ISLAMIZATION OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE:

SHIFTING THE PARADIGM OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Mustapha Ben-
Ben-Hamouche Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
College of Engineering, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
e-mail: mbenhamouche@eng.uob.bh

Abstract
Islamic architecture is often thought as a history course and thus finds its material limited to the cataloguing
and studying of legacies of successive empires or various geographic regions of the Islamic world. In practice,
adherent professionals tend to reproduce high styles such as Umayyad, Abassid, Fatimid, Ottoman, etc., or
recycle well known elements such as the minarets, courtyards, and mashrabiyyahs. This approach, endorsed by
the present comprehensive Islamic revival, is believed to be the way to defend and revitalize the identity of
Muslim societies that was initially affected by colonization and now is being offended by globalization.
However, this approach often clashes with the contemporary trends in architecture that do not necessarily
oppose the essence of Islamic architecture. Furthermore, it sometimes lead to an erroneous belief that consists
of relating a priori forms to Islam and that clashes with the timeless and universal character of the Islamic
religion. The key question to be asked then is, beyond this historicist view, what would be an “Islamic architec-
ture” of nowadays that originates from the essence of Islam and that responds to contemporary conditions,
needs, aspirations of present Muslim societies and individuals. To what extends can Islamic architecture bene-
fits from modern progress and contemporary thought in resurrecting itself without loosing its essence. The
hypothesis of the study is that, just as early Muslim architecture started from the adoption, use and re-use of
early pre-Islamic architectures before reaching originality, this process, called Islamization, could also take
place nowadays with the contemporary thought that is mostly developed in Western and non-Islamic environ-
ments. Mechanisms in Islam that allowed the “absorption” of pre-existing civilizations should thus structure the
islamization approach and serve the scholars and professionals to reach the new Islamic architecture. The
objectives of the paper consist of counter-criticizing orientalists’ views that overwhelm our libraries and
references systems, and that consider the first stage of Islamic civilization, within which architecture is part,
as a mere cut-and-paste process and, at best, a synthesis of these pre-Islamic heritages, and overcoming the
prevailing historicist approach, and open new scopes for future generations to instate a new era of islamization
that permits digesting the contemporary Western thoughts in a conscious, critical, and constructive way.

Keywords: Maqassid, khilafa, islamization of knowledge, Islamic Architecture, ijtihad, Contemporary Architecture

Abstrak
Arsitektur Islam seringkali hanya dipandang dari sudut pandang kesejarahan, sehingga materi keilmuannya
terbatas pada upaya mengatalogkan warisan sejarah dari berbagai kerajaan atau wilayah geografis di dunia
Islam. Pada prakteknya, para praktisi cenderung mereproduksi gaya Umayyah, Abassiyah, Fatimiyah, dan
sejenisnya, atau mengulang penggunaan elemen-elemen terkenal seperti menara, maidan, atau mashrabiyyah.
Pendekatan semacam ini diyakini dapat mempertahankan dan merevitalisasi identitas masyarakat Muslim yang
dulu dipengaruhi penjajahan, dan saat ini dikuasai globalisasi. Bagaimanapun, pendekatan ini sering tak sejalan
dengan tren kontemporer dalam arsitektur yang ternyata tak selalu bertentangan dengan esensi arsitektur
Islam. Pendekatan ini juga terkadang mengarah pada kekeliruan dalam menghubungkan bentuk-bentuk tertentu
dengan Islam, dan karenanya bertentangan dengan karakter Islam yang abadi dan universal. Pertanyaan
kuncinya adalah, di luar jangkauan pandangan historis, akan bagaimanakah arsitektur Islam masa kini yang
berakar dari esensi Islam dan yang merespon kondisi, kebutuhan, dan aspirasi kontemporer masyarakat dan
individu Muslim saat ini. Seluas apakah manfaat kemajuan modern dan pemikiran kontemporer bagi arsitektur
Islam dalam membangkitkan dirinya sendiri tanpa kehilangan esensinya. Hipotesis penelitian ini adalah, sama
seperti arsitektur Muslim awal yang memulai dengan adaptasi arsitektur pra-Islam sebelum mencapai
orisinalitasnya, proses islamisasi ini bisa juga berlangsung saat ini dengan pemikiran kontemporer yang sebagian
besar dikembangkan di Barat. Mekanisme dalam ajaran Islam yang memungkinkan “penyerapan” dari
peradaban sebelumnya dapat menstrukturisasi pendekatan islamisasi dan membantu para ilmuwan dan
profesional untuk mencapai arsitektur Islam yang baru. Makalah ini berisi kritik terhadap pandangan orientalis
yang membanjiri referensi, yang menganggap tahap awal dari peradaban Islam, dimana arsitektur merupakan
bagiannya, sebagai proses penjiplakan dari warisan pra-Islam. Makalah ini juga berisi kritik terhadap
pendekatan historis, serta berupaya membuka ruang lingkup baru bagi generasi mendatang untuk menghadapi
era baru islamisasi untuk dapat mencerna pemikiran kontemporer Barat secara sadar, kritis dan konstruktif.

Kata kunci: Maqassid, khilafah, islamisasi pengetahuan, ijtihad, Arsitektur Islam, Arsitektur Kontemporer

70 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

Introduction: The Theory of Islamization ponse to their beliefs and Islamic teachings, would
Islamization of knowledge is a recent term that serve in this perspective as an historical image, and
was developed by contemporary Muslim scholars in a precedent in the process of islamization that took
order to bridge the gap between Islam and the place in early times of Islam (Figure 2).
various fields of modern thought (Figure 1)1. Modern
disciplines must be critically examined and their
Traditional Islamic Knowledge
philosophical foundations be recast into the Islamic Symbiosis
vision, while the Islamic thought should benefit from
Modern Islamic Cultural
the recent progress in methodologies, approaches, Knowledge
instrumentations, and progress in new sciences2.

Reshaped Contemporary
Contemporary Knowledge
Knowledge

Figure 2. The scheme of islamization of knowledge

Islamization of (Architectural) Knowledge

The previous approach applies to a large extend
to the domain of architecture nowadays both in its
theoretical and practical sides. Islam brought a set
of values and beliefs, and a way of conduct that
shaped the life of communities and individuals in all
Figure 1. Great Mosque in Damaskus, influenced by the aspects. However, it didn’t provide a pre-defined
Roman architecture
model(s) of architecture that reflects its teachings.
This vision is best stated by al-Attas as follows: Many buildings, elements, and typologies have been
“We do affirm that religion is in harmony with science initially adopted from pre-Islamic legacies during
but this does not mean that religion is in harmony with conquests periods and early settling of Muslim
modern scientific methodology and philosophy of communities in different regions. It was only later-
science. Since there is no science that is free of on that new architectures emerged in a symbiosis
value, we must intelligently investigate and study the
values and judgments that are inherent in, or aligned
between these principles, the pre-Islamic legacies
to, the presuppositions and interpretations of modern and the necessity for progress and evolution.
science. We must not indifferently and uncritically Consequently, the revival of Islamic architec-
accept each new scientific or philosophical theory ture nowadays must not be contented with the
without first understanding its implication and testing
return to the “Golden age” nor with the renewal of
the validity of values that go along with the theory.
Islam possesses within itself the source of its claim to the old architecture but through the process of Is-
truth, and does not need scientific or philosophical lamization; i.e. the wise adoption and use of existing
theories to justify such a claim. Moreover, it is not the architectures that is modeled by the Islamic set of
concern of Islam to fear scientific discoveries that concepts. This process has a double role; it enables
could contradict the validity of its truth.”3
Muslim societies to bridge the intellectual gap with
Modern science has reduced the study of the the West, and to apply the Islamic mechanisms to
phenomenal world to an end in itself that brought contemporary legacy in view of reaching a new stage
material benefits, but was, however accompanied by of creativity originality.
an uncontrollable and insatiable propensity to The hypothesis is better expressed by Bianca,
destroy nature itself. Islamic metaphysics is a unified as follows5:
system that discloses the ultimate nature of Reality “It is only by making use of these inner forces that a
in positive terms and would thus correct this trend4. society will be able to respond to outside challenges,
Architecture had always been a field of know- to absorb, adapt, and transform the achievements of
ledge in which many disciplines such as history, foreign civilizations without loosing its own identity”.
economy, sociology, technology and arts, meet, On elaborating on the approach he considers:
cross, and interact. Developing “Islamic or Muslim “Establishing a new cultural synthesis through
Architecture” in the contemporary context would selective and meaningful use of the “raw material” of
thus require a conscious amalgamation of Islamic today’s modern civilisation is indeed the major
knowledge with the contemporary thoughts and challenge Islamic societies face today. In importance,
this challenge is comparable to the situation during
practices. Old Muslim architecture, as an output of the early days of Islam, when the community was con-
Muslim societies and individuals practices in res- fronted with the wealth of Greco-Roman civilisation

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 71

 and had to forge an unmistakably Islamic culture under Early Islamization Process and Muslim
its own spiritual premises.”
Architecture
Initial buildings in Islam were very simple
Is there a Need for Islamizing Architecture? construction of no architectural interest. Ka’ba for
instance was a small roofless enclosure, oblong in
The necessity for the return to Islam and thus
shape, formed by four walls a little lighter than a
the need for Islamic architecture could be justified
man, built of rough stone laid dry9,10. The prophet’s
by the cultural crisis that Muslim societies are
mosque and his house, erected in 622 AD, were an
undergoing. Initially, the degeneration of Islamic
enclosure of mud brick that have together about 100
values took place due to the long period of coloni-
cubits square, surrounded with walls of seven cubits
zation. Later on, the Western culture invaded most
height and covered with a roof that could be
aspects of life in the Muslim societies through
touched with hand11.
technology, mode of living, economic and political
This primitive architecture seems to be very
systems, as well as knowledge, a fact that led to the
rooted in the Arab pre-Islamic culture. The few Arab
erosion of the latent Islamic values.
dwellers who lived in Mecca and Medina in houses of
The quest for Islamic architecture should
mud bricks were called ahl-al-madar, while Bedouins
therefore be regarded as one side of this multi-
who lived in the tents made of camel’s-hair cloth
faceted cultural crisis that imposes itself not only to
were called ahl-al-wabar12. Similar state seems how-
societies, but also to intellectuals, scientists, and
ever to have continued during the early period of
professionals. One way to revive the Islamic values
Islamic civilization. Early towns such as Kufa, Basra,
in architecture and grasping the contemporary prog-
and Fustat witnessed during their foundation stage
ress is thus through the process of Islamization.
the continuity of this primitive architecture. Despite
For architects and professionals, the necessity
the planning process and space demarcation of
for Islamizing architecture stems from both theore-
public facilities buildings that were described by
tical and practical considerations. In practice, an
historians, most of the buildings were initially tents
acute needs for “an Islamic physical environment”
of reeds that were easily mounted and demounted
imposes itself through the demand of individuals and
according to circumstances. That was only after de-
societies for an Islamic environment in the same way
cades that they were replaced by stone buildings13.
as Islamic banking, political parties, teaching, and
Beyond the chronologic interpretation of this
dressing are emerging6. This quest is however, naive-
primitivism, philosophic reasons seem to lay behind
ly expressed in architecture by individuals and com-
the tendency of the new religion to simplicity. The
munities either through the nostalgic return to old
prophet’s daily practices and teachings were,
forms and decorations, or through an alteration of
according to Creswell, in counter action with any
modern outputs7.
architectural ambition that was often used by rulers
In academia, Islamization of architecture comes
and leaders as a symbol of political power14. Promo-
from the nature of the discipline itself that reflects
ting one’s spirit, and adopting Jihad values necessi-
culture, sociology and moral values of its users8.
tates renunciation of human desires for wealth,
Islam, as a comprehensive religion has deep, inclu-
enjoyment, and comfort, and thus decreases the
sive, and lasting effects on daily life of societies and
individual’s eagerness to architecture15.
individuals. It dictates their mode of use and shapes
Despite its comprehensive character that
their environment in all aspects of architecture.
covers all aspects of human life, Islam didn’t dictate
In education, many curricula on architecture, in
or prescribe any physical models to its followers.
Muslim as well as Western countries, include courses
Buildings such as houses, markets and mosques were
on Islamic architecture in response to the anthropo-
rather developed along with the Islamic civilization
logic and cultural studies, the market pressure, and
under the pressure of daily needs of users. Many of
commercial purposes of the flourishing demand. The
these buildings were inherited and adapted from the
teaching approach that often relies on historicism,
pre-Islamic societies that became part of the Islamic
and the design methodology that ends up with exhi-
territory after the conquests16.
bitionist forms often stand short of the profound
Conquering other countries namely Egypt, Iraq,
multi-dimensions of Islam. In addition, such an
Yemen, Persia, Shaam, and India that were the nests
educational process continuously faces a serious
of early civilizations, was then a critical moment
challenge from the ever-emerging Western schools of
where the confrontation between the Islamic ethics
thought as well as the alien built environment.
and the materiality of those nations took place, and
Islamization seems therefore to be the way to
thus was the birth date of Muslim architecture17. A
overcome historicism and exhibitionism. Moreover,
process of absorption, adaptation, ingestion, and
Islamization could also bridge the gap between
internalization of the existing architecture took
Islamic ethics and contemporary thoughts.
place18. After decades and centuries original forms
emerged as a momentum effect of the process.

72 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

 Damascus, presents an illustrative example of called iwans found their way to the Muslim
such a process. Its urban fabric dominated by the architecture repertory20.
Hellenistic-Roman architecture had deeply influen- The minaret presents a striking example of such
ced the Umayyad architecture. The Great Mosque of an adoption process during the early time of Muslim
Damascus for instance witnessed a re-use of the architecture. Creswell for instance, found that this
building materials, the adoption of the axial organi- element has chronologically developed from early
zation as well as the ornaments that were found on- towers found in Damascus. It was then spread first to
site19 (Figure 3). According to historians, Christian Egypt and then to the other countries that became
masons and craftsmen took part in the edification under The Umayyad governance21. Its square base
process of this mosque that became a reference that is used nowadays reflects this chronology and
model for a generation of mosques to come, such as confirms this theory. A similar process with regard to
Al-Qairaouan and Cordoba. the other types of minarets; namely the cylindrical,
octagonal, and the helicoidal forms, took place in
Central Asia under the dominance of other dynasties.
Regardless of its original function, its pre-existing
form was found to fit best the function of Azan and
thus was used as minaret22. Many other elements
such as the mihrab, the minbar, the maqsura, the
dome, and the arch that responded to functional,
technical, and religious requirements had chronolo-
gically their origins back in the pre-Islamic legacies.
Inward looking house could also serve as
another example for the process of Islamization23. Its
Figure 3. Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul,
spatial organization that pre-existed around the
influenced by the Byzantine architecture Mediterranean sea, presented an ideal solution to
privacy requirement, domestic life and socio-cultural
Constantinople, the capital of Byzantine em- structure of Muslim communities, in addition to its
pire, is another example of such a process. Baths, climatic performance.
aqueducts, and public buildings such as Aghia-Sofia, Opposite to some orientalist interpretations
as well as private houses that were integrally that often stemmed from ideological standpoints
inherited by Muslims, had deep impact on the consider these historical facts as a proof of a plagia-
development of the Ottoman architecture during the rism from earlier civilizations. Rather, this process
three centuries of the empire. The huge central should be considered as a reflection of the flexibi-
dome standing on the large span columns presented lity of the Islamic doctrine and its responsiveness to
an ideal concept that liberates the prayer room and human diversity and universal plurality. Existing
thus turned into a historical prototype that spread styles, building technologies, spatial organizations
all over the Ottoman territory (Figure 4). and historical precedents have been amalgamated
through the process of Islamisation and gave to
Muslim architecture its variety, and to Islamic
architecture its essence24.

The Matrix of Islamization

The theory considers that the present body of
contemporary knowledge was mostly developed by
the Western scholars and institution. It is deeply
affected by the Western secular approach and
philosophy and consequently, clashes with the
Figure 4. The public building Aghia-Sofia as well as Islamic ethics and beliefs. This clash manifests itself
private house that were integrally inherited by Muslims most in the summit of the knowledge pyramid in
which humanities, social sciences, and philosophy
Persia and Iraq, provided another substance to are ranked, but shows less evidence in other
the Islamization process. The typology of Sassanid experimental disciplines, such as biology and
architecture, has deeply marked the Muslim archi- engineering. Filtering and recasting this knowledge
tecture of the region. Major elements such as in accordance to the Islamic vision is therefore
covered markets bazaars, castles, used later on by necessary prior to any development project for the
Abbasids, as well as small elements such as niches Islamic revival and search for progress.

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 73

 Islamization of contemporary knowledge is have done so explicitly. Surely no instruction have
believed to have a double effect. On one side it will been given as to the size of rooms or height of doors.
have a salvation effect on the contemporary know- Stewardship of the earth is the starting point
ledge with regards to its materialist and fragmental for the search for a definition of the Muslim
tendency that would have destructive effects on approach to the environment based upon God’s
humanity and the universe. On the other side, it will intended role for men and women26. The exercise of
inject approaches, instruments, and findings of the stewardship involves two premises. First, the natural
new sciences in the body of the traditional Islamic resources of this world must be developed so that
knowledge for the sake of its updating and renewal. society may benefit from the rewards of this
Below are the major paradigms that form the development (neither minimalist nor exploitationist
Islamization matrix (Table 1). approaches are valid). Second, a society capable of
working this earth must be organized in a just,
Tabel 1. Evaluating: A-Accepting, B-Re-conducting, C- mutually supportive and balanced manner.
Conditioning, D-Rejecting There is an order in the cosmos and in this
Vicege- Islamic Legal Cus- Inno- world that must be respected27. This lead to the
Type of rency Citi- Frame- toms vation need for environmental protection, including respect
architec- Khila- zenry work
ture fa Shari-
Urf Ijti- for living creatures of all types.
Umma had
aa Regarding muamalat or interpersonal relations,
Regionalism
the organization of the society would have the
A
vernacular following broad features: freedom, the search for
Sustainabi- knowledge and truth, action and effort, justice, the
lity, Green A public interest, and the concern for the poor and the
Movement
weak28. Contemplative meditation is looked upon as
Modernism a means of self renewal in order to undertake better
& Neo-
Modernism tasks in the future not as an end to itself.
Individual behaviour is based on moderation
Decon-
struction, C
and humility29. These attributes seem to be in sharp
contrast to much of the ostentatious consumption
and self-glorification that are reflected in some of
Minimalism
the buildings constructed by those exulted in the
newfound wealth.
High Tech
A Quran describes the mission of human on earth
as vicegerency to Allah. This mission reflects the
Modernism belief in the Unity of Creator (tawheed) and the sub-
C
mission to His order. In practice, it consists of ma-
Folklor, king culture and civilization on earth through its co-
Popular,
A lonizing according to the divine commandments30,31.
Participa-
tive Opposite to the metaphysics that derive from
Post-
other religions, the unity of the Creator in Islam
Modern, implies a comprehensive vision to the cosmos and an
B
Historic action framework on earth. This vision could be
Revival
summed up in the three aspects as follows:
(Source: Result of analysis)
a. The unity of universe, a global image on the
cosmos comes out of the puzzling elements such
The principle of Vicegerency (al-Khilafah) as men, animals, plantations, and other physical
In his article “Faith, Development and the Built entities, and apparently unrelated phenomena
Environment”, Serageldin considers that an alterna- such as water and fire, solids and liquids, small
tive to the rejectionist mode of thinking is grounded and large bodies, good and evils. This unity is
in the original sources of Islamic doctrine25. There is also reflected in the cosmic order that consists
a subtle danger in initiating the search for a Muslim of the laws of nature32. Without this theoretical
identity solely in terms of sources. It may lead to a framework, the universe looks fragmented and
bending of sources texts, ignoring the context, to mysterious, and man feels that he is surrounded
provide literal guidelines for contemporary action with loss and chaos, an image that draws itself
that fit a particular viewpoint. If God desired to give from the present secularism33.
people specific instructions on how to build struc- b. The unity of humanity, in its history, presence,
tures in the twentieth centuries, he could certainly and destiny. The Khilafa concept connotes the
.

74 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

 mission of all mankind on earth, and doesn’t con- Neighborhoods, social aids, humbleness and indivi-
cern Muslims only34. In Islamic metaphysics, the dual freedoms are principles that constitutes the
human life on earth is bound within the two body of the paradigm of the Umma.
major events; the starting of the creation from a Nowadays, the socio-cultural role of architec-
same off-spring and origin; and the unknown ture reflects to a large extent the Western ideology.
future that will end-up with the inevitable End. It channels class divergence, competitiveness, mate-
The cosmos is thus shared by all nations and riality, profit-making, exotics, desires, and absolute
societies regardless of their gender, race, ethni- freedom. In the Islamic context it represents to a
city and religion35. Muslim architect a God-given talent that is outlined
c. The unity of knowledge, that implies the conver- by the Islamic ethics, and to the user a wealth to be
gence and interaction of all fields and branches consumed reasonably, and to be regulated by the
of sciences and disciplines, despite their multipli- socio-cultural considerations such as cohesion,
city, to one central truth. This truth is the humbleness, and reasonable use. Both its artistic and
essence of existence that reflects the summit of functional sides are thus ruled by the moral,
the pyramid-like form of human knowledge and cultural, social, and environmental exigencies of the
that transcends its branches. According to Nasr36 Islamic citizenry.
and al-Attas37; the multiple forms of nature are
reflections of the Unity which is both the origin
and the end of the order of multiplicity38. The Shariaa and its Supreme Ends
Achievements in different fields of sciences are (al-Maqassid)
thus considered as an uncovering process of Al-Shariaa theory is based on a matrix of Ends
natural laws, sunan, and are therefore a common and priorities that summarizes the essence of the
wealth of mankind. In engineering for instance, Islamic doctrine. It presents to jurists and scholars a
the laws that rule design of any kind are the laws framework that structures the Islamic thought and
of nature that all boil down to the fundamental reasoning process though which human actions are
principle of unity that pervades all creation39. evaluated and judged. Religion in its broader term
covers all aspects of human life and aims to protect
One of the recent interpretation of this concept
its essence.
is that of Hussain Nasr40. Khalifa concept is
The supreme Ends that constitute the body of
fundamentally compatible with ideals of the ecology
Shariaa that were established by early scholars are
and peace movements that aims at protecting
five; the Religion, the Human Life, the Reason, the
environment from unwise use. In its Quranic sense it
Procreation, and the Wealth and Property. Recent
connotes rational use of resources and energy,
studies concluded that some Ends that are at present
prevention of harm, and protection of human spe-
of crucial importance were not considered in this
cies. A unity amongst the faiths by concentrating on
matrix although they were clearly stated in the
their common respect for life i.e. the Earth's bio-
Islamic doctrine. For instance, Freedom and Earth in
sphere, though a “global ethic” is therefore needed.
their different senses and hierarchic meanings, are
Precedents in the built environment41, building
Ends that should be added to the previous matrix45.
experiments42 and architectural thoughts43 could in
Besides its legal utility that mostly responds to
its rough form be considered as a form of ‘Imarat
jurists and scholars reasoning, this matrix also serves
al-ardh’, and a human experience that instantly
to detect, establish, and rank the human needs such
aspires to a better environment and well-being.
as housing, education, food, and dressing. In the
case of a housing shortage for instance, the provision
The Concept of Islamic Citizenry (Umma) of shelter should pass before any other considera-
tions of harmony and aesthetics that often charac-
Islam unifies Muslim societies under one cover
terize present housing policies.
that is the Islamic community, Umma. This concept
An architectural project for a night club and/or
represents a social order that regulates the conduct
a bar in the Muslim community, even if it is inspired
of social groups as well as individuals within the
from local architecture, approved by a Muslim ruler
large entity and with regards the other non-Muslim
and used by Muslim individuals, is thus considered
nations. Regardless of its political dimension, it
illegal as it clashes with the supreme Ends, mainly
prescribes a well-organized social life that reflects
the moral values that are parts of both the Religion
the collective conduct of Muslim individuals and
and the Procreation Ends. It is not, as is considered
groups in pair with Islamic commandments44. At a
in the West, part of the sphere of individuals’
smaller scale, the concept of Umma on recognizing
freedom.
equality among the ethnic groups that constitutes it,
Similar classifying is also made within each
and the individuals, provides rules and norms that
End. Three levels could be identified in accordance
regulate their social conduct and inter-relationships.
of importance; the Utility, the Necessity, and the

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 75

Luxury and Pleasure. This matrix could also be of could open new perspectives on the origin of
use for professionals in assessing actions in the built elements such as the minaret, the courtyard, and
environment and establishing urban policies. In a the different types of windows, as well as the typo-
mosque for instance, the construction of a minaret is morphology development of urban fabrics and cities
considered as a luxurious elements compared with in the Muslim territories. Current practices in
the prayer space. Also, public authorities would have housing and space use socially adopted by contem-
the right of acting on private properties through poraneous Muslim communities from other cultures,
compulsory purchase for broadening a narrow road or developed out of the clash with modernity, could
for circulation purposes, but could not do so for also be a fertile subject to these studies50.
leisure purposes such as landscape and entertain- According to Rapoport51, a cumulative process
ment spaces. of habits and traditions would have taken place over
successive civilizations that turned over time into
precedents. All people have taken from their
Urf Principle precedents in all environments, in all cultures and in
The term in its literature meaning could be all periods.
translated to: the set of traditions, customs, habits
and practices established in a given society. Jurists
of Sharia’ considered it as one of the pillars of Ijtihad Principle
Islamic law and a major source of legislation in the It is a legal term that connotes the reasoning
absence of direct texts46. Its origin goes back to that achieves a juridical opinion or legal decision in
many Quranic verses and prophets’ practices47. A the absence of direct and clear fundamental texts.
condition however for urf to be considered as a It also means the exercising of one’s mental effort
source of rightful actions is that it should not clash “Juhd” with regards an unprecedented event or
with the principles, teachings, and guidelines of issue to achieve the optimum opinion that matches
Islamic doctrine. Otherwise, it is considered as an with the Islamic principles. Only knowledgeable
unlawful custom; Urf Fassid. In practice, urf persons and scholars are thus permitted to exercise
consists of accepting all existing customs, traditions, ijtihad.
and prevailing habits in a given area as far as they While innovation, bida’a, in the religious sense
don’t clash with the essence of religion. such as in prayer, fasting, and hajj is strictly
Al-Shatibi defining it as habits48; awai’d, prohibited, it is widely accepted and recommended
classified it into two types, (a) the universal habits in the other domains of life, such as political
that apply to all times, locations, and cases, and (b) systems, education, and daily practices. Inventions,
the local ones that differ in accordance to regions, innovations, and adoption of alternatives in archi-
times and cases. Precedents in transactions, wording tecture and in other fields of knowledge and prac-
in con-tracts, dressing, dwelling, conducts in a tices could thus be considered as a form of ijtihad
community are of the latter type. that aspires to improve the conditions of life.
Urf principle could be regarded as a legal One of the most obvious fields of ijtihad in
framework that allowed local cultures and identities; Islamic civilization in relation to arts and architec-
in all their aspects such dressing, crafts, languages ture was geometry that was viewed as an important
and conducts in different Muslim communities to field of knowledge and that thus, was placed at the
survive, develop and cohabit with each other and same level as mathematics, medicine and astrono-
consequently, form the mosaic-like pattern of my. Important developments in the fields of geome-
Islamic civilization. In geo-political terms, it played try resulted from the works of Umar al-Khayam, al-
a double role; maintaining the unity at a small scale; Buzajani, al-Khawarismi and Ibn al-Hatham in res-
i.e. within the social groups within which non-Muslim ponse to land surveying, astronomy, subdivision law
communities, and creating diversity with other i.e. mawarith, and contemplation that goes beyond
entities at the largest scale. Its broad and timeless the material world. Manuals were written to explain
character provides an important margin of flexibility basic geometric principles and their applications in
over time, to Muslim individuals and groups in deve- these fields52.
loping, importing and/or adopting new customs that Islamic decorative designs were interpreted as
reflect emerging practices and lifestyles. In other a visual manifestation of the Islamic philosophy. A
terms, it is the magic mechanism through which circle for instance is considered as a symbol of
Islamic religion reaches balance between universa- tawheed, unity of God. Others considered arabesque
lity and regionalism, a balance that is still under and Islamic pattern as a “special state of mind”.
search in the modern ideologies and theories49. Such interpretations were criticized as lacking
Its implications on building practices, architec- methodological rigour and any contextual evidence.
ture and city making is a fresh field of study that
.....

76 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

Application to Contemporary Architecture universality in the Islamic thought. Opposite to the
Sections below will focus on the analysis of the “extreme” regionalism, a global set of values and
most prevailing thought in contemporary architec- basic needs for instance could come up in this
ture in the light of the principles stated above. regards. In history, many styles and architectural
Although most of these thoughts are tightly linked to elements, have been spread over the vast territory
the historical evolution of Western societies and thus of Islam during the great dynasties such as Umayyad,
derive their essence from the dynamics of Western Abbassid, and Ottoman due to the cultural inter-
knowledge, it is believed that their confrontation actions between diverse regions. However, the
with the Islamic reasoning could be of interest. hegemony of a Supreme Culture as it is happening
Points of conflict and concord would ease the pro- now under globalization may led to similar conse-
cess of Islamization of these thoughts as described quences as modernism.
earlier. Contemporary movements in architecture
are presented in a historical sequence and then
discussed in the light of the Islamic principles53. Post-Modern Movement: Return to Urf and
Semiotics
As a rule in the emergence of architectural
Modern Architecture: Universality and trends in the West, each movement seeks to
Rupture with the Past overcome the mistakes of the other traditions and
Modern Architecture is considered as a starting schools54. Postmodernism is an overall concept
point in the history of contemporary architecture. covering several approaches to architecture which
Pioneers of this movement have established a have evolved in reaction to modernism55. In reaction
movement that marked the built environment of our to the mechanization of architecture, it introduced
present cities over the world as well as the teaching the science of meaning of forms, considering that
and profession of architecture to nowadays. architecture is a language perceived through codes.
One of the basics of modern architecture is its Historicism, symbolism, and user participation were
claiming of universality. The forced unification and thus reintroduced in the design process as the only
standardization of human needs, the reliance on the way to regenerate meanings, sense of place, and
industry and technology in responding to these needs identity56.
and the uprooted discourse made of its thought an In the light of Islamic thought, post-modernism
easy target to critics that overwhelmed its partial could be considered as a re-positioning of the ex-
success in the construction technology, building pro- treme novelty and the re-considering of the social
cess, and the mechanical innovative solutions. and cultural reality, that are part of the theory of
Modernism also expressed the blind belief in Urf. The return to the forces of traditions and
the Man as the master of his destiny. Human beings customs in architecture is in fact widely adopted by
can control his life and the cosmos through his mind, architects in the Muslim world. However, such an
the source of sciences and technology. God has approach under the pressure of the strong nostalgia
dead. The zealous belief in the architects’ talent has that characterizes Muslim communities, under the
proven its limitation through its effects on the effect of the glorious past, post-modernism often
physical environment, society, and individuals. leads to mimetic. In the Gulf for instance, wind-
Modernization has also been rejected for neg- catchers are often added to buildings in the pre-
lecting self-worth, identity, and animistic life on sence of powerful air-conditioning giving the flavour
promoting mass-production, consumerism, and de- of a local architecture regardless of the real
contextualisation. On the community level, the meaning of those elements.
belief in social engineering was found to be a mere An anthropologic approach and deep under-
utopia. standing of the essence of traditional elements,
Such critics could be of importance to the spatial organizations and typologies could thus coun-
modern Islamic culture that shares the universal ter-act the formalist tendency in postmodernism.
scene in most of the large scale experiences such as Other Islamic principles could serve for questioning
housing, economy, education, etc. Universality for the utility for the re-use of legacies.
instance is also claimed in the Islamic thought. Most
values such as privacy and neighbourhood and beliefs
are believed in Islam to be timeless and worldwide. Neo-Classicism: The Way to Reconsidering
However, their consideration in traditional architec- History
ture has been adapted to diversity as requested by This movement that rose in reaction to moder-
local conditions, a fact that created a balance bet- nism highlights the return to the past practices,
ween universality and regionalism. A review of this urban history and architectural precedents as a
concept in the light of the modern experience might source of inspiration. Neo-classicism stresses the
therefore help Muslim scholars assess the scope of virtues of harmony, purity, calm, reason and wisdom

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 77

that characterized the old pre-industrial societies57. then replace the artificial order and art often
According to Sir John Summerson value is in deriving provided by the architect to the user.
theory from history chronologically as the history of In Islamic philosophy, as it is also in Christia-
ideas58. According to the classicist thought, early nity, minimalism could be interpreted through the
architectural order that was developed in old time is analysis of the two concepts; Zuhud (asceticism,
timeless. It reflects the laws of nature. A reliance on renunciation) and taammul (contemplation, medita-
historical determinism to show the relevance of the tion), that both found their practice through Sufism.
so called lessons of history is thus necessary59. In The first concept requires a withdrawal from the
other words, the value of the history is what it material world and a minimum existence in the sake
teaches us about the future60. of spiritual transcendence67. It is believed that the
Initially, Neo-classicism was limited to the high physical environment, the surrounding, and the
style of Greco-Roman legacy that was judged as an routine of the daily life often screen the mind from
invaluable heritage that modernism neglected. It reaching higher level of abstraction. Architecture as
then enlarged its scope to vernacular and pre- part of the material world, should have thus mini-
industrial legacies. mum consideration in the Muslim mind and concerns.
Inference from history and precedent facts as a Maximizing comfort, consumption, and joy goes in
source of knowledge that would serve the present opposite direction to this thought68.
and guide to a better conduct could be easily proved Minimalism in Muslim thought might also be
in Islamic thought61. Back-thinking tadabbur and reflected in the house of the Prophet (pbuh), his
deduction i’tibar are often stated in the Quran as a mosque in Medina as well as the form of Ka’ba69, a
source of wisdom. Generalization could be made fact that was considered by Creswell as a “des-
from precedent experiences62. interest” in architecture. On designing a mosque for
Architecture in this sense is the trace of instance, it is recommended that its interior should
previous nations on earth that should be considered be left without decorations and aesthetics, as this
as a raw material for this “recurring thought” and latter would have an adverse effect on contem-
inference. Beyond the series of events that consti- plation and reverence, khushuu’, that is the essence
tutes the body of history, a hidden cycle that is of prayer70. Fully decorated mosques were con-
formed of rules of nature, geographic conditions and sidered as a sign of degradation of faith and attach-
social practices governs these events63. ment to futilities.
As a design approach, major imperial styles This simplicity and minimalism spirit seems also
such as Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, or Ottoman to have been the essence of the nomadic life during
could for instance serve as a body of historical data the early time of Islamic civilization. The tent was
that precede an architectural project, in view of the minimum shelter that preceded most early cities
applying Neo-classicism to Islamic architecture. such as Kufa, Basra, and Fustat71. It was then
However, such an approach, and similarly to post- followed in most of houses in old cities such as in
modernism, often leads to the recycling of old form Ghardaia, Sudus, and desert settlements. Building
regardless of their essence, usefulness, and thus materials and construction elements are generally
turns into a mere fashion. the only aspects of decoration. Rooms are multi-
purpose spaces that have little and very light
furniture. This was the tradition in most houses in
Minimalism: A way to Renunciation and the Islamic world before the advent of modernity
Contemplation? and industrialization that brought heavy and fixed
This movement stems from the reaction of furniture.
modern architects to the school of Beaux Arts in Openness on the sky would also be considered
which buildings were over-charged with materials, in this regards as a form of minimalism that induce
details, and decorations. It seeks to achieve a contemplation. All buildings, such as houses and
balance between architecture and nature through mosques were designed with courtyards at the
simplicity of form, surface, and detail64. In a step centre to provide users with a portion of sky. Most
beyond simplicity, Tadao Ando for instance focuses often, these courtyards served as a piece of
on nature itself that is very troubled today. landscape that gathers natural elements such as
Abstraction is an aesthetic based on clarity of logic light, water, plantations and soil. Such a typology
and transparency of concept, while representation is and spatial organization would obviously stimulate
concerned with all historical, cultural, climatic, contemplation more than high rise building that
topographical, urban, and living conditions65. Archi- offer a horizontal view on street and neighbours.
tecture in other words should become the simple However, minimalism as practiced under secu-
black screen that forces people to look elsewhere lar thought, would lead to a “naked” architecture
and give chance to contemplation66. Light, water, that disregards privacy and domestic life, and spoils
earth, vegetation, landscape, and cosmos should energy. Farnsworth house, designed by Mies Van der

78 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

Rohe is for instance clearly in contrast with doctrine as well as the new scientific achievements
community values of human being let alone the and discoveries.
moral values of Islam. Glass boxes often exhibits In urban analysis, deconstruction also provides
high technological performance that often disregards a recurrent approach to the sediments of architec-
the heavy running costs of energy consumption and tural forms and urban fabrics that cumulated over
costly maintenance. history. Only by de-layering, that is deconstructing,
the urban forms that their generation process could
be understood. Computer systems, chaos and fractal
Deconstruction Movement: The Controversial theory could help to a large extent in the decon-
Approach struction of the complex forms and geometries of old
Deconstruction is in a sense a continuity of urban fabrics.
rupture with the past that the modern philosophy Approaching architecture through deconstruc-
promoted. However, in contrast to the over- tion theory may also mean allowing complexity in
simplicity of modernism, deconstruction movement the process of design that stems from contradictory
promotes complexity, that too often connotes interests and attitudes of users needs, wishes
irrationality and destruction72. aspirations as well as the conditions of sites and
Regardless of the simplistic game of fragmen- technical requirements. Opposite to the pure game
ted forms and irrational geometry, deconstruction of ideal forms and abstract order of the still-standing
movement in literature has however, the merit of modern approach, deconstruction changes the design
promoting, or at least exploiting, the new sciences paradigm to complexity that reflects the real world
of complexity73. The recent theory of chaos and as it is, not as it is thought. Deconstruction theory
fractals that puts an end to the scientific deter- may for instance provide means to understand the
minism, causal linearity, order, Cartesian geometry, apparent contradiction between the pure geometry
and mathematical rationality, shifted the Western of patterns and the straight path philosophy79, and
spirit to the humbleness of incertitude74. irregularity that is often considered as chaos and
Atheism that often refuted metaphysics and disorder and that characterize the old urban fabrics
divinity and that had intrinsically accompanied of Islamic cities. The straight line and the perfect
modern knowledge had thus been deeply shaken. Islamic patterns are the output of the pure thought
According to Prigogine, “It would have been better and the abstract forms of geometry, whereas the
to remain attached to the belief in (God) rather than irregular geometry of urban fabrics represents the
being slaves to the fate of physics,”75. clash of these pure geometry with the constraints of
In social sciences and politics, deconstruction the site, topography, and preferred directions with
philosophy explores freedom and anomalies to regards to winds, sunlight, and Qibla direction.
undermine and throw into doubt those systems of Complexity in Muslim architecture and cities would
power, authority and knowledge privileged by rea- thus be better understood as a metamorphosis of the
son, science, and tradition76. pure with impure forms, Cartesian with fractal geo-
In Islamic thought, human knowledge is always metry, abstraction and reality80.
considered as partial and relative in comparison to
the absolute reality that only God possesses it. On
observing the laws of nature, the Quran challenges High-Tech: Innovation and Search for Highest
the human mind through many verses77,78. However, Performance
throwing confusion in the values, texts, and exis- High-tech reflects the aspiration of the human
tence might be rejected due to its destroying effect mind for perfection though technology and conti-
on culture, beliefs, dogmas, most of which are nuous innovation. High-tech pioneers believe that in
considered revelation and beyond the scope of mind; pushing the technology to its extends problems
Ghaib. facing human-being will find their solutions within
Destroying logo-centrism promoted by semio- the continuous problem-solving process. Technology
tics, the essence of post-modernism, could be a is in other words, the paradigm of our present
departure point to a brainstorming approach on knowledge and its End, and is thus the only way to
reviewing traditions and customs. Shaking settled remedy the human malaises and improve the quality
beliefs, theories, and traditions as far as these are of the built environment and life. Life cycle might
not revealed constants would affect their be represented in the light of this theory as a
permanence and thus may lead to innovation, creati- continuous jump in the unknown future that will
vity, and dynamics. A multiple interpretation of a depend on the innovation and discoveries that
same text for instance may generate new ideas and human mind achieve under the pressure of crises and
unprecedented explanations. Verses of the Quran aspirations.
could in this case be subjected to continuous fresh Despite the unprecedented progress in techno-
interpretations within the framework of the Islamic logy and its promising potential to solve problems in

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 79

various fields, it cannot embrace all aspects of Regionalism and Neo-vernacular: The Sense
humanity and complexity of life. Achievements since of Place
the industrial revolution have shown that techno- Regionalism considers societal specificities,
logy, although its aspiration for performance and climate, geography, and morphological features, as a
rationality, and it recent claims of smartness, is source of inspiration. Culture and social practices
often harmful to ecosystem. Reliance on high-tech give a “sense of place” to particular locations and a
should thus not be absolute. A place should be made “character” to an environment86.
to other considerations such as social wisdom, Initially, regionalism played an important role
religion, and nature. in facing westernization that was imposed by
In Islamic thought, high-tech might be colonialism first and then by secular ideologies that
considered as a branch of ijtihad that aspires to were imposed by most governments. Bridging the
achieve maximization of human reasoning within the gap of under-development was thought to happen
framework of Islamic doctrine81. Biomorphism, bio- only through the destroying of the identity of local
technology, mega-structure, and metabolism, reflect societies. Only through this theory that the return to
a level of maturity of the human mind, a stage of past and local forms was believed to bring remedy to
progress, an interaction between laws of nature and the cultural rupture imposed by colonization,
man, and a better understanding of laws of nature. modernization, and universalism in most of the
On describing this process, Warren82 states that in colonized countries87.
both the natural and manmade worlds, we Reviving the local architecture, although it is
occasionally encounter wonderful forms, mecha- sometimes nostalgic, might be part of the cultural
nisms, and assembly techniques that we quickly policy that aims at healing the “deformed” identity
recognize as essential or quintessential solutions. of local societies and in describing remedy to the
Human designers invented some of these great little still-existing and heavy colonial legacy.
ideas, but most have evolved through natural Regionalism reflects also the bottom-up
process, particularly biology83. approach that contests the exogenous models of
In architecture, high-tech despite its up-rooted development. Deep cultural structures, indigenous
character, could help in freeing the architect’s mind materials and local know-how and technology,
from his attachment to past forms and precedent present together an alternative in most domains of
construction systems that are sometimes against the development and constitutes a smooth passage
forces of change and innovation. Creating large towards progress for less-developed societies88.
spaces and freeing built space from columns, could Striking experiences in this regards are that of
be considered as an ideal requirement that could Hassan Fathy in Egypt, Charles Correa in India, and
not be achieved in the past due to gravity forces and Geoffry Bawa in Sri-Lanka89.
limits of technology. In mosques for instance, the Suha Ozkan90 considers that “vernacularism” is
columns are, according to Prophet’s recommen- different from “modern regionalism”. The first
dations, undesired elements that hinder full use of refers to architecture that evolved over time in any
prayer space84. Rows are inevitably cut-off, and region and that is therefore limited to existing
preaches of Friday prayer and daily speeches are building types and scales, whereas modern regiona-
disturbed as many attendees could not see the lism refers to a contemporary interpretation of local
speaker. Istanbul mosques, designed by Sinan, give architectures that is not limited by scale, building
in this regards, a best example of its time regarding types or technology82. Thus regionalism is not against
response to this criterion. The technique of the large modernism but is rather against internationalism.
domes was adapted and developed from the existing Neo-regionalism, and critical regionalism thus
Byzantine architecture. The use of loudspeakers in bridges the gap between new technology and local
calling for prayer also questions the necessity of the culture91.
minarets beyond their symbolic role. High-tech could Regionalism in Islamic thought could be, to a
help envisaging new ways to respond to this large extent, assimilated to the concept of urf pre-
functional requirement. Flexibility in the furniture viously described. The recognition of societal specifi-
that increase space use could also be achieved by cities is enshrined in the work of Muslim jurists. Al-
high-tech for the design of mobile Mihrab, furniture Shafei for instance was known to have ruled diffe-
for shoes, rational use of water in ablution, etc. The rently when in Iraq and when he resided in Egypt92.
use of modern material and developed construction Besim H also elaborated in his research on the
techniques is a case in point. Nothing in Muslim influence of urf on architecture, and its deep impact
theory precludes the use of the latest construction on the built environment93.
methods and modern design in the building of However regionalism might turn into an autarky
mosques and other buildings85. The computer-based that limits social and cultural forces of local socie-
covering of courtyard in the Prophet’s mosque in ties in facing the ever-spreading effects of globali-
Medina could be an example in this sense. zation. A symbiosis between universality of and

80 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

regionalism in the light of Islamic thought, would of taskheer for instance reflects the raison of all
thus present a way of materializing the famous anti- creatures for the sake of Man, and thus justifies its
globalization slogan; “thinking globally and acting utilitarian use.
locally”. Current recommendations for sustainable archi-
tecture goes therefore perfectly in pair with the
recommendations of Islamic architecture. Old prac-
Sustainability, Green Movement and Ihsan tices in Muslim architecture reflect these recommen-
Thought dations over history and through the wide territory
Ecological, green and sustainable architecture of Islam. Most buildings and spaces in old Muslim
are all terms that name the environmental sensibi- cities responded to climatic conditions such as the
lity that had been growing since the last three use of courtyards, wind-catchers, massive adobe
decades. Starting from the simple quest for energy walls for its time-lag effect against heat, and
saving, the movement developed into more perva- reflected social values such as neighborhood sense,
sive concerns such as social breakdown, economic humbleness, rational use of space and energy.
deficiency, resources depletion and environmental
degradation.
In philosophical terms, sustainability could be Folklore, Popular, Participative Approach and
considered as a major critique to the modern Freedom Theory
civilization that was promoted and tailored by the One of the major deficiencies of modernity is
Western thought, through its major paradigms; its failure in what was believed as social engineering
humanism, industrialization, and modernism. On and bureaucracy that accompanied industrial deve-
considering nature as a challenging entity and lopment97. The emergence of squatter settlements
searching for maximization of benefits and comfort, and informal sector despite the strong commitment
many aspects of the ecological system and social of governments and professionals, and huge financial
order were affected. Despites its merits, technology resources allocated to face the massive needs for
is becoming more and more the backbone of our housing used in these policies, opened large debate
being, but is paradoxically destroying the entire on the capabilities of the technology and the prog-
human civilization and its recipient that is Earth. ressive ideology to solve problems of humanity98.
The optimistic definition of the United Nations to On the ground, the share of the built environ-
sustainability as being: “those paths of social, eco- ment controlled from professionals and governments
nomic and political progress that meet the needs of has never been more than 5% on the face of earth.
the present without compromising the ability of fu- So it has never been consciously designed99. A similar
ture generations to meet their own needs,”94 clearly failure could also be seen in the quality of the living
reflects this concern and announces its universality. environments100. The undeniable success in commu-
In the present Islamic literature, sustainability nity spirit and popular initiative in the squatter
is at its infant stage due to the technological settlements, the creative talents of layman in
backwardness, despite the ever-increasing and building and organizing his home and achieving self-
undesirable effects of industrialization that embra- satisfaction away from authorities and professionals
ced all countries. However, fundamental sources of presented a new alternative in coping with human
the Islamic doctrine abound with glimpses on the needs101.
environmental issues. Preserving water during ablu- Many concepts such as self-help, popular,
tion, refraining from urinating and discharging in participative, democratic, anarchist, and neo-verna-
shaded areas where people take rest, refraining cular that Jenks named self-traditionalists, have thus
from squatting land from public realm, renouncing emerged together as a set of alternatives to the
from cutting trees even in case of war, are examples technocratic dominating philosophy102. The backbone
of such recommendations95. idea of this trend is that the environment, people
Colonizing earth, ‘Imarat al-Ardh, in the Is- and nature, always act as self-regulating systems,
lamic sense, reflects the practical side of the khilafa with endogenous rules governing them.
concept, and thus insures harmony with the laws of Even within the industrial context, self-tradi-
nature. Nasr considers in this regard, that ecological tion approach has the advantage of personalizing
movement goes perfectly in pair with the Islamic mass-produced items, such as houses. Incorporating
concept of khilafa96. Misuse of natural resources is changes often throws up diverse and rich juxta-
considered as a major contravention to Islamic positions that was denied by the formal design. At
ethics. the management level, participation in the industrial
However, intensive use of environmental re- context permits the combination of freedom needed
sources for the sake of development, is also recom- by users and control exercised by authorities.
mended in Islam and is thus contrary to the anti- In Muslim cities and in all pre-industrial and
development theories of sustainability. The concept pre-bureaucratic societies, people’s participation

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 81

and their freedom in building and organizing their 2 A. Abu-Sulayman. 1989. “Orientation Guidelines
environment has always been the tradition. In for the International Conference on Islami-
Islamic thought this tradition reflects the concept of zation of Knowledge” in Towards Islamization
freedom and autonomy that Shariaa defended under of Disciplines Series N 6. Herndon Virginia: The
the principle of private legal power, wilaya khas- International Institute of Islamic Thought. p.13
L. Stenberg. 1996. The Islamization of Science:
sa103.
Four Muslim Positions Developing an Islamic
A critical balance between the authority, the Modernity. Lund: Lund Studies in History of
professionals, and the community should therefore Religions
be set and roles should be redefined for the built 3 Syed M. Naquib Al-Attas. 1995. Prolegomena to
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Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of
Islam. Kuala Lumpur: The International
Conclusion Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Islamization of knowledge is a concept that (ISTAC). p.38
4 Syed M. Naquib Al-Attas. 1978. Islam and
bridges the gap between the Islamic thought that is
Secularism, 2nd edition. Kuala Lumpur: The
too often confined in its traditional form and the International Institute of Islamic Thought and
contemporary Western knowledge. Despite the me- Civilization (ISTAC).
rits and benefits of this latter, it is believed that it is 5 Stefano Bianca. 1981. “Islam and Urban
mostly based on secular principles and has disastrous Development”, in The International Institute of
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through the Islamic knowledge. Disciplines p. 497-504, Herndon, USA:
Architecture is one of the major domains of this International Islamic Publishing House
knowledge where most of values and sciences meet 6 Islam at present, is the fastest growing
and thus reflects such a clash. The need for its monotheistic religion and consequently more
institutions and premises such as mosques and
Islamization emerges on one side from the compre-
schools are being established by/for the
hensiveness of the Islamic religion and, on the other, followers than are in any other faith. Many
from the growing quest for identity from Muslim stores, old churches and houses in western
societies and individuals. countries such as in France and U.K. were
In history, a similar process of Islamization took purchased by Muslim associations and
place during the early time of Islam where pre- transformed into Qur’anic schools, prayer halls
Islamic civilizations were absorbed and gave birth to and Islamic centres.
the presently known Muslim architecture(s). It was 7 M. Frishman. 1994. “Islam and the Form of the
only after decades and centuries of adoption, use Mosque”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan
and re-use of pre-existing architectures that original (ed.). The Mosque; history, architectural
development and regional diversity. London:
output took place.
Hudson & Thames. p.17-42
Despite the high degree of diversity that 8 Amos Rapoport. 1969. House, Form and
characterizes these outputs, due to the difference in Culture. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
pre-Islamic legacies, the evolution processes and the Prentice-Hall
geographic conditions, common principles that de- Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in
rive from the Islamic doctrine stand behind these Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum
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Islamization of architecture is founded on 9 Despite the permanent link of Arabs with the
mechanisms that stem from the essence of the great civilizations in Yemen and Shaam, these
Islamic thought and that apply to many other discip- most sacred buildings were kept simple in a
way to stress the new raising values that
lines. Contemporary architecture(s) provide a wealth
overpass materiality.
of human knowledge that should also be subjected 10 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early
to Islamization, a critical process of filtering and Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American
re-theorizing that relies on these mechanisms. Many University in Cairo Press. p. 3
movements such as sustainable and participative 11 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early
trends could for instance be fully adopted while Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American
others such as deconstruction and minimalism could University in Cairo Press. p. 4-5
be remodeled according to the Islamic ethics. M. Frishman. 1994. “Islam and the Form of the
Mosque”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan
(ed.). The Mosque; history, architectural
Notes and References develop-ment and regional diversity. London:
Hudson & Thames. p.17-42.
1 It was initially used by Al-Attas (1978, “Islam 12 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early
and Secularism”) and Al-Faruqi (1982, “The Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American
Malaise of the Ummah”). University in Cairo Press. p. 3

82 | Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010

13 M. Ben-Hamouche. 2004. “From Kufa to Blida Arabic, Imara and/or handassa mi’mariyya,
Modelling Muslim New Towns Experience”. derives. However, the meaning of term
Journal of King Saud University Vol. 17, Arch. nowadays has been deeply altered due to its
& Planning, p. 25-42, Riyadh: KSU (mis)-use for connoting colonialism, isti’imar.
14 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early 31 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).
Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General
University in Cairo Press. p. 4 Principles and Work Plan. Herndon Virginia. p.
15 Ibn Saad records that the prophet said: “The 43
most unprofitable thing that eaten up the 32 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).
wealth of a Believer is building.” Tabakat Ibn 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General
Saad I2, p. 181, II. 7-8, also VIII p. 120 II 7-8. Principles and Work Plan. Herndon Virginia. p.
Quoted by Creswell KAC. 1989. p.4. 36
16 This phenomenon was misinterpreted by many 33 A. al-Najjar. 1997. “Al-Eyman wa al-Umran”, in
orientalists for being a sort of plagiarism. Islamiyyat al-Maarifah 8-(2). p.39-84
17 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for N. Salingaros. 2004. Anti-Architecture and
Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. London. Deconstruction. Solingen: UMBAU-Verlag. p. 94
London: Academy Editions. p. 15 34 “Behold, your Lord said to the angels, “I will
18 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early create a vicegerent on Earth” (Quran 01:31).
Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American “O’ people, We have created you (all) of a
University in Cairo Press. p. 6-7 single pair, a male and female, and We have
C. Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for Islamic constituted you into tribes and nations that you
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London: Academy Editions. p. 15 the estimate of Allah is the more virtuous.”
19 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early (Quran 49:13)
Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American 35 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).
University in Cairo Press. p. 8 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General
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form of the iwan (Creswell: 15). Order of Nature. Oxford: Oxford University
21 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early Press. p. 6
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22 JM. Bloom. 1991. “Creswell and the Origins of Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of
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23 AK. Lake. 1937. “The Origin of the Roman existence and does not have a separate
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25 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development 42 KW. Warren. 2000. Design Paradigms: a
and the Built Environment”, in Almanac. p. 465 sourcebook for creative visualisation. New
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27 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development the science of settlements. London: Hutchinson
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30 This action is also known in Islamic term as that allows compromising in case of clashes. In
‘Imara, Isti’imar from which interestingly for this sense, the material Property End comes at
architects, the discipline of Architecture in the bottom of the rank, while the religion

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 | 83

 comes first. In the case of an acute need for University Press. p. xi
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private land and unoccupied shelters, the ruler Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum
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Kenneth Frampton. 1986. “Place, Form and preferring “houses they own” than God and His
Cultural Identity” in Domus #673, June 1986, prophet. Al-Qarafi Al-Furuq Vol 4, p162-163
pp 19-24 considers that zuhd doesn’t necessarily mean
Kenneth Frampton. 1983. “Towards a Critical poverty. A pious man can be zahid although he
Regionalism: Six points for an Architecture of is reach as all his richness doesn’t overwhelm
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50 Besim S. Hakim. 1994. “The ‘Urf’ and Its Role in Az-Zukhruf (adornments). [And were it not that
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127 roofs for their houses, and (silver) stair-ways on
51 Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in which to go up. (33) And (silver) doors to their
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52 M. Al-Asad. “Application of Geometry” in But all this were nothing but conveniences of
Frishman, p. 55-70 the present life: the Hereafter, in the sight of
53 This approach was developed in consequence to thy Lord, is for the Righteous. (35) (Quran Az-
the teaching load I had at the University of Zukhruf 43: 33-35). Sophisticated living and
Bahrain during the four last semesters. decoration in Islamic thought often stand in
Confrontations were often made between the contrast with zuhd (asceticism) and is often
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while I was teaching Islamic Architecture and 69 Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair. 1997. Islamic
Contemporary Architecture simultaneously. Art. London: Phaidon Press. p. 23
54 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and 70 Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair. 1997. Islamic
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57 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and from the Bedouin tent, is now considered as
Beyond: Success in the art of prediction. New one form of minimalism in architecture that
York: Wiley-Academy. p. 66 provide maximum space with minimum
58 Paul-Alan Johnson. 1994. The Theory of material.
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60 John Brinckerhoff Jackson. 1984. Discovering nothing to do with the new science of
the vernacular landscape. New Haven: Yale complexity.

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74 Ilya Prigogine. 1996. The End of Certainty; Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development
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vision a second time: (thy) vision will come Architecture.
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79 In fact in many verses of the Qur’an especially London: Academy Editions. p. 14
the first one that is recited at least 5 times a Kenneth Frampton. 1986. “Place, Form and
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straight path! In a prophet saying: he took a pp 19-24
stick designed one straight line and many Kenneth Frampton. 1983. “Towards a Critical
others deriving from it and then said, the Regionalism: Six points for an Architecture of
straight one is the path of God and the others Resistance” in The Anti-Aesthetic, ed. Hal
are astray that you shouldn’t follow. However Foster, Washington: Bay Press
most streets in Muslim cities are irregular, 92 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development
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the site, the earth, to be considered! 93 Besim S. Hakim. 1994. “The “Urf” and Its role
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84 This is opposite to some erroneous meta- 98 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and
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infinity admired by Muslims. 99 Constantinos Doxiadis. 1969. Ekistics: An
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86 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for 100 Constantinos Doxiadis. 1969. Ekistics: An
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 JFC. Turner. 1972. Housing As a Verb; freedom 102 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and
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