DOCDMBYT RESUME

BD 116 990 SO 008 822

AUTHOR Bullivant Brian Milton

-TITLE Competing Values and Traditions in a n Orthodox Aewish
Day School: A Study of Enculturation Dissonances
PUB DATE Feb 75
NOTE L- 596p.; Ph.D. Thesis, dnash University. (Clayton,
Vicetocia, Australia)

EDRS PRICE MF-$1.08 HC-$29.83 Plus Postage

DESCRIPTORS Cultural gactors; *Culture 'Conflict; *Doctor al
Theses; Iducational Researal-Educational Sociology;A
Jews; I eligious.CultUral Grdlips;'.*Religious'Factors;
*Role Conflict; gecondary Education;" Self Conceptr
Student Alieisation; Student Attitudes;_ *Student
School Relationship; Values
IDENTIFIERS *Australia

ABSTRACT
This study examines how the. values and value,
orientations tderived fro two differing, historical itions
influence the formal education of adolescent boys t nding an
Orthodox Jewish day school in Melbourne, Australia The two ,

traditions,iftlude the Chassidic variant. of the gre t tradition of

Orthodox Judaism and the Australian-adaptation of the English, secular
academic tradition. 'A fundamental dualism dominates the school in the
form of two almost separate enculturation matrices ,bettreen which the
students move daily. The contrasts betweeh the value orientations
(b produce an identifiable dissonance in the ,boys cognitions about,
their li -fe worlds. This affects their interpersonal behavior in
teac4ing-learning interaction settings making themtiOrone to
hype40.ctivity, anxiety, tension, conflict, and even aggression.
Sociological explanations suggest that the differing social
constructions of learning in the two traditions interact to frustrate
the"boyse needs to learn. Countervailing influences an \d enculturation
interference from the school's structural- organizational and
epistemological dualism make the stuients reality constructions
problematical whith in turn hamper their ability to learn.
(Author /DE)

. /
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COMPETING VALUES AND TRADITIONS

IN AN ORTHODOX JEWISH DAY SCHOOL:

A STUDY OF ENCULTURATION DISSdNANCE

-4

BRIAN MILTON BULLIVANT

I.E.T.C. (Land.),

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THE FACULTY OF ARTS IN

7"- ti

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY,

4
FEBRUARY 1975

Copyiight rc B.M. Bullivant

Not to be reproduced in any form without,

the written permission of the author

.
 a.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Summary of thesis xix

Signed statement xxi

Acknowledgements

CHAPTER PAGE

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1. The historical, context of the study 1

2. Ethnographic studies ofschools in Australia 5

(a) The background 5

(b) The subject of research . 6

3. Research design 8

(a) Original aims and iRstruments 8

(b) Modifications due to,constraints in the field 10

4. Theoretical modifications and conceptual outcomes 11

5. The methodological and theoretical validity of 14

the study

6. A note on/bilhography 17

PART ONE
ENCULTURATION, SCHOOLING AND THE TWO TRADITIOgi\

2 SCHOOL AS THE LOCUS OF FORMAL ENCULTURATION 21

Ic An eclectic model of the education process 21

(a) The process of enculturation 22

(b) The saliency of.tradition and values in 24

enculturation

(c)t The contextual and situational nature of 28

enculturationi

(d) The problematical nature of enculturation 32

.11

4
 CHAPTER PAGE

2 2. School as a'formal enculturation mapriX 34

3. ,The saliency of value.prientati ns in the 36

transmission of tjadition

(a) The'relationship between value 36

.-orientations. and tradition

(b) The systematization of value orientations 37

(c) The place of values / traditions in a school 38

4. Summary 40

THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF TWO TRADITIONS 41

1. 'The two traditions inherited by the school 41

2. The origins of the Lubavitcher Movement 42

(a) The beginnings of Chassidism 42

(b) Elements.of Chassidic ideology 44

(c) The leaders and literati of Chassidism 46

3. The genealogy of leaders of the Lubavitcher 48

Movement

4. Origins and foundation of the school 50

5. The Academic Tradition

(a) Roots of the tradition - the early schools 51'

(b) Roots of the tradition - university control 53

over the curriculum .

