24th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics

Fukuoka, JAPAN, 8-13 July 2002

Wave Patterns and Minimum Wave Resistance for

High-Speed Vessels

E. O. Tuck, D. C. Scullen, and L. Lazauskas

(The University of Adelaide, Australia)

ABSTRACT Some special marine vessels, e.g. hovercraft, also nor-

mally operate at speeds that involve little wavemaking,
Flow fields and wave patterns are computed in both because the Froude numbers are high, e.g. F > 1.3.
the near and far field of a moving ship-like disturbance Again, hydrodynamic theory seems not to have a large
of small amplitude, using efficient routines for the 3D role to play; such vessels at their design speeds are es-
Havelock source. Classical thin-ship wave patterns can sentially airplanes in ground effect. However, they must
be computed for conventional ships, catamarans or sub- accelerate through the large wavemaking range (“hump
marines by this method, accurately and with extremely speed”) in order to get to their higher design speed.
fine detail, in minutes on inexpensive desktop comput- The present paper is concerned with speed ranges
ers. Similar methods can be used for surface pressure corresponding specifically to large wavemaking, mostly
distributions, modelling either hovercraft or planing ves- (say) 0.4 < F < 1.0. In that range, theoretical predic-
sels of small draft. In contrast to the thin-ship case, the tion of waves and wave resistance is potentially valuable,
ability to compute accurate near-field flows is essential much more so than is often appreciated. For example,
to the solution process for a prescribed planing surface, Figure 1, taken from Tuck (1987), shows a comparison
which requires solution of an integral equation to deter- between computations based on Michell’s (1898) thin-
mine the equivalent pressure distribution. Such pressure ship wave resistance theory and experiments of Chap-
distributions can also be optimised to minimise wave re- man (1972), for a parabolic strut with beam/length ra-
sistance, from which follows a formally simpler design tio 0.15. This indicates quite remarkable agreement for
process for planing surfaces, where the shape of the sur- F > 0.4, even though this is not a particularly thin
face is output rather than input. body. Although there were no experimental results for
F < 0.4, one might suspect that the relative accuracy in
predicting the small waves made in that range would not
INTRODUCTION be as good as it is for higher speeds.
Another example where one might expect good ac-
Objects of length L travelling steadily at speed U at or curacy is for travelling pressure distributions of “small”
near a free surface under gravity g tend to make √ large magnitude, modelling hovercraft and potentially also
waves if and only if the Froude number F = U/ gL planing surfaces or flat ships. Our interest in thin or flat
takes values of the order of 0.55. This is because their ships is not only in their wave resistance, which is one
length is then about half of the transverse wavelength measure of the wave energy in the far-field waves, but
2πU 2 /g, and (roughly) equal and opposite waves from also in the actual wave elevation pattern itself, and then
bow and stern add together. At such speeds, wavemaking not only in the far field, but also in the near field close to
dominates over other physical processes, and its accurate the vessel.
prediction is critical. We first discuss a mature computational tool for thin
Most conventional marine vessels travel much more ships, extending Michell’s (1898) theory in a number of
slowly than this, since generation of large waves costs directions, but with emphasis on efficient computation of
energy, and in that low-speed range (say F < 0.35) the a detailed and accurate wave pattern over a large region
tendency has been to assume that theoretical estimates including the immediate neighbourhood of the vessel. A
of wavemaking are unreliable. Although this is to a cer- similar code is then discussed for the wave patterns of
tain extent true, it is also somewhat unreasonable to ask travelling pressure patches. The latter is potentially use-
theory to predict a small effect in the presence of much ful not only in a direct sense for vessels such as hover-
greater (e.g. viscous) effects. craft, but also in an inverse sense for planing surfaces or
flat ships, whose hull shape is equated to the free-surface
shape immediately beneath a patch of pressure. 6 Present (&Chapman) Theory
 Experiment (Chapman)
 
One of our aims is to reduce or minimise wave re- 1.2 R
1
sistance. We summarise here new results for pres- U 2B 2
1.0 2

sure patches of minimum resistance at fixed total load,
0.8 
and give examples illustrating the corresponding near- 
field wave patterns, which are candidate hull shapes for 0.6
planing surfaces. Interestingly, although optimal pres- 0.4 
sure distributions are necessarily fore-aft symmetric, this 
0.2 
does not imply such symmetry of the near-field pattern, 
nor of the flat-ship hull, whereas the corresponding opti- 0 -
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
mal thin-ship theory demands fore-aft hull symmetry. Froude number F
We also provide discussion and preliminary results on
the inverse problem, namely that of finding the pressure
Figure 1: Comparison between theory and experiment
distribution corresponding to a given flat-ship hull. This
for wave resistance of a parabolic strut.
is a very difficult computational task, and we are con-
tinuing to work on it. However, design of a pressure
distribution for low wave resistance, followed by direct
computation of the shape of the corresponding flat-ship infinite-fluid Rankine source, since
hull, is a computationally simpler task which is already Z Z
π/2 ∞
complete. 1
− < dθ dke−ik(x cos θ+y sin θ)−k|z−ζ|
4π 2 −π/2 0
1
=− p . (2)
HAVELOCK SOURCES 4π x + y 2 + (z − ζ)2
2

The second term inside the square bracket of (1) is the

The topic of this paper is detailed and accurate computa-
correction for the free surface, and it is easy to verify
tion of steady flow fields, wave patterns and wave resis-
that the Kelvin linearised free-surface condition
tance, for bodies moving at constant speed U at or near
a free surface under gravity g, in calm water of infinite Gxx + k0 Gz = 0 (3)
depth. The bodies must be small in some sense, so that
the free-surface condition can be linearised, and there holds on z = 0.
are many examples of such bodies, including thin ships, Although the ability to represent free-surface flows by
catamarans, submarines, hovercraft and other types of Havelock sources has been available for about a century,
surface-effect ships, planing surfaces or flat ships, etc. an apparent inhibition for routine use has been the sheer
Subject to the usual assumption of an inviscid in- computational task of evaluating the double integral (1).
compressible fluid moving irrotationally, all such flows When Havelock sources are distributed over a spatial
can be generated by distributions of Havelock sources, region, at least two further numerical integrations have
which are point sources in the presence of the free to be performed, and if detailed flow fields are then re-
surface. The velocity potential of a unit Havelock quired at many (x, y, z) values, some billions of values
source (Havelock 1917, 1928, Wehausen and Laitone of G may be required! There is therefore a premium on
1962, p. 484) located at (x, y, z) = (0, 0, ζ) is efficient evaluation of this double integral.
Newman (1987) made a significant advance in this
Z π/2 Z ∞
1 direction by providing economised polynomial approxi-
G(x, y, z; ζ) = − 2 < dθ dk
4π −π/2 0
mations for the “local” portion of the Havelock source,
  namely
k + k0 sec2 θ k(z+ζ)
e−ik(x cos θ+y sin θ) e−k|z−ζ| − e
k − k0 sec2 θ GL (x, y, z; ζ) = G(−|x|, y, z; ζ) . (4)
(1)
This is an even function of x which is identical to G
with k0 = g/U 2 . The path of k-integration passes above when x < 0, i.e. ahead of the source, and so is not wave-
the pole at k = k0 sec2 θ, so guaranteeing that waves oc- like. Thus G = GL + GF where the “far-field” por-
cur only for x > 0 . The first term inside the square tion GF is identically zero for x < 0, and for x > 0
bracket of (1) contributes the potential of an ordinary is given by −2πi times the residue at the pole, namely

2
 Figure 2: Computed wave pattern for a DDG51 ship at 30 knots.

Z part φF we proceed indirectly, c.f. Noblesse (2001). In

π/2
k0 2 the following, let the draft of the ship be T and the x
GF (x, y, z; ζ) = − sec2 θek0 (z+ζ) sec θ
π −π/2 values at the extreme bow and stern be xB and xS re-
sin(k0 x sec θ) cos(k0 y sec2 θ sin θ) dθ . (5) spectively. Thus the region R is xB < x < xS and
−T < z < 0.
Substituting the integral representation (5) for GF , we
Although defined by “only” a single integral, the far-
find
field part GF of the Havelock source in fact presents
greater computational difficulties than the local term GL , Z
F 2U k02 π/2
because of the rapidly oscillating character of the inte- φ (x, y, z) = − dθ sec3 θ
π −π/2
grand, especially when |θ| approaches π/2, i.e. for ex- 2
treme diverging waves, and in practice it is best to avoid ek0 z sec θ cos(k0 y sec2 θ sin θ)
 
its direct computation. P cos(k0 x sec θ) + Q sin(k0 x sec θ) , (7)

where
THIN SHIPS
Z 0 Z xE
1
For a monohull thin ship with offsets y = ±Y (x, z), P + iQ = dζ dξ
−ik0 sec θ −T xB
the disturbance velocity potential is generated by a dis- 2

tribution of Havelock sources over the centreplane R in Yξ (ξ, ζ)eik0 ξ sec θ+k0 ζ sec θ
, (8)
y = 0, with strength according to Michell (1898) of
and the end value xE for the ξ-integration in (8) depends
magnitude 2U Yx (x, z) per unit area at the point (x, 0, z).
in general on the coordinate x.
Thus
If x < xB , so we are observing the flow forward of the
ZZ
ship, then in effect xE = xB , which means that φF ≡ 0.
φ(x, y, z) = 2U dξdζ Yξ (ξ, ζ) G(x − ξ, y, z; ζ). If x > xS , so we are observing the flow aft of the ship,
R
(6) then x = xS , so the integration range in (8) is the whole
If we write the Havelock source G = GL +GF as above, centreplane R, and P +iQ is independent of x. Finally, if
we can then write correspondingly φ = φL + φF . The xB < x < xS , so we are observing the flow between the
double integral in (6) can be carried out by direct numer- bow and stern stations, then xE = x. This distinction
ical quadrature for the local part φL , but for the far-field occurs simply because the far-field portion GF of the

3
Havelock source contributes only for stations ξ ahead of
the observation point x. 0.1
Experiment
SWPE6
So long as there is no transom, and x > xS , integra-
tion of (8) by parts gives a simple formula for P + iQ
involving the actual hull offsets Y , namely 0.05

ZZ
2
P + iQ = Y (ξ, ζ)ek0 ζ sec θ+ik0 ξ sec θ dξdζ. (9)
R

k0z
0

If there is a transom with Y (xS , ζ) > 0, or if xB <

x < xS , there is an important extra contribution from the
-0.05
integrated part, which is included in our computations,
but is not quoted here for simplicity.
In any case, given the offsets Y , the (ξ, ζ) double in-
-0.1
tegral over the hull centreplane to determine P + iQ can -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
k0x
be done efficiently once and for all by numerical quadra-
tures, the results being stored for subsequent use in the Figure 3: Comparison between SWPE computations for
integral (7) for the far-field potential. This storage must a ship model as in Figure 2 and “Wake-Off” experimen-
be for a fixed set of values of θ, and so long as x > xS , tal measurements along a cut parallel to the ship’s track.
results can then be obtained by a single θ-integration
with no further cost from the integrals over R, for as
many (x, y, z) values as desired. If xB < x < xS , there
is some further cost, as new values of P + iQ must be as well to submarine vessels as it does to surface ves-
computed for each new x, but this is not usually a large sels. Indeed it usually performs even better, since the for-
impost. mer usually have a lower beam/length ratio. For conven-
The actual free-surface elevation is z = Z(x, y) = tional submarines, thin-ship results can be computed up
−(U/g)φx (x, y, 0), and our main output is the wave pat- to and beyond the point where the vessel breaks the sur-
tern, in the form of contour plots of this quantity Z(x, y). face. These results remain in good agreement with “ex-
However, the wave resistance is also immediately avail- act” nonlinear computations (Tuck and Scullen 2002) as
able via (8) with xE = xS , namely the submergence is reduced, right up to the point where
Z the latter inevitably fail due to incipient breaking.
2 2 4 π/2  2 
RW = ρU k0 P + Q2 sec5 θ dθ , (10) It is paradoxical (for both submerged and surface ves-
π −π/2 sels) that the seemingly more accurate nonlinear theory,
which is Michell’s (1898) wave resistance integral. Note as implemented in Tuck and Scullen (2002) and in well-
that the task of evaluating the wave resistance RW is known codes such as RAPID (Raven 1996) and Shipflow
equivalent to that of evaluation of just one wave eleva- (Larsson 1997), is nevertheless sometimes less useful
tion value Z(x, y) in the far field; we compute millions because of the potential for such failure (see Abbott 1998
of such values, in the near field as well as the far field. for a case study), than is the linear theory, which never
fails numerically. Of course what the linear theory does
in extreme cases is to predict one or two unreasonably
Generalisations of thin-ship theory large wave crests and deep troughs in the near field,
Although developed initially by Michell (1898) for con- which really should have broken. However, any such
ventional ships, the above theory has somewhat more breaking is a highly localised phenomenon, and the wave
general applicability. Recall that the only essential ap- pattern everywhere else and hence the wave resistance
proximation is that the vessel can be represented by a remain reasonable (Scullen and Tuck 1995).
centreplane distribution of Havelock sources of strength Thin-ship theory also holds for multihull vessels, and
proportional to the local hull slope. Thinness of the hull again in most such cases the individual demihulls are
justifies this approximation, but this thinness need not thinner than conventional ships, so the linearisation is
be extreme, and for wave pattern purposes, relative er- more justifiable. However, now there is a further compli-
rors appear to be comparable to the beam-to-length ratio cation involving interactions between hulls. In general,
(Tuck and Scullen 2002), so accuracies of within ±10% each demihull must be represented not only by centre-
are to be expected for most ships. plane distributions of Havelock sources, but also by cen-
Note that the only requirement for thinness is that the treplane distributions of lateral Havelock dipoles, the lat-
beam is small compared to the length; the draft is irrele- ter accounting for lateral velocities induced on one demi-
vant (Tuck 1987). In particular, thin-ship theory applies hull by the others. In an aerodynamic analogy, this is a

4
“lifting” as distinct from a “thickness” effect (Newman
1977, p. 168), and also becomes relevant for a monohull
at an angle of yaw (Xü 1991). There have been very
few analyses of this type of interaction (see Lin 1974,
Salvesen et al 1985, Suzuki et al 1997). However, the ef-
fect is expected to be quite small, and in particular is for-
mally small if (as is usually the case) the demihulls are
not only thin but also slender, i.e. have small draft/length
ratio as well as small beam/length ratio (Tuck and New-
man 1974, Tuck 1987). Its neglect enables considera-
tion (Tuck and Lazauskas 1998) of optimal multihull ar-
rangements to maximise cancellation of far-field waves
and reduce wave resistance.
An apparent “generalisation” of thin-ship theory is to Figure 4: Computed pattern for a catamaran
vessels with transom sterns. However, as long as the the-
ory is applied with the source strength given in terms of
hull slopes, e.g. use of (8) rather than (9), or a careful
integration by parts is performed, the original Michell
(1898) formulation is quite capable of handling dry tran-
som sterns. This implies a representation of the subse-
quent trailing wake as a straight impermeable cylinder
extending infinitely far downstream with cross-section
identical to the transom. Somewhat better models of
transom wakes are possible allowing eventual cavity col-
lapse (Couser et al 1998, Doctors and Day 1997), but in
practice the original Michell model works well.
A final generalisation is that of allowing viscous
damping of the far-field waves. Since the far field can
be considered as a superposition of plane waves travel-
ling at angles θ to the x axis, with amplitude P + iQ, it is Figure 5: Photo of a catamaran model
only necessary to apply appropriate damping factors to
this plane wave (c.f. Lamb 1932, p. 624). We have found thickness of the viscous boundary layer.
(Tuck et al 2002, c.f. Maruo 1976, equation (92); see
also Cumberbatch 1965, Zilman and Miloh 2001) that
Computational considerations
the factor
  We have developed (Tuck et al 2002) a computer pro-
4ν 2 5
exp − k0 sec θ(x cos θ + y sin θ) (11) gram “SWPE” which takes as input a conventional set of
U
offsets defining the ship, and yields data suitable for plot-
inserted in the integrand of (7) provides good results, ting the resulting wave pattern over any specified region.
where ν is a measure of the kinematic viscosity. This A typical run of SWPE takes about fifteen minutes on a
quantity ν is not really intended to represent molecular current PC to produce a detailed pattern containing about
viscosity as such, but to model the damping effect of the 100,000 points, yielding plots of photographic quality.
turbulent shear layer in the wake, and hence must take a One feature is the ability to “zoom” in arbitrarily close
value comparable to the eddy viscosity in the wake. on any interesting flow region, although the mechanism
Choice of an appropriate value of ν is a difficult mat- for doing this is actually to re-sample by running SWPE
ter; a value of between 100 and 10000 times the molec- again with the 100,000 points distributed over a smaller
ular viscosity seems to eliminate some of the most ex- region, without loss of accuracy. In contrast, the resolu-
treme short diverging waves (with |θ| close to π/2) near tion of “panel” methods (Raven 1996, Larsson 1997) is
the track of the ship, without unreasonably damping out set in advance by the choice of the number and distribu-
genuine features of the wave pattern. Of course damp- tion of panels on the free surface, which is dictated by
ing of far-field waves is not the only effect of viscosity, over-all accuracy requirements.
and for example it is also possible (Havelock 1948, Lars- The similarity between (7) and (10) suggests that the
son 1997) to modify the source strengths to take account triple (ξ, ζ, θ) numerical integration task of computation
of apparent fattening of the hull due to the displacement of the far-field potential φF at each separate point will

5
 to compute a wave field of 100,000 points is only about
the same as for about 4000 separate single-point calcu-
lations, i.e. about 4 minutes.
It remains to compute the local portion φL (x, y),
and in principle this remains a formidable quadruple-
integration task. Fortunately, a significant part of this
task has already been done for us, since Newman (1987)
has provided economised polynomial approximations
for GL . Hence we need merely substitute this polyno-
mial code into (6) and carry out the (ξ, ζ) integrations by
Simpson’s rule (no Filon treatment is needed as the lo-
cal integrand is not rapidly varying). Nevertheless, one
cannot entirely escape the fact that these computations
require more arithmetic, and the local part of the com-
putation tends to dominate computer times, typically by
a factor of about four. The net effect is that the total PC
time to compute a complete 100,000-point field is about
15 minutes.
Once such a field of wave elevations is computed, var-
ious plotting procedures can be used to display the re-
sults. We have found it convenient to use very finely
Figure 6: Wave pattern for a submarine. graded contour plots. That is, we assign a colour (in the
written paper gray, in the presentation blue) of varying
intensity to each of a large but finite set of stepped levels
of wave elevation Z. In practice we use 256 such levels,
be comparable to that of computing one value for the and with as many as 100,000 data points, the effect is
wave resistance RW , already a daunting prospect if we close to what could be seen in a photograph taken verti-
desire information at 100,000 points or more, and made cally above the ship, although a careful examination of
worse by the fourth k-integration needed for the local some Figures (especially where the elevation is relatively
contribution φL to the potential. small) reveals evidence of actual discrete contours. We
We have previously (Tuck 1987, Tuck and Lazauskas generally here delete information about the actual mag-
1999) developed efficient routines for evaluation of nitude of these elevation contours, although this is avail-
Michell’s wave-resistance integral (10) subject to able.
(8). These routines use Filon’s (1926) quadrature
(Abramowitz and Stegun 1964, p. 890) in the ξ-
Sample results
direction, in order to capture the rapid oscillations of the
integrand of (8) as |θ| → π/2. Conventional (e.g. Simp- Figures 2, 4 and 6 show respectively SWPE-computed
son) quadratures fail to produce the correct rate of decay wave patterns for a conventional ship, a catamaran, and
of the diverging part of the wave spectrum. That program a submarine. Other similar results are given in Tuck et al
computes the wave resistance of a typical ship to 4-figure (2001) and Tuck (2001).
accuracy in less than 50 milliseconds on an inexpensive The ship in Figure 2 is in fact the same DDG51 de-
2GHz PC. stroyer hull as was used for the “Wake-Off” test (Lin-
Essentially the same numerical methods that were denmuth et al 1991). As indicated in Figure 3, SWPE
successful for wave-resistance computations have been results for elevations along parallel cuts are in excellent
adapted in SWPE to compute the far-field flow and wave qualitative and reasonable quantitative agreement with
elevation. Again, Filon’s quadrature plays an important the experimental data. This agreement is somewhat bet-
role, and without it the diverging waves are poorly pre- ter than was displayed by the various (then) state-of-
dicted. In addition, a special algorithm as in Tuck et the-art computer programs that participated in the 1991
al (1971) also captures the stationary-phase character of Wake-Off test, and is comparable with that achieved sub-
the integral (7) as x, y → ∞, thus allowing uniform ac- sequently by the very successful nonlinear code RAPID
curacy of computation as we move far away from the (Raven 1996). Some residual discrepancies are likely
ship. The PC time to compute a single far-field point is to be attributable to localised breaking in the experi-
then about 63 milliseconds. However, because the P, Q ments, which is unlikely to be capturable by any numer-
functions can be stored and used repetitively, the time ical code, linear or nonlinear.

6
 Figure 7: Constant-pressure patch.

Figure 4 provides SWPE computations for a catama- over a region R of the plane z = 0 is then
ran hull, and can be compared to the photograph of Fig-
ure 5 (courtesy Australian Maritime College), although
no attempt was made to duplicate the hull shape, and ZZ
U
the speeds and dimensions were only roughly matched. φ(x, y, z) = dξdη p(ξ, η) Gx (x−ξ, y−η, z; 0).
ρg R
There are obviously some points of close similarity, and (12)
also some features, mainly to do with the turbulent wake,
that are not captured by the computations. This is a similar formula to that (6) for a thin ship,
Figure 6 is for a Los Angeles class submarine hull the pressure distribution p replacing the offsets Y as in-
moving at 10 knots, at a submergence such that the sail put, but the region R is now part of the plane z = 0
top is about to break surface. This pattern is especially instead of the plane y = 0. Again, separation into local
interesting in that separate wave structures due to the and far-field portions enables direct computation of the
sail and the main hull can be distinguished. The Froude local portion φL with the aid of Newman’s (1987) rep-
number for the main hull is low enough for that part of resentation for GL , and indirect computation of the far-
the pattern to be mainly transverse, whereas the Froude field portion φF proceeds in a similar manner to that for
number based on sail length is large, so that part of the the thin ship. In particular, the same far-field potential
pattern is mainly diverging. (6) and wave-resistance formula (10) apply if we define
ZZ
1
P + iQ = p(x, y)
2ρU 2 k0 R
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS 2
eik0 x sec θ+ik0 y sec θ sin θ
dxdy. (13)

The velocity potential for the flow induced by a unit

delta-function pressure (Wehausen and Laitone 1962, The pressure-distribution version of our program
p. 598) exerted on the free surface of a stream U is pro- SWPE computes the same set of wave-pattern and flow-
portional to Gx , where G(x, y, z; 0) is a Havelock source field outputs as does the thin-ship version, with a simple
located at the free surface. That is, a pressure point is replacement of the ship offset data Y (x, z) at stations x
identical to a surface horizontal dipole. The velocity and waterlines z, by pressure distribution data p(x, y) at
potential of a distribution of prescribed pressure p(x, y) stations x and buttock lines y.

7
 Figure 8: Single bi-quadratic pressure patch. Figure 9: Wave pattern for tandem patches.

Results for simple pressure patches In the following it is convenient to define a non-
dimensional wave resistance coefficent
All pressure-patch results in the present paper are for a ρgRW
rectangular region R, namely |x| < a, |y| < b. The re- CD = , (14)
2bp20
sults are parametrised with respect to √ the conventional
length-based Froude number F = U/ 2ga. We place and for this special example, we have CD = 2.265.
special emphasis on a hovercraft-like beam/length
√ ratio Because our numerical integration method has the ac-
b/a = 0.5, and a Froude number F = 1/ 2 ≈ 0.7, curacy of Simpson’s rule for the integrals over R, it
which is close to that (the so-called “hump speed”, Ever- is almost exact for such uniform pressures, as well as
est and Hogben 1967) for maximum wave resistance. for pressures that vary linearly or quadratically along or
Where necessary, as a specific example we have cho- across the region.
sen a length 2a = 80m, width 2b = 40m and mean Figure 8 shows the wave pattern for another exam-
pressure p0 = 10kPa, so the hydrostatic mean draft ple in this near-exact category, namely that for a “bi-
z0 = p0 /(ρg) is about 1 metre and the displacement quadratic” pressure
about 3200√tonnes. The hump speed U corresponding   x 2    y 2 
9
to F = 1/ 2 is then about 40 knots; a real hovercraft of p(x, y) = p0 1 − 1− (15)
this size would normally travel at a greater speed where 4 a b
wavemaking is negligible, but we are more interested which decays parabolically to zero at all sides of the
here in performance of a vessel of this size at a lower patch. Here p0 is the mean pressure, i.e. such that the
(but still high) speed where large waves are made unless lift 4abp0 is the same as that for a uniform pressure p0 .
there is some design optimisation. Although the bi-quadratic example of Figure 8 clearly
The simplest type of pressure patch, of relevance to yields a much smoother local wave field than the uniform
hovercraft, is one of uniform pressure p = p0 = constant pressure of Figure 7, it is far from being superior from
over a rectangular region. The wave resistance of such the point of view of low (far-field) wavemaking, and has
patches was computed by Newman and Poole (1962, see nearly double the wave resistance, namely CD = 4.270.
also Doctors and Sharma 1972). Figure 7 shows the However, there are certainly pressure distributions
computed wave pattern for such a distribution. which perform much better from the wave-resistance
Note the diverging wave structure, especially as it point of view. One such is a tandem pair of patches.
streams away from the step pressure discontinuity at the For example, suppose there are two separate patches
sides of the patch, which also induces a lateral step in the of positive pressure located at the bow and the stern, each
free-surface elevation. The step pressure discontinuity at occupying 20% of the overall length. Each patch is of
bow and stern is of less significance from that point of bi-quadratic form, with a pressure similar (on its own
view, c.f. Lamb (1932) p. 405, with a smooth continu- planform) to that in (15), and the remaining 60% of the
ous free surface. The present computational procedure length between them is free of pressure. Figure 9 shows
is very efficient at displaying features such as these di- the resulting wave pattern. At fixed net lift, this configu-
verging waves, which have a very fine rapidly-varying ration has CD = 1.330, less than two-thirds of the wave
structure that is hard to capture with “panel” methods, resistance of the constant-pressure patch of Figure 7, and
and this would be even more apparent in a view display- less than one-third of that of the full-length bi-quadratic
ing more of the far field of the disturbance. patch of Figure 8. Figure 10 shows a perspective view of

8
 ρgz/p0

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3

0.4
0.2
-1 0
-0.5 y/a
0 -0.2
x/a 0.5 -0.4
1

Figure 10: Elevation beneath the tandem pressures of Figure 9.

the elevation immediately beneath the planform R. The resistance.

stern section has an appearance like a “tunnel” hull, an Important early works on minimisation of wave resis-
observation of relevance to use of this type of flow for tance of travelling pressure distributions include those
design of planing surfaces. There is also an interesting of Maruo (1949) and Bessho (1962). More recently
comparison with optimised tandem hydrofoil configura- Doctors (1997) (see also Doctors and Day 2000) has
tions, e.g. as studied by Payne (1997). optimised unconstrained families of pressures, involv-
Other examples are given in Scullen and Tuck (2002). ing up to 4 distinct “subcushion” parameters, and we
have (Tuck and Lazauskas 2001) optimised both un-
Minimum wave resistance patches constrained and constrained pressure distributions with
many (e.g. 400) parameters, with indications of conver-
The above simple examples of pressure distributions are
gence toward a continuous optimum.
not necessarily optimal from the point of view of low
wave resistance. Although for actual hovercraft there In the more practical case where the pressures are con-
may be severe limitations on achievable pressure vari- strained to be non-negative, this continuous optimum has
ations, nevertheless it is of significant interest to seek the following general structure, which varies with speed.
pressure distributions yielding minimum or at least low The most important feature (at all speeds where wave-
wave resistance, at fixed total lift force balancing the making is significant) is the presence of pressure lines
weight. This is not only of potential use for hovercraft, of zero longitudinal extent concentrated at the extreme
but also because such pressures might be achievable on bow and stern ends. These end pressures vary in magni-
the hull of a planing craft. That is, if we compute the tude smoothly across the width, decreasing toward zero
wave elevation directly beneath such an optimised pres- at the sides. In fact, an aerodynamic analogy (with exact
sure distribution, the resulting free surface can be re- equivalence between wave resistance and induced drag
placed by a solid surface, which would then represent in the limit as F → ∞) shows that at sufficiently high
a planing surface designed from the outset for low wave speed this lateral variation must be elliptic. However, at

9
 find an optimum with the remarkably low wave resis-
tance CD ≈ 0.44.
However, the price paid is quite large pressure vari-
ations, contours of pressure being as in Figure 12,
with enormous maximum positive pressures of 275kPa
(shown white) and minimum negative pressures of
−160kPa (shown black). Figure 13 shows the resulting
wave pattern. In this case, we display contours only for
|z| < 2m, which captures all wave elevations outside the
patch itself. However, inside the patch there are quite un-
realistic troughs (shown black) of 37m and crests (shown
Figure 11: Wave pattern for optimum 3-line pressure. white) of 26m! Clearly these unconstrained optima are
mathematical curiosities only, and the requirement for
non-negative optimal pressures is necessary in order for
the results to be physically useful.
beam/length ratio 0.5, we have found this to be so only
for F > 1.3, with a preference for a more rapid decrease
Free-wave spectrum
toward zero at the sides at lower speeds.
So long as F > 0.96 the optimum consists only of Some insight into the process of reduction of wave resis-
these two bow and stern pressure lines. Such Froude tance for pressure patches is provided by the free-wave
numbers are high enough that transverse wave cancella- spectrum, which is proportional to P 2 + Q2 where P, Q
tion by bow-stern interaction is ineffective, and the best are defined by equation (13), and is a function of wave
that can be achieved is to place the disturbing pressures angle θ. Figure 14 presents graphs of the free-wave spec-
as far apart longitudinally as possible. trum, here defined as dR/dθ, where R is wave resis-
For F < 0.96 it is desirable to include a third patch tance. The vertical scale of the graph is irrelevant to the
of positive pressure, located midships. For 0.65 < F < following discussion, but note that the area under each of
0.96 the centre patch should also be of zero longitudinal the curves is proportional to the wave resistance R. Thus
extent, i.e. this patch is a pressure line similar to those at the free wave spectrum, in the form given here, immedi-
bow and stern. However, it should not in general extend ately indicates those wave angles where most energy is
all the way across the width of the rectangle, its optimal shed.
lateral extent varying in the range of 80% to 90% of the For the single constant-pressure patch, the main peak
width. in the free-wave spectrum occurs at about θ = 53◦ . A
As F decreases from 0.96, the centre patch bears an sensible wave-minimisation strategy would be to reduce
increasing fraction of the total load. For F < 0.65, this large peak. Clearly the bi-quadratic pressure distri-
the centre patch should have nonzero longitudinal extent, bution fails miserably in this regard. It has a large peak
and by F < 0.5 it is essentially bearing the whole load, at about θ = 60◦ , which is more than double that of
the end patches having withered away; however, by then the constant-pressure patch, and it is no surprise that its
the (minimised) wave resistance is quite small compared wave resistance is also about double. Its edge smooth-
to that at the hump speed. We have little interest in opti- ness results in a much lower envelope of the spectral
mum configurations at such low wave-making speeds. peaks of the extreme diverging waves with θ > 75◦ , but
In the present paper our main attention is paid to these carry little energy.
F ≈ 0.7 and that is a speed where the optimum is three The other pressure distributions shown in Figure 14
pressure lines, the central line being of about 85% of the have a local minimum in their free-wave spectrum curves
full width, and bearing about 25% of the total load. This at wave propagation angles a little higher than that at
configuration has CD = 0.884, and its wave pattern is which the constant-pressure patch reaches its peak. For
shown in Figure 11. This is a very significant improve- θ < 35◦ , the tandem and the three-line pressures shed
ment on the constant-pressure result CD = 2.265, and about 30% less energy than the constant-pressure case,
involves only physically-acceptable positive pressures. and the pressure strips at the bow and stern provide a sig-
Finally, if we do allow negative pressures, an even nificant degree of cancellation of transverse waves. For
lower wave resistance is possible in principle, although 35◦ < θ < 60◦ , the energy lost to the diverging wave
the actual optimal pressures and the resulting elevations pattern is considerably less than for constant pressure.
beneath the pressure patch are then not physically rea- The ultimate reduction in wave-making is evident
sonable. We have (Tuck and Lazauskas 2001) used a 20 from the curve for the unconstrained 20 × 20 optimum,
by 20 grid of rectangular constant-pressure panels, and which makes very low transverse waves, but also sheds

10
almost negligible energy in the range 40◦ < θ < 65◦ ,
whereas its spectral peaks for extreme diverging waves
with θ > 75◦ are higher than those of the other examples
in Figure 14.
Similar methods of analysis were used by Tuck and
Lazauskas (1998) to examine wave cancellation effects
of multi-hulled displacement vessels.

PLANING SURFACES

Planing surfaces are flat ships, i.e. ships of small draft. Figure 12: Unconstrained optimum pressure.
However, unlike thin ships, for which the limiting solu-
tion as the beam goes to zero is explicit (as a quadruple
integral) given the ship offsets, for flat ships we must
still, even in the limit as the draft goes to zero, solve
an integral equation over the wetted planform R. This
integral equation is of a particularly unpleasant charac-
ter in three dimensions (Maruo 1967, Tuck 1975), es-
sentially because of short diverging waves which tend to
induce unwanted oscillations. Early attempts to solve it
numerically include those of Oertel (1975) and Doctors
(1975), and good results have recently been obtained by
Cheng and Wellicome (1994) and by Lai and Troesch
(1995). The corresponding two-dimensional problem is
Figure 13: Wave pattern for unconstrained pressure.
much more straightforward, and has a large literature,
partly surveyed in Tuck (1990). At the other extreme, for
planing surfaces of low aspect ratio there have also been
some explicit high Froude number solutions, e.g. Tulin as those where the pressures p are specified. Then the
(1957), Casling (1978), and Casling and King (1979). matrix A is square and N × N , and it is only necessary
In order to solve the three-dimensional planing- that this matrix A be nonsingular (which it is) in order
surface problem for a given flat ship with equation z = that we be able to find p, given Z.
Z(x, y), we “merely” need to find a pressure distribu- It is also possible to perform an inversion if M > N ,
tion p(x, y) that causes the free surface to take that shape e.g. by using least squares. In that case we no longer de-
z = Z(x, y) beneath the region R of non-zero pressure. mand that the pressure p(x, y) exactly reproduce a given
The above examples of solutions of the direct problem elevation Z(x, y) at M points, but rather that the values
when R is a rectangle are already in principle solutions of p at N points be such as to minimise the sum of the
of the planing surface problem, providing Z(x, y) takes squared departures of the computed Z from the given el-
one of the output forms in the Figures. However, it is evations at M points. This leads to equations of the form
potentially a much more difficult task to invert this prob-
lem, thus finding p when Z is given. A>A p = A> Z (17)
Since the relationship between pressure and wave pat-
tern is a linear one, formally this inversion only requires which can be solved by inversion of the N × N square
inversion of the linear operator. More concretely, if we matrix A>A. Use of M >> N is desirable in that it
discretise the pressure data p(x, y) into a vector p of averages out effects like the short diverging waves that
length N , and the free-surface elevation data Z(x, y) have always caused numerical difficulties in this prob-
into a vector Z of length M , our computer code provides lem.
a connection (implicitly or explicitly) of the form
Ap=Z (16) Edge conditions
for some M × N matrix A. There is an extra complication for actual planing sur-
One possibility is that M = N , so that we compute faces, in that we must demand smooth detachment at
exactly as many elevations as there are pressures. It is the trailing end of the surface. That is, we only accept
convenient to assume then that the elevations Z are com- pressure distributions p(x, y) which vanish (return to at-
puted at the same N nodal points within the planform R mospheric pressure) at the trailing end of the planing

11
 3
Single Constant
Single Bi-quadratic
Tandem Double Parabolic
Three-line Parabolic
2.5 Unconstrained 20x20

2
dR/dθ

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
θ (degrees)

Figure 14: Free wave spectrum for various arrangements of pressure patches.

surface. This condition is referred to as a Kutta con- real planing surfaces. However, this is a computationally
dition, by analogy with that (Newman 1977, p. 164) difficult task, and is not attempted in the present paper.
for lifting surfaces. The linear two-dimensional version In general, having demanded zero pressure at the trail-
of this planing-surface problem is similarly analogous ing edge, the leading-edge pressure will not only not
(Tuck 1990, Bessho 1994) to thin-airfoil theory. vanish, but will formally become unbounded within the
There is a price to pay for such an extra demand, since present linearised theory. This leading-edge singular-
for any given Z(x, y) we cannot expect the Kutta condi- ity is again analogous to the corresponding leading-
tion to hold upon direct inversion. There are two ways edge singularity (Newman 1977, p. 168) in aerodynamic
to pay that price. The most computationally straightfor- lifting-surface theory. In the latter case, this is an arte-
ward way is, while retaining a fixed given planform R, fact associated with rapid velocities at which fluid passes
to allow a degree of freedom in specification of Z(x, y), from the lower to the upper surface of a lifting wing, but
e.g. a vertical shift Z = Z0 (x, y) + C(y) where Z0 is in the planing-surface case it models a splash (Wagner
the given hull and C(y) must be determined by the pro- 1932, Tuck 1994, 1995).
gram. Thus the actual given hull shape is not preserved, Since splashes contribute to the total drag, there is a
but is “bent” about a longitudinal axis, which may not be premium on reducing or even eliminating this leading-
acceptable for applications to real hulls. edge singularity, and thus seeking pressures that vanish
Alternatively, and potentially more practically, we can not only at the trailing edge but also at the leading edge.
allow a degree of freedom in specification of the wetted We then would need another degree of freedom, e.g. we
domain or planform R, while retaining on that new do- may wish to modify the original hull Z0 to
main the exact given hull Z = Z0 . In practice, with Z(x, y) = Z0 (x, y) + C1 (y) + xC2 (y) . (18)
a fixed trailing edge, this is normally an adjustment in
the location of the leading edge, and such significant This hull modification involves not only bending but also
leading-edge adjustments are natural and inevitable for “twisting” the given hull about a longitudinal axis, with

12
an upshift C1 (y) and an added angle of attack −C2 (y) at
Pressure (Pa)
each lateral position y, both determined by the program.
This procedure generalises that of Cumberbatch (1958)
35000
to three dimensions and finite Froude number. 30000
25000
20000
15000
This does not end the list of possible constraints on 10000
the inversion task for planing surfaces. For example, we 5000
0
may consider it desirable to require the pressure to van-
20
ish along all of the boundary of the region R, not only at 10
15

the leading and trailing edges, but also at the sides. This -40
-30 0
5
-20 -5 y (m)
could be because (as seen in Figure 7 for the constant- -10
0
10
-10
20 -15
pressure patch) sudden lateral terminations of the pres- x (m) 30
40 -20

sure tend to produce undesirable local diverging waves

which may break, so producing further drag. It is also Figure 15: Pressure on flat plate
relevant that our work on minimisation of wave resis-
tance suggests that optimal pressures tend to vanish at
the sides.
Flat plate example
For a rectangular planform R with side boundaries In the present written paper we present just one example
parallel to the stream, it is also not entirely obvious computation, for the input flat plate Z0 (x, y) = −x/a,
whether the side boundaries should be considered as with our standard rectangular planform and Froude num-
“leading edges” or “trailing edges”; if the latter, we are ber. This plate initially has its midship station x = 0 at
required to demand a Kutta condition of zero pressure the undisturbed free-surface level, with the bow raised to
on them in any case. It is not hard to conceive of fur- height 1m and the stern submerged to 1m. However, the
ther degrees of freedom in modification of the original program then generates an almost constant downshift,
hull, allowing such a constrained inversion, but we leave with C(y) ≈ −0.7m, in order to satisfy the Kutta condi-
that for future studies. Interestingly, Cheng and Welli- tion.
come (1994) seem to have been able to find solutions Figure 15 shows the resulting pressure distribution.
with zero side pressure without modifying the original The computations were performed by least squares, with
hull for that purpose. One important feature noted by M = 2000 input data points and N = 176 unknown
Tuck and Scullen (2002) is that when the side pressure pressures. The results are preliminary in that although
steps from a finite value to zero, the free surface also the over-all trend and size of the pressure output is ac-
steps by exactly the corresponding hydrostatic amount. ceptable, small grid-scale oscillations are present, simi-
Hence we cannot expect zero side pressure for bodies lar to those in other solutions such as those of Doctors
like flat plates where there is non-zero submergence at (1975) and Cheng and Wellicome (1994). It is how-
the sides. ever notable that there is no indication of the pressure
approaching zero at the sides of the plate, as assumed
This discussion about edge pressures highlights what by Cheng and Wellicome (1994). Work is continuing on
is a serious numerical difficulty with the inversion prob- this challenging numerical task.
lem for any planing surface, analogous with that for
aerodynamic lifting surfaces, e.g. Tuck (1993). In gen- CONCLUSIONS
eral, such inversions (if performed exactly without dis-
cretisation) do not produce finite non-zero leading or In this paper we have discussed three applications of lin-
trailing edge pressures. The edge pressure is either zero earised water-wave theory to efficient and accurate com-
(e.g. when the Kutta condition is enforced) or infinite putation of flows and wave patterns for high-speed ma-
(e.g. at most leading edges). Hence when working with rine vessels. The first is a 21st-century computational re-
a discretised model, we must always in some sense be alisation of the 19th-century thin-ship theory of Michell
“approximating infinity”. This difficulty can be over- (1898). The resulting code is fast and accurate, and ca-
come (see Tuck and Standingford 1997), but we must pable of revealing fine detail of the pattern that is diffi-
expect to see large numbers in the output pressures near cult to capture by some other methods. In particular, its
edges, which can be accompanied by unacceptable grid- linearity conveys a number of advantages, not least of
scale oscillations unless care is exercised in the numeri- which is that it never fails.
cal methods. The second application is to moving prescribed pres-

13
sure distributions, where again fine detail can be cap- pressure”, Journal of Ship Research, Vol. 38, 1994,
tured, in both near and far field. This fine detail includes, pp. 30–41.
especially for distributions which do not vanish at the
sides, very short diverging wave crests streaming away [9] Couser, P.R., Wellicome, J.F., and Molland, A.F.,
from corners and sides. Pressure distributions minimis- “An improved method for the theoretical prediction
ing wave resistance are also discussed and the impor- of the wave resistance of transom-stern hulls using
tance of a non-negativity constraint is emphasised. a slender body approach”, International Shipbuild-
Finally, preliminary work on the inverse problem of ing Progress, Vol. 45, 1998, pp. 331–349.
finding a pressure distribution to match a given flat-ship
[10] Cumberbatch E., “Two-dimensional planing at
hull is discussed. This is a notoriously difficult task, es-
high Froude number”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics,
sentially because of the above-mentioned short diverg-
Vol. 4, 1958, pp. 466–478.
ing waves, and presents significant computational chal-
lenges. The present type of code shows considerable [11] Cumberbatch E., “Effects of viscosity on ship
promise of yielding robust solutions, but we are not quite wakes”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 23, 1965,
there yet. pp. 471–479.

[12] Doctors, L. J., “Representation of three-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
dimensional planing surfaces by finite elements”,
This work was supported by the Australian Research Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Numerical
Council, and also by the Surveillance Systems Division Ship Hydrodynamics, Office of Naval Research,
of DSTO Australia. We thank Gregor McFarlane of the 1975, pp. 517–537.
Australian Maritime College for Figure 5.
[13] Doctors, L. J., “Optimal pressure distributions for
river-based air-cushion vehicles”, Schiffstechnik,
Vol. 44, 1997, pp. 32–36.
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Wave Pattern Evaluation, Part 6 Report: Viscosity
Factors, The University of Adelaide, January 2002.
(this and earlier SWPE reports are downloadable
from: http:// www.maths.adelaide.edu.au/
Applied/staff/dscullen/).

[55] Tuck, E.O., Scullen, D.C. and Lazauskas, L.,

“Ship-wave patterns in the spirit of Michell”,
Proceedings of the IUTAM Symposium on Free-
Surface Flows, Birmingham, July 2000, ed. A.C.
King and Y.D. Shikhmurzaev, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, 2001, pp. 311–318.

[56] Tuck, E.O. and Scullen, D.C., “A comparison of

linear and nonlinear computations of waves made
by slender submerged bodies”, Journal of Engi-
neering Mathematics, 2002.

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