuit is readily apparent in each system. For ease of under-
standing, the keying method is omitted, as are the sources of operating volt-
ages. They are dealt with later.
6-42 R-F POWER AMPLIFIERS
The Tuned R-F Power Amplifier
THE POWER AMPLIFIER
Only the straight portion of

the curve is used for operation PLATE PULSE
of the elass-C power amplifier
BIAS
TWO TIMES N
CUTOFF
0 + GRID VOLTAGE
^777ZZ
-SIGNAL INPUT
VOLTAGE
The basic operating conditions for the class -C tuned r-f amplifier have been
described, but several qualifications pertinent to the power amplifier must be
emphasized. First, is the requirement that the grid bias and plate voltage
values be such that the changes in plate current for any given input-signal
voltage occur along the straight portion only of the grid voltage -plate current
characteristic The plate current should rise from zero to maximum, but the
.
maximum should not be beyond the saturation level, which as you will remem-
ber, was the maximum current condition in the class -C frequency multiplier.
The abocvementioned restriction establishes a limit on the peak amplitude of
the input-signal voltage. Limiting the plate current in this way reduces the
amplitudes of the harmonics in the plate current, thereby minimizing the
possibility of delivering harmonic frequency signals to the antenna.
Another consideration is that the stage from which the power amplifier derives
its input-signal voltage must be capable of supplying the necessary power
consumed in the power -amplifier grid circuit (input signal voltage x grid
current) during the operating cycle of the plate current. R-f power amplifier
tubes bear input power ratings for full output, as for example, "8 watts
driving power." The stage ahead of the power amplifier should be capable
of delivering more than the stated minimum input power requirement of the
amplifier stage. In this way adequate grid drive is available when the am-
plifier is delivering full output.
Neutralization
In circuits such as buffers, drivers, and power amplifiers where both the in-
put and the output frequency are identical, an acute problem exists. The
positive feedback through the grid-to-plate interelectrode capacitance may
cause oscillations. The higher the frequency the more acute the problem
becomes. In low-power tetrode and pentode circuits, the problem still exists
due to the high signal voltage. In spite of the low interelectrode capacitance,
the small positive feedback may still be sufficient to start unwanted "para-
sitics", or oscillations. To prevent them, the simplest method, called
neutralization, is to counter or "neutralize" with an equal amount of negative
feedback.
One method, called plate neutralization uses a neutralizing capacitor the

,
purpose of which is to obtain the correct amount of negative feedback, and to

apply it to the grid in the proper phase. For this purpose we connect the
centertap of the plate r-f coil to ground. This makes the bottom end of the
tank coil "hot" and of opposite polarity from the top of the coil, and suitable
for application of a negative feedback voltage. Hence, the negative feedback
is obtained from the end of the coil opposite to the plate.
In another method, called grid neutralization positive and negative feedback

,
emanate from the same point. The d-c grid -bias voltage is applied to the
centertap of the grid coil, instead of to the bottom of the grid coil which is
now "hot", permitting the negative feedback voltage to be applied there.
-
Neutralization (Contd.)
For balanced circuits, cross neutralization is used. Portions of the output

voltage of each plate are coupled to the grid of the opposite tube. Assume
that at a given instant the signal voltage across the grid coil appears with the
voltage shown, and which in turn places a voltage of opposite polarity on the
output coil. The charge on the plate side of the neutralizing capacitors
causes the opposite plate on the grid side to have an opposite charge. Hence,
degenerative feedback is applied to each grid.
To adjust the negative feedback to the required value, the procedure is as

follows: remove the plate voltage from the stage being neutralized. Apply
the signal voltage to the grid and tune for resonance at the desired frequency.
Use an r-f indicator which consists of a lamp in series with a turn of wire,
inductively coupled to the plate-tank coil. If the lamp lights, an r-f voltage is
present in the plate tank, and the circuit is not neutralized. The negative
feedback is correctly adjusted when no r-f voltage is indicated in the plate
tank coil. After each adjustment, the grid and plate coils must be retuned,
and the plate-tank coil rechecked for r-f voltage.
Another method, called inductive neutralization consists of canceling the

interelectrode capacitive reactance by shunting it with an inductive reactance
(coil), connected between grid and plate. The desired effect is obtained when
the two reactances have equal values. Being of opposite signals they cancel
each other. We have therefore a parallel-resonant circuit between plate and
grid which at resonance offers maximum impedance, and blocks any energy
transfer from plate to grid. The parallel-resonant circuit is at resonance for
only one specific frequency, hence it must be retuned for any signal frequency
change. Cl is a high value, low-reactance d-c blocking capacitor, and does
not affect the parallel-resonant circuit.
Power -Amplifier Input Circuits
is highly desirable to have as efficient a transfer of power from

It
the driver
stage to the power amplifier as possible. Therefore, the grid tank circuit
must provide an impedance match between the grid input impedance of the
amplifier and the plate output impedance of the driver stage. If a grounded-
cir-
grid amplifier is used, similar considerations apply to the cathode tank
cuit.
The impedance of a circuit normally is defined as the ratio of voltage to cur-

far
rent. However, in the grid-circuit of a class -C amplifier, this ratio is
from constant. When the grid voltage goes highly negative, no current is
drawn at all; when it is positive, a great deal of current flows. Therefore,
high
the impedance of the grid circuit varies over a range from an extremely
to an extremely low value through the operating cycle . If the
input impedance
of the grid circuit is too high, the heavy current demanded by
the extreme
grid swing cannot be drawn. As a result, actual grid voltage and consequent
loss of peak efficiency are reduced in the operation of the amplifier. If the
impedance of the grid tank circuit is too low, a great deal of power from the
driver stage is required to operate it, and the losses in the inductor consume
a considerable amount of the applied power. Generally, a compromise value
is used which is approximately equal to the ratio of the driving
power in
watts divided by the square of the grid current. The choice of values for the
components in the grid tank circuit is determined by this impedance. The
result usually is satisfactory regulation of the grid voltage without excessive
power loss.
)
Power- Amplifier Input Circuits (Contd.
POWER AMPLIFIER GRID-TANK

a-#*- .-v.-t ?- a aKTy-gFi 5
CIRCUITS
The circuit at A is much the same as

the previous circuit except that the
timed circuit is now power amplifier, and driver
in the grid circuit of the
plate voltage is supplied through an r-f choke. This arrangement is used
when the required impedance at the grid of the power amplifier is lower than
the output impedance needed in the driver stage. Circuit B permits complete
d-c isolation of the tuned circuit from the driver and amplifier stages. Cl
and C2 block the d-c voltages, and at the same time couple the signal from
driver plate to amplifier grid. There is no means for adjusting the imped-
ance between grid and plate circuits.
Circuit C permits the driver to be neutralized to prevent oscillation. It also

provides variable drive for the amplifier, and d-c isolation for the bias and
high-voltage circuits without need for r-f chokes. Inductor L of the tuned
circuit is split into two parts at the center, each of which is grounded sepa-
rately with r-f bypass capacitors. Driver plate voltage thus cannot reach the
amplifier grid. In circuit D the tuned-plate tank of the driver is inductively
coupled through a low-impedance link to a tuned-grid circuit. The link in-
ductance is small and therefore the impedance of the coupling circuit is low.
This minimizes losses in the transmission of driving power, and provides
great flexibility in matching impedances between the driver and power am-
plifier .
|
R-F POWER AMPLIFIERS
Input Circuits For Push-Pull Amplifiers

variations of those used in
The input circuits for push-pull amplifiers are
coupling arrangement in A uses a
single -ended amplifiers. The capacitive
tuned-plate circuit for the driver tube formed by LI and Cl. Because each
half of the split coil is out of phase with
the other half, each half can supp y
grid drive in push-pull directly through C2 and C3. A split-stator capacitor,
main tuning capacitor for the coupling arrangement Two
Cl is used as the a
the bias supply. C4 introduces
r-f chokes are used, one from each grid to
from the lower end of the tank circuit to ground
small amount of capacitance
capacitance of the driver tube, which
to compensate for the plate -to -ground
PUSH-PULL
AMPLIFIER
DRIVER COUPLING
CAPACITOR:
CIRC UITS FOR
C4 C3
CAPACITIVE COUPLING
PUSH-PULL
DRIVER AMPLIFIER
BYPASS
* INDUCTIVE COUPLING
applied
circuit. Driver plate voltage is
atmears across the upper half of the
Ei an r-f choke. Neutralization of the
driver stage is provided by C.
the grid tank

An inductive coupling arrangement for
the driver tank, L p
The link circuit transfers energy from „
developed across C2.
>
voltages to thepush-pull grids of the amplifier are
considerations, mere the timing

The choice of circuits depends on several
must have twice the voltage rating of one
cSacUor is grounded directly, it
grounded through a capacitor. In some instances,
perm t the driver Etetocaed
to located
Was is undesirable. The link-coupled circuitsconnected to it through a
amplifier and
at some distance from the
impedance transmission line.
Single -Ended Power Amplifiers
A power amplifier that uses one tube is called a single-ended circuit. The
circuit is usually the same whether operated class -B or -C. The difference
is in bias and excitation voltages and in component values. The single -ended
circuit generates more harmonic output which sometimes is a disadvantage.
It is however, the simplest circuit to use over a wide range of frequencies.
Several types of tank circuits provide a wide range of impedance matching.
These circuits are necessary where a variety of different antennas must be
used. In A, the plate tank is composed of a variable capacitor with a single
rotor and two stators, and L2. The capacitor is called a split-stator and is
,
used to obtain the out-of -phase voltage that is fed back for neutralization.
The output tank is coupled to the antenna by a link coil around L2. This cir-
cuit is popular with high -power triodes.
In circuit B, grid-leak bias is used. Cathode bias also is provided as a pro-

tective measure in case excitation fails, which would result in a loss of grid
bias if R1 alone were used. The tank circuit is a special impedance -matching
network known as a pi network It can be used with almost any length antenna.
.
CATHODE
BIAS
(B)
R-F POWER AMPLIFIERS
Push-Pull Power Amplifiers
NEUTRALIZING
INPUT CAPACITORS
TANK . a OUTPUT
C BIAS
one envelope
Common Common
r-f bypass voltage dropping
resistor
Since a push-pull circuit uses two identical tubes, advantage is

sometimes
taken of this, and the two tubes are combined in one glass envelope. This is
especially useful at very high frequencies where the length of connecting
leads becomes important, and must be kept short. Push-pull circuits
have
the advantage of lower harmonic output, ease of neutralization,
and greater
output for a given amount of excitation. Such a circuit requires
only as much
excitation as one of its tubes does when run by itself in a single-ended
con-
nection. This is because both halves of the grid-voltage cycle are used al-
The output recombined in the plate circuit.
ternately by each tube. is
In circuit A, the input tank circuit provides equal and

opposite voltages to the
grid
grids of the two triodes. The r-f choke provides a means of inserting
tank made with split-stator ca-
bias from a fixed bias supply. The plate is
opposite
pacitor C2, and recombines the output from the two triodes. Since
sides of a tank are 180° out of phase, neutralizing voltages may be
obtained
these points to the opposite
simply by feeding back some of the energy at
grids. In circuit B the grid tank Ll-Cl provides drive for the tube. Grid
the screens of both sec-
bias is furnished from a fixed supply. In the tube,
bypass for them. R1 provides screen
tions are connected, and C2 serves as a
that passes
voltage by dropping the plate voltage because of the current
per-
through it. The output tank circuit is the same as in A. The r-f choke
mits feeding plate voltage to both halves of the tube.
Power -Amplifier Output Circuits
A large variety of practical circuits has been devised which present the
proper load impedance to the power amplifier when connected to the trans-
mission line or antenna. The simple parallel-resonant tuned circuit in A is
frequently used for single -ended tetrode amplifiers. The circuit is shunt -fed.
Tank circuit Cl-Ll is coupled to the plate by C2. The advantage of this cir-
cuit lies in the removal of all d-c voltages from the tuning capacitor. This
means a lower value of total voltage across this component with correspond-
ing smaller size. A major shock hazard from contact with an exposed portion
of the tank circuit is removed, but possibility of a bad r-f burn always exists.
Although circuit A is satisfactory when used with tetrodes and grounded-grid

triodes,it provides no means of neutralizing an ordinary grounded
cathode
Power
Amp lifier
trans-
mission
line
POWER AMPLIFIER
triode. In B, Cl has a split-stator with the rotor directly grounded. This

permits an out-of -phase voltage to be taken from the lower end of the coil and
returned to the input through neutralizing capacitor C
N The split-stator ca-
.
pacitor effectively divides the circuit in two parts, and an r-f peak of twice
the d-c plate voltage can appear across each. This requires a physically
large capacitor. The circuit in C is the push-pull counterpart of the simple
resonant tank. A split-stator capacitor is used with the push-pull version,
and the rotor is grounded for r-f through C2, To reduce the voltage across
each half of Cl, the plate voltage sometimes is connected to the rotor. The
shock hazard introduced by this can be avoided by grounding the rotor of Cl
directly (D), and applying the plate voltage through a choke.
Output Coupling
The output of the final stage, or power output stage, has to be coupled to the
transmission line as efficiently as possible to ensure maximum output to the
antenna. A transmission line, to be discussed later, can be assumed for
present purposes to appear as a pure resistive load, the value of which is
determined by the characteristics of the type of transmission line used. To
COUPLING the OUTPUT to the TRANSMISSION LINE

power amplifier ADJUSTABLE COUPLING
PICKUP COIL
USING a TUNED CUtClHT lor COUPUNG to the
TRANSMISSION ASMA
| C2 Tmsmissm
rfc
12 bid
^ §
couple the output to the transmission line, a pickup coil is used. The coupling
between the output plate -tank coil and the pickup coil is made adjustable to
permit changes in loading.
The pickup coil acting as the source for the load represented by the trans-
mission line should match the impedance of the transmission line for maxi-
mum transfer of power. This is not a simple thing to accomplish; a mis-
match will often occur, which when reflectedback to the output plate-tank cir-
cuit will cause it to be detuned. To overcome this obstacle a capacitor is
placed in series with the pickup coil, providing a tuned circuit. Additionally
frequencies,
the tuned circuit provides increased selectivity of the output
making it helpful in suppression of harmonics. The resonant circuit formed
by the pickup coil and capacitor should not have too high a Q. If the output
becomes too selective it will have to be retuned for each small change in out-
put frequency.
)
Output Coupling (Contd.
In place of the output tank circuit and transmission line tuned circuit, a net-
work may be used which will act as both the tank circuit and matching circuit
to the transmission line impedance. An L network uses an r-f choke for the
plate load and a capacitor to couple the output to the tuning capacitor and in-
ductance forming the L network. This places the transmission line imped-
ance in series with the L and C of the timed output circuit.
One of the most frequently encountered variable matching networks for the
output of an r-f amplifier is the pi network. The plate voltage fed through the
r-f choke is prevented from reaching the antenna by blocking capacitor C3.
The pi network of Cl, LI, and C2 is capable of matching a wide range of im-
pedances, and operates as a voltage divider. The combination of Ll and C2
forms the divider circuit which develops higher or lower voltages at the out-
put terminal. Cl then times the combination of C2 and Ll to resonance at the
operating frequency. Depending on the relative values of Cl and C2, a volt-
age much lower than the a-c plate voltage can be developed. Thus, this cir-
cuit can match an extremely wide range of impedances.
Bias Voltages
The proper operation of an amplifier depends to a large degree upon the cor-
rect bias voltages. A tube that operates at or beyond cutoff, such as in
class -B and -C operations, must use some form of external bias. In class -A
operation, the continuous flow of plate and screen current through a cathode
resistor can be used to develop self -bias. Most transmitter circuits operate
class-C; therefore some form of bias is required.
Grid-leak bias develops a bias voltage due to the presence of a signal.

Driving the grid positive draws grid current, develops a voltage drop across
the grid resistor, and charges the capacitor. After several cycles, the charge
on the grid levels off at the correct bias value. Loss of grid drive, however,
causes loss of grid bias. In addition to accidental loss of grid drive, a con-
dition exists when CW code is transmitted for short durations. Between "dots
and dashes" the lack of signal is as though no signal were applied to the grid,
causing a loss of grid-leak bias. With high-power tubes, the lack of bias
may cause excessive plate current flow, and quickly ruin the tube.
A typicalcircuit shown, which includes both grid-leak and cathode bias, pre-
vents excessive plate current flow. When no signal is applied to the grid, the
heavy plate current flow through the cathode resistor develops a large volt-
current and
age drop. This is sufficient self -bias to quickly reduce the plate
keep it within safe limits. Another circuit shown, makes use of a minimum
value of bias voltage from an external source, such as the tap of a voltage
divider or a separate bias supply. When the signal is applied, the grid drive
develops its own grid-leak bias, in addition to the external bias.
,
Metering performs a vital job in maintaining a transmitter.

Metering the many voltages and currents ensures high
performance, and indicates present or possible future trou-
bles. In high-power, high-cost commercial transmitters,
individual meter movements are generally used for each
reading. In less complex transmitters, a single meter is
used to monitor many readings by switching it into differ-
ent circuits. When metering in r-f circuits a bypass ca-
RUNNING-TIME pacitor is always placed directly across the meter termi-
METER nals.
To measure the length of operation time of a transmitter, a "running time"

meter is used. The running-time, or elapsed-time meter is essentially an
electric clock that reads in hours and tenths of an hour as shown. The
running-time meter is usually connected across the power transformer pri-
mary winding to measure the time duration that ac is applied to the trans-
mitter. Occasionally an a-c meter is used to measure the filament voltage
of a high-power tube, but mostly d-c voltages and currents are measured.
In the typicalplacement of individual meters shown, meter Ml indicates grid

current flow. To measure the voltage from grid to cathode, meter M2 is
used. The current meter M3, in the cathode circuit measures the combined
control grid, screen grid, and plate currents. At times, a cathode -current
meter is used in place of a plate-current meter. This eliminates the placing
of a meter where high voltage is present. To obtain the plate current value,
the control grid and the screen grid currents must be deducted from the
cathode -current reading.
"WKMMUm
N TYPICAL PLACEMENT of METERS in a TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT
mi
it!
til
PMm
impot
hj,
M
mim
m
ii
m
m
ms
|
Output and Input Power
A transmitter is most often rated by its output power. To measure it, the
transmission line is replaced with a dummy load that is a pure resistance of
the same value as that of the transmission line it replaces. The dummy
load's resistance must be capable of handling the dissipated heat. Many re-
sistors maybe placed in parallel; for example, placing ten 500-ohm resistors
rated at 20 watts in parallel, provides a dummy load of 50 ohms, capable of
dissipating 200 watts. In another method, the dummy load is immersed in
oil
and permits a still higher power dissipation. The true output power indica-
tion is obtained by measuring the actual watts of power being dissipated
as
heat in a resistor. A more accurate method of measuring heat dissipation
uses a heat-measuring instrument called a calorimeter .
Most often, however, a thermocouple-type ammeter is inserted in series

with the dummy load, as shown. The current indicated on the ammeter, and
the resistance offered by the load gives us the output power with the formula
P = i2r, where I is the measured current, and R the resistance of the load.
The input -power rating of the final transmitter stage is obtained from the
plate voltage (E) and plate current (I) values with the formula P
= E x I.
Knowing both the input and the output powers of a final stage, its efficiency
may readily be calculated.
PLATE VOLTS
MEASURING
OUTPUT
and
POWER
AMPLIFIER
“ B+
INPUT INPUT POWER? | OUTPUT POWER
2
P: = E x
Pi 1 J Po = I R |
POWER | | |
1 EFFICIENCY (%) = 100 x -rf- 1

< 1,
*
1 ^
DUMMY LOAD
SIMULATING a
50 -OHM LOAD
CAPADLE of
DISSIPATING
200 WATTS
Tuning Procedure
Assuming a correctly operating transmitter, the task of tuning it to the de-

sired frequency can be difficult or easy, depending upon the skill of the oper-
ator. If the circuits are designed for it, it is best to start by removing plate
voltage from all stages following the oscillator. The procedure generally is
to tune the grid circuit first, then apply plate voltage and tune the plate
circuit.
Tuning a driver output stage is shown. The plate circuit is tuned for a dip at
resonance as indicated by a dip in the plate-current meter. At the same time
TUNING A COUPLING STAGE

TUNING THE
POWER OUTPUT STAGE
POWER
AMPLIFIER
the grid-current reading of the power-amplifier stage indicates maximum at

the same point. This is true of a capacitor -coupled circuit; if the grid circuit
of the following stage is a tuned circuit, it will have to be tuned separately.
When plate and screen voltages are applied and the plate circuit tuned, the
grid-current reading may become slightly lower. If the grid current has
reduced to a value below that required, the coupling to the preceding stage
should be increased to increase the grid drive. With the correct value of
grid drive, and the grid circuit tuned, the plate circuit is then tuned for a dip
at resonance. This procedure is followed for all stages except the final.
When tuning the power -output stage using a coupling circuit such as that
shown, the following procedure is typical. The grid circuit should be tuned
for maximum grid drive. The pickup coil of the transmission line is coupled
approximately half way With plate voltage applied, the tank circuit is then
.
tuned for a dip at the resonant frequency. The tuning capacitor in series with
the pickup coil is then adjusted for a maximum reading of plate current, in-
dicating that the transmission pickup loop is tuned and drawing more
energy
from the output -tank circuit. This slightly detunes the output -tank circuit.
This procedure is then repeated, the plate -tank capacitor retuned
for a dip,
and the pickup-coil tuning capacitor tuned for maximum, until the plate-
current reading is set to the value recommended for the power-output tube
being used.
. .
Tuning Procedure (Contd.)
When tuning an L network such as that shown, the grid circuit, as in other
circuits, should first be timed for maximum grid drive. When timing
the out-
put circuit it is possible to have a shallow plate-current dip, making it diffi-
approximation the transmission line should if pos-

cult to find. For a quick
sible be temporarily shorted. With no load the plate -current dip at
resonance
will then be sharp and readily noticed.
With the short-circuit removed from the transmission line the value of plate
current should then be noted. If the plate current is less than the recom-
mended value the tap on the plate coil is moved to decrease the value of in-
ductance. If the plate -current value noted is too high, the plate -coil tap
should be moved to increase the value of inductance. Following any resetting
of the plate -coil tap, the tuning capacitor should be readjusted
for minimum
plate current, and the grid circuit retuned for maximum grid drive
To tune a pi network output the grid circuit is tuned for maximum grid drive
C2 is set for maximum capacitance, and the coil is set for maximum induct-
is then tuned for a dip in plate current. If the plate -current dip
is
ance. Cl
so shallow as to be difficult to locate, the tap on the coil should be moved to
lower the value of inductance by approximately one third. When the dip is
located, the value of plate current should be noted. If the plate current
is
lower than the recommended value, reduce the capacitance of C2 and retune
Cl. If the recommended value of plate current is reached with C2 very
close
to minimum capacitance, a small amount of inductance should be added by
shifting the tap on the plate coil.
In operation, a small change of frequency may require that the pi network be

quickly retuned. This is done by tuning Cl for a plate-current dip. C2 is
then set for the correct value of plate current, causing a slight detuning of
Cl. Cl is then retuned for a plate -current dip.
An l Network Output Circuit
— 1( * 'TflSf' l o
6-58 TRANSMITTER KEYING
Keying
The output signal of a transmitter using the various stages

just described — oscillator, buffer, frequency multipliers
and power output— would be continuous -wave type-AO trans-
mission. The output signal radiated from the antenna is
called a carrier To have the carrier convey information
.
it is alternately turned on and off in the form of dots and

dashes to transmit code characters. This type of inter-
rupted transmission is called telegraphy or type-Al emis-
,
A TYPICAL KEY sion. To achieve telegraphy with a CW transmitter the
ability to quickly and easily turn the carrier on and off must be placed some-
where in its circuitry. The instrument most often used to turn the trans-
mitter signal on and off is the familiar telegraph key. Pressing the key down
closes the contacts and turns the carrier on. By releasing the pressure upon
the key a spring will return it to open, turning the carrier off. This is
known as keying the carrier.
At first glance keying a transmitter appears simple, merely turning any stage
on and off will cause the carrier to be on or off. Unfortunately it is not this
simple; keying the transmitter requires careful thought and attention as to
what stage should be keyed. In addition, keying a circuit brings with it at-
tendant troubles. A typical example is a backwave This consists of some
.
carrier signal being transmitted when the transmitter output should be zero.
The correct carrier signal is one that is fully on when the key is down and,
zero when the key is up. Backwave caused by not having the transmitter
completely off when the key is up will cause difficult and unpleasant reception
for the receiving operator. When the carrier signal is turned on and off too
KEYING TURNS the CARRIER WAVE ON and OFF
sharply the rapid change in power level produces sidebands which are heard
as clicks, called key clicks . The sharper the rise and fall of the carrier the
wider the sidebands causing the key clicks, increasing their amplitude and
possibly interfering with close -by signals. When the stage that is keyed is
the oscillator, or a stage close to the oscillator, there is the possibility of a
shift in frequency. This shift in frequency caused by keying produces a chirp
when the key is pressed down, and another chirp when released. A change in
oscillator frequency of only 25 cycles will cause sufficient chirp to make
copying the signal unpleasant. A chirp of 200 cycles is enough to make copy-
ing extremely difficult.
)
TRANSMITTER KEYING 6-59
Keying (Contd.
The most frequent cause of backwave is keying in such a manner that the grid
bias is not reduced beyond cutoff, permitting r-f energy to leak through and
be amplified in succeeding stages. To eliminate this it is possible to key the
oscillator stage directly. This, however, may result in chirping. Another
method of combating backwave is to key the cathode circuit. The up or open
key position opens both the plate circuit and grid return, blocking the grid
and providing no plate current. Hence, no r-f signal is passed to the suc-
ceeding stage . Another possible cause of backwave is the keying of a circuit
following the oscillator. This permits the oscillator to run continuously. If
energy from the continuous -running oscillator leaks through to the antenna, a
backwave may be generated. Careful shielding of the oscillator stage pre-
vents this.
In low-power stages the voltage developed across the key may be safe; in
high-power stages dangerous. To remove this danger an electronic switch
can be substituted for the key, with the key controlling the switch. The cir-
cuit here shows vacuum-tube keying using a vacuum tube as an electronic
switch. With the key in the up position the bias to the grid of the keyer tube
keeps it cut off. The high-resistance open-keyer tube isolates the cathode of
the tube used in the transmitter stage. With the key down the bias to the grid
of the keyer is removed; the bias voltage is developed across resistor R.
With no bias the keyer tube conducts heavily, providing low plate resistance
that essentially places the cathode of the tube used in the transmitter stage at
ground potential. The value of plate resistance of the keyer tube acts to
place the plate of the keyer tube and the cathode of the transmitter tube at a
slight positive potential; thus the keyer tube also acts as a cathode -bias
resistor.
A method of keying any circuit where unsafe voltages may be present, is that
of using a keying relay. When the key is closed the solenoid is energized,
pulling the armature to it, closing the relay. Opening the key releases the
armature and the contacts to open the circuit. Akeying relay is quite useful
for keying at long distances from the transmitter. The voltage used to ener-
gize the solenoid can be run for long distances in place of the cathode circuit
or other circuit being keyed.
) .
6-60 TRANSMITTER KEYING
Keying (Contd.
Eliminating key clicks requires a circuit that will cause a small time lag be-
tween the time the key is opened or closed, and the keyed circuit turned off
or on. To do this, key-click filters are placed between the telegraph key and
the circuit it is keying. A typical key-click filter which provides a time lag
is shown. With the key closed the inductance in series with the circuit being
keyed provides a lag in current flow by its reactance This causes the keyed .
BASIC KEY-CLICK FILTER

Produces time lag between time
key is opened or closed and the
m KEYING BY CONTROL OF
GRID EXCITATION
(Blocked-Grid Keying)
keyed circuit turned on or off
—OIWP
MB3IIHil l B li i8l !l8!BB B MWBIBBBM a Wlt BHIfllBllHHlgl ilfBHMB^BS a B^

l l l
IMPROVED KEY-CLICK FILTER
——
RFC
circuit to be turned on gradually. When the key is opened, the charge across
C briefly continues the current flow, keeping the keyed circuit from being
turned off too sharply.
Another type of key click is caused by arcing at the contacts of the key. To
remove these, a filter such as that shown is placed close to the key.
The question of which stage or stages to key in a transmitter is an important

one. Keying the oscillator stage, or too close to it, can, as previously men-
tioned, cause chirping. If the oscillator circuit is stable, it can be keyed.
However, any difficulty caused by keying the oscillator will be magnified by
the succeeding amplifier and frequency-multiplier stages. Occasionally the
problem of keying is eased by keying more than one stage, or using the
previously mentioned keyer circuits. To enable clean keying of any stage
there are various basic circuits. These circuits fall into two main cate-
gories: the first type controls the excitation, the second controls the voltage
to the stage being keyed. A basic circuit for control of grid excitation is
shown. With the key
up position sufficient negative bias is applied to
in the
the grid of the tube to ensure its being cut off. With the key down, the bias
voltage develops across R2 and is no longer applied to the grid of the tube
Resistor Rl acts to develop grid-leak bias.
)
TRANSMITTER KEYING 6-61
Keying (Contd.
Keying by controlling voltages to the transmitter stage can be accomplished

by as many means as there are tube electrodes. In a typical pentode with the
suppressor grid internally connected to the cathode, keying can be accom-
plished at the cathode, screen grid, or plate. Cathode keying has been
previously mentioned. Screen-grid keying can be accomplished to a degree
by merely keying the screen -grid voltage from its normal value to zero.
With zero screen voltage, however, there is still ample plate current flow-
ing, providing backwave. To eliminate this backwave it is necessary to not
only remove the positive screen voltage, but also to apply a negative screen-
grid voltage to halt all plate current flow. A basic screen-grid keying circuit
is shown. With the key up, a negative voltage is applied to the screen grid,
effectively cutting off all plate -current flow. With the key down, a voltage is
applied to the screen grid permitting normal operation of the stage.
Plate keying is usually done in an early stage of the transmitter where plate
voltage values are not too high. The keying can take place in either the posi-
Keying by Control of the Screen-Grid Voltage
Plate Keying
tive line of the circuit or in the negative line as shown. Most often it is done in
the negative line since this permits one side of the key to be at ground
potential.
In addition to the usual hand-operated telegraph key there are semi-automatic

telegraph keys, one of which is shown. Popularly known as a bug, the semi-
automatic key will make continuous dots when the paddle is pressed to the
right. These dots are made by a spring action that causes the contacts to
open and close at a rate set by an adjustable weight.
6-62 CW TRANSMITTER
Basic CW Transmitter
A typical basic low-power transmitter such as might be found in some ship-
to -shore installation is shown. The oscillator being crystal-controlled is
quite stable, and is therefore the stage that is keyed. The components in the
cathode circuit of the oscillator form a key-click filter. The screen-grid
voltage of VI is developed by taking the B-plus applied to the plate and ap-
plying it to a voltage divider. The output of the crystal oscillator is capaci-
tor-coupled to the grid of V2 which can be used as either a buffer or fre-
.
SUMMARY 6-63
Class-C amplifiers are used to amplify the output of the oscillator because of
their efficiency. If triode tubes are used, they must be neutralized to
prevent undesirable self-oscillation.
Buffers are used to prevent a power stage from loading down the stages pre-
ceding it. For example, a buffer is inserted between an oscillator and
a power amplifier to prevent the power stage from changing the operating
frequency of the oscillator.
A frequency multiplier is used to raise the output frequency of a crystal os-
cillator. It operates at some multiple of the oscillator frequency. It can
be a frequency doubler, tripler, or quadrupler.
Power amplifiers are used in the output stages of transmitters to strengthen
the modulated carrier for transmission. Usually, they are operated
class-C. Class-B can also be used in single-ended operation.
A class-C amplifier operates with its grid-bias several times cutoff, thus
plate current flows for less than 180° of the input cycle.
When the grid circuit of an amplifier draws current, the power must be sup-
plied by the previous stage.
The power required by the grid circuit of a tube is called the grid drive.
The cancellation of feedback voltage from the plate to grid of a tube is called
neutralization.
The maximum amount of r-fenergy is transferred from one stage to another
when the inter stage- coupling system includes a tuned circuit which ac-
cepts r-f oscillations at the desired frequencies, and rejects r-f at all
other frequencies.
Frequency multipliers are usually r-f amplifiers with input and output cir-
cuits tuned to different frequencies harmonically related to each other.
The output circuit of the power amplifier must be properly matched to the in-
put impedance of the transmission line.
The operation of a class-C amplifier depends upon the angle of plate-current
flow which in turn depends on the grid bias and the amplitude of the grid-
driving voltage.
Keying circuits provide a means of periodically interrupting the transmission
of r-f energy.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by class-C amplification ?

2. Explain the term "grid drive".
3. What is the function of a buffer stage?
4. Explain briefly the operation of a frequency doubler.
5. Explain the need of neutralization.
6. What is the advantage of a push-pull power amplifier over a single-end
type ?
7. What is the function of a power -amplifier output-coupling network?
8. What are parasitic oscillations?
9. What is meant by keying?
10. Explain the operation of grid-bias keying
11. What is link coupling?
12. What is cross neutralization?
6-64 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
AM Transmission
RF and AF COMBINED
IN LINEAR CIRCUIT
H RF
IN
and AF COMBINED
NONLINEAR CIRCUIT
AUDIO WAVEFORM
WITH R-F VARIATIONS AMPLITUDE-MODULATED R-F
The word modulate as defined by a dictionary is "to vary in tone, inflection,

pitch, or other quality of sound. " we modulate or vary
In radio transmission
the r-f carrier. The unmodulated carrier is the r-f signal broadcast from a
transmitter. It is called a carrier because it "carries" some form of intel-
ligence. To have speech (or music) superimposed on the r-f carrier signal
is to modulate the signal. There are several methods of modulating the car-
rier; the most popular, and the one we will discuss first, is that of varying
the amplitude of the carrier. This is amplitude modulation , abbreviated as
AM. The intelligence with which we will modulate the carrier will be an a-f
sine wave. Actual speech and music frequencies are far more complex, but
a sine wave permits a ready explanation of modulation which is identical to
that caused by complex waveforms. To combine the carrier with the audio
signal they are mixed together in special circuits discussed later. An im-
portant point is that the mixing can not be done with a linear device such as a
pure resistance. When both the carrier and audio signals are applied to a
pure resistance, they combine to have the audio signal vary about the carrier.
The audio does not change the carrier amplitude; it merely swings the car-
rier up and down at the audio rate.
To have the audio signal vary the amplitude of the carrier, both must be com-
bined in a nonlinear mixing circuit. The result is a combination in which the
audio signal directly varies the amplitude of the carrier. The positive alter-
nation of the audio signal adds to both the positive and negative alternations of
the carrier; the negative alternation subtracts from both the positive and
negative alternations of the carrier. This results in the carrier having two
outlines of the audio signal. The upper outline is a duplicate of the original
audio signal. The lower outline is also a duplicate, but 180° out of phase.
Placing a dashed outline (called the envelope ) on the modulated carrier shows
up more clearly the outline of the audio signal.
)
AMPLITUDE MODULATION 6-65
AM Transmission (Contd.
The carrier amplitude is important; but more so, is the audio signal’s am-
plitude compared to the carrier's amplitude. The amount or degree of modu-
lation with which the audio modulates the carrier is rated in percent .
In A, we show an unmodulated carrier with a peak amplitude level of ± 10

volts. In B, we have a modulating audio signal of ± 5 volts peak. C shows
the resulting modulated carrier. Notice that where the +5 -volt alternations
modulate the carrier, the carrier increases in the same amount in both the
positive and negative directions; similarly, where the -5-volt audio alterna-
tions modulate the carrier, the carrier decreases in the same amount in both
directions. As a net result, the positive and negative peaks of the modulated
carrier increase and decrease in value by 50%, or one -half of its normal
value. Hence, C shows a 50% modulated-carrier signal. We now increase
the audio signal to ± 10 volts, as shown in D. The modulated carrier is
shown in E. Notice that the carrier's amplitude is doubled on the audio's
positive peaks, and reduced to zero at the audio's negative peaks. Hence the
modulated carrier increases and decreases in value by a full 100%. There-
fore, the carrier is said to be 100% modulated.
MODULATION PERCENTAGE VARIES WITH

STRENGTH OF AUDIO SIGNAL
Percentage of Modulation
The degree AM wave is expressed by the percentage of

of modulation in an
maximum deviationfrom the normal amplitude of the r-f carrier. The effect
of such a modulated wave, as measured by receiver response, is proportional
to the degree, or percentage, of modulation.
The percentage of modulation may be determined by the equation:
e -e .
min
Percentage of modulation = 2L_ x 100
where e max is the maximum instantaneous value of the r-f voltage, e min the
minimum instantaneous value of the r-f voltage, and e„ the m
aximum instan-
taneous value of the r-f voltage in the absence of modulation.
It isimportant that the amplitude be varied as much as possible, because the

output of a detector in a radio receiver varies with the amplitude variations
of the received signal. Thus a comparatively low-powered, but well-modu-
lated, transmitter often produces a stronger signal at a given point than does
a much higher -powered, but poorly modulated, transmitter located the same
distance from the receiver. If modulation exceeds 100% there is an interval
during the audio cycle when the carrier is removed completely from the air.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION 6-67
Sidebands
additional fre-
When an r-f carrier is modulated by a single audio note, two
produced. One is the upper frequency, which equals the sum of
quencies are
the audio note. The
the frequency of the r-f carrier and the frequency of
which equals the difference between the fre-
other frequency is the lower one,
carrier
quency of the r-f carrier and the audio note. The one higher than the
SIGNALS
PRODUCED by
MODULATING a
1000-KC SIGNAL
with a
5-KC SIGNAL
SIDEBANDS
Highest Modulating Frequency
Lowest Modulating Frequency PRODUCED by

V Carrier Frequency M
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
lower side fre-

freauencv is the upper side frequency; the one lower is the
complex tones, as in music,
quency. When the modulating signal is made up of
modulating signal produces its own
each individual frequency component of the
lower side frequencies. These side frequencies occupy a band of
upper and
plus and minus the lowest
frequencies lying between the carrier frequency,
modulating frequency, and the carrier frequency plus and minus
the highest
frequen-
modulating frequency. The bands of frequencies containing the side
containing the sum of the carrier and
cies are called sidebands. The sideband
frequencies is known as the upper sideband the band contain-
the modulating ;
ing the difference is known as the lower sideband.

The space which a earner
spectrum is called a chan-
and its associated sidebands occupy in a frequency
channel (or bandwidth is equal to twice the highest
nel. The width of the )
modulating frequency.
Power Distribution in an AM Wave
POWER DISTRIBUTION In an AM WAVE

12.5 watts
Upper Sideband
Modulated
50 watts
where
Signal
P mod ' s the total power
7 5 watts at < in the modulated wave

100% m is the degree of modulation
modulation Carrier P car is the power in the carrier
2.5 watts
P
„“J = ,+ x 50 =
( t)
Lower Sideband
75 watts
The power in an amplitude -modulated wave is divided between the carrier

and the sidebands. The carrier power is constant (except in cases of over-
modulation), and so the sideband power is the difference between the carrier
power and the total power in the modulated wave. When a carrier is modu-
lated by a single sinusoidal tone, the total power output is found from
the
formula shown. Assuming that a 50-watt carrier is modulated 100%, the
power in the signal is 75 watts. Of this total, 50 watts are in the carrier and
25 watts are in the sidebands. The percentage of sideband power, 25/75
times 100%, equals 33.3%. Of the 25 watts of sideband power, there are 12.5
watts in each sideband, and the power content of each is therefore
16.6% of
the total power output with 100% modulation.
The available sideband power takes a marked drop when the average percent-
age of modulation is well below 100%. This is shown by modulating the car-
rier only 50%, when the power in the carrier is 50 watts.
P mod = |l + x 50 = 56. 25 watts

j
The total modulated power is now 56.25 watts. Since 50 watts exist in the
carrier, only 6.25 watts of power remain in the sidebands. Since
6.25 watts
are one -fourth the value obtainable with 100% modulation,
we see that re-
ducing the modulation to 50% causes a 75% reduction in the available
sideband
power. Since all the intelligence being transmitted is contained in the side-
bands, the desirability of a high percentage of modulation becomes
evident.
THE AM TRANSMITTER 6-69
The Basic Amplitude -Modulated Transmitter
Referring to our diagram, we see that a feeble voice signal entering a micro-
phone is amplified by several a-f speech amplifiers and also by the a-f modu-
lator. The r-f oscillator produces the r-f carrier wave which is amplified by
the r-f buffer amplifiers. The outputs of the a-f modulator and r-f buffer
amplifiers are mixed in the final r-f amplifier to produce the modulated car-
rier wave.
Essentially, the r-f section of an amplitude -modulated transmitter consists

of an r-f oscillator and several r-f amplifiers. In many cases, buffer am-
plifiers are used between the oscillator and the r-f amplifiers. As mentioned,
buffer amplifiers isolate the oscillator from the following stages to minimize
changes in oscillator frequency with changes in loading. Frequency multi-
pliers are used to raise the oscillator frequency of the transmitter to the
desired carrier frequency. It is desirable to have the oscillator operate at a
comparatively low frequency for reasons of stability. Intermediate r-f am-
plifiers may be used to increase the driving power of the final r-f amplifier.
The stage that the modulator feeds is known as the modulated r-f amplifier .
The modulator section is essentially an audio amplifier. The speech am-

plifiers are of the voltage type, with the modulator being basically a power
amplifier. The modulator delivers the required amount of undistorted audio
power to the modulated r-f amplifier. It may be operated class-AB, or
class-B. To avoid distortion under these classes of operation, a push-pull
stage must be used.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM TRANSMITTER
R-F R-F BUFFER FINAL R-F

OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIERS AMPLIFIER
X I
AUDIO SIGNAL -V
lA-F SPEECH
0—1
/
MICROPHONE
AMPLIFIERS
. -
6-70 THE AM TRANSMITTER
Modulation Levels
In high-levelmodulation the modulating voltage is applied to the final r-f am-

plifier! The stages preceding it need not be perfectly linear. Therefore
they may be operated class-C with operating potentials adjusted for the
desired circuit efficiency and gain. The final stage is always operated class
C. The overall efficiency of such a transmitter is high. A disadvantage of
high-level modulation is that comparatively high audio power is needed, and
several stages of voltage and power amplification may be required in the
speech amplifier and modulator circuits
In low-level modulation , modulation takes place in a buffer or intermediate

power -amplifier stage, and modulating voltage is applied to a stage preceding
the final amplifier. The r-f amplifiers which follow the modulated stage
Antenna
HIGH-LEVEL
MODULATION From FINAL R-F

POWER
V
preceding
AMPLIFIER
stages
J
\r
Microphone 1
MODULATOR
LOW-LEVEL
MODULATION Antenna
From INTERMEDIATE
oscillator
BUFFER POWER
AMPLIFIER
A
Microphone
|
MODULATOR
must be operated so that their a-c output voltages are amplified, undistorted
replicas of the modulated r-f voltages applied to their grids. Since little a-f
power is required to modulate the carrier fully, the a-f section of the trans-
mitter can be made comparatively simple A disadvantage of this system of
.
modulation is that the modulated stage must be followed by linear r-f am-
plifiers. Since lower efficiency is usually obtained from linear amplifiers,
efficiency of a low-level modulated transmitter is low as compared with that
of a high-level modulated transmitter using the same type of tubes and iden-
tical d-c operating voltages.
Heising Modulation
HEISING PLATE CIRCUIT MODULATION

MODULATED
MODULATED uses choke coupling OUTPUT
A methodthat uses a choke as modulator plate load is called HeiBing^ modula-

tion, namedafter its inventor. In the basic circuit shown, the modulator tube
is operated class-A. The choke used as modulator plate load provides maxi-
mum impedance at audio frequencies. Plate voltages for the modulator and
the r-f amplifier are supplied from a single source. If, due to an applied sig-
nal input, the modulator grid voltage swings in a positive direction, the
modulator plate current increases. Hence, the plate voltage decreases.
Because of the manner of circuit connection, the r-f amplifier's plate voltage
is also reduced. If the modulator grid voltage swings in a negative direction,
the modulator plate current decreases, and the modulator and r-f amplifier
plate voltages increase. The modulator input signal thus controls the r-f am-
plifier plate voltage, and causes it to vary in step with the modulating signal.
We can achieve 100% modulation only if the modulator plate-voltage swing

equals the r-f amplifier plate voltage. Thus, withapositive-going modulating
signal the r-f amplifier plate voltage is doubled; a negative-going plate voltage
reduces the r-f amplifier plate voltage to zero. The modulator plate voltage
must therefore swing to zero. Any attempt to approach this condition would
result in a severely distorted signal. To overcome this difficulty, the modu-
lator plate voltage is increased to a value half that of the r-f amplifier by plac-
ing R1 in series with the r-f amplifier plate. Bypass capacitor Cl prevents R1
from acting as a plate load. R2 protects the grid circuit from drawing excess
plate current when the modulator input signal drives the modulator grid
positive.
Transformer Coupling (Plate Modulation)
BASIC PLATE MODULATION CIRCUIT
MODULATED R-F AMPLIFIER
Another, and more popular method of plate-circuit modulation using trans-

former coupling is better known as plate modulation. The modulator output
is coupled through the secondary of T1 which is connected in series with the
plate circuit of the r-f amplifier. The audio signal developed across the sec-
ondary is in series with the r-f amplifier d-c plate voltage. Therefore, the
audio signal adds to or subtracts from the d-c plate voltage, thus modulating
the r-f amplifier. Cl is a bypass capacitor that presents a low-impedance
path to ground for any r-f, and a high reactance to a-f.
T1 requires special design. The primary must match the modulator plate
impedance. The secondary impedance must permit a voltage swing that can
provide 100% modulation. The transformer action permits 100% modulation
without a voltage-dropping resistor such as is used in Heising modulation.
Transformer coupling also lends itself to the use of high-efficiency circuits
of class-AB and -B modulators. When a tetrode or a pentode is used as an
r-f amplifier, the screen grid acts as the main attraction for the electron
stream, the plate being merely the collector of electrons. Since modulation
of the plate only would be ineffective, the screen grid and the plate circuit
are modulated. The screen receives its d-c voltage through Rl, but the
same modulated voltage is applied to the plate as well as to the screen.
Control-Grid Modulation
Economy and space requirements often dictate the use of modulating systems
that require less power than is in plate modulation. For example, in
used
plate modulation, a 200-watt transmitter requires a 100-watt modulator for
100% modulation. By modulating the r-f amplifier through the control grid
circuit much less audio power is required; the result is a saving in space and
weight which is of great advantage in aircraft and mobile applications.
In the control-grid modulated r-f amplifier circuit shown, the audio modu-
lating signal voltage is placed in series with the control-grid bias voltage.
The modulating signal thus adds or subtracts from the grid-bias voltage.
Distortion is kept to a minimum by keeping the load imposed on the modulator
as steady as possible. Therefore, the modulator is often designed to provide
twice the power necessary. The excess power is dissipated in resistor Rl,
placed across the modulation transformer primary. At the same time, Rl
provides a more constant modulator load. An r-f choke and a bypass capaci-
tor Cl, prevent the r-f from reaching the modulator circuit. Cl is carefully
chosen to bypass the r-f, yet offer a high impedance to the modulating a-f.
Only a small amount of audio power is required to modulate the control grid.
Grid modulation, however, operates at reduced efficiency, and reduced power
output, and there is difficulty in obtaining distortion-free output. The power
output of the modulator can be small since it is only necessary to vary the
negative grid bias slightly.
CONTROL GRID [GRID BIAS] MODDLATION

Comparatively little Audio Power Is Required for Modulation
)
Control-Grid Modulation (Contd.
In the control-grid modulated r-f amplifier, the control-grid d-c bias is

carefully adjusted so that the peaks of the carrier do not extend past the
linear portion of the grid voltage - plate current curve, as shown. Unless
the tube is operated on the linear portion of the curve, distortion results.
The modulating signal superimposed upon the carrier is limited to a value
which causes the carrier signal peaks to go no lower than cutoff, and no
higher than saturation. Since the d-c grid bias is limited, the r-f amplifier
does not operate at peak efficiency. With no modulating signal applied, the
plate-current pulses are only one-half the maximum power available. As a
result, the plate efficiency equals approximately 30%. When the modulating
signal is applied, as shown, at the maximum positive peak, the plate-current
Screen-Grid Modulation
^^screen-grid modulation
(Audio-signal voltage is superimposed on screen-grid voltage)
Screen-grid modulation also requires very little audio power. The modu-
lating voltage and the screen-grid voltage are placed in series,
as shown.
Hence the modulating signal is superimposed upon the screen-grid voltage.
The impedance offered by the screen-grid circuit varies, resulting in non-
linear modulation. For voice communication, the amount of nonlinearity is
tolerable. Special degenerative feedback circuits are sometimes employed
to improve the linearity. A problem exists in that with zero
screen-grid cur-
rent, plate current still flows. To obtain full modulation on negative peaks,
obtain
the screen-grid voltage must often be driven to a negative value to
complete plate-current cutoff. In this circuit, the a-f power required for
modulation is approximately one-fourth the power input to the screen under
CW conditions. The peak audio voltage is approximately equal to the d-c
screen voltage which is adjusted to one-half the value used for CW operation.
Screen-grid protection is obtained with a clamp tube which maintains a near-

constant screen-grid voltage. The audio signal applied to the clamp tube
modulates the screen-grid voltage.
No RF 100% Less than 100%
No AF Rr ®" y
,
Modulation Modulation Overmodulation
An
ABODE
oscilloscope can be used to present a visual picture of the modulated
transmitter output. To obtain the popularly used "trapezoidal" pattern, the
vertical plates of the oscilloscope are coupled to the output-tank circuit, and
the horizontal plates are capacitively coupled to the modulating signal source,
using a voltage divider, for adjusting the size of the display pattern. The in-
put circuit to the vertical plates of the scope is tuned to eliminate unwanted
harmonics.
In the absence of both excitation and modulation, the undeflected spot appears
in the center of the screen (A). When excitation is applied, the spot
swings
upward and downward in step with the carrier-voltage variations, producing
a vertical line on the scope screen (B). The length of the line represents the
peak-to-peak amplitude of the carrier. When modulation is applied, the
trapezoid pattern (C) is produced. This represents 100% modulation of a cor-
rectly adjusted transmitter. Diagrams (D) and (E) show a lower modulation
percentage, and overmodulation, respectively. When the carrier is modu-
lated 100%, the wide end of the pattern will be just twice the height of the
carrier amplitude line of (B), while the narrow end will come to a point (C).
MICROPHONES 6-77
Microphones - Carbon and Crystal
The function of a micropnone is to convert the variations in air pressure pro-

duced by the human voice or a musical instrument into an electrical voltage
or current of the same frequency and corresponding amplitude. Microphones
are rated in terms of frequency response, sensitivity, directivity, and im-
pedance. A good broadcast-type microphone should have a frequency response
of from 30 to 10, 000 cycles, or higher. For general communications work,
a frequency response of 75 to 4500 cycles would prove satisfactory.
Probably the most commonly used microphone is the carbon type. Sound
waves striking the diaphragm set up vibrations which vary the pressure on
the button, and thus vary the pressure on the carbon granules. This varies
the d-c resistance of the carbon-granule pile. Since the granules are in
series with a battery and the primary of a microphone transformer, the
CARBON
MICROPHONE
(Low Impedance)
sound mm -
produce mechanical stress
DIAPHRAGM
CRYSTAL
Voltage is MICROPHONE
generated when
A-F
mechanical (High Impedance)
a OUTPUT t\J^
stress is applied
77ZA I
to crystal
ELECTRODES
changing resistance produces a corresponding change in the circuit current.

The resulting pulsating dc in the primary produces an alternating voltage in
the secondary. The transformer is used to step up the voltage as well as
match the impedance of the low-impedance microphone with the high-imped-
ance grid circuit. Microphone current may be from 10 to 100 ma, and the
resistance may vary from 50 to 90 ohms.
The crystal microphone uses a property of certain crystals such as Rochelle

salts, known as the piezoelectric effect. The bending of the crystal, result-
ing from the pressure of the sound wave, produces an emf across the faces
of the crystal. This emf is applied to the input of an amplifier.
6-78 MICROPHONES
Microphones: Dynamic and Ribbon
A dynamic or moving-coil type microphone consists basically of a coil of

fine wire fastened rigidly to the back of a diaphragm so that it is suspended
in the field of a strong permanent magnet. When sound waves make the dia-
phragm vibrate, the coil moves, cutting the magnetic lines of force of the
magnet at the audio rate. This induces in the coil a voltage that is the elec-
trical equivalent of the sound waves. The dynamic microphone is very sen-
sitive, lightweight, and requires no external voltage. It is rugged, and has
an excellent frequency response (a broadcast type may have a response of
from 40 to 15,000 cycles); typical impedances are 50 to 500 ohms, thus re-
quiring an impedance -matching transformer for connection to an amplifier.
The ribbon or velocity microphone is a variation of the dynamic. It has a

thin, lightweight, flexible, corrugated, metallic strip suspended between the
poles of a permanent magnet. Sound waves make the strip vibrate in the
magnetic field. cuts the lines of force, and voltage is induced in it propor-
It
tional to the frequency and strength of the sound waves. The velocity micro-
phone has good frequency response, but responds only to those sounds orig-
inating directly in front of it. Since the ribbon resistance is so low (less than
1 ohm) this microphone usually has a built-in transformer which raises its
impedance to 250-500 ohms. The voltage output is very low, and leads be-
tween microphone and amplifier must be shielded to avoid hum pickup.
DYNAMIC
MICROPHONE
(Low Impedance]
PERMANENT TERMINAL MAGNETIC FIELD
RIBBON
MICROPHONE
(Low Impedance]
MODULATOR CIRCUITS 6-79
Speech Amplifiers
The speech amplifier is used in a radiotelephone transmitter whenever the

output of a microphone is lower than the signal voltage necessary to drive
the modulator stage. Therefore, the speech amplifier is considered as all
* Voltage Amplifier" Portion of Speech Amplifier
the a-f amplifier stages between the microphone and the input of the stage
whose output actually modulates the r-f carrier. When a class-B modulator
is used, the speech amplifier must include a power amplifier to supply power
to the class-B amplifier grids. The power amplifier preceding the modulator
is called the driver.
Audio amplifiers are designed to deliver either as much power or as much

voltage as possible into a load impedance. When a large power output is de-
sired, the stage can be operated class-A, -AB, or -B. When voltage gain
is the prime requirement, amplifiers are usually operated class-A because
of the low distortion. High voltage gain with low distortion is important in
the design of low-level stages of a speech amplifier.
The speech amplifier must supply a peak voltage equal to the value of the
d-c bias on the grid of the last class-A amplifier if it is a single-ended
stage, and twice the d-c bias if the last stage is operated in push-pull. In
actual practice, the speech amplifier must provide from 25% to 100% more
voltage gain than needed to meet the requirements at the grid of the last a-f
speech amplifier. The added gain compensates for various circuit losses.
6-80 MODULATOR CIRCUITS
Modulator Driver
The relationship between instantaneous grid voltage and grid current in

class-B modulators is not linear, and the grids present a varying imped-
ance to the driver over the a-f cycle. To avoid distortion in the modulator
caused by the change in grid impedance, the modulator driver must supply
a constant voltage to the modulator grids, regardless of the change in grid
impedance. To meet these requirements a driver must have good voltage
regulation. This is obtained by having a low internal resistance in the driver

stage. In turn, this means that the modulator-driver tubes must have a low
value of plate impedance. Low-mu triodes are best for this condition. Pen-
todes and tetrodes can be used if sufficient inverse feedback is used to low-
er the effective plate impedance.
To obtain maximum power transfer from driver to modulator, we must

match the higher driver plate impedance to the relatively low modulator in-
put impedance. This is done by using a driver transformer having the high-
est possible voltage step-down between its primary and secondary. In this
case, the plate resistance of the driver tubes, as seen by the modulator
grids, is comparatively high. If high-mu triodes are used as class-B mod-
ulators, they can be operated with very little or no d-c biasing voltage on
their grids. This reduces the variation in grid impedance over the a-f cycle,
and gives the driver a more constant input- impedance load. Distortion is
thus reduced. Tubes operated in this way are often called zero bias tubes.
Modulator Stages
To obtain sufficient power from a modulator stage, class-B operated push-

pull amplifiers are most commonly used. Class-ABi and -AB2 circuits are
also found. The tubes in the modulator circuits are often of the same type as
those used for r-f power-amplifier stages. The amount of audio power re-
quired determines the selection of a tube type for a specific application.
Plate modulation requires the modulating power to be somewhat higher than

one-half the r-f amplifier power. The additional power covers any possible
loss due to the coupling transformer, and readily permits 100% modulation.
Special power-amplifier tubes are designed for class-B operation with zero
grid bias. Then the grid current is so small that the tube may be considered
as cut off. Specially designed power-amplifier triodes, tetrodes, and beam-
power pentodes may be used. Beam-power pentodes and tetrodes may beused
as high-mu triodes. The input signal is applied directly to the screen grids,
which are connected through resistors to the control grids.
)
6-82 MODULATOR CIRCUITS
Modulator Stages (Contd.
In the modulator circuit shown which uses a pair of power tetrodes, small
resistors are connected in series with the screen grids; r-f chokes are con-
nected to the control grids to avoid parasitic oscillations. In the low-power
modulator circuit a voltage amplifier feeds a pair of beam-power pentodes.
The modulation transformer is designed to match the plate-to-plate load
impedance of the modulator tubes in the primary, and the load impedance of
the r-f amplifier stage in the secondary. Commercial modulation transfor-
mers are available to match most of the popular tube combinations. For un-
usual tube combinations special transformers (universal) with numerous
taps on both the primary and secondary permit impedance matching.
As an important special precaution, the modulation transformer secondary

should always be under load. A dummy load of correct wattage and resist-
ance is sufficient, for the r-f amplifier to be operating and drawing the cor-
rect amount of plate current. When no load is connected across the modula-
tion transformer secondary, the primary impedance rises to a very high
value, and develops unusually large audio-signal voltages across the primary
which may break down the transformer insulation, causing a short-circuit.
MODULATOR CIRCUIT USING POWER TETRODES

47 A
swmir'
RFC
— l
—/
/ZTZ\
MODULATOR
From ^STAGES TPUT
Driver
RFC / *
A
rlfH
\ 47
xiLftA.ft.fi.>
( - .4 VSA
-BIAS rp.
47 A resistors in series with the screen
t
grid,and r-f chokes connected to the
SCREEN HIGH
control grid, avoid parasitic oscillations VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
\M0DULAT0R CIRCUIT USING]

SEAM-ROWER TUBES MODULATION
TRANSFORMER
OUTPUT
LOW-POWER
(100 WATTS)
MODULATOR
=" B+
Omega Drafting 8 Art Services
Speech Clipping and Filtering
^ [L _ SPEECH CLIPPING
| NORMAL a**
^ Peak
§
SPEECH ll
MM
vmm
Complex speech waveforms contain much less average power than a sine
wave of same amplitude. The high audio peaks that cause 100% modulation
are few, and widely spaced. Increasing the amplitude of the complex wave-
form, and clipping the top and bottom of the peaks, prevents the amplitude
exceeding a given value, and permits a power increase of the same speech
waveform without causing overmodulation. There is a slight distortion of the
speech waveform, but reduction in intelligibility is negligible. Clipping itself
does not prevent overmodulation because clipping, like overmodulation, re-
sults in high-frequency sidebands called splatter. Therefore, a filter fol-
lows the clipper circuit and prevents frequencies of approximately 3000
cycles and up from passing through the following amplifiers.
The clipping level is usually adjusted. For example, we may clip a peak-to-
peak signal of 10 volts to a level of 2 volts. The clipped 2-volt signal can
then be amplified to 10 volts, resulting in a tremendous power increase. In
the basic filter-clipper circuit shown, the amplifier output of VI is applied
to diodes V2 and V3. V2 is connected to conduct on the positive half of the
audio signal. The bias control in the cathode of V2 sets the level at which
the positive half of the signal is clipped or "clamped". V3 is connected to
conduct on the negative half of the audio signal. The bias control in the plate
of V3 clamps the negative half of the signal to the desired level. The clipped
signal is then applied through amplifier V4 to an L-C low-pass filter, and
then to the high-level amplifier circuits.
6-84 CW-AM TRANSMITTER
Basic CW-AM Transmitter
The transmitter shown uses a self-excited oscillator with Ll-Cl making up

the oscillator-tank circuit. Plate section A of LI is between plate and fila-
ment, through C2, to ground and the centertap of T2; grid section B is be-
tween grid and filament, C3, C2, ground, and the centertap of T2. Coupling
capacitor C4 is tapped on LI to minimize oscillator loading. V2 bias is de-
veloped across R1-R2-R3 when key is closed. Oscillation inV2 is prevented
by varying C5 to cancel out-of -phase voltages on grid. When the code key is
open, negative voltage across R4 cuts off V2. V3 is the driver for class-B
modulators V4 and V5. These stages are biased by the voltage developed by
grid current flow in V2. R-f transformer T1 is the r-f modulated amplifier-
tank coil and a coupling coil which goes to the antenna. Coupling is variable
for correct load matching between amplifier and antenna.
SUMMARY 6-85
Speech amplifiers are usually operated class-A to keep distortion at a mini-

mum. High voltage gain, low circuit noise, and low hum pickup are
desirable.
Three principal types of microphones are used with speech amplifiers: the
carbon, the crystal, and the magnetic. The carbon microphone has the
highest output and the lowest fidelity; the magnetic has the lowest output
and the highest fidelity.
The modulator builds up the audio signal and modulates the r-f carrier with
its output. It is usually operated class-B for relatively high power and
fidelity.
Ifthe audio-signal output of the modulator is injected into the final power am-
plifier, the process is called high-level modulation. If it is injected into
some preceding stage, the process is called low-level modulation. The
audio signal can be injected at any grid, or at the plate of the modulation
stage.
In amplitude modulation, intelligence is superimposed on the carrier wave by
causing the amplitude of the carrier to vary in accordance with the
modulating signal.
The percentage of modulation is a measure of the depth or degree of modula-
tion of a carrier wave. It is dependent upon the amplitude of the modu-
lation envelope as compared with the amplitude of the carrier.
If the amplitude of the modulation envelope is twice as great as the amplitude
of the carrier, then the modulated wave formed is said to be full, or
100% modulated.
When an r-f carrier is modulated, sidebands are produced on either side of
the carrier frequency.
Sidebands are equal in frequency to the carrier, plus or minus the modulating
frequency.
The power in an amplitude -modulating wave is divided between the carrier
and the sidebands.
Plate modulation is most commonly used for high-level amplitude modulation.
In plate modulation the modulating voltage is impressed on the d-c supply
voltage of one of the r-f amplifiers of the transmitter.
A speech amplifier is needed in a radiotelephone transmitter whenever the
output of the microphone is lower than the signal voltage required to
drive the modulator tube.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by amplitude modulation?
2. What is meant by percentage of modulation?
3. What function do sidebands serve?
4. Explain Heising modulation.
5. What is meant by high-and low-level modulation?
6. Explain control-grid modulation.
7. Describe the operation of a carbon microphone.
8. Describe the operation of a dynamic microphone.
9. What circuits are included in the speech amplifier?
10. What is the function of the modulator drive stage?
11. What class of operation can be used in the modulator stage?
12. Describe a simple test procedure checking modulation.
6-86 FREQUENCY MODULATION
Direct FM
The two most popular methods of developing an FM signal are by the direct
and indirect methods. In the direct method an oscillator is modulated directly
by the audio signal. In the indirect method, phase modulation is used to vary
the carrier to create an FM signal. The simplest method of producing an FM
signal is to have the modulating signal vary the value of L or C in an oscilla-
tor, causing the frequency to vary. This basic concept is illustrated by
VOLTAGE OF AMPLIFIER
Vector (Plate signal)
Relationships
180 '
CURRENT OF SIGNAL
APPLIED TO CAPACITOR
using a Tube
as an Inductor VOLTAGE OF CAPACITOR

(Signal applied to grid of amplifier)
having a capacitor microphone placed directly across the tuning capacitor of

a Hartley oscillator. The oscillator frequency is determined by the total L
and C in the tank circuit. When sound waves strike the movable plate of the
microphone, the capacitance will increase and decrease in accordance with
the sound wave. More capacitance means a lower frequency; less capacitance
means a higher frequency. The result is a frequency-modulated wave.
A refined system for producing FM involves the use of a tube to vary the fre-
quency of the tank circuit, rather than the microphone. We know that in a
pure inductance E leads I by 90°; in a pure capacitance I leads E by 90°. A
tube can act as an inductance by having plate voltage lead grid voltage by 90°;
it can act as a capacitance by having plate voltage lag grid voltage
by 90°. A
reactance tube can be made to act as a capacitance or an inductance. How a
tube can be made to act as an inductance is shown vectorially. A signal
ap-
plied to a capacitor will have its voltage lag its current by 90°. The capaci-
tor voltage is then applied to the amplifier, with the tube inverting the signal
by 180°. Note that the plate signal leads the signal current by 90°.
)
FREQUENCY MODULATION 6-87
Direct FM (Contd.
In the basic reactance-tube circuit the oscillator tank is paralleled by R1 and

Cl, placing the tank-signal voltage across these components. The resistance
of R1 is much higher than the reactance of Cl. Therefore, the Rl-Cl circuit
acts as a resistance, and the current flowing in it is in phase with the voltage
of the tank circuit. The signal voltage across Cl lags the signal current by
90°. The tube amplifies the capacitor- signal voltage. This appears at the
plate 180° out of phase with the grid voltage, and places the plate voltage 90°
ahead of the signal current flowing through Rl-Cl. The plate -voltage signal
is coupled back to the tank circuit by C2, a high-value low- reactance capaci-
tor that couples the output signal and isolates the plate voltage from the tank
circuit. The net result is to have VI act as though it were an additional
parallel inductance across the tank circuit inductance.
To put the reactance tube to work as a modulator, a pentagrid converter tube

is used. The tank-circuit signal is applied to grid 1 with Rl, Cl, and C2,
causing the tube to act as a reactance. The modulating audio signal is applied
to grid 3 to modulate the reactance tube.
The variations in plate current caused by the audio signal determine to what
degree the reactance tube will act as an inductor. These variations in turn
cause the oscillator-tank circuit to change frequency accordingly. The fre-
quency of the modulating signal results in the equivalent number of changes in
the frequency of the oscillator. The amplitude of the modulating signal deter-
mines to what amount the reactance tube will vary, in turn determining to
what extent the frequency of the oscillator will shift.
Indirect FM
The oscillator circuit used in the direct system of FM cannot be crystal con-
trolled. This presents a problem in maintaining high-accuracy frequency
control. The indirect method of FM permits the use of a crystal-controlled
oscillator whose steady carrier output is phase modulated to produce FM.
To understand how phase modulation can create frequency modulation we will

use a phase-shifting device set for 45° phase shift. A sine-wave input signal
of constant frequency and amplitude is applied to the input terminals; the out-
put terminals will have the same signal shifted to lead (or lag) by an amount
determined by the phase -shifting device. As shown, the phase shifter is set
to cause a 45° lead in the output signal. The output signal completes its cycle
45° ahead of the input signal. Each succeeding cycle will see the output lead-
(ft) is the phase-modulated carrier of

Relative
phase 45° relative phase, and is constant in length.
Phase deviation results when the vector varies

above and below its relative phase angle as
indicated by the dotted vectors.
INPUT TO PHASE-SHIFTING DEVICE
360 Ôutput signal shifted 45°

I
45‘ I
h-H
OUTPUT I
OF PHASE-SHIFTING OEVICE
l
(Effectively a higher frequency) I
I
v/mr/////////sr/sw/////////////////////////////m/////j/////y//m////^
ing by 45° until 8 cycles have passed; the output signal will then lead by a full
cycle, and the output frequency is thus higher than the input frequency. By
the same process a signal that is caused to lag by 45° will after 8 cycles have
the output lag- the input by one cycle for a lower frequency.
The amplitude of the modulating signal will vary the degree of phase shift.
The frequency of the modulating signal varies the frequency with which the
phase shifting takes place. The resultant output of the phase -shifting device
is a frequency -modulated signal.
FREQUENCY MODULATION 6-89
The Armstrong Phase-Modulation Circuit
A circuit derived by Armstrong to achieve FM through PM uses the balanced-

modulator stage. The circuit operates as follows: the output of a crystal os-
cillator is applied to the control grids of VI and V2 in phase. The plate load
for both tubes is a centertapped r-f transformer. The plate currents of each
tube are 180° out of phase, and flow through the r-f output transformer.
Therefore, they cancel, and no voltage is induced in the secondary. With no
signal applied to the audio transformer, each screen grid has the same volt-
age; the same current flows in the plate circuit of both tubes. An a-f modu-
lating signal applied to the audio transformer results in one end of the sec-
ondary being more, or less positive than the other. The resulting unbalance
in the secondary causes the screen voltage of one tube to be higher, and the
screen voltage of the other tube to be lower. Consequently the plate current
of one tube increases, and that of the other tube decreases. The plate cur-
rents flowing in the r-f transformer primary are no longer equal but opposite
in phase, and a voltage is now induced in the secondary.
The phase-shifting action of the tubes and the r-f transformer cause the r-f
transformer output voltage to lead or lag the input voltage of the crystal os-
cillator. The phase shift leads or lags depending upon whether the plate cur-
rent of VI or V2 is increased. The amount of phase shift is determined by
the modulating signal amplitude.
Phase Modulation (PM)
In the complete indirect FM circuit shown, the phase-shifted output of the r-f
transformer secondary is applied to the amplifier tube V5. The crystal-os-
cillator output is applied to the balanced modulator and to the buffer amplifier
V2. Tubes V2 and V 5 use a common plate load. The phase -shifted output of
V5 phase modulates the output of V2. The resultant phase-modulated output

of both tubes is changing in frequency to provide an FM output.
The degree of frequency swing of either the direct or indirect FM systems

must be carefully controlled because the following stages consist of fre-
quency-multiplier circuits that multiply both the center (zero-signal) fre-
quency and the frequency deviation. The transmitter circuits used for FM
transmitters are closely identical with those of AM transmitters. Frequency-
multiplier circuits must use broader tuned circuits that are not too selective
since the bandwidth used in FM is wider than that used in AM.
6-91
SINGLE -SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
Basics of Single-Sideband Transmission

in which one sideband
Single sideband (SSB) is a method of radio transmission
-bearing sideband is
and the carrier are suppressed; only one intelligence
AM
signals consist of a carrier and two sidebands.
transmitted. Conventional
determines the sideband frequency and amplitude. The
The modulating signal
each other, hence contain
upper and lower sidebands are mirror images of
receiver's detector, only one sideband is used;
duplicate information. At the
Removing the carrier and one sideband
the carrier contains no information.
transmitter s intelligence-
leaves a single sideband, and does not alter the
because the entire modulating signal is contained in one side-
carrying ability
power of the transmitter
band. By transmitting only a single sideband the
increased signal strength. Another way of
can be concentrated, and provides
expressing it is to say that a SSB of the same strength as an AM
signal can be
achieved with a lower-powered transmitter.
The SSB signal requires only one spectrum space taken by an

half of the r-f
spectrum space, thus permitting more
AM signal. This relieves crowded r-f
affects the sidebands
radio stations to go on the air. Since selective fading
in an AM signal, with only one sideband
transmitted, intelligibility may
reduced. The stability requirements of a SSB transmitter are high. In an
AM receiver the sidebands and the carrier are received together with no
phase or frequency difference. In a SSB receiver a carrier must be provided
quickly noticed in the received
for detection. A transmitter frequency shift is
stability, and include
signal. The SSB receiver too, must have a high order
of
especially designed detector circuits.
SINGLE SIDEBAND - Saves Spectrum Space
|
CARRIER
niimi TTT1 ill II
Intelligence Intelligence
!
1 II III 111 II II III IL
Lower Upper
sideband sideband
CONVENTIONAL AM SIGNAL |
(Both sides "say” the same thing)
100% MODULATION
Carrier power: 1000 watts
l
Total sideband power: 500 watts ONLY 500 watts of SSB
POWER gives the SAME
Average SIDEBAND POWER
power output:
power =
Peak power = 4 times carrier
6-92 SINGLE -SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
Carrier Suppression by Balanced Modulators
CARRIER SUPPRESSION by BALANCED MODULATORS
There are many methods of accomplishing SSB transmission, all of which

require carrier suppression. To remove the carrier while still leaving both
sidebands is the job of the balanced modulator.
A balanced modulator using nonlinear vacuum tube amplifiers in a push-pull

circuit is shown. Linear amplifiers will not mix frequencies; they will act
only as amplifiers. The r-f carrier plate currents flow in equal but opposite
directions to cancel each other. Thus there is no r-f carrier signal output.
With the audio-modulating signal applied, the circuit acts as a conventional
push-pull amplifier. The plate circuit, however, is tuned to the carrier. As
a result, there is no audio output in the secondary of the plate circuit r-f
transformer. Thus far, with either an r-f signal or audio signal applied,
there is no output of the balanced modulator.
With both an a-f and r-f signal applied simultaneously, the circuit acts as
follows: assuming that the polarity of the r-f carrier at the grid is negative
at a given instant, the audio signal will have at any instant equal but opposite
polarities at the secondary of the audio-input transformer. This places the
modulating signal at one grid positive, and at one grid negative. The r-f and
the a-f signals combine at the grid circuit. The grid having a positive a-f
signal and negative r-f carrier signal will have a resultant cancellation. The
grid, having a negative a-f signal and negative r-f carrier, will have the two
signals add. The resultant mixing of both the r-f and a-f signals
generates an
output signal. The output frequency is the frequency of the carrier, plus
or
minus the modulating frequency. There is no carrier frequency itself, no
audio frequency itself, only the two sidebands.
SINGLE -SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 6-93
Carrier Suppression by Balanced-Bridge Modulators
A balanced modulator using a bridge rectifier circuit can provide a sup-

pressed- carrier, double -sideband output. With only an r-f signal applied with
the polarity shown, all diodes conduct, act as short-circuit, and prevent any
r-f signal from getting to the output. With reversed polarity applied, the r-f
signal places a positive polarity at the cathodes and a negative polarity at the
plates of the diodes. The diodes do not conduct; they present an open circuit
to the r-f input, and there is still no output signal. The audio modulation
alone does not result in any output signal since the output-tank circuit is
tuned to the r-f carrier frequency.
When a modulating signal and an r-f carrier signal are applied simultane-
ously, there is an output. The audio signal biases the diode, causing current
to flow in one direction or another as determined by the polarity of the modu-
lating signal. If the polarities of the audio and the r-f signals are as shown,
the r-f carrier signal passes through the biased diodes, and provides an out-
put signal. Reversing the polarity of the audio- signal voltage causes conduc-
tion in the opposite direction, and again provides an output signal. The
modulating signal amplitude sets the diodes bias level, and modulates the r-f
carrier. The output signal has no carrier, containing only sidebands.
The output of a balanced modulator is a double sideband (DSB) with a sup-
pressed carrier. A DSB signal is more efficient than a conventional AM sig-
nal because the power normally expended on the carrier can be applied to
transmitting both sidebands.
Sideband Suppression: Bandpass Filters
To obtain a SSB signal from the DSB output of the modulator, one of the
sidebands is suppressed; either the lower or the upper. The two most popular
methods for suppressing sidebands use filters and/or phasing circuits.
A bandpass filter passes a specific band of frequencies while rejecting all

others. The requirement of such a filter is that the cutoff of the unwanted
frequencies be as sharp as possible. A theoretical bandpass-filter frequency-
response curve shown in A cuts off all frequencies exactly above and below
Desired frequencies Effective passband
(A) IDEAL BANDPASS (b) PRACTICAL BANDPASS

RESPONSE RESPONSE
the desired passband. In practice, however, the sides or slopes of the pass-
band response curve as shown in B, cannot be as steep as desired. Bandpass
filters, however, may be designed with slopes steep enough to achieve the
desired rejection of unwanted frequencies. The higher the frequencies, the
greater the difficulties to achieve a steep bandpass slope. The bandpass
filter shown in C is designed to operate at 1 me, with a bandpass of ±3 kc
and
a tolerance of ±100 cps, and has extremely steep slopes. The same charac-
teristic (D) of a bandpass filter designed to operate at 100 kc with a bandpass
of ±3 kc, and a tolerance of 100 cps has reasonably less steep slopes.
6-95
SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
Crystal Filters
steep slopes required

Carefully designed, tuned L-C circuits can achieve the
more popular method is the use of
in sharp cutoff bandpass filters, but a
crystals.
The crystal a high-Q series-resonant circuit. The capaci-

itself is basically
tance of the crystal-mounting device appears across the crystal to present a
ofthe crystal alone

parallel-resonant circuit. The series-resonantfrequency
than the parallel -re sonant frequency of the crystal and holder. At
is lower
series resonance the circuit is neither inductive nor
capacitive.
the crystal appears as a capacit ive circuit. Abov

e
Below series resonance,
an inductive circuit. The parallel-
series resonance the crystal appears as
is labeled f a .
resonant frequency is called the antiresonant frequency and
resonant frequencies there is a
Between the series -re sonant and parallel-
bandwidth of approximately 200 cycles.
To increase the frequency spread between the series- and the parallel-
shunted
inductor is across the crystal. The shunted
resonant frequency, an
crystal appear as a parallel-resonant circuit a a
inductance causes the to
frequency below series resonance.
)
6-96 SINGLE -SroEBAND TRANSMISSION
Crystal Filters (Contd.
A crystal-filter circuit of the type

shown is called a lattice type filter.
Two pairs of crystals are used; each

pair may be tuned to a frequency ap-
proximately 1 kc apart. The input
and output tuned circuits act as shunt
inductors widening the frequency
spread of the crystals. Two of the
crystals, marked fb, are placed in
shunt with the input and output cir-
cuits. The other two crystals,
marked fa are placed in series.
,
In the reactance curve of each set of

crystals and the resultant bandpass
characteristics shown, note that f
k
crystals slightly higher in frequency than f
a
crystals
careful alignment is required to en-

sure that the series -re sonant fre-
quency of the series crystals (fa )
corresponds to the parallel-resonant
frequency of the shunt crystals (fb).
The series-resonant frequency of the
shunt crystals (fb) must also corres-
pond to the parallel-resonant fre-
quency of the series crystals (fa ).
Proper alignment is necessary to
achieve the desired bandpass. Reactance values are Reactance values are
equal and INDUCTIVE equal and CAPACITIVE
At those frequencies where the re-
actance of the crystal filter is pre-
dominately inductive or capacitive,
the attenuation of the signal is high.
At inbetween frequencies, approxi-
mately 1 kc above and below the
resonant frequency, Xl and Xc are
equal, or nearly so, thereby cancel-
ing and permitting these frequencies
to pass. To achieve very steep
slopes of the bandpass response
curve the output of one filter may be
applied to a second filter.
The price paid for the sharp selec-

tion of frequencies is a loss in power
known as the insertion loss of the
filter. This loss is the ratio of input
power to output power of the filter.
SINGLE -SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 6-97
Phasing Method
Removing a sideband by phasing, is essentially done by applying out-of-phase

signals to cancel each other. The modulating audio signal is applied to a
90°
phase -shifting network supplying two audio signals of equal amplitude,
out of phase, as shown by the accompanying vector. In addition, an r-f sig-
nal is also applied to a phase -shifting network to supply two r-f signals of
equal amplitude that are 90° out of phase, as shown by the accompanying
vector. The r-f and a-f signals are then applied to two balanced modulators.
The output of the two modulator circuits consists of two DSB signals with the
sidebands 90° out of phase with each other.
The two out-of -phase DSB signals are then placed in a combining circuit. The
two upper sideband signals being 180° out of phase, cancel each other; the
two lower sideband signals being in phase, add to produce a single sideband
signal. To reverse the output to an upper sideband signal, the two out-of-
phase audio signals going to the balanced modulators are reversed.
Linear Amplifiers
CL1SS-B LINEAR AMPLIFIER for SSB AMPLIFICATION
OUTPUT
Having developed a SSB signal of low power it is necessary to amplify it to a

value sufficient to provide the radiation energy required at the antenna. The
best known linear amplifier is class-A; this, however, is costly, due to its
low efficiency. The efficiency of a class-B linear amplifier is proportional to
the applied signal voltage. A class-B linear amplifier operating with an un-
modulated AM signal would only be about 35% efficient. A SSB signal is
either present in its entirety, or completely absent. As a result, a SSB sig-
nal is essentially a constant- amplitude signal, permitting a class-B linear
amplifier to operate at approximately 70% efficiency.
A nonlinear amplifier, even slightly nonlinear, is prone to develop harmonic-

frequency signals of the applied signal. The harmonic frequencies and the
fundamental frequencies can mix, to supply undesired frequencies. The un-
desired frequencies may well be in the suppressed sideband frequency. The
result is poor SSB signal, with spurious frequencies present where the sup-
pressed sideband is supposedly eliminated.
A class-A or -B linear amplifier resembles a typical class-C circuit, its

main difference being in the value of grid bias. To operate class-B, the grid
bias is set at cutoff; the tube amplifies only the positive-going portion of the
signal. A highly-positive signal swing may cause the grid to go positive and
draw grid current. When this happens, the grid circuit is no longer a high-
impedance circuit. This power must come from the stage driving the linear
amplifier. It is important that the driver stage be capable of supplying this
power to the grid circuit. A well-designed driver will be capable of supplying
at least three times the required power.
.
6-99
SINGLE -SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
Basic SSB Transmitters

least amount
Special circuits are available to permit SSB reception with the
However, any good standard type commercial receiver with
of difficulty.
high stability, good band spread, and a beat-frequency oscillator, can be
used
to receive SSB. To receive a SSB signal, the prime consideration is that a
carrier be reinserted to beat with the SSB signal for detection. In a
com-
mercial receiver this can be done with the bfo used for code reception. For
proper detection the bfo signal level should be at least 10 times as strong as
that of the received signal. Since the bfo level is fixed, and not as high as
BASIC SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER using Filters
BASIC SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER using Phasing
desired in the average receiver, the signal level can be reduced by lowering
the r-f gain of the receiver.
Using the injected oscillator of the bfo as a reinserted carrier, it is import-

ant that the SSB signal be tuned in accurately to place the reinserted carrier
at the correct operating point. Should the reinserted carrier beat with the
SSB signal a few cycles too low, the speech will sound like Donald Duck. If
too high, it will sound high pitched, making a bass sound like a tenor
6-100 POWER SUPPLIES AND CONTROLS
Transmitter Power Supplies
Power-supply circuits used in transmitters are basically the same as those

used in receivers except for voltage and current considerations, and the
many special types of controls. Half-wave, full-wave, and bridge -rectifier
circuits are used. However, the rectifier tubes are much larger, being able
to withstand many thousands of volts. Where large amounts of plate and
screen currents are required, mercury-vapor tubes are used. These furnish
high-power supply currents and produce small voltage drops across the rec-
tifier tubes themselves. In transmitter power supply the
power transformers
are quite large, as are the filter capacitors, chokes, and insulators.
All
this reflects the high voltages and currents being consumed.
These power supplies must furnish certain basic voltages. A high voltage of
from 500 to several thousand volts is required for the plate and screen of the
r-f power amplifier, and the modulator stage. A low voltage of up to 500
volts or so, is required for the plates and screens of all
the other tubes.
Bias voltages of up to minus several hundred volts may be needed for
the
transmitter power stages. And, a high-current filament supply is
generally
required. In addition, a metering system is often included in the
power
supply for monitoring and adjustment, as well as for turning
off certain volt-
ages during warmup and tuning.
)
POWER SUPPLIES AND CONTROLS 6-101
Transmitter Power Supplies (Contd.
|
Filament Supply
Rheostat (or
maintaining Centertap balances
filament voltage secondary
The filament and bias supply for transmitters are often completely separate
units. The filament supply often has a means of adjusting and measuring,
since a slight decrease in filament voltage can greatly affect the operation of
a tube. The bias supply is often a conventional supply, except that it pro-
vides a negative voltage for the r-f and a-f power stages.
Most transmitters operate with plate voltages of from 250 volts to many
thousands of volts. Contact with these voltages can cause serious shock or
even death. It is necessary, therefore, to be especially careful when making
transmitter adjustments. When the power is turned off in most transmitters,
the bleeder and voltage -divider resistors discharge the filter capacitors.
However, one or more of these resistors may open, and prevent the capac-
itors from discharging. If body contact is made with a charged capacitor,
the capacitor can discharge through the body and cause shock, bums, or, as
mentioned, death. Most transmitters with an output of 100 watts or more are
equipped with switches, relays, or timing devices which open the primary
circuits to high-voltage circuits whenever the transmitter doors are opened.
However, any of these protective devices may be faulty, and then a "live"
transmitter is even more dangerous than a charged capacitor. As a pre-
caution, make sure there is no high voltage present, and discharge the high-
voltage capacitors with a shorting stick.
SHORTING, or “DEAD MAN'S" STICK
HEAVY COPPER OR BRASS DRY WOOD

WIRE (tubing) or BAKELITE
HEAVY FLEXIBLE
Clip WIRE (or braid)
(for ground connection)
2
1
LONG
6-102 POWER SUPPLIES AND CONTROLS
Transmitter Controls
ARMATURE BASIC RELAY CIRCUIT

SWITCH T CONTACTS
When switch is closed
CONTROL RELAY LOAD. relay isenergized,
||
VOLTAGE HIGH and load circuit
^-1 VOLTAGE is completed
To filaments
YoaflftY filament RELAY: When energized,

==§|§=TRANSFORMER permits SW2 to close
When SW1 high-voltage relay
closes,
HEATER TERMINALS
INPUT
© BIMETALLIC
STRIP: When
expanded by
heat, closes
contacts
To front heater
© CONTACTS: terminal and coil
enVrgtz^reUi'y* H V TRANSFORMER!^ To center front relay
Time-Delay Relay in High-Voltage Circuit Time-Delay Relay
A number of devices are associated with power supplies to control and direct
their functions, and to serve as protection to equipment and personnel.
These controls take the form of key switches, circuit breakers, relays,
panel-interlock switches, and time delays. Controls also operate signal de-
vices that flash a light or sound an alarm when voltages and currents exceed
a rated value. The common electrical fuse is a control device that opens the
circuit when excessive current is drawn. These controls are connected at
various points in a power supply.
A relay is basically a switch operated by an electromagnet. It consists of a

coil wound on an iron core and an armature that operates a set of contacts.
The relay opens or closes an electrical circuit when the coil is energized.
In the simple relay-circuit shown, when the switch is closed, the relay coil
is energized, and the armature pulled down, closing the contacts. This, in
turn, completes the high-voltage circuit. In the time-delay relay there is a
definite time between operations. For instance, the relay provides a time
delay between the heating of the filaments and the application of high voltage.
A common form of time delay uses a bimetallic strip that bends as it is
heated. A- heater is mounted near the strip. When the strip expands from the
heat, relay contacts are closed.
)
Transmitter Controls (Contd.
An overload relay is a protective device that opens a circuit automatically

when the current through it exceeds a certain established value. It is usually
a d-c plunger relay in which the magnetic field of the relay coil acts upon a
plunger. When the current becomes too great, the relay contacts open. A
latch is usually included in the relay to keep the circuit open after the relay
is energized, preventing the circuit from opening and closing repeatedly
while
the overload exists. The relay can have a mechanical release, or reset
button, to restore it to operation after the overload has been removed. In
OVERLOAD RELAY CIRCUIT protects high-voltage system
A-C INPUT
O III
Open contacts
de-energize relay
which removes
plate-supply
voltage
OVERLOAD RELAY
with MAGNETIC RESET ACTION
OVERLOAD
COIL LI
the drawing, LI is the overload coil, connected usually in the negative lead
of the circuit being protected. L2 is the reset coil and, when energized, re-
sets the mechanical latch after the relay has been energized.
In the relay circuit, the relay is connected in the low-potential side of the
power supply to eliminate the need for high-voltage insulation. It is adjusted
so that when the current reaches a predetermined point, the armature lifts,
opening the contacts at A. This opens the circuit to the power-relay coil,
de-energizing it and disconnecting the high-voltage transformer primary
from the a-c input line. The weighted latch prevents the armature from
failing and closing the contacts before the overload has been corrected.
LINE INPUT 117 V AC
TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Transmitter Control System
On the opposite page we see a complete transmitter control system, including

line fuses, indicator lamps, and protective devices. At A, on top, is the
basic 117-volt a-c power input. B represents a utility outlet that is not af-
fected by subsequent switching. The input circuit is fused by C, with indica-
tor lamp D lighting when C is open.
Filament switches E and F are connected in parallel. F energizes filament

transformer G, and E supplies voltage to the remainder of the circuit, as re-
quired. Indicator lamp H, across the filament transformer secondary,
lights when the filaments have been turned on. Ganged switch II, 12, and 13,
is the phone -CW switch. When it is in phone position, II closes the a-f fila-
ment transformer primary, 12 removes the short from the modulation trans-
former secondary, and 13 completes the circuit to the primary of the modu-
lator high-voltage transformer. Voltage is applied to all filaments of the
audio section through filament transformer K. At the same time, phone in-
dicator lamp L lights. If the switch is in CW position, the filament primar-
ies of the a-f section are open, and indicator lamp M
lights. 12 short-
circuits the secondary of the modulation transformer to prevent spurious
oscillations in the modulation circuit on CW position. 13 does not affect any
circuitry in the CW position.
Meter M a line voltage indicator. N is a safety interlock switch in the cir-
is
cuit of the bias-supply transformer. Delay-relay P operates only after the
bias supply is fully heated and delivering full output voltage. Operation of
the relay shorts the bias indicator lamp Q, indicating that the plate- supply
relay R is ready for operation. The time required for the operation of delay-
relay P permits the bias supply to warm up enough so that it is safe to apply
plate voltage to the r-f and a-f tubes.
With relay P closed, plate-supply relayR can be energized with the transmit-
receive switch S (or T, an extension of the switch for remote operation).
Relay R turns on all plate voltages, and lights the high-voltage indicator U.
The transmitter is now ready for operation.
Indicator lamp V lights whenever the interlock switch is open. The interlock
opens whenever the top or back of the transmitter has been removed, or has
not been replaced securely. Whenever the interlock is open, all high volt-
ages are removed from the transmitter, for the indicator lamp has enough
reistance to prevent the bias power supply from operating.
W is an overload circuit breaker. Whenever the plate current to the final

amplifier goes too high, exceeding the critical value for which the circuit
breaker has been set, the circuit breaker operates. It opens the plate-supply
relay circuit and causes all high-voltage stages to become inoperative. X,
Y, and Z, are fuse -indicator lamps. They light whenever excess current
opens the fuses associated with them.
The lo-hi switch in the primary of the final high-voltage transformer makes
itpossible to change from high to low power for tuning and testing purposes.
For standby operation, only switch S (and/or T) has to be operated.
6-106 SUMMARY
Varying the inductance or capacitance in an oscillator in accordance with an

audio signal produces FM.
In phase modulation, the instantaneous phase of the signal is varied by the
modulating signal.
A change in phase is equivalent to an instantaneous change in frequency.
In a phase-modulation system, the equivalent frequency deviation is propor-
tional to the frequency of the modulating signal.
When the carrier frequency is varied directly, the process is called direct
FM.
When the carrier is varied indirectly, the process is called indirect FM.
In single sideband transmission, the frequencies produced by the process of
modulation on one side of the carrier are transmitted, and those on the
other side are suppressed.
A crystal filter is a selective circuit using a filter that discriminates against
all signals except those at the center frequency of the crystal.
A linear amplifier develops an output directly proportional in amplitude to
that of the input signal.
In single sideband, since the carrier and one set of sidebands are not present
in the output, a single sideband signal occupies less than half the spec-
trum space of a conventional AM signal.
In the filter method of sideband suppression, one sideband is removed by
quartz -crystal filters or electromechanical filters.
In the phasing method of sideband suppression, the undesired sideband is re-
moved by a process of phase shifting and balanced circuits.
The balanced modulator is desirable for single sideband applications because
the balanced circuitry permits the carrier signal to be canceled out so
that it does not appear in the output.
Transmitter power supplies differ little from conventional receiver supplies
except in the components involved, which must handle much higher volt-
ages and currents.
Transmitters use various types of relays to control the application of power
to various circuits. All controls are designed for the protection of
transmitter components, and for the safety of the operator.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between direct and indirect FM.
2. Explain the difference between frequency and phase modulation.
3. Explain how FM is produced using a reactance -tube modulator.
4. How does a single sideband signal differ from a conventional AM signal?
5. How is the carrier suppressed by the balanced modulator?
6. Explain the filter method of sideband suppression.
7. Explain the phasing method of sideband suppression.
8. What is an advantage of single sideband transmission over double side-
band transmission?
9. What is the function of a linear amplifier?
10. What is the basic difference between transmitter and receiver power
supplies?
11. What is the function of a transmitter control system?
12. What methods are used to prevent a transmitting tube from overheating?
TRANSMISSION LINES 6-107
Transmission Lines
When RECEIVING
1 the ANTENNA is the GENERATOR
and the RECEIVER the LOAD
In most radio communication facilities the transmitting antenna is located at

a distance from the transmitter. It is necessary, therefore, to transport the
r-f energy from the transmitter to the antenna; similarly the signal energy
intercepted by the receiving antenna must be fed to the radio receiver. A
transmission line is used for this purpose.
Another way of describing the function of a transmission line is to say that it

links a generator of electrical energy to its load. When transmitting, the
transmitter is the generator and the antenna is the load. When receiving, the
antenna is~the generator and the receiver is the load.
While true that any two wires can conduct electrical energy from one
it is
point to another, any pair of wires is not generally suitable for use as a
transmission line. The commercial transmission line consists of two con-
ductors arranged so that the device they form displays special electrical
characteristics.
\
6-108 TRANSMISSION LINES
Types of Transmission Lines
There are many types of r-f transmission lines in general use. Of these, the
three most commonly used are the open wire, coaxial cable, and twin or
ribbon lead. Other types used include the twisted lamp cord, and single
wire. In the coaxial type shown, the shield (outer conductor) is sometimes
an aluminum tube with the separators made of rings of plastic, and the in-
side space is filled with an inert gas to prevent moisture formation.
The physical characteristics of the transmission line influence the electrical

characteristics, the amount of electrical power which each type of line can
normally transport, the highest practical frequency of use, and electrical
losses in the line. For example, the open-wire line is usable up to about 200
me over a wide range of power levels, except perhaps for very high-powered
equipment, and is the most efficient electrically, having the lowest losses.
It is normally used when the feedpoint impedance of the antenna (discussed
later) is several hundred ohms or more. The coaxial line is used over a
much wider range of frequencies than the open-wire line, and handles a wide
range of, and very high power levels. The twin-lead transmission line is also
usable over a wide range of frequencies, but its power -handling capability is
limited to perhaps several hundred watts input to the transmitter. Of these
types of transmission lines the coaxial type is the most popular.
TYPES of TRANSMISSION LINES USED in RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
CONDUCTOR
Two uniformly-spaced
OPEN WIRE
parallel conductors,
supported
INSULATING SUPPORT by spacers
(Polyethylene or ceramic)
v >';* 0 ' '>.
•'
-
v S.\ -i< '^£v£;
r
Kvv'- ijC
POLYETHYLENE
Outer INSULATOR Solid or multiple-strand
COAXIAL CABLE
covering inner conductor
(Coax)
centered within
Shield is INNER
outer conductor CONDUCTOR outer shield
(braided)
Two uniformly-spaced
TWIN or
parallel conductors
RIBBON LEAD
encased in
CONDUCTORS polyethylene
INSULATING and
SPACING MATERIAL
Inductance and Capacitance in Transmission Lines
When a d-c voltage or a low-frequency a-c voltage (say, 60 cps) is applied to

two conductors of reasonable length which terminate in a resistive load, the
voltage "sees" the total resistance of the circuit.
In an infinitely-long r-f transmission line, however, energy fed to it will

travel down the line and be completely absorbed. We think of the two long
Inasmuch as
any two
conductors form a every has
separated by conductor inductance resistance
and s and -V\Ar

a dielectric capacitor
an infinite number of shunt capacitance,
series inductance, and resistance sections
having a CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
n L (henries)
\ C (farads)
parallel conductors as forming a capacitance; the current-carrying conduc-

tors possess the property of inductance everywhere along the line. The
same conductors also possess resistance, but this property is disregarded.
Unlike the conventional circuit approach where capacitance and inductance
are "lumped", capacitance and inductance in the infinitely-long transmission
line are distributed throughout the length of the line. The distributed pro-
perties are apportioned into 1-foot lengths. The line can then be said to
have, say, 30 micromicrofarads (uuf) per foot, and 0. 15 microhenries (ph)
per foot. An infinite number of sections of fixed C and L are assumed as
making up the line, each section being identical.
Characteristic Impedance of an Infinitely-Long Transmission Line
The shunt C and series L in each transmission line section comprise an im-
pedance called the characteristic or surge impedance (Z n ) of the line. Z Q
is purely resistive, and constant for any given line.
Your study of a-c electricity taught that Z varies with frequency. This is
not so with the r-f transmission line; here, Z 0 is a fixed quantity, whose
ohmic value is determined by the physical construction of the line. Whereas
OR
low-frequency
a-c voltage
E
in a d-c circuit or in a low-frequency a-c circuit expresses the ratio between

voltage E and current I in the circuit as a whole .
THE CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE Z Q

of a theoretically infinitely long
transmission line expresses the
ratio between E and I at each
point in the circuit rather than
,
in the circuit as a whole.
the voltage applied to a low-frequency circuit "sees" the total impedance Z

of the circuit, the r-f voltage applied to the infinitely-long transmission line
"sees" only the characteristic impedance Z Q at the input of the line. The
current anywhere in the circuit is proportional to the instantaneous voltage
at that particular point. If the applied voltage is 100 volts at one point, and
the current is 1.92 ampere, Z 0 = 100/1.92 = 52 ohms.
Terminating the Transmission Line
The infinitely-long r-f transmission line theoretically establishes the condi-

tion whereby a voltage applied to the line becomes energy which moves down
the line never to return. When this happens, the current and voltage equiva-
lent of the electromagnetic energy are in phase everywhere in the line.
However, the infinitely-long line does not exist. Every practical transmis-
sion line is of finite length. How can such a line be made to perform like the
infinitely-long line?
Imagine an infinitely long line having a Z Q of 52 ohms to be divided (but not

separated) into two parts, A and B. A voltage is applied to this line. It tra-
vels down the line "seeing" 52 ohms everywhere along its path. Now imagine
that part B of the line is cut off and replaced by a resistance equal to the Z 0
of 52 ohms. If a voltage is applied to the line, the energy will advance down
infInitelyTongTneBMBMI^M
Assume an infinitely-long we cut the line
transmission line somewhere along its length
The transmission line to the left of a-b will never "know”

that section® was removed.
The load R = Z 0 will absorb the energy exactly as the infinitely-long line would.
the line as before, not knowing how long the line is. Then it reaches the 52-
ohm termination (the theoretical equivalent of part B). Just as the infinitely-
long line absorbed all the energy traveling down the line, so the 52-ohm ter-
mination absorbs the energy when it reaches the load. In other words, if a
transmission line of finite length is terminated in a resistance equal to its
Zp, the line will, regardless of length, demonstrate all the properties of the
infinitely-long line. Such a line is called a terminated line. It transfers en-
ergy from the input to the load, with only slight loss of energy in the line.
Whatever decrease in energy level (attenuation) does occur is the result of
the R of the conductors as well as leakage in the dielectric that separates the
two conductors. Substantially no losses are due to the characteristic impe-
dance because it does not produce a power loss.
The R-F Transmission Line Transports Electromagnetic Energy
In the d-c circuit and the low-frequency a-c circuit energy is conveyed by
the motion of charge (current). Referring back to the distributed L and C
which make up the transmission line, applying an r-f voltage to the input
causes current to flow into the line - into the first "section" of the line. One
result is the creation of encircling magnetic lines of force around the free
electrons which move as current in each conductor. The two fields combine
in the space between the conductors, producing a composite field. At the
same time, electric lines of force terminating on the moving charges in each
of the conductors appear in the space between the conductors. So we have
magnetic and electric lines of force, the two at right angles, occupying the
space between the two conductors. The two fields combined are called an
IN the OPERATION of the R-F TRANSMISSION LINE
the energy
electromagnetic field.You must visualize the two sets of lines of force (the
electromagnetic appearing first at the input to the line, then advancing
field)
down the line from one imaginary section to the other, carrying the energy
with them. During each half cycle, the current in each of the conductors re-
verses its direction, as do the electric and magnetic lines of force. All the
while the electromagnetic field they form advances away from the input of
the line. Thus, current flow in a terminated transmission line can flow in
opposite directions at many points, but the electromagnetic energy can be
advancing in one direction only.
)
Electrical Wavelength
Let us take a look at the electromagnetic field generated by a 30-mc r-f volt-
age applied to the terminated transmission line. (For convenience, only the
electric component of the field is shown.
The first line of electric force appears with the first increment of input volt-
age and starts moving down the line, followed by the other lines of force cor-
responding to subsequent values of input r-f voltage. Following the positive

alternation, the lines of force for the negative alternation
appear and advance
down the line. Each succeeding cycle produces the identical pattern of elec-
tric lines of force. Note that each set of lines of force corresponding to 1
cycle of the input voltage occupy the same lineal dimension. A measurement
of 1 cycle for the 30-mc input signal shows this
length to be 32. 1 feet. This
dimension is called 1 electrical wavelength, designated by the Greek symbol
\ (lambda). Wavelength related
is to both the electric and magnetic compon-
the same with both
ents of the field created by each cycle; the dimension is
components present. A definition of 1 wavelength could be "the lineal dimen-
amplitude var-
sion occupied by the electric lines of force created by all the
iations of voltage in 1 cycle. " The length of 1 electrical w avelength arises
relationship between velocity of the field (wave) in whatever
from a fixed
medium in which it is traveling, and the frequency of the voltage. It is
velocity of the energy in meters per second

wavelength (x) in meters =
frequency in cycles per second
Electrical Wavelength and Velocity of Propagation
The reference for all velocities of electromagnetic radiations is the velocity

of light in free space: 299, 744, 000 (usually stated as 300, 000, 000) meters
per second, or 984 feet per nsec. Using the above velocity, the wavelength
of a 30-mc wave in free space is
, . . , , „ x , 300.000.000
qqq? qqq = 10 meters
one electrical wavelength (in meters) =
With 1 meter = 39. 37 inches, 10 meters = 10 x 39. 37 = 393. 7 inches, or 32. 8

feet. How was the previous figure of 32. 1 feet derived? The answer is
THE WAVELENGTH VARY with will
the PROPAGATION CONSTANT

FREE-SPACE WAVELENGTH
1 wavelength of a 30-mc signal equals
393.7 INCHES
385.8 inches
in open wire
with VP of 98%
OPEN WIRE
322.8 inches VP = 98%
in a material
with VP of 82%
TWIN LEAD
VP = 82%
259.8 inches
in a material
with VP of 66%
COAXIAL CABLE
VP = 66%
simply that the velocity of propagation (VP) of electromagnetic energy is

most rapid in free space, and is slowed down when advancing in all other
physical media. A transmission line is such a medium; the VP is lower in a
transmission line than in free space. Different kinds of transmission lines
bear different VP constants. When stated as a number, it is a percentage,
with 100% being the velocity of light. Having determined that 1 wavelength of
a 30-mc voltage in space is 32. 8 feet, 98% of this length (in an open-wire
line) is 32. 8 x .98 = 32.1 feet. An electrical wavelength for 60 cps = 3100
miles. The lower the velocity the shorter the electrical wavelength for any
given frequency. When a transmission line is spoken of as being so many
wavelengths long, electrical wavelength is meant with the velocity of propag-
ation already taken into account.
-
Transmission Lines Terminated in Characteristic Impedance
WHEN A PROPERLY TERMINATED LINE

of any length is subject to a wave
of energy, all points along it are
subject to all values of voltage
and current
the line behaves as if a constant

amplitude voltage was applied to it.
When an electromagnetic wave representative of energy between zero and

maximum values advances along a transmission line terminated in a resis-
tance equal to its Z 0 , each point along the line from input to load is subject
to like levels of energy from zero to maximum. Since this energy is the re-
sult of the application of a cyclic variation between zero and maximum of the
input voltage, every point along the line is subject to voltage (and current)
values between zero and maximum. Whether the line is long or short, no
point will show any fixed value of voltage (or current) different from any oth-
er. In other words, there will be no points of maximum voltage or current
(loops), or points of zero voltage or current (nodes) or any values in be-
,
tween. The line is flat.
Regardless of what may be the instantaneous polarity of the voltage (and cur-
rent) at any point along the line, at a distance of 1 wavelength (x) from this
point, the polarity or phase is repeated. At a distance of a 1/2 X however,
the polarity or the phase are inverted. This is an important property of the
1/2-X or full X terminated line. A 1/2 -X line or odd multiple thereof is a po-
larity or a phase changer, while two 1/2-X lines or even multiplesof a 1/2-X
line become a polarity or phase repeater.
The Phase of Voltage and Current THEREFORE |
Changes Every Half -Wavelength the phase of the

voltage at the
input to a half-
wavelength line
°
is inverted 180
at the output.
the phase of
the input to a +
Zo ('V
full -wave line
is duplicated
at the output.
Transmission Line Not Terminated in Characteristic Impedance
It is conceivable that for any one of

many possible reasons a transmis- MISMATCHED LINES
sion line may be terminated in a re-
Energy goes down the line
sistance not equal to its Z 0 . If the
difference in the ohmic values of the
two is not too great, say 10 to 25%,
it can be ignored in most instances.
But if the difference is substantial,
say 2 to 1, a new and important set
or Z|_ <>
of voltage and current conditions are
created. Such a relationship be- does not equal<
tween the ohmic values of the Z Q Zp f
and the load is called an impedance
Energy goes back up
mismatch. The greater the differ-
the line from the mismatch
ence in the line and load impedances,
the greater the mismatch.
Energy sent down the line toward the

load finally reaches it, but is only
partially absorbed. That portion not
absorbed is reflected from the load,
and travels back up the line to the
generator. All the while energy is
leaving the generator and advancing
toward the load. So we have current
and voltage traveling in two direc- The two
waves
tions simultaneously in the line. Let combine
us concern ourselves with only volt- and
age, although reflection of current
also occurs. The forward and re-
flected voltage waves combine and
produce resultant sum voltage waves
known as standing voltage waves. produce STANDING WAVES
This means fixed points of maximum all along the line
and zero voltage along the line. The
useful energy absorbed by the load
is the difference between the forward
energy and the reflected energy.
Hence, the greater the mismatch
the less energy sent down the line
becomes useful energy. When a
transmission line is used to deliver
OA voltmeter across a line
$
having standing waves

electrical energy from one point to
shows different voltages
the other, correct matching of the
at different points
load impedance to the transmission
lineimpedance is vital. A badly
mismatched line makes it difficult
to properly "dip" the final amplifier
in a transmitter.
-
Resonant Transmission Lines (Open Circuited)
A resonant transmission line has standing waves of voltage and current. Im-
agine a transmission line open circuited at the load end. A mismatch exists,
hence reflection of the applied r-f voltage and current occurs. The standing
wave pattern of voltage and current distribution at the frequency for which the
line is dimensioned is very useful.
Looking at the open end of the line, we say that the electrical condition of the
open circuit is the equivalent of an infinite impedance; hence minimum cur-
rent and maximum voltage. One quarter X back from this point the standing
wave of the current is maximum while the voltage is minimum. This indi-
cates that the impedance is minimum, or a short-circuit exists. So, a 1/4-x
open line presents a minimum impedance at one end and a maximum imped-
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN-END LINES

At X the behavior
is the same as
at I/2X.
therefore a half-
wave open line
behaves as a
h 1 /2X" H
l/2Xback -
4= =»-
voltage is Hi Z Hi Z
maximum and
current is
minimum, 1-to-l impedance
transformer.
therefore a quarter
voltage is wave open line
minimum and behaves as a
current is
maximum, Low
* I-I/4X-I
very low impedance
at the input and a very
high impedance at the output.
any length
(arbitrarily 1-1/2X).
ance at the other, at the frequency for which the line is 1/4 x. Either end
can be the high-impedance end, which would make the other end the low- im-
pedance end. Another 1/4 x back along the line we note minimum current
and maximum voltage; the same conditions as at the open load end. Thus, a
1/2-X section of open line presents a high impedance at both ends. This is
also true for whole number multiples (2, 3, 4, etc.,) of the 1/2-X open line
with 180° phase changes in voltage. Moving back another 1/4 X to the 3/4 \
point, we note maximum current and minimum voltage again. Thus, odd
multiples (3, 5, 7, etc.,) of the 1/4-x open line duplicate the conditions of the
1/4-x open line accompanied by 180° phase changes in the current.
- -
,
Resonant Transmission Lines (Short-Circuited)
Imagine another extreme case of mismatch — the shorted transmission line.

An r-f voltage is applied and reflection occurs at the point of mismatch.
Standing waves of current and voltage appear on the line. The current at the
shorted end is maximum while the voltage is minimum, a condition which de-
velops when the impedance is minimum. Working back from the shorted end,
we note changing minimum and maximum impedance values at points corres-
ponding to 1/4 X, 1/2 X, 3/4 x, and X at the frequency of operation.
At 1/4 x back from the shorted end is a maximum impedance point indicated
by maximum voltage and minimum current. (If you compare the shorted 1/ 4-
X line with the open 1/4 X discussed on the preceding page, the impedance
conditions are exactly reversed.) At the 1/2 X point the shorted line presents
At the full -wavelength point, behavior a half-wave shorted line

is like that at the half -wavelength point. behaves as a very low
impedance at input
At a half wavelength back from

the shorted end, voltage is Low Z
Low Z
minimum and current is max- in out
imum
At the three -quarter -wavelength
point, behavior is like that at the
quarter -wavelength point.
a quarter
At a quarter wavelength shorted line
wavelength back
from the shorted
~tl Low Z
out
end, voltage is
maximum and
behaves as a very high
current is
impedance at the input;
minimum.
any length
(arbitrarily lH\)
minimum impedance, a duplicate of the conditions at the shorted end. At a

point 3/4 X back from the shorted end the electrical condition is a repetition
of that which exists 1/4 x back from the shorted end. A full wavelength (X)
back, the impedance again is minimum, as at the 1/2 X point.
Summarizing the electrical conditions described above, we can say that odd
multiples (3, 5, of the 1/4-x
7, etc. , ) shorted line repeat the electrical con-
ditions encountered at the 1/4 X point, accompanied by 180° phase changes in
the voltage. Also, shorted transmission lines containing whole number mul-
tiples (2, 3, 4, 5, etc.,) of 1/2 X at the operating frequency duplicate the
electrical conditions encountered in the 1/2-x shorted line, accompaniedby
180° phase changes in the current.
» — 1O
Properties of Transmission Line Sections
Although the main purpose of a transmission line is to deliver energy from

one place to another, sections of an r-f transmission line can, under proper
conditions, be used to simulate tuned circuits, circuit elements C and L,
phase inverters, impedance transformers, and other similar devices. A
SECTIONS
MISMATCHED
of a
LOOKS LIKE A SHORT
CIRCUIT; IN PRACTICE
A VERY LOW RESISTANCE
—
h
O' "
O
X/
<
— -O
O
OPEN
TRANSMISSION LINE LOOKS LIKE AN OPEN O

CIRCUIT; IN PRACTICE — SHORTED
HIGH RESISTANCE O
LOOKS LIKE —O OPEN

OPEN CIRCUIT o
(VERY HIGH RES.)
O'
LOOKS LIKE — SHORTED
SHORT CIRCUIT o
(VERY LOW RES.)
LESS THAN -
———^
X/4
I-
LOOKS LIKE A OPEN "
CAPACITANCE
BEHAVE LIKE L-C CIRCUITS LOOKS LIKE AN SHORTED

! INDUCTANCE
BETWEEN _
x/
4 AND x/ 2
LOOKS LIKE AN OPEN
INDUCTANCE
LOOKS LIKE A " SHORTED

CAPACITANCE
tuned circuit displays certain forms of behavior at and around the frequency
to which it is tuned; so will a resonant transmission-line section when the
physical length of the section corresponds to the desired part of an electrical
wavelength allowing for the velocity of propagation of the line. The following
equations are useful for dimensioning r-f transmission lines:
5904J<VP 2952 » VP »76 x VP

1 /2 J
_ 1/4l _ 1/8x _
(in inches) f (me) (in inches) f (me) (in inches) f (me)
The action attributed to the section of the line takes place at the "input" end.
This is the end opposite to where the line is shorted or open circuited. The
device connected to the input end of the line "sees" the electrical condition.
Typical Applications of Transmission-Line Sections
source of signals
©-+ a quarter -wavelength open line is

connected If
Jopen
o-4^d-o- .end connected across any source of
signals, the source will "see" a

A quarter- -I/4X-
very low impedance at the frequency
wave line series
behaves resonant for which the line was dimensioned.
like a circuit.
any antenna
A quarter -wave open line connected
to an antenna will "short circuit" the
antenna over a narrow band of
transmission
line to
frequencies around the frequency for receiver
which the line was dimensioned.
open end
A quarter -wave open line cut for an

interfering signal frequency and
connected to the antenna terminals
of a receiver will act as a short
circuit (trap) over a narrow band of
frequencies around the interfering
frequency.
and a half-wave line terminated

in a resistance or impedance Z will
display the same impedance at the
input, accompanied by a 180°
A half-wave open phase inversion.
line acts as a
1 -to -1 impedance
transformer,
A few broad interpretations of the action of transmission-line sections are

shown above. There are, of course, many others, several of which appear
in the antenna section in this volume.
" :
WAVE PROPAGATION 6-121
Radiation
The mechanism whereby a transmitting antenna liberates r-f energy deliver-

ed to it from a transmitter, is called radiation. For radiation to occur,
changing current must flow in the antenna. The energy-converting system
(antenna) must have capacitance with open rather than confined electric lines
of force. The coaxial transmission line is an excellent example of a carrier
of electromagnetic energy with confined electric and magnetic lines of force.
Although the action shown is very much simplified, and related to a particu-
lar type of antenna known as a dipole, the sequence of action is the same for
all types. Only the electric loops of force are shown as a matter of conven-
ience. Magnetic loops of force are also generated simultaneously, these be-
ing positioned at right angles to the electric loops of force. Lines of electric
k A
L THE PHENOMENON OF RADIATION JHH|
o|o :
\/ ../-x
(f>;
\y 0 \/
)V/ '
;V
'"s r\
•
/X-vrXX
ii T '
\ \ \
f
i
/
If
1
.
1
V',
t
'
' 1
\ i • ,'JK \
®
\ \
!
* * * * * * *<§>* * * * KSt
''
\ \
*
[
'•jr
/
J j j
i \
4
\
T
J 1 l i
4
,
4
Y'-'
1
*
i
t
i
ys?‘ -H2M-
O (S \ \ / /
/\ Q
/\Xy \\
^x
\y
/J
; '
force having one direction of action build outward during the rise in voltage
in an alternation, then tend to collapse back into the antenna when the voltage
falls, but they cannot do so completely before the applied voltage changes its
direction and generates new electric lines of force of a different direction.
These too, expand outward, and in so doing push some of the previously col-
lapsing electric lines of force away from the antenna, propagating them out
into space. When the voltage starts to decrease, the new electric lines tend
to collapse into the antenna, but cannot do so completely before the new
cycle of voltage begins, hence these also are propagated into space. Thus
the energy corresponding to the current and voltage fed to the antenna moves
out into space as inseparably associated electric and magnetic loops of force.
t
6-122 WAVE PROPAGATION
Electric and Magnetic Fields in Free Space
The electromagnetic wave or radio wave radiated into free space consists of
simplified fashion by imagining that an observer in space "sees" tiny seg-

ments of the moving electric and magnetic loops of force passing by him.
They appear as straight lines positioned at right angles to each other. The
plane of the electric lines of force relative to the horizontal surface of the
earth indicates the polarization of the radiation. In the illustration, the ra-
diation is horizontally polarized, in which case the magnetic lines of force
are perpendicular to the earth. Horizontally polarized waves are radiated
by horizontally positioned antennas. In vertical polarization, the vertically
polarized wave has its electric lines of force perpendicular to the earth's
surface, and its magnetic lines of force parallel to the earth's surface. It is
radiated by antennas which are similarly positioned. The changes in the dir-
ection of action of the lines of force of the field correspond to the changes in
polarity of the driving voltage and current in the antenna which radiated the
energy. Of greatest significance in the presentation of the electromagnetic
field moving in free space is the fact that the directions of the electric and
magnetic field lines of force are mutually perpendicular (differ by 90°) in
space, but are in phase in time (both pass through maximum and zero togeth-
er). Both are at right angles to the direction of advance of the energy.
The Free-Space Wave (Velocity, Frequency, and Wavelength)
The RADIO WAVE of a PULSE leaves a POINT SOURCE as an

EXPANDING SPHERE of ENERGY - with the energy uniformly
distributed ALONG the SURFACE of the SPHERE
'
'
. 1968
984
Same radius
SllOM as that of
v*/
= 0 the earth
Time: 1
=
energy just I 1 t** ee
released t = 21 msec
Note: Velocity of 3 x 10 8 meters per second = 984 feet per psec
Electromagnetic energy has a constant velocity in free space — the velocity

of light. It is approximated at 299,744,000 meters per second, roughly
300,000,000 (3 x 108) meters per second, or 186,000 miles per second.
When explaining propagation we assume a theoretical point source of radia-
tion from which the energy spreads out uniformily in all directions, just as
if it were an expanding sphere with the energy lying along the surface. Inas-
much as the energy delivered to the antenna, and from the antenna to space
is fixed in amount every second, only this much energy is available to be
spread along the surface of the expanding sphere. Hence, as the sphere gets
bigger as the energy is propagated, the amount of energy lying along any unit
area of the sphere, decreases. Conforming with the geometric law that the
surface area of a sphere increases as the square of its radius, the signal
strength at any sampling point decreases inversely as the square of the dis-
tance to the transmitter. If the distance is doubled the signal strength de-
creases to one-fourth; if it is tripled, it decreases to one-ninth.
The frequency of the radiated wave is determined by the frequency of the

voltages and currents applied to the radiating antenna. Concerning the elec-
trical wavelength of the signal in free space, the term has exactly the same
meaning as for the electromagnetic wave moving through a transmission line,
with one difference. This is that the velocity of propagation of free space is
1, whereas for all other media it is some fraction of 1.
The Relationship Between VELOCITY (V], FREQUENCY (f), and WAVELENGTH (X]
Example: A 20 me signal in free space
V ( meter/second) = f (cps) x X (meters) V (meter/ second) * 20, 000, 000 x 15

= 300,000,000 meter/second
300, 000, 000

velocity (meter/ second) f (cycles)
f (cps) = 15
X (meters) = 20,000,000 cps
velocity (meter/ second) . 300, 000, 000

X (meters) A (meters) =
f (cps) 20, 000, 000 = 15 meters
The Wavefront
Although we have spoken of spherical propagation of electromagnetic waves,

an observer located in space (or at a receiving antenna) would "see" the radio
wave approaching as a transverse plane surface or sheet of radio energy
perpendicular to the direction of advance. We call the arriving sheet of
energy the wavefront. Signal energy arriving at any receiving point arrives
there as a wavefront. The wavefront is considered a plane rather than a
A RADIO WAVE APPROACHES as a SHEET of ENERGY

Radiating
tv, Source
\V\= The advancing wavefront
Source
.
^ ^
I
\|K
t-vi
1\
\
' s f ^ e etJ u v °lent of a
'
vertical sheet of
4 A small segment
electromagnetic energy
is in effect at every receiving
point. It contains
A sma IT 4 a straight line
segment of an'.^ electric and
arc of a circle
of
^\
very great radius
J magnetic energy
is a straight line
Earth Reference
curved surface because any tiny segment of a circle or sphere of great radi-
us is for all intents and purposes a straight line or plane.
Ifwe could see the makeup of the wavefront, it would consist of electric and
magnetic lines of force (E and H lines) at right angles to each other. If at
one instant the E lines pointed to the right, the H lines would point upward; if
the E lines pointed to the left, the H lines would point downward.
Polariza-
tion of the radiated energy is indicated by the plane of the E
lines in the
wavefront; horizontal E lines indicate horizontal polarization, whereas verti-
cal E lines indicate vertical polarization. In either case the E lines are the
equivalent of voltage in space, which if given the opportunity to act on an ob-
ject lying in their path will induce a difference of potential (a voltage) in
the
object. Metallic objects (antennas) are subject to the maximum flow
Of cur-
rent because of the voltage induced in the antenna. Horizontally positioned
antennas are subject to the greatest difference of potential by horizontally
polarized E lines, vertical antennas by vertical E lines in the wavefront.
Practical Wave Propagation
Although radio propagation takes place in all directions from a theoretical

antenna, the distribution of radiated energy from the practical antenna is not
always uniform in all directions. Radio energy leaves the practical antenna
in a number of significant directions which greatly influence the
ability to
communicate by this means. In showing the radiation we use the ray tech-
nique; actually the radiated energy fills in the spaces between the rays.
Some of the radiated energy is directed upward from the antenna.

This is
vertical radiation, and is generally of limited use. Some of the energy (sky
waves) leaves the antenna at such angles relative to the surface of the earth
that it advances towards the sky and contributes a great deal to long distance
communication. Some of the energy (direct or space) leaves. the antenna
parallel to the earth’s surface for perhaps 30 to 75 miles. Then, some of the
energy (ground-reflected) leaves the antenna at such an angle as t6 strike the
earth at many places to perhaps,
within 20, 75 miles from the antenna,
bounce off the earth,and advance upward. Finally, some of the energy
leaves the antenna and travels along the earth's surface - even penetrating
the surface somewhat. This radiation is called the ground wave or surface
component.
The usefulness of these radiations is determined by numerous factors. Fre-

quency is very important. It determines, for example, the extent to which
the ground wave is useful; it also determines which of the radiations directed
towards the sky will return to earth, and which will be lost in space. (The
time of the day and the season of the year are important. ) It also determines
the distance over which the direct and ground-reflected waves are useful.
Radio energy that leaves the antenna is identified

in terms of its direction of advance
VERTICAL
RADIATION
Ground, Ground-Reflected, and Direct Waves
It is generally felt that the ground wave embraces all radiations other than
the sky waves and vertical radiation. Taking this approach, ground-wave
radiation consists of three components: the surface component, which moves
along the surface of the earth with the bottom edge of its wavefront in contact
with the surface of the earth, in which it induces minute earth currents; poor
BEHAVIOR of the i
COMPONENTS
At frequencies higher
than 30 me act
together at receiving
point for line -of -sight
reception over
distances up to
75 miles
much greater distances over

, and water~fo~“
r
over land) io and 250 kc 1
w’ee n
2S °
dj st,
di
Lgnces ,
^surface' *L* ater

SeVe * frequencies between 3000 and 30, 000 kc '%
,,
es {or ,# COMTONENt
Up t0 7& :
EFFECTIVENESS
conductivity, dry, sandy soil tends to attenuate the earth currents thus limit-
ing the range of communication. Moist soil or salt water are high-conduc-
tivity paths which aid propagation, and therefore extend greatly the distance
that can be spanned by this radiation. The most useful frequencies are those
up to about 3 me, although the surface component is effective over shorter
distances at frequencies up to 30 me.
When the frequency of radiation is higher than 30 me, and the distance to be
spanned is within about 75 miles, the signal reaching the receiving antenna is
a combination of the direct and the ground-reflected waves. This is called
line-of-sight reception because the transmitting and receiving antennas can
usually "see" each other. Two phenomena are significant in line-of-sight
reception. The direct and ground-reflected waves leave the transmitting
an-
tenna with the same signal phase but travel different paths to the receiving
antenna. These paths may be of different length. Because the ground-
reflected signal suffers a 180° phase reversal at the point of reflection,
it is
conceivable that the two signals may aid or oppose each other in the receiving
antenna. The resultant signal may be stronger or weaker than the direct-
path signal alone. Varying the height of the receiving antenna can improve
a
weakened signal situation.
Line-of-Sight Propagation: Temperature Inversion
The effectiveness depends on the relative heights

of line-of-sight propagation
ability of the two
of the transmitting and receiving antennas, that is, the
devices to "see" each other. The amount of power radiated by the transmit-
ting antenna will have a great influence on the distance
covered. Transmit-
ters rated at 1 or 2 watts or less will seldom span these distances.
Some-
times, they will be effective only over a mile, or possibly less. Extremely
sensitive noise-free receivers greatly extend the range. An
approximation
of the optical horizon or useful range of transmission can be made by apply-
ing the equation:
distance " /transmitter receiver

.
(inmiles)
x [
VV antenna height (in ft) V/ antenna height (m ft) /
Given a transmitting antenna 400 feet above ground, and a receiving antenna
25 feet above ground, the maximum theoretical useful distance for
communi-
cation is
distance (in miles) = 1. 41 x ( a/400 + V^)

= 1. 41 x 25 = 35. 25 miles
= 1. 41 x (20 + 5)
Temperature Inversion
On occasion, transmission of frequencies above 30 me is accomplished over

many times the normal range. (This distance may be 500 miles or more.)
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

HOT DRY AIR.
This part
Radio energy
of the wave gets ahead
travels faster
here than
COOl"MOiST
in
AIRr^^C^V
_
L 5
I ^
^ of that in the lower layer,
e wave
'
-^7
* mm mm * dow
bends downward.
phenomenon
The relatively long distance transmission is attributable to a
At certain times during the year, usually
known as temperature inversion.
sometimes in the summer, layers of hot, dry air may be at
Spring and Fall,
Radiation that nor-
higher elevations above the earth than cool, moist air.
mally would pass over antennas near the ground is bent back to earth,
antennas far beyond the optical horizon as seen from the
striking receiving
transmitting antenna.
Sky-Wave Propagation (The Ionosphere)
In the early days of radio communication the reasons underlying the recep-
tion of signals from long distances were not understood. Two scientists, an
Englishman named Heaviside, and an American named Kennelly, suggested
that far above the earth as part of our atmosphere, was an electrified layer
of gaseous particles which enveloped the earth and reflected radio waves back
to earth at a long distance from their point of origin. This became known as
the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Subsequent research established that there
was not one layer, but several deep regions of ionized particles which bear
the single name ionosphere. Today, we know it as the D, E, Fi, and F2,
regions. The regions exist at various heights above the earth, moving up and
down at different times of the day, week, month, and year. The Fj, and F2
regions combine at night during winter and summer into a single F region,
whereas the D and E regions apparently disappear at night.
The ionized state is produced by bombardment of the upper regions of our at-
mosphere by gamma rays, ultraviolet rays, electrons, and other particles
emitted by the sun, as well as cosmic rays from outer space. By virtue of
the variation in density of the atmosphere at different heights above the earth,
different degrees of ionization exist during the day and night, at different
times of the year. The importance of the changing ionization and the changing
height of the ionized regions above the earth is in the way in which they per-
mit sky-wave radiations of certain frequencies which enter these regions to
pass through them, while others are bent back (refracted) towards the earth.
Sometimes we say that the energy is reflected back to earth.
Angle of Radiation and Skip Distance
The Lower the Angle of

Radiation the greater
the distance spanned
because the point of
reflection is farther
away [
Lower angle N.
Higher angle of radiation \.
of radiation
-
A
I®
lr ' 1
— earth surface
.
\ ,
Ionosphere- Reflected Signals
Skip over
Parts of the Earth
and create
” no-signal" areas
Skip zonej
Ground wave |
No signal !
Second skip zone
Increased skip zone No signal
No signal
and
The distance spanned by one "hop" of a radio signal into the ionosphere
back to earth varies according to the angle of radiation of the transmitting
antenna, and the height of the reflecting region in the ionosphere.
The gngle
the angle made between the center of the wavefront radiated
of radiation is
earth's surface
toward the sky by the antenna and a line drawn parallel to the
at the antenna. The lower the angle of radiation the greater the distance em-
braced between the point of origin and point of return to earth of the reflected
wavefront. The angle of radiation of an antenna of any given frequency is a
of the
function of the height of the transmitting antenna above the surface
earth, the angle becoming lower as the antenna height is increased.
It characteristic of ionosphere reflected waves that the point of nearest

is
the
return to earth is at a greater distance from the transmitting antenna than
covered by ground-wave radiation. Thus, there is a silent or skip
distance
zone between where the surface ground-wave radiation becomes
ineffective,
and the reflected sky-wave signal is first detected. This skip distance may
miles or more. As the signal frequency is increased,
be many hundreds of
skip distance is increased. Long-distance coverage is also accomplished by
multiple hops of the radiated energy. After being reflected back to earth
surface
from the ionosphere the first time, the signal bounces off land or sea
earth again atamuch greater distance. Thus,
toward the sky, to return to the
reach Los Angeles on the first bounce;
a signal leaving New York City could
Hawaii on the second bounce and farther distances by additional reflections.
All radiations reflected to earth again bounce off, but the energy
may not al-
be detected at the second and third points of return.
ways be sufficient to
* 1
6-130 ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
The Fundamental Antenna
A transmitting antenna is a structure made of metal which liberates (radiates)

radio-frequency current and voltage supplied to it as electromagnetic energy
into space. A receiving antenna also is a structure made of metal which in-
tercepts electromagnetic energy moving through space, and converts it into
voltage and current of corresponding frequency.
The fundamental radio antenna is a metal rod or tubing which has a physical
length approximately equal to one-half wavelength in free space at the fre-
The SIMPLE DIPOLE is
a CONTINUOUS ROD of CONDUCTING MATERIAL
L X/4 X/
X/2
OR
it is SPLIT at the CENTER
X/4 —
quency of operation. Such a structure is known as a half-wave length dipole,

which name is often abridged to half-wave dipole. It is also known as the
Hertz antenna. Sometimes the half-wave dipole is called a half-wave doublet.
Dipole and doublet mean the same thing as long as the electrical dimensions
of the two are the same. A dipole antenna is defined as "a symmetrical an-
tenna in which the two ends are at equal potential relative to the midpoint".
A half-wave dipole (or doublet) is usually positioned horizontally relative to

the earth's surface, but, it can, if properly supported, be mounted vertically
or obliquely. Another identity given the half-wave dipole is "zero-db gain
antenna". This identification is useful only when some other structure used
as an antenna affords certain advantages in the concentration of radiation,
and is compared with the half-wave dipole. Such concentration of radiation
is, as you shall see, the equivalent of having obtained more energy from the
transmitter, without actually doing so.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS 6-131
The Half-Wavelength Dimension
The wavelength symbolized by the Greek letter (x) called lambda, of any sig-
nal in free space is given by
velocity of propagation (meters per second)

^me ers; _-
/ , >
frequency of signal (cycles)
= 300. 000, 000

(cycles)
Since the unit meter is not the most convenient to work with, especially when
dipole antenna lengths are frequently given in feet and inches, the following
equivalents for conversion will allow direct use of the determined dimensions:
1 meter = 39. 37 inches 1 me = 1, 000, 000 cycles
, 300. 000. 000 x 39. 37 300 x 39.37 11.811

x Uncnes '
000, 000 X f (cycles) f (me) f (me)
1/2 \ is one-half of this value, or, 1/2 X in inches = 5906/f (in me). If it is
desired to find 1/2 \ in feet, divide by 12, which leads to 1/2 X (feet) = 492/f
(in me).
Practical conductor materials up to about 1 inch in diameter used for trans-

mitting antennas, allow the movement of electromagnetic energy along the
metal at about only 95% of its velocity in free space. Thus, the equation for
the 1/2 X dimension in free space is modified by the VP factor 0.95. Then,
492 x 0.95 468

1/2 X for thin conductors (feet) =
f (me) f (me)
5906 x 0.95 5609

(inches) = _
f (me) f (me)
Resonance in the Half-Wave Dipole
Every half-wave dipole (continuous rod or split) is the equivalent of a reso-

nant circuit. It has distributed L, C, and R. The L is present in the metal-
lic elements when current flows. The C exists between portions of the me-
tallic elements of the antenna, as well as between the elements and the ad-
AN ANTENNA HAS PROPERTIES OF
a: 3<L
INDUCTANCE I CAPACITANCE
RESISTANCE
AND CAN BE TUNED
OVER A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES ON EITHER SIDE OF
THE FREQUENCY FOR WHICH IT WAS CUT.
jacent earth (ground). The R takes the form of electrical losses associated
with the r-f currents rather than the d-c resistance of the metal, although
this too exists.
Like the conventional L-C circuit, a half-wave dipole antenna can be made
resonant only to one frequency, the frequency for which it has been "cut".
This frequency is determined by the L-C constants, principally by L, that is,
the length of the antenna elements. To change the resonant frequency, the
length of the elements is altered as needed. Although the half-wave dipole is
dimensioned for a certain frequency it will, like any resonant L-C circuit,
function over a narrow range of frequencies both sides of resonance. While
it is impossible to set definite limits of the bandwidth of an antenna, and have
it apply to every antenna, we can say that the usual bandwidths embrace sev-
eral percent of the resonant frequency above and below resonance. Whether
the antenna will "tune" broadly or sharply, is a function of its Q, which in
turn is a function of the outside diameter of the antenna elements. The larg-
er this diameter, the lower the Q of the antenna, hence, the broader its ac-
ceptance bandwidth. Equally important, an outside diameter of 2. 5 inches or
more can reduce the physical length equal to a 1/2 X at any given frequency,
by as much as 10% of that for a 0. 5- or 1-inch diameter element.
Voltage and Current in the Half-Wave Dipole
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON A HALF-WAVE DIPOLE

CURRENT IS MAXIMUM AT the midpoint
OF THE HALF-WAVE ELEMENT
WHEREAS
VOLTAGE IS MAXIMUM AT THE ENDS
With very few exceptions all types of transmitting antennas function with
standing waves of voltage and current along the elements. Voltage is fed to
the antenna and current flows to the open end. It cannot go further, hence
becomes zero. The related magnetic field collapses back into the antenna
and makes the voltage maximum at the ends. A fixed pattern of standing
wave develops in the half-wave dipole as long as energy is supplied to the
antenna. In the 1/2 X metal rod (continuous or split) the standing wave pat-
tern of voltage and current has the voltage maximum at the ends and mini-
mum at the center. The current is maximum at the center and minimum at
the ends.
The standing wave of voltage and current is not influenced by the orientation
of the antenna; can be physically positioned horizontally, vertically, or ob-
it
liquely. Neither is the standing wave pattern influenced by the amount of en-
ergy supplied to the antenna; the pattern is the same for small and large
amounts of power, and it is the same for small diameter or large diameter
elements.
IN a WIRE ONE WAVELENGTH LONG (A)

current I is minimum at the center, while
voltage E is maximum
mm*
INA WIRE THREE HALF-WAVELENGTHS

L0N6 (B)the current I is maximum at the
center while voltage E is minimum
Antenna Impedance
A characteristic of the standing waves of voltage and current on the half-wave

dipole (or, on any antenna on which standing waves exist) is that the ratio be-
tween E and I, or E/I is not constant along the length of the antenna. The
reason is that I and E do not change together. If we use the ratio E/I to ex-
press the impedance of the antenna, the impedance is not constant along the
length of the element. Assuming a resonant half-wave dipole, the impedance
THE ANTENNA RESISTANCE OF A HALF-WAVE BIPOLE AT RESONANCE IS LOWEST AT THE CENTER

AND INCREASES SYMriÂllY ON EACH . E OF THE CENTER.
Resistance
Antenna
is lowest at the center, this being where the current is maximum. On the
other hand, the impedance is maximum at the ends where the voltage is max-
imum yet the current is minimum. The center of the antenna is considered
to be a narrow region, perhaps 1/2 to 3/4 inch each side of the exact middle
of the rod.
Most half-wave dipoles are fed at the center because the maximum current
point is the minimum voltage point, and it is easier to produce transmission
lines for low voltage than for high voltage. Also, when the half-wave dipole
is resonant, the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance cancel each
other, leaving resistance only as the net impedance. Under such conditions
the antenna impedance is resistive between any two points equidistant from
the center along the antenna length.
Antenna Input Impedance and Radiation Resistance

antenna is
The desired electrical relationship between a transmitter and an
power generated in the transmitter is deliv-
when as much as possible of the
Similarly, is desirable to deliver to the receiver the
ered to the antenna. it
maximum possible amount of energy intercepted by the antenna. For this to

impedance of
happen, the "input" to the antenna must match the characteristic
the output imped-
the transmission line, which in turn is assumed to match
impedance is
ance of the transmitter. Thus, the important aspect of antenna
point where the transmission line is connected. This
the impedance at the
impedance, feedpoint imped -
point is called by several names, antenna input
resistance. Of these three names the first two are self-
ance, and radiation
evident. Radiation resistance is defined as a fictitious resistance which
when substituted for the antenna would consume as much power as the anten-
na radiates.
In a 1/2 \ resonant dipole, the antenna feedpoint impedance

has a theoretical
space.
value of about 72 ohms. This is for an infinitely thin antenna in free
100
90
«/>
80
|
O
Z 70
LU
u 60
Z
<
LU
et 40
Z
2
t—
30
<
a 20
<
HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND IN WAVELENGTHS
fairly
If it a conventional element up to about 1-inch diameter, and located
is
close to ground, its value will fluctuate between about 60 and 90 ohms de-
pending on the antenna height above ground. If the diameter of the antenna
element is 2 or 3 inches, the feedpoint impedance can be as low as 35 ohms.
While we say that the feedpoint impedance or the radiation resistance is
purely resistive, this is true only when the wavelength of the dipole
corres-
ponds to the frequency of operation. Fortunately, however, there is enough
latitude to permit the antenna to accept energy from the
transmitter over a
narrow band of frequencies each side of the resonant frequency.
Directivity of Resonant Half-Wave Dipole
While a point-source radiator located in space radiates equally in all direc-

tions, this is never true with practical antennas. All antennas radiate more
energy in some directions than in others. The directions in which an anten-
na radiates best is the favorable direction for response as a receiving anten-
ALL RESONANT HALF WAVE DIPOLES

radiate best and afford best signal pickup
broadside to the antenna element
MAXIMUM
RADIATION
na. A pictorial representation of the pattern of radiation is called the direc-

tivity pattern, and applies to reception and transmission. The cause for dir-
ectional radiation by a resonant half-wave antenna is that the radiation inten-
sity is proportional to the square of the current in the antenna, but since
the
current is not the same everywhere in the antenna, more energy is radiated
from certain parts than from others.
In the resonant half-wave dipole, radiation and signal pickup takes place
per-
pendicular to the long axis of the antenna, with very little radiation (theoret-
ically zero) in line with the long axis. An antenna mounted horizontally
in
space would have a radiation pattern that resembles a doughnut. If we cut a
slice in the horizontal plane through the doughnut, the slice would
resemble
a figure 8, with the antenna positioned at the crossover point. This is the
characteristic radiation and signal pickup pattern of a horizontally positioned
resonant half-wave antenna. If the long axis pointed east-west, maximum
radiation and signal pickup would be north and south, and vice-versa. It
is
standard practice to orient horizontally-positioned antennas so that
an ima-
ginary line drawn normal from the midpoint of the antenna element
would
point in the desired direction. The proximity of ground to the antenna
affects
the radiation pattern by changing the angle of radiation in the vertical
plane.
ANTENNAS 6-137
Parasitic Arrays (Yagi Antennas)
The parasitic array a way of using resonant half-wave dipoles to concen-

is
radiation in undesired di-
trate radiation in a desired direction and minimize
the antenna. The reference is the half-wave
rections. This affords gain in
dipole previously identified as the zero db gain anten na. If an an-
resonant
relative to radiated
tenna design is said to afford a gain of 3 db, the result
direction the same as if the zero db gain resonant half-
energy in a chosen is
from the trans-
wave dipole had been used with twice as much power obtained
power; 6 db = 4 time increase in power;
mitter. (3 db = 2 time increase in
power. An antenna with gain tends to concen-
10 db = 10 time increase in )
therefore the antenna must
trate the radiated energy into a narrower beam,
be pointed more accurately.
parasitic array or beam antenna contains several

elements: a resonant
A
dipole that receives power from the transmitter, or which delivers
half-wave
DESIRED DESIRED
DESIRED
direction
direction direction
DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
DRIVEN ELEMENT DRIVEN ELEMENT DRIVEN ELEMENT
((
REFLECTOR ((
REFLECTOR
TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION
LINE LINE LINE
UNDESIRED UNDESIRED UNDESIRED

direction direction direction
the received power to the receiver, is called the driven element; also,
and
one or more continuous metal rods (the parasitic elements) which are paral-
lel to the driven element at the same "line -of- sight" level. The rods are
electrically coupled to, but not connected to, the driven element. The rod in
front of the driven element is the director Sometimes,
. two or more direc-
tors are used. The rod in back of the driven element is the reflector, of
used with
which only one is used. Frequently both director and reflector are
the driven element in the same antenna.
6-138 ANTENNAS
Operation and Characteristics of the Parasitic Array
When treated in terms of transmission, energy is delivered to the driven el-

ement. It radiates energy towards the front and the rear. Some of this en-
ergy induces current in the parasitic element(s), which in turn reradiate vir-
tually all the energy. By suitable dimensioning of the parasitic relative to
the driven element, as well as the electrical distance between them, the
electrical energy reradiated by the parasitic is "timed" to reinforce the cur-
PARASITIC ARRAYS RADIATE TOWARDS THE FRONT

vv: — .
w,fh minimum radiation (and siqnal pickup) to the rear
Approx.
5% Greater
Less
shorter than than
Director 0.14 A Director 0.14 A
Driven Driven element ) Driven element
-A/2- Reflector Reflector
The greater the number of elements the narrower the beam

and the greater the concentration of the energy
rent in the driven element. It also reinforces the radiation in front of the an-
tenna, while tending to cancel the radiation towards the rear. The result is
concentration of the radiation towards the front of the antenna i. e. towards ,
the desired direction. When receiving, the parasitic element(s) and the driv-
en element are acted upon by the approaching wavefront, but not at the exact
moment because of the spacing between them. By suitable electrical timing
(the spacing and the dimensions of the elements) energy received from the
front of the antenna is reinforced in the driven element; energy arriving from
the rear is effectively cancelled in the driven element.
Because the current in the driven element is a combination of that received

from the transmitter as well as from the parasitic element(s), the feedpoint
impedance of the driven element is very much less than the 72 ohms of the
resonant half-wave dipole. It can be as low as 25 ohms. Therefore it re-
quires special methods of matching to the transmission line. Also, the be-
havior of the elements of the antenna as coupled circuits tends to narrow the
band of frequencies around the resonant frequency which can be accepted by
the antenna. A beam antenna tunes more sharply than a single resonant half-
wave dipole. Usually the length of the director is 5% shorter than the driven
element, while the reflector is 5% longer.
ANTENNAS 6-139
The Folded Dipole
A variation of the conventional half-wave dipole is the folded dipole. In effect

itis two 1/2 \ dipoles — one a continuous rod, and the other split in the cen-
ter — connected in parallel. The transmission line is connected to the split
dipole. Its half-wave dimensioning is done exactly as for the ordinary half-
wave dipole. Its behavior differs from the conventional half-wave dipole in
several respects. The directivity of the folded dipole is bidirectional, but
because of the distribution of the currents in the parts of the folded dipole its
input impedance is very much higher. If all parts of the antenna are made of
like diameter rod or tubing, the feedpoint impedance is 288 ohms, hi this
THE FOLDED DIPOLE is bidirectional

and a zero-db gain antenna. The
amount of power it will accept from
a transmitter is the same as for the
ordinary half-wave dipole. Both will

intercept the same amount of energy
from an approaching wavefront.
Z = 288 OHMS Z = 648 OHMS

d o
In general: Z = 72 (1 + —— 1
)
d2
way is an excellent match for 300-ohm twin-lead (ribbon) transmission

it
line. Another characteristic of the folded dipole is that it is somewhat
broader in the band of frequencies around resonance. Sometimes it is used
as the driven element in parasitic antennas because the high impedance al-
lows a reduction when used in the beam, while still being suitable for a match
with a transmission line rated at from 50 to perhaps 75-ohms impedance.
6-140 ANTENNAS
The Vertical Antenna
THE QUARTER WAVELENGTH (</4 X ) VERTICAL ANTENNA

is an omnidirectional antenna. It radiates equally on
all sides except upwards in line with the long axis
Solid pattern of radiation is equal all around

6R0UNDED MARCONI ANTENNA
Electric field around 14 X vertical antenna
A standard form of antenna is the 1/4 \ vertical, also known as the Marconi
antenna. It is a vertical rod or tube 1/4 Xiong at the resonant frequency, and
is "grounded" at the bottom. It is used for all frequencies beginning at about
500 kc and extending up into about 150 me. When used as a "whip" antenna
in a vehicle, the vehicle acts as the ground. The antenna radiates a
vertically
polarized wave at a low angle wherein the electric lines of force are posi-
tioned perpendicular to the earth. By connecting the lower end of the antenna
to ground directly, the ground presents to the antenna a mirror image of it-
self. This mirror image is the equivalent of the missing 1/4 X, so that the
antenna then has a current and voltage distribution like that of the conven-
tional resonant half-wave dipole. Current is minimum at the top of the an-
tenna and maximum at ground, while voltage is maximum at the top and mini-
mum at ground. The feedpoint for the antenna is to a point slightly up from
the bottom of the antenna and to ground, the solid conductor of the antenna
not acting as a short-circuit because of the resistance present everywhere in
the antenna. The feedpoint resistance or radiation resistance of the resonant
vertical 1/4 X antenna is about 36 ohms measured at the point of connection to
the coupling device to the transmitter or receiver. Grounded vertical anten-
nas which are shorter than 1/4 X suffer from lowering of the feedpoint im-
pedance and radiation resistance. If the antenna is too long, the radiation
resistance increases substantially above 36 ohms.
ANTENNAS 6-141
The Vertical Antenna (Contd.)
VERTICAL GROUNDED ANTENNAS can be
unmmo Longer
by adding than
inductance
smiew
by adding
series capacitance
Quarter-wave vertical antennas are usable over a narrow band of frequencies

around resonance. When it is necessary to modify the electrical length the
electrically short antenna may be lengthened by adding series inductance; the
electrically long antenna may be shortened by adding series capacitance. We
said that the feedpoint impedance or radiation resistance of the 1/4 \ vertical
grounded antenna is 36 ohms; higher impedance is available by advancing up-
wards from ground along the length of the antenna. Thus, one point might be
a feedpoint for a 36-ohm line, while a point somewhat higher up along the an-
tenna would serve as a feedpoint for a 52-ohm line. Of course, ground is one
of the connections for the transmission line in both instances.
The ground-plane antenna is a vertical radiator for which several straight,

or tilted-downward rods extending outwards from the bottom of the radiator,
act as the ground. These rods, approximating a 1/4 X are the ground planes.
In effect, they are an artificial ground sometimes referred to as a counter-
poise, and are used as the ground point for the transmission line cables. The
feedpoint impedance or radiation resistance of the ground plane antenna is
about 30 ohms.
must be elevated above ground to function well

6-142 ANTENNAS
The Long-Wire Antenna
The long-wire antenna is a single long wire, usually two or more wavelengths
(four or more 1/2 x) long at the operating frequency. known as an It is also
harmonic antenna. The greater the number of 1/2 X the antenna length will
accommodate for the operating frequency, the more effective the antenna as
to gain over a zero-db gain half-wave dipole, and the better its directivity.
It radiates a horizontally polarized wave at relatively low angles, from about
17° to perhaps 25° relative to the earth's surface. The gain varies from
about 1. 5 db when the antenna is four 1/2 X long to about 4. 5 db when the wire
is sixteen 1/2 X long. The long-wire antenna is end-fed, with a feedpoint im-
pedance of 500-600 ohms.
Long-wire antennas are of two types - unterminated (resonant), and termi-

nated in the characteristic impedance of the antenna (nonre sonant). The
resonant antenna has standing waves along its length. The voltage reverses
THE LONG-WIRE ANTENNA affords good gain
Transmission „
Transmission
line = .
- E - E - E - E
line
-L
R"Z
°?
-±-
Unterminated or resonant long wire Terminated or nonresonant long wire
4 wavelengths (8 '/2 wavelengths) long 4 wavelengths (8 Vi wavelengths) long
and can be BIDIRECTIONAL or UNIDIRECTIONAL

Direction
Bidirectional line — Unidirectional

The equation for determining the physical length (L) of the antenna "^vire for a
number of '/2 A is . , ..
_
length (feet) -
492 (N-0.05)
— where N is number of 'A A
f (me)
its polarity every 1/2 X, and the current reverses its direction. The termi-
nated antenna has substantially uniform current flow in the antenna to the
termination. Parallels to these electrical conditions are the resonant and
nonre sonant transmission lines.
The essential difference in performance between the above two kinds of long-
wire antennas is in the directivity. The resonant line is bidirectional at
small angles to the long axis of the wire, while the terminated antenna is uni-
directional in the direction towards the terminated end of the antenna. When
the antenna length is five or more 1/2 X at the operating frequency, some
radiation takes place at right angles to the long axis of the antenna.
ANTENNAS 6-143
The V Antenna
equivalent of
The antenna is a version of the long-wire antenna. It is the
V
form of a flat V, each wire being fed
two long wires (legs) arranged in the
voltage 180° out of phase with the other. The advantages of this an-
with a
cancellation between op-
tenna are gain and directivity. It is achieved by
positely directed corresponding radiation lobes in each leg, and by aiding
THE V ANTENNA has HIGH GAIN AND A CHOICE of

BIDIRECTIONAL or UNIDIRECTIONAL DIRECTIVITY
Resultant
radiation pattern
Apex
angle
600-ohm Lobes 4+8 Lobes 3+7
transmission
line
Lobes
and 6 cancel
1
2 and 5 cancel
3 and 7 aid
4 and 8 aid
600-ohm
transmission *
i i i i i r
line
R is adjusted in value for

lowest standing wave ratio. ^R = 500 ohms
It must be noninductive
action between similarly directed corresponding lobes in each

leg. The final
result is a bidirectional radiation pattern in which the lobes
are much nar-
rower than for the single long wire. Gain achieved with the V antenna
is
the single long wire, which has a length equal to that of

about twice that for
is realized when
the legs of the V. Almost 12-db gain over a half-wave dipole
made the apex of the figure is im-
each leg of the V is 8 \ long. The angle at
varies from about 35° for the 8-\ structure to about 70
portant. This angle
for the 2-X wires. When the antenna is to be used over a wide
range of fre-
for the low-
quencies, the apex angle is made the average between the optimum
terms of the number of 1/2 \ in each leg. At the
est and highest frequencies in
lowest frequency the legs should be several wavelengths long. If each
leg is
in a resistance of about 500
terminated ohms the radiation pattern becomes
unidirectional.
.
6-144 ANTENNAS
The Rhombic Antenna
The rhombic is a very efficient antenna of broad frequency capability, and is

prominent in all radio communication facilities where the space necessary
for the large structure is available. It can be said to be a double V, in which
case it becomes a diamond- shaped structure lying in the horizontal plane. It
can be terminated or unterminated, the difference between the two being dir-
ectivity. When used, the terminating resistance is between 600 and 700 ohms,
noninductive, and both types are fed by open lines of 600 ohms characteristic
impedance. Its advantages become evident when each leg of the rhombic is
several wavelengths long, and if the angle 9 at the apex is between 50° and
70°. In this event the antenna shows a power gain of from 8 to 12 db over a
conventional half-wave dipole. When terminated, the radiation pattern is uni-
directional in the direction of the terminated end, and has a very narrow
THE RHOMBIC ANTENNA
Lobe 1 cancels Lobe 6,

Lobe 4 cancels Lobe 7,
leaving Lobes 2. 3. 5.
and 8 to form a narrow
unidirectional lobe.
600 to
700
ohms
If the antenna is not

terminated at R, it
becomes
bidirectional
because two additional
lobes appear on each leg.
principal lobe. Because of this behavior the antenna must be laid out so that
it is pointing in the desired direction of
communication. It can be made bi-
directional simply by removing the terminating resistance. It is an excellent
antenna for operation over a wide band of frequencies, especially if the leg
lengths are between 5 and 6 X long at the lowest frequency of operation. Little
is gained by making each leg longer than about 8 X
The highly directional characteristic of the rhombic arises from the fact that
two principal lobes develop in each leg of the terminated arrangement, and
from the condition that one lobe in each leg cancels the corresponding
op-
positely directed lobe in the other leg. This leaves four lobes pointing
in the
same direction, one in each leg. These are additive, and produce a single
narrow lobe in the forward direction.
ANTENNAS 6-145
Feeding the Antenna (SWR)
TYPICAL ANTENNA MATCHING

DIRECT MATCHIN6 DELTA-MATCHED DIPOLE MATCHING STUB
R = 72 ohms
-< * ««- 'A X > <- v* x |_
'A x |
72-ohm
R j
= 400-ohm
transmission line
Z s = aJ R ;
* R~l
It extremely important that there be a proper impedance match between

is
the transmission line and the antenna. If the characteristic impedance (Z 0 )
of the line differs from the feedpoint impedance (R a ) of the antenna, reflec-
tions occur at the feedpoint, and standing waves appear on the transmission
line. The ratio between the maximum and minimum values of current or
voltage on the line is called the standing wave ratio (SWR). The desired SWR
is 1, where there is no change in the value of E or I along the line. Accept-
able operation is usually possible with a SWR of as much as 1. 75 with low-
power transmitters. The SWR figure can also be obtained from the ratio of
Ra/Z 0 If Ra is 70 ohms and Z 0 is 50 ohms, the SWR is 70/50, or 1. 4. Un-
.
fortunately, the feedpoint impedance is known only under certain conditions,

such as at resonance, and for certain types of antennas, or must be
measured. When the operating frequency is not at resonance, the feedpoint
impedance not only varies greatly, but also becomes reactive. At resonance,
the feedpoint impedance is resistive because the reactive effects balance out.
Transmitting antennas can be fed at the center, off center, or at the end.
When the antenna contains an odd number of 1/2 X at resonance, the current
maximum (loop) is at the center, and the feedpoint impedance is equal to the
radiation resistance, which in turn is a function of the number of 1/2 X in the
conductor. This is so at any point along the antenna where a current loop
exists. When the antenna contains an even number of 1/2 X at the resonant
frequency, current loops appear on both sides of center. A feedpoint can be
located at any current loop. However, it is only in the case of the half-wave
dipole operated at resonance that the impedance at the center is 72 ohms.
Antennas containing two or more 1/2 X can be fed at the end — a high-imped-
ance point. The high transmission-line impedance required for end-feeding
can be obtained through a resonant line, or a 1/4 X open line cut for the
operating frequency, to act as an impedance transformer between the trans-
mission line and antenna. With the parasitic array, the feedpoint must be
determined by experiment. It is difficult to state a dimension each side of
the center of the driven element that will serve as the connecting points for
any given Zq of the transmission line used.
6-146 SUMMARY
A transmission line is a device for guiding electrical energy from one point to
another. Such a line has electrical constants of inductance, capacitance,
and resistance distributed along its length.
A line terminated in a resistance equal to its characteristic impedance is said
to be terminated correctly.
The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage or current along a transmission
line is called the standing wave ratio - this is a measure of the energy
reflected.
A properly matched line is nonresonant. It produces no reflection of energy
and there are no standing waves - there is maximum transmission of
energy.
A delta-matching section used with a two-wire line is made by fanning out the
end of the transmission line as it approaches the antenna.
Electromagnetic waves are propagated into space at nearly the speed of li ght,
300, 000, 000 meters per second, or 186, 000 miles per second.
A radio wave may be described as a moving electromagnetic field, having
velocity in the direction of travel.
The wavelength of a radio wave in free space is equal to its velocity divided
by its frequency (\ = V/f).
The energy received at a distant point is the sum of the direct wave and the
ground-reflected wave.
The velocity of wave travel on an antenna or transmission line is lower than
in free space.
Ifan antenna is cut to a length of exact resonance, the reactance is zero, and
the antenna impedance is purely resistive. If the antenna is made
shorter,
capacitive reactance is present; if made longer, inductive reactance
is
present.
A quarter-wave antenna operating in conjunction with ground operates as a
resonant antenna.
An array is a combination of half-wave elements operating together as
a
single antenna. Arrays provide more gain and greater directivity than
single -element antennas.
The polarization of a radio wave is determined by the direction of the electric
flux lines with respect to the surface of the earth.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by electromagnetic energy?
2. What is meant by ground, ground-reflected, and direct waves?
3. What is meant by skip distance?
4. What is the function of
a transmission line ?
5. Name three different types of transmission line.
6. What is meant by a wavelength?
7. What isan antenna?
8. What ismeant by radiation resistance?
9. What is meant by the characteristic impedance of a
transmission line?
10. What is the function of a parasitic element?
11. Explain the terra polarization as applied to an
electromagnetic wave.
12. What is the current and voltage distribution on a grounded quarter-wave
antenna?
GLOSSARY
and reception of intelligence in which the amplitude

Amplitude Modulation: A system of transmission
of the carrier is made to vary in accordance with the intelligence.
Antenna: A device used to radiate or absorb r-f energy.

usually dipoles, which results in desirable directional
Array: An arrangement of antenna elements,
characteristics.
Attenuation: The reduction in the strength of a signal.

ruptures, or at which ionization and
Breakdown Voltage: The voltage at which an insulator dielectric
conduction take place in a gas or vapor.

from the effects produced by
Buffer Amplifier: An amplifier used to isolate the output of an oscillator
changes in voltage or loading in following circuits.
signal or other form of intel-
Carrier: The r-f component of a transmitted wave upon which an audio
ligence can be impressed.
to the current at every point along a transmission
Characteristic Impedance: The ratio of the voltage
line on which there are no standing waves.
two conductors concentric with and insulated from
Coaxial Cable: A transmission line consisting of
each other.
frequency.
Continuous Waves (CW): Radio waves that maintain a constant amplitude and a constant
circuits in such a way that energy may be transferred
from one
Coupling: The association of two
circuit to another.
Crystal: A natural substance, such as quartz or tourmaline, which is capable of producing a voltage
stress when under pressure, or producing pressure when under an applied voltage. Under stress,
it has the property of responding only to a given frequency when cut to a given thickness.
wavelength long, which radiate

Dipole Antenna: Two metallic elements, each approximately one quarter
r-f energy fed to them by the transmission line.
that r-f radiation is aided in

Director: A parasitic antenna placed in front of a radiating element so
the forward direction.
angles to each
Electromagnetic field: A space field in which electric and magnetic vectors at right
other travel in a direction at right angles to both.
Electrostatic Field: A field of influence between two charged bodies.
Field Intensity: Electrical strength of a field.
transfer of energy from the output circuit of a device back to its input.
Feedback: A
Filter: A combination of circuit elements designed to pass a definite range of frequencies, attenuating
all others.
Frequency: The number of complete cycles per second existing in any form of wave motion; such as the
number of cycles per second of alternating current.
Distortion that occurs as a result of failure to amplify or attenuate equally all
Frequency Distortion:
frequencies present in a complex wave.
which the carrier-wave
Frequency Modulation: A system of transmission and reception of intelligence in
frequency is made to vary in accordance with variations in the modulating signal.
Frequency Stability: The ability of an oscillator to maintain its operation at a constant frequency.
Grid Current: Current which flows between cathode and the grid whenever the grid becomes positive
with respect to the cathode.

6-148 GLOSSARY
Ground; A metallic connection with the earth to establish ground potential. Also, a common return to
a point of zero r-f potential, such as the chassis of a receiver or a transmitter.
Harmonic: An integral multiple of a fundamental frequency. (The second harmonic is twice the fre-
quency of the fundamental or first harmonic.)
Harmonic Distortion: Amplitude distortion.
Interelectrode Capacitance: The capacitance existing between the electrodes in an electron tube.
Ionization Potential: The lowest potential at which ionization takes place within a gas-filled tube.
fonosphereiA region composed of highly ionized layers of atmosphere from about 70 to 250 miles above
the surface of the earth.
Matched Impedance: The condition that exists when two coupled circuits are so adjusted that their
impedances are equal.
Modulation: The process of varying the amplitude (AM), the frequency (FM), or the phase (PM) of a
Modulator: The circuit which provides the signal that varies the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the
oscillations generated in the r-f portion of the transmitter.
Neutralization: The process of nullifying the voltage fed back through the interelectrode capacitance
of an amplifier tube, by providing an equal voltage of opposite phase; generally necessary only with
triode tubes.
Node: A zero point; specifically, a current node is a point of zero current, and a voltage node is a
point of zero voltage.
Oscillator: A circuit capable of converting dc into ac of a frequency determined by the constants of

the circuit.
Oscilloscope: An instrument for showing, visually, graphical representations of the waveforms en-
countered in electrical circuits.
Parallel Feed: Application of a d-c voltage to the plate or grid of a tube in parallel with an a-c
circuit so that the d-c and a-c components flow in separate paths. Also called shunt feed.
Parasitic Suppressor: A resistor in an electron tube circuit to prevent unwanted oscillations.
Piezoelectric Effect: The producing a voltage by placing a stress, either by compression, ex-
effect of
pansion, or twisting, on a crystal, and, conversely, the effect of producing a stress in a crystal by
applying a voltage to it.
Plate Dissipation: The power in watts consumed at the plate in the form of heat.
Plate Efficiency: The ratio of the a-c power output from a tube to the average d-c power supplied to
the plate circuit.
Plate Modulation: Amplitude modulation of a class-C r-f amplifier by varying the plate voltage in
accordance with the signal.
Radiation Resistance: A fictitious resistance which may be considered to dissipate the energy radiated
from the antenna.
Reflector; A metallic object placed behind a radiating antenna to prevent r-f radiation in an undesired
direction and to reinforce radiation in a desired direction.
Screen Dissipation: The power dissipated in the form of heat on the screen grid as the result of
bombardment by the electron stream.
Series Feed: Application of the d-c voltage to the plate or grid of a tube through the same impedance
in which the ac flows.
Standing Wave: A distribution of current and voltage on a transmission line formed by two sets of
waves traveling in opposite directions, and characterized by the presence of a number of points of
successive maxima and minima in the distribution curves.
Thermocoupfe Ammeter; An ammeter that operates by means of a voltage produced by the heating
effect of a current passed through the junction of two dissimilar metals. It is used for r-f measurements.
Unbalanced Line: A transmission line in which the voltages on the two conductors are not equal with
respect to ground: for example, a coaxial line.
Wave: Basically, an electromagnetic impulse, periodically changing in intensity and traveling through
space. Also, the graphical representation of the intensity of that impulse over a period of time.
Wavelength: The distance, usually expressed in meters, traveled by a wave during the time interval
of one complete cycle. It is equal to the velocity divided by the frequency.
Wave Propagation: The transmission of r-f energy through space.
CUMULATIVE INDEX
NOTE: The first number of each entry identifies the Volume in which
be found; the second number identifies the page.
the information is to
radio-frequency, 3-113; 4-12 B supply, 3-7, 3-30

Acceptor, 5-5 Bfo, 4-47, 4-56
tuned r-.f, 6-26
Ac-dc power supply, 3-44 Back emf, 2-24
tuned r-f power, 6-42
Ac-dc receiver, 4-39 Backwave, 6-58
Amplifiers (transistor):
Afc, 4-110
Balanced modulator, 4-60
Age, see Automatic volume asymmetric, 5-57
Ballast resistor, 1-61
control audio, 5-53
Bandspread tuning, 4-50
Air-core transformer, 2-47 output, 5-55
Barrier, 5-7
Alignment, superheterodyne, 4-42 common-base:
Alloy-junction, 5-13 definition of, 5-29 Base, 2-3; 5-12
Alnico, 1-97 operation of, 5-30 Basing, tube, 3-28
common-collector, 5-29, 5-34 Battery, 1-32, 1-38, 1-39, 1-48
Alpha, 5-22, 5-25
cutoff frequency, 5-25 common-emitter, 5-29, 5-32 charger, 1-44
Alternating current: complementary symmetry, 5-58 5-59
circuits,
definition of, 2-1 direct-coupled, 5-54 symbol, 1-48
generator, 2-10 i-f, 5-48 Beam-power tube, 3-25
in an inductor, 2-38 mixer, 5-46 Beat frequency, 4-17, 4-19
in an R-L series circuit, 2-39 overload diode, 5-49 Beta, 5-33
in a parallel R-L circuit, 2-42 push-pull, 5-56 Bias, 3-12, 3-67, 3-77
instantaneous value, 2-14 reflexed, 5-52 Biasing, 5-36
introduction to, 2-1 r-f, 5-43
Bleeder resistor, 3-41
magnetic field, 2-22 Amplitude distortion, 3-80 Bound electron, 1-12
meters, 2-130 Amplitude modulation, 3-127 Bridge rectifier, 3-36
peak value, 2-14 Angular rotation, 2-2 Brown and Sharpe Gage, 1-58
power, 2-90 Anode, 3-5 Bucking, 1-113
Alternating voltage, 2-1 Antenna circuits, 4-5 Buffer amplifiers, 6-34
Alternation, 2-12 Antennas: Buffer capacitor, 3-53
Altitude, 2-3
dimensions, 4-76; 6-131 Bypassing, 3-94
Aluminum, 1-30
dipole, 4-75
AM transmission, 6-64 feedpoint, 6-145
power distribution, 6-68
sidebands, 6-67 FM receiving, 4-75
ferrite rod, 4-36 C voltage, 3-12, 3-30
Amber, 1-2
American Wire Gage, 1-58, 1-134 fundamental types, 6-130 Capacitance:
impedance, 6-134 definition of, 2-60, 2-70
Ammeter, 1-72, 1-122
Ampere, 1-35 longwave, 6-142 unit of, 2-69
Andre Marie, 1-35 loop, 4-36 Capacitive reactance, 2-80
hour, 1-47 loopstick, 4-36 calculation of, 2-83
turns, 1-109, 1-112; 2-52 Marconi, 6-140 Capacitor(s), 1-27, 2-72, 2-73
Amplification, 3-60, 3-70 rhombic, 6-144 charging a, 2-61
Amplification factor, 3-19 standing wave ratio, 6-145 color code, 2-74
Amplified avc, 4-35 V, 6-143 discharging a, 2-66
Amplifiers: Antimony, 5-2, 5-4 electric field, 2-65
audio-frequency, 3-79 electrolytic, 2-76
Apparent power, 2-91
buffer, 6-34 filter, 3-37
Arc, 1-19
cathode follower, 3-93 input, 3-39
Armature, 1-111, 1-114; 2-10
class-A, -B, -AB, -C, 3-74, fixed, 2-73
Armstrong oscillator, 3-120
3-75, 3-76; 6-29 2-78
Asymmetric push-pull amplifier, in parallel,
coupling, 3-85; 6-39 series, 2-79
5-57 in
decibel, 3-81
Atom, 1-9 padder, 4-21
decoupling, 3-94 2-68
Atomic magnets, 1-100 phase shift in a,
driver, 6-41
Audio amplifier, 5-53 reactance, 2-80
dynamic characteristics, 3-61
Audio frequencies, 3-79 calculation of, 2-83
feedback, 3-107
Audio output stage, 5-55 variable, 2-75
frequency response, 3-83
grid-bias, 3-67, 3-77, 3-78 Audion, 3-1 Capacitor filter, 3-37
input, 3-39
grounded-grid, 3-92 Automatic volume control (avc),
impedance matching, 3-105 5-50 Carbon microphone, 3-111; 6-77
load line, 3-63 Cascaded-amplifier stage, 3-94
Automobile receivers, 4-44
neutralization, 6-43 Auto-radio power supplies, 3-51 Cat whisker, 4-7; 5*20
operating point, 3-68 Autotransformer, 2-56
Cathode, 3-3
paraphase, 3-97 Cathode bias, 3-77
Avc, 4-31
phase inverter, 3-95 amplified, 4-35
Cathode follower, 3-93
phase-relationships, 3-71 Cell, 1-32, 1-39
delayed, 4-34
power, 3-98 symbol, 1-48
push-pull, 3-99
Average value, 2-15
6-150 CUMULATIVE INDEX
Centertap, 2-54 Current, 1-28, 1-35 Effective value, 2-16
Characteristic curves, (transistor), capacity, 1-47, 1-48 Electrical horsepower, 1-67
5-38 feedback, 3-108 Electrical power, 1-67
Charged surfaces, 1-14 gain, 5 22, 5-39 Electrical symbols, 1-71
Charges, electrical, 1-3, 1-5 Ohm's law for, 1-63 Electric current, 1-28, 1-35
Charging current, 2-62 Current-turns ratio, 2-51 Electric 1-21; 2-65; 6-122
field,
Chemical effect, 1-37 Cutoff, 3-16 Electricity,discovery of, 1-2
Choke-input filter, 3-40 CW transmitters, 6-3 Electrolyte, 1-39; 2-76
Circle, analysis of, 2-2 Cycle, 2-11, 2-12 Electromagnet, 1-108, 1-111
Circuit current, 1-54
Electromagnetic energy, 6-2
Circuits, 1-51, 1-71
Electromagnetism, 1-106
Circular mil, 1-58
Electromotive force (emf), 1-32
Circumference, 2-2 D'Arsonval meter, 1-119
Electron-coupled oscillator, 3-126
Clapp oscillator, 6-15 D-c motor, 1-114
Electron drift, 1-36
Class-A, -B, -AB, -C operation, Decibel, 3-81
Electron-pair bond, 5-3
see Amplifiers Decoupling, 3-94
Election-ray circuit, 4-41
Closed circuit, 1-51 De-emphasis, 4-113 Electron-ray tube, 4-40
Coefficient of coupling, 2-29 Degenerative feedback, 3-107 Electrons, 1-2, 1-7
Coil, 1-108 Delayed avc, 4-34
valence, 5-2
Cold-cathode rectifier, 3-53 Demodulation, 3-128 Electrostatic field, 3-13
Collector, 5-12 Demodulators, see Defectors Electrostatics,1-27
voltage-current characteristics, Depolarizer, 1-40
Elements, chemical, 1-8, 1-10
5-21 Detector:
Emission:
Color code: diode, 3-129
electron, 3-3
capacitor, 2-74 first, 4-22
types of, 6-2
resistor, 1-60 Foster-Seeley, 4-90
Emitter, 5-12
Colpitts oscillator, 3-124; 6-15 grid-leak, 3-131
Common-base amplifier, 5-29, infinite-impedance, 3-132
5-30 linearity of, 3-129
Common-collector amplifier, 5-29, plate, 3-132 Farad, 2-69
5-34 regenerative, 3-133 Faraday, Michael, 1-22, 1-102;
Common-emitter amplifier, 5-29, second, 4-28 2-69
5-32 diode, 4-28 Feedback, 3-107
beta, 5-33 time constant, 4-28 Ferrite, l-37 2-47 ;
Communications, receiver, 4-47 slope, 4-87 Fidelity, 4-4

Complementary symmetry push- superregenerative, 4-45 Filters:
pull amplifier, 5-58 Detector linearity, 3-129 bandpass, 2-129
Complex wave, 2-14 Detector (transistorized), 5-50 band-reject, 2-129
Compounds, 1-8 diode, 5-50 high-pass, 2-128
Condenser, 1-27; 2-60 power, 5-51 key-click, 6-60
Conductance, 1-30 Deviation ratio, 4-70 low-pass, 2-128
Conductors, 1-30 Diameter, 2-2 power supply, 3-30
Contact charging, 1-15 Dielectric, 1-31; 2-60 Fixed bias, 3-77
Control grid, 3-12 breakdown voltage, 2-71 Flux density, 1-103
Control-grid modulation, 6-73 constant, 2-71 FM stereo multiplex, 4-116
Control tube, 3-58 materials, 2-72 FM tuner, 4-115
Converter, 5-47 Dielectric constant, 2-71 Forward bias, 5-9
pentagrid, 4-24 Difference of potential, 1-26 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 4-90
Copper, -30 1 Diode: Franklin, Benjamin, 1-4
atom, 1-10 junction, 5-7 Free electron, 1-13- 1-33
Copper losses, 2-55 point-contact, 5-11 Frequency, 2-12
Core saturation, 2-27 Diode detector, 3-129 Frequency distortion, 3-80
Cosine, 2-3 Dipole antenna, 4-75 Frequency doublers, 6-36
Coulomb, 1-35 Direct coupling, 3-91; 5-51, 5-54 Frequency modulation:
Counter emf, 2-24 Discharge current, 2-64, 2-66 afc, 4-110
Coupling, 2-28; 5-40 Discharging, 1-18 to 1-20 basic transmitter, 4-73
Coupling, amplifier, 6-39 Distortion, 3-69, 3-80, 3-102 de-emphasis, 4-113
Covalent bond, 5-3 Donor, 5-4 definition of, 4-65
Crystal: Doping, 5-4 demodulation, 4-87
action of, 5-3; 6-17 Double-ended amplifier, 5-56 deviation ratio, 4-70
characteristics, 6-22 Driver amplifier, 6-41 direct FM, 6-86
cuts, 6-18 Dry cell, 1-40 discriminator, 4-87
filters, 4-51 Dual conversion, 4-48 effect of audio amplitude, 4-66
galena, 4-7 Duo-diode, 3-5 effect of audio frequency, 4-67
holders, 6-21 Dynamic microphone, 3-112 FM tuner, 4-115
microphone, 3-112 Dynamic speaker, 3-109 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 4-90
oscillators, 6-23 Dynamic transfer characteristic gated-beam detector, 4-104
quartz, 6-17 curve, 3-8; 5-39 guard bands, 4-68
receiver, 4 7 Dynamic transfer characteristics, i-f amplifiers, 4-81
seed, 5-14 3-11, 3-65, 3-61 indirect FM, 6-88
semiconductor, as, 5-3 limiter, 4-83
structure of, 1-9 mixer and converter circuits,
temperature coefficient, 6-19 4-79
Crystal filters, 4-51 Earphone jack, 5-53, 5-55 modulation index, 4-70
Crystal microphone, 3-112 Eddy currents, 2-55 multiplex stereo, 4-116
Crystal receiver, 4-7 Edison effect, 3-1 noise and interference, 4-71
CUMULATIVE INDEX 6-151
phase, 6-89 matching, 2-58; 3-105 Loopstick, 4-36

pre-emphasis, 4-72 R-C parallel circuit, 2-88 Loudspeaker, 3-109
ratio detector, 4-97 R-C series circuit, 2-86
reactance to, 4-110 R-L parallel circuit, 2-43
receiver, 4-74 series-resonant circuit, 2-107
receiving antennas, 4-75 solving problems, 2-36
r-f amplifier, 4-78 Indirectly-heated cathode, 3-4 Magnesia, 1-96
sidebands, 4-68 Indium, 5-2, 5-5 Magnet, 1-96
slope detector, 4-87 Induced emf, 1-114 Magnetic:
Frequency multipliers, 6-35 conductivity, 1-109
Inductance:
Frequency multiplier tuning, 6-38 2-25 effect, 1-37
definition of,
Frequency response, 3-83 flux linkages, 2-25 field,1-102
Frequency spectrum, 4-2 flux, 1-103
mutual, 2-29
Full-wave rectifier, 3-35 poles, 1-99
parallel, 2-30
Full-wave voltage doubler, 3-47 self, 2-25
Magnetism, 1-96
Fuse, 1-37, 1-94 series, 2-30
Magnetomotive force, 1-112
Fusible resistor, 3-45 the henry, 2-27 Majority carriers, 5-10
Inductance filter, 3-38 Mathematic fundamentals, 2-2
Induction, 1-16 Maximum value, 2-17
Induction, self, 2-23 Maxwell, 1-103, 1-112
mutual, 2-28 Mechanical:
Gain, 3-70, 3-88 force, 1-11
Inductive circuit, 2-33
Galena crystal, 4-7; 5-11 horsepower, 1-67
Inductive reactance:
Gas tube, 3-55 Megohm, 1-55
definition of, 2-31
Gated-beam detector, 4-104 Mercury cell, 1-42
Gauss, 1-103 problems, 2-32
Metallic rectifiers, 3-33
Generating ac, 2-8 Infinite-impedance detector, 3-132
Input circuits, 6-45 Metals, 1-12
Generation of emf, 1-38 Meters, 1-72, 1-119
Instantaneous value, 2-14
Generator, 1-38, 1-115 Meter sensitivity, 1-124
Insulating material, 1-31
Germanium, 5-2 Microphones:
Insulators, 1-31
Getter, 3-2 carbon, 3-111; 6-77
1-2 Interelectrode capacitance, 3-73;
Gilbert, William, crystal, 6-77
4-12
Grid, 3-12; 6-5 dynamic, 6-78
Grid bias, 3-67 Intermediate frequency, 4-17
Internal resistance, 1-54
moving-coil, 3-112
Grid current, 3-13 ribbon, 6-78
Interstage coupling, 5-40
Grid-leak bias, 3-78, 3-119 Milliammeter, 1-112
IR drop, 1-79, 1-81
Grid-leak detector, 3-131 Milliampere, 1-36
Ground waves, 6-126 12R loss, 1-84
Milliohm, 1-55
Grounded-grid amplifier, 3-92 Iron, 1-30
Millivolt, 1-33
Grown-Junction transistor, 5-14 Iron-core transformer, 2-47
Mils, 1-58
Minority carriers, 5-10
Mixer, 4-22
Junction-barrier, 5-7, 5-8
pentagrid, 4-23
Half-wave dipole, 6-130 Mixer stage, 5-46
Junction-diode, 5-7
6-136
directivity, Modulation:
rectifier, as a, 5-10
folded dipole, 6-139 checking, 6-76
Kilowatt hour, 1-70
resonance in, 6-132 control-grid, 6-73
Kinetic energy, 1-24
voltage and current, 6-133 definition of, 3-127
Kirchhoff's law, 1-93; 2-40
Half-wave rectifier, 3-34 Heising, 6-71
Key-click filters, 6-60
Half-wave voltage doubler, 3-46 high-level, 6-70
Keying, 6-58
Harmonics, 6-20 index, FM, 4-70
cathode, 6-59
Hartley oscillator, 3-121; 5-44; low-level, 6-70
plate, 6-61
6-14 percentage, 6-66
screen grid, 6-61
Heat effect, 1-37 plate, 6-72
Heat sink, 5-27 screen-grid, 6-75
Heising modulation, 6-71 Modulation index, 4-70
Henry, Joseph, 2-27 Lattice, 1-9 Modulator, balanced, 4-60
Heterodyning, 4-19 structure, 5-3 Modulator stages:
Hole characteristics, 5-6 1-43 driver, 6-80
Lead-acid cell,
Hole properties, 5-6 Leakage current, 2-76; 5-27 speech amplifier, 6-79
Horsepower, 1-67 Le Clanche cell, 1-40 Molecule, 1-9
Hydrogen, 1-9 Left-hand rule, 1-110, 1-116 Moving-coil microphone, 3-112
atom, 1-10 Lenz, H.F. Emil, 2-24 Moving-coil speaker, 3-109
Hydrometer, 1-43 Lenz's law, 2-24 Multiband operation, 4-49
Hypotenuse, 2-3 Lightning, 1-19 Multiplier, 1-123
Hysteresis, 2-55 Limiter, 4-83 Multiplex stereo, FM, 4-116
grid-leak bias, 4-85 Mutual conductance, 3-19, 3-21
plate-circuit, 4-84 Mutual inductance, 2-29
Lines of force, 1-22, 1-23 Mutual induction, 2-28
l-f amplifer, 4-26; 5-48 Litz wire, 2-110; 4-10
bandwidth, 4-27 Load, 1-51
response, 4-27 Load line, 3-63; 5-38
Image frequencies, 4-18, 4*25 Load resistance, 3-11, 3-61
4-21 N-type semiconductor, 5-3, 5-4
Impedance: Local oscillator,
coupling, 3-89, 3-114; 5-41 Lodestone, 96 1
Negative:
Loop antenna, 4-36 charge, 1-15
definition of, 2-35
electricity, 1-4 Parallel inductance, 2-30 metallic, 3-33

feedback, 3-107; 5-48 Parallelogram, 2-6 semiconductors, 3-33
ion, 1-28 Paraphase amplifier, 3-97 transistor receiver, 5-59
temperature coefficient, 1-61 Parasitic arrays, 6-137 vibrators, 3-52
terminal, 1-32 Peak inverse voltage, 3-34, 3-35 voltage:
voltage, 3-43 Peak plate current, 3-34 divider, 3-42
Negative feedback, 3-107; 5-48 Peak-to-peak voltage, 2-14 doubler, 3-46
Negative voltage, 3-43 Peak value, 2-14 negative, 3-43
Neutralization, 5-48; 6-43 Pentavalent, 5-4 quadruples 3-48
N-P-N transistor: Pentode, 3-24 regulation, 3-55
definition of, 5-12 Permanent magnet, 1-97 Power transformer, 2-53; 3-31
operation of, 5-16, 5-18 Permeability, 1-109 Powered-iron, 2-47
symbol, 5-12 Permeability tuning, 4-10 Pre-emphasis, 4-72 ,
Neutrons, 1-10; 5-2 Phase, definition of, 2-19 Preselector, 4-18
Nichrome, 1-30 Phase distortion, 3-80 Primary cell, 1-39 - 1-42
Nickel-cadmium cell, 1-45 Phase inverter, 3-97, 3-96 Primary winding, 2-28
Noise limiter, 4-57 Phase relationships, 3-71 Propagation velocity, 6-114
Nonlinear distortion, 3-80 Piezoelectric effect, 1-38; 6-17 Protons, 1-7; 5-2
Nucleus, 1-10 Pi filter, 3-39 Push-button tuning, 4-37
Null circuits, 4-53 Planetary electrons, 1-10, 1-11 Push-pull, 3-75, 3-99
Plate, 3-5 Push-pull amplifier, 5-56
Plate current, 3-7
Plate detector, 3-132
Ohm, 1-55
Plate efficiency, 3-74
George Simon, 1-55, 1-63
Plate modulation, 6-72 Q, 2-110; 4-3, 4-9
Ohmmeter, 1-72, 1-76, 1-127
Plate resistance, 3-19, 3-20 Q multiplier, 4-52
Ohm's law, 1-63 - 1-66
ac, 3-10 Quartz, 6-17
for ac, 2-38 Quiescent plate current, 3-68,
dc, 3-9
Open circuit, 1-51
Plate voltage, 3-7 3-74
Operating characteristics, 5-21 Plate voltage-plate current
Operating point, 3-68, 3-74 curves, 3-8
Oscillation, 3-117 Point-contact diode, 5-11
Oscillator (transistorized) 5-44 cat whisker, 4-7; 5-20 Radar, 1-1
local (transistorized), 5-45 hole injection, 5-19 Radiation, 6-121
Oscillators: P-N junction: Radiation resistance, 6-135
Armstrong, 3-120 forward bias of, 5-9 Radio-frequency (r-f) amplifica-
beat-frequency, 4-47, 4-56 operation of, 5-7 tion, 3-113
bias, 3-119 reverse bias, 5-9 Radio-frequency (r-f) amplifier,
Butler-overtone, 6-25 P-N-P transistor; 3-113; 4-12
characteristics of, 6-13 definition of, 5-12 Radio receivers, 4-1
Clapp, 6-15 hole current, 5-16 Radio signals, 6-2
Colpitts, 3-124 operation of, 5-16 Radiotelegraph transmitter, 6-3
coupling, 6-27 symbol for, 5-12 Radius, 2-2
crystal overtone, 6-25 Polarity, 1-32 Ratio detector, 4-97
definition of, 3-117 Polarization, 1-41 R-e circuit, 2-84, 2-86
electron-coupled, 3-126 Portable receivers, 4-44 R-c coupling, 5-40
Hartley, 3-121 Positive: R-c filter, 3-41
high-frequency, 3-125 charge, 1-15 R-f power amplifiers, 6-42
loading, 6-27 electricity, 1-4 input and output power, 6-55
losses, 6-11 feedback, 3-107 output circuits, 6-50
Pierce, 6-24 ion, 1-13, 1-28 push-pull, 6-47, 6-49
series-fed, 3-123 terminal, 1-32 single-ended, 6-48
shunt-fed, 3-123 Positive feedback, 3-107 tuning, 6-56
tickler-feedback, 3-120 Potential energy, 1-24 R-f amplifier (transistorized),
transistorized, 5-44 Potentiometer, 1 -59 5-43
local, 5-45 Power, 1-67 Rate-grown transistor, 5-14
variable-frequency, 6-26 in an a-c circuit, 2-90 Rate of change, 2-18
Oscilloscope, 2-132 loss, 1-84 Ratings, 6-7
Output stage, 5-55 rating, resistors, 1-69 Reactance, capacitive, 2-80
Output voltage, 1-46 Power amplifier, 3-60, 3-98; 5-55 calculation of, 2-83
Overload diode, 5-49 Power detector, 5-51 Reactance tube, 4-110
Power factor, 2-91 Receivers:
Power gain, 5-24, 5-39 ac-dc, 4-39
Power output, 3-103 automobile, 4-44
P-type semiconductor, 5-5
Power supplies: communications, 4-47
Padder capacitor, 4-21
ac, dc, 3-44 crystal, 4-7
Parallel capacitance, 2-78
auto radio, 3-51 frequency modulation, 4-74
Parallel circuits:
1-85 bleeders, 3-4 radio, 4-1
definition of,
filters, 3-33 to 3-40 superheterodyne, 4-17
L-C, 2-112
heater circuits, 3-49 superregenerative, 4-45
L-C-R, 2-115
rectification, 3-32 transistorized, 5-43
R-C, 2-87
R-l, 2-41 rectifiers: TRF, 4-8, 4-15
bridge, 3-36 Receiver, radio, 4-1
resonant L-C, 2-121
full-wave, 3-35 Receiver (transistorized), 5-43
summary of, 2-44
half-wave, 3-34 Rectifier, 3-30; 5-10; 6-8
Parallel-connection, 1-49
CUMULATIVE INDEX 6-153
Rectification, 3-32 Silicon, 5-2 step-up, 2-50

Reference line, 2-11 Sine wave, definition of, 2-13 tapped winding, 2-54
Reflected impedance, 3-106 rate of change, 2-18 turns ratio, 2-50
Reflexed i-f— a-f amplifier, 5-52 Single sideband: unloaded secondary, 2-46
Regenerative detector, 3-133 balanced modulation, 6-92 Transformer coupling, 3-90; 5-40
Regenerative feedback, 3-107 bandpass filters, 6-94 Transistor:
carrier suppression, 6-92
Regulation, 3-37, 3-41, 3-55, 3-99 alpha, 5-22
crystal filters, 6-95
Reluctance, 1-112 cutoff frequency, 5-25
definition of, 4-59
Residual magnetism, 1-118 amplifier:
linear amplifiers, 6-98
Resistance, 1-53 a-f, 5-53
phasing, 6-97
Ohm's law for, 1-66 asymmetric, 5-57
reception, 4-62
symbol, 1-55 complementary symmetry,
sideband suppression, 6-94
Resistance-capacitance coupling, 5-58
transmission, 6-91
3-85 transmitters, 6-99 direct-coupled, 5-54
Resistance gain, 5-22 Sinusoidal wave, 2-13 i-f, 5-48
Resistor ratings, 1-60, 1-69 Slope detector, 4-87 push-pull, 5-56
Resistors, 1-53, 1-59 Solenoid, 1-108; 2-25 r-f, 5-43
Resonance, 2-99, 2-106 Space charge, 3-6 basing and construction, 5-15
calculation of, 2-119 Specific gravity, 1-43 beta, 5-33
Reverse bias, 5-8 Specific resistance, 1-56 biasing, 5-36
Rheostat, 1-59 Speech amplifier, 6-79 fixed base-current, 5-36
Right triangle, 2-3 Speech clipping, 6-83 self, 5-37
Ripple frequency, 3-34 Speed of electricity, 1-36 characteristic curves, 5-38
Root mean square (RMS) value, Speed of light, 1-36 circuits, see Transistor circuits
2-16 Square mils, 1-58 construction of, 5-15
Square wave, 2-14 converter, 5-47
Squelch circuit, 4-58
coupling, 5-40
SSB, see Single sideband
current amplification, 5-22
Standing wave ratio, 6-145
S meters, 4-54 current gain, 5-23, 5-39
Static characteristics, 3-11
Saturation, 3-8, 3-16 definition of, 5-1, 5-12
Static curves, 3-8, 3-16
Scalar quantity, 2-4 Static electricity, 1-27
diffused alloy-|unction, 5-13
Screen-grid modulation, 6-75 Storage cell, 1-43 frequency response, 5-25
Secondary, 2-28 Superheterodyne alignment, 4-42 grown-junction, 5-14
Secondary cell, 1-43—1-45 Superheterodyne receiver, 4-17 heat sink, 5-27
Secondary emission 3-3, 3-23 ^Superregenerative receiver, 4-45 leakage current, 5-27
Seed crystal, 5-14 Swinging choke, 3-40 mixer, 5-46
Selectivity, 3-113; 4-3, 4-4 Synchronous vibrator, 3-52 N-P-N type, 5-12
Selenium 3-33
rectifier, oscillators, 5-44
Self-bias, 3-77 local, 5-45
Self induction, 2-23 point-contact, 5-19
Semiconductor rectifiers, 3-33 Tangent, 2-3
catwhisker, 5-20
Semiconductors: Temperature coefficient, 2-74
hole injection, 5-19
acceptors, 5-5 Temperature effects, 5-27
P-N-P type, 5-12
atomic structure of, 5-2 Temporary magnet, 1-97
Tetrode, 3-22 power gain, 5-24, 5-39
covalent bond, 5-3 radio power supplies, 5-59
crystals, 5-3 Thermal runaway, 5-27
Thermionic emission, 3-3, 3-4 rate-grown, 5-14
definition of, 5-1, 5-4
Thermistor, 1-61; 5-27 resistance gain, 5-22
donors, 5-4
Theta, 2-2, 2-3 temperature effects, 5-27
doping of, 5-4
Three-way portable power thermal runaway, 5-27
electron-pair bonds, 5-3
holes, 5-5, 5-6 supplies, 3-50 vacuum tube analogy, 5-26
Tickler feedback, 3-120 voltage gain, 5-23, 5-39
lattice structure of, 5-3
majority carriers, 5-10 Time constant chart, universal, Transistor circuits:
materials, 5-2 2-96 converter, 5-47
minority carriers, 5-10 Time constant, R-L, 2-92 coupling of, 5-40
N-type, 5-3 R-C, 2-94 detector, 5-50
P-type, 5-5 Tolerance, 1-60 grounded (common) base, 5-29,
Sensitivity, 4-4 Tone control, 4-29 5-30
Series capacitance, 2-79 Torque, 1-114 grounded (common) collector,
Series circuits: TPTG oscillator, 6-16 5-29, 5-34
L-C, 2-97 Tracking, 4-11 grounded (common) emitter,
L-C-R, 2-103 Transceiver, 4-46
5-29, 5-32
R-C, 2-84 Transconductdnce, 3-21
mixer, 5-46
R-L, 2-39 Transformer:
oscillators, 5-44
voltage and current in, 2-34 action, 2-46
reflexed amplifier, 5-52
resonant, 2-108 air-core, 2-49
r-f amplifier, 5-43
resonant, L-C-R, 2-109 applications of, 2-57
autotransformer, 2-56 Transmission, AM, 6-64
summary of, 2-44 Transmission lines, 4-47
Series-connection, 1-48, 1-73 coupling, 3-90
definition of, 2-45 characteristics, 6-109
Series inductance, 2-30
eddy currents, 2-55 characteristic impedance, 6-110
Series-parallel connection, 1-50,
1-91 iron-core, 2-49 definition of, 6-107
Shielding, 4-10 loaded secondary, 2-48 resonant, 6-117
Shortwave bands, 3-113 losses, 2-55 sections, 6-119
Shunt circuit, 1-85 multiwinding, 2-53 termination, 6-111
Shunt ohmmeter, 1-128 power in 2-52

a, types, 6-108
Sidebands, AM, 6-67 step-down, 2-50 Transmitters:
bias voltage, 6-53 transmitting, 6-4 Voltmeter, 1-46, 1-72, 1-123

buffers, 6-34 driving power of, 6-5 Volume control, 4-13, 4-30
CW, 6-3 emitters, 6-4
drivers, 6-41 gaseous-rectifier, 6-9
frequency multiplier, 6-35 mercury vapor, 6-8
metering, 6-54 plates, 6-6
Watt, 1-67
output coupling, 6-51, 6-57 plate-power input, 6-6 Watthour, 1-70
power amplifiers, 6-42 rectifier, 6-8 Wattmeter, 1-72, 1-131
radiotelegraph, 6-3 triode, 3-12 Waveform, 2-12
tubes, 6-4 variable-mu, 3-26 Wavefront, 6-124
Tuned 4-9 Wavelength, 6 113
Transit time, 5-25 circuits,
Triangle, 2-3 Tuned r-f amplifier, 3-114
Wave propagation, 6-125
Tuning, push-button, 4-37 angle of radiation, 6-129
TRF receiver, 4-8, 4-15
Turns ratio, 2-51 direct waves, 6-126
Trigonometry functions, table of,
Typical transistor receiver, 5-60 electric and magnetic fields,
2-134
6-122
Trimmer capacitor, 4-11
ground-reflected waves, 6-126
Triode, 3-12
ground waves, 6-126
Trivalent, 5-5 Vacuum tubes, 3-2 line-of-sight, 6-127
True power, 2-91 Valence electrons, 5-2 skip distance, 6-129
Tubes: Variable capacitor, 4-11 sky waves, 6-128
amplification factor, 3-19 Variable-mu, 3-26 temperature inversion, 6-127
basing, 3-28 Varistor, 1-61 wavefronts, 6- 124
beam-power, 3-25 Vectors, 2-4, 2-5 Wave traps, 4-6
construction, 3-2 Vertex, 2-2 Weber, 1-103
curves, 3-8, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, Vibrator, 3-51 Wheatstone bridge, 1-132
3-23 Voice coil, 3-105 Wire gage, 1-58, 1-134
diode, 3-5 Volt, 1-33 Wire-wound resistor, 1-59
emission, 3-3 Voltage:
pentode, 3-24 distribution, 2-40
plate current, 3-7 divider, 1-79, 1-83; 3-42
plate resistance, 3-9 doubler, 3-46, 3-47 X ,
2-31
r
plate voltage, 3-8 drop, 1-79, 1-81
space charge, 3-6 effective value, 2-17
static characteristics, 3-11 feedback, 3-108
Yagi antennas, 6-137
transconductance, 3-21 gain, 3-70; 5-23, 5-39
tetrode, 3-22 generation of, 2-8
transmitting, see tubes trans- Ohm's law for finding, 1-65 Zener diode, 3-57
mitting output, 1-33 Zener voltage, 5-10
triode, 3-12 quadruples 3-48 Zinc-carbon cell, 1-40
tetrode, 3-22 regulators, 3-55, 3-56, 3-58 Zinc-mercury oxide cell, 1-42

of radio.


1


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basic

JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC, NEW YORK

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 61-11229

Printed in the United States of America

Fifth Printing, 1968

It would be impossible to cover in a single book or series of books, the

Basic Radio represents the neglected middle ground. It is a course in radio

The sequence of Basic Radio first establishes a knowledge of d-c elec-

No prior knowledge of algebra, electricity, or any associated subject is

ing a vast amount of information, it cannot be read like a novel, skimming

VOL. I — BASIC RADIO

THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY 1

Electricity • ElectricalCharging by Rubbing • The Modem Concept of Electricity

• Electrical Forces in the Atom • Bound

Summary and Review Questions 34

CELLS AND BATTERIES 39

RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS 53

Summary and Review Questions 62

SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF D-C CIRCUITS 90

INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 114

Summary and Review Questions 118

Summary and Review Questions 133

AMERICAN WIRE GAGE TABLE 134

Without the benefits of radio, conquest of space would be impossible. The

The Early History of Electricity

Knowledge concerning electricity started with the Greeks. It is said that at

A Famous Experiment in Electricity

field of electricity was

1-4 THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY

A Famous Experiment In Electricity (contd.

Franklin also suggested the idea that everything in its normal

THE BEGINNINGS OF ELECTRICITY 1-5

A Famous Experiment in Electricity (contd.

Itwas observed that bodies which carried unlike charges —

Bodies Charged With Unlike Electricity Anted Each Other

between two negatively between two positively

Electrical Charging By Rubbing

more negative more positive more positive more negative

Early Explanation Of Negatively and Positively Charged Objects

now contained more positive electricity than negative electricity; therefore,

The Modern Concept of Electricity

Although our concepts of electricity differ substantially from the ideas

ualized as a fluid, today we believe that electricity exists as minute, virtually

There Are Two Kinds Of

tron is the fundamental_charge_ofjiega^^ Each is an impractically

Matter and Chemical Elements

W e are interested in chemical elements because so many of them are used as

If a small quantity of a chemical element, solid, liquid or gas, could be re-

duced in amount by a continuous series of subdivisions, the fundamental build-

exist. They ore used as

THE COPPER CRYSTAL - THE TINIEST PIECE OF COPPER

of a tremendous amount of these crystals. Other elemental metals have their

Every Atom Is Made of Electricity

A SUBMICROSCOPIC SOLAR SYSTEM

Every atom (regardless of kind) is an organized structure whose main parts

Electrical Forces In The Atom

Planetary Electrons are

repulsion from neighboring