(c) Lubavitcher School's heritage 54

a (d) Prudential elements in the Academic Tradition 56

(e) The effect of scholarship examinations 56

6. The literati'of the Academic Tradition 57

7. Summary 59

4
 4r

iii

4 PAGE
CHAPTER'

4 VALUE ORIENTATIONS AND VALUES IN THE TWO TRADITIONS 61

1. Sources of data for content ana 'lysis 61

(a) The Great Tradition 61

The Academic Tradition 62

(b)

2.- Man-Universe orientation 63

(a) The Great Tradition 63

(b) The Acadelpic Tradition 69

3. Man-Oature orientation 71

(a) The Great Tradition 71

'(b)' The Academic Tradition 74

.a
4. Man-community orientation 76
Afj

(a) The Great Trdition 76'

(b) The Academic Tradition 81

5. Man-activity orientation 83

(a) The Great Tradition 83

(b) The 'Academic Tradition 92

6. Man-time orientation 95

(a) The Great Tradition 95

(b) The Acadethic Tradition 103.

7.. Man-habitat orientation 105

(a) The Great Tradition 105

(b) The Academic "Tradition 106

II. Summary 107

r
CHAPTER PAGE

PART TWO
THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF TRADITION

5 SCHOOL CAMPUS, FACILITIES, AND STAFF

1. The arrangement of religious and teaching 111

n" facilities

T 'sacred and traditional geography' 116

of the synagogue

3. The staff 119

(a) Composition of the secular teaching staff 119

(b) The hierarchy of responsibility in the 121

secular staff

(c) The religipus teaching'staff 124

(d) Proprieties in-covering the head for males 125.

(e) Lay ,eaching staff 126-

(0/Dysfunctional and hierarchical aspects of 127

religious staff

4. Other-school personnel 128

(a) The, bursar 128

(b) School secretary 129

(c) Para- administrative staff 130

(d) RelilAious importance of para-administrative 131

duties

(e) The caretaker 132

5/ Summary 134

6 THE ORGANIZATION OF 'TIME IN THE SCHOOL 135

1. Morning P,rayer and religious study 135

2. Secular studies --..the -morning period, 137:

3. Lunchtime rituals"- the Minchah Prayer and recreation 139

6
CHAPTER PAGE

6 4. The secular afternoon 142

5. Summary 144

7 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE YEARLY CALENDRICAL CYCLE 145

1. TheAwo calendars followed by the school 145

2. The dialectical interplay between the two Calendars 146

(a) Religious ceremonies during the month of 146

fishrei

(b) '61ishes with secular activities during 148

TisTeNi

(c) The quiescent period following Chanukah 149

3. Resumption of the dialectical interplay at Purim 149'

(a) Rejoicing and catharthis at Purim 149

(b) Ritual preparations for Pesach 150

(c) Activities during Pesach and the following 153

weeks

4. The events of the second Term - a quiescent period 155

5. Variations in the ealendrical cycle in the following 156

year

6. Sumthary 157

8 THE CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATION OF TRADITION 158

1. Types of ceremonies 159

2. Expressive-religioug ceremonies 161

(a) The prolgramme 161

(b) . Content of ceremonies 162

(c) Form of ceremonies

O
 vi

CHAPTER ,PAGE

8 ,3. Ingtrumental-religioug ceremonies 171

(a) The,programme 171

(b) Content of ceremonies ,

171

(c) Form of ceremonies 172

4. Expressive-secular ceremonies 184,

(a) The programme 184

4

(b) Content of Ceremonies 184

(c) Form of ceremonies 185

5. Instrumental-secular ceremonies 191

(a) The programme ' 191'

(b) Content of ceremonies 191

(c) Form of ceremonies 192

6. Summary 194

THE FORMAL ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE 196

1. Types of knowledge 196

2. Academic knowledge, 198

(a) Subjects in the Lower and Middle School 198

(b) The Senior School curricula 199.

3. The role of examinations in the curriculum 199

(a) Internal examinations and tests 199

(b) External examinations 200

4. Super-empirical knowledge 204

(a) The basis of_ the curriculum content 204

(b) Organization of religious instruction 205

(c) Some comments on methods of instruction 208

8
 vii
41116,

CHAPTER PAGB

9 5. .Behavioural knowledge 209

(a) Behavioural novas and Values of the Great 209

Tradition '

(b) Cultic-ceremonial knowledge c 213

(c) Behavioural norms and values of the Academic. 216

Tradition

PART THREE
CONSTRUCTIONS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION-AND REALITY

10 PUPILS - NEIGHBOURHOOD AND FAMILY CONTEXTS 222

1.- The Secondary School and research sample 222,

2.- Location of boys' homes 224

3. The school neighbourhood as.a culture island 229,

(a) Evidence froi content analysis of Abe 229

Jewish press.

(b) Impressionistic evidence for the culture island` 231 .

(c) Cultural activities in the culture island 232

4. Boys' family backgrounds 233

(a) Fathers' occupations and socio-economic stttus 233

(b) Family attitudes towardsieducation 235

5. Attitudes of parents at parent-teacher evenings 237

(a) The pattern of attendance 237

(b) Characteristics of discussions with parents 239

(c) Types of parental. concern 240

6. Summary '241

9
 viii

PAGE
CHAPTER

THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGES IN THE SCHOOL 243

11

rsonal exchanges, with teaching staff 244

1. Inte
4
244
(a) Informal Situations
245
.(b) Formal, teaching-learning situations

Expressed red tions of teaching staff 252

.(c)

The reactions of religious teaching staff 254

(d)
Interpersonal exchanges with administrative staff 256
2.

Interpersonal exchanges with peers 257

3.

Informal situations 258

(a)

264
(b) Formal situations
267
4. Summary

CONSTRUCTIONS OF ESTEEM CRITERIA IN THE PEER GROUP 270

12

Formal status. arrangements in the school 270

1.'
prefects and houses

Prefect system 270

(a)

271
(b) House system.

2. Some reasons for the decline of the formal .status 272 /

arrangements

Status recognition at the Fdrm level 273

3.

Form structures in the Middle and Senior School 274

(a)

Weaknesses in the formal structures 276

(b)

278
4. Informal relaAdships and 4riteria of esteem
at the Form level

Criteria of esteem in third and fourth Forms 278

0)
c\,
Criteria of,esteem in fifth Form 284
(b)
14

10
 lx

CHAPTER PAGE

12 '5. Constructions of the 'good' student ('Paul') 288

(a) Characteristics leading to friendship . 289

(b) Analysis of answers and comparisons with 291.

control sample

(c) Types of people commenringaboutPaul 292

c1)' Analysis of answers and comparisons wi ti 294

control sample

(e) Types of comments made about Paul y school 294'

personnel* li

(f) Analysis of answers and comparisOns with 296

control sample

6. summary ).- 297

13 CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE`EELF AND FUTURE ASPIRATIONS 298

1. The self- what it means to be a Jew .298

(a) The religious orientation towards beipg a Jew 299

.(b) The nationalistic orientation towards being a Jew 302

O
(c) Uncommitted 303

2. Some comments, on the boys' views 303A

3. Vie4S of the future 305

(a) Boys' stated 'aspirations '305,

(b) Thematic apperception evidence of boys' 307

achievement orientation

4. Summary 308

14 CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE,HABITAT AND WORLDS OF OBJECTS 310

1. Components' of the' boys' shared world of objects . '310

.lam

2. The functions Of the'sc hool complex in, the world 314

of objects\

3, The network of objects associated with the school 318

complex

4. Summary 322
 t

CHAPTER PAGE

15 BOYS' INVOLVEMENT IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 324

1. Contrasts between the daily timetables of two 324

ideal type boys

2. Contrasts between the _weekend routines 327

3. Contrasts between the worlds of obJects 327

4.' The use of time during the month of Tiohrei 328

5. The emotional impact 01: Tiohrei 333

(a) The cathectic build up for ROoh Haohanah 333 $

o '(b) .Tension release after ROoh qachanah 33E"

(c) The cathectic build up for Succos and 339

Simehao Torah

(d) Tension release after Simehao Torah I Y44

6. The emotional impact of the final examinations 345

(a) Effects on religious commitment 346

(b) Tension release and the period after 347

examinations

7. Summary 348-
16 PIHOSAND EIDOS OF THE SCHOOL COMPLEX - A MOLAR VIEW 351

1. The ethos of the school complex 351 .

.0

, 2. The eidos of the school complex 357

3. Sothe paradoxes in the ethos and eidoa of the 362

school

'4. General conclusions' 363'

O

12
 xi

CHAPTER PAGE

PART FOUR, .

TOWARDS A GROUNDED THEORY OF.ENCULTURATION DISSONANCE

17 ENCULTURATION INTDiFERENCE IN THE.SCHOOL COMPLEX 366'

a. EncuItufation matrix diralism and its effects in 366

the school complex

(a) Consequences of structura17organizational , 367

dualism -

(b) Consequences of ideological and epistemological 369

dualism
4
2. Enculturation interference througti. the countervailing 372
curriculum

(a) Components and types of interactions within 373

environments e,
1
er
3. The overt operation of the count ailing curficultim 376

(a) Challenges tofstabl1shed knowledge and 'beliefs .377

(b) 'Challenges to customary behaviour 3£30

(c) Influences on attitudes and values 382

4. The covert operatiOn of the countervailing jurriculum 385,

(a) Artifacts in the environment 386

Symbolic media of communication in the

r 389
(b)
environment

(c) Dualism of languages in symbolic media 392

(d) Inarticulate experience as a countervailing 394

influence

5. Summary 395'

ti

"13
 4.
'xii
qi
,

(/ PAGE
CHAPTER
.
1 $

\** TOWARDS A TH4RY OF-ENtULTURATION DISSONANCE 397

18- ,
- -.
-

,/ 1. Types and sources of stress among Jews 397

(a) The'evidence fetr neurotic reactions.to stress, 397

.. ,
,
.

(bi) Factors 'contributing, to stress among boys :' 399

..

atLuavitcher School 4
-4,
*

2. Social needs and matrix constraints at Lubayitcher 402

School .

(a) The needs of boys 403

(b) Constraints in the school complex. 406

(c) Strategies for reducing perceived dissonance 407

3. Dissonance from enculturation interference 408

(a) Dissonance at th conscious level of learning 409

(b) tDissona at the unconscious leyel of 413

deutero-learning

4. Towards a theory of enculturation diSsOnance, 418

5. Conclusion 421

APPENDICES

1. Fieldwork technology, meta-method, and problematics of 424

research

1. Fieldwork - chronology and organization 424

2. Fieldwork technology 428

3. Meta-methodology and fieldwork problematics ^436

(a) Considerations of meta-method

(b) Problematics 438

4. Ethical issues in the research 450

14
 Xiii

4 APPENDICES PAGE
, .

2. Projective technique research instruments 457

2,1 Thematic Apperception Instrument 458

A practoice example of creative writing

2,2% Sentence completion questionnaire -.Paul 460

3, Sociological Studies in GeographY'Research Instrdment .461

3.1 Preface - Micro-area Research: an interdisciplinary 462

approach to local social and environmental studies
4
3.2 Sociological Studies in Geography: an experimental 475
project for For% four

4. Details relating to the history and organizatiq 491

Lubavitcher School

4.1 The Founders of General Chassidism and the Heads 492

of Chabad

4.2 Regulations governing the constitution of Standing 493

Committees of the Victorian Universities and Schools
Examinations Board #
. .

4.3 Sublects available at the Matriculation level (1969) 494

4.4 Status, sex, and religious affilation of teachers 495

by Grade level

4.5 School Census Data 1969: numbers of students,by 496

Grade and age range

4.6 Occupations of fathers Middle and Senior School 497

by Form level

4.7 School Calendar 1969 (5729-30) 498

4.8 Calendar 1970 t

499

4.9 Lubavitcher Youth Advertisement for Pesach Camp 500

4.10 Lubavitcher Youth Advertisement for a Shavuot Evening 501

4.11 A 'Pastoral' Letter from the Lubavitcher Rebbe 502

1r
 xiv

APPENDICES PAGE
-;,P .

5. Details relating to fhe athool neighbourhood and culture 505

island: content analysis,data from The Australiqn
fl
Jewish News

5.1 Frequency of mentions of Jewish-owned of managed 506

'businesses within the school neighbourhood

5.2 Examples of New Year Greetings -507

5.3 An advertisement for the Tephillin Campaign 511

6. Micro-ethnographic data concerning the constructions of 512

interpersonal relationships in Forms 1, 2, and 4
r,

6.1 Micro-ethnographic data of boys' behaviour during 513

supervised geography lesson in Form 1

Microethnographic data of boys' behaviour during 523

supervised geography lesson in Form 2

6.3 Impromptu discussion topics suggested by boys in 534

Form 4
0
7. SociogrAms illustratingboys' preferred partners for 535
a variety of tasks in Forms 3 - 5

7.1 Taking part in groups to carry out tour of 536

:Melbourne Show - Forms 3 & 4

7.2 Teams to work on geography project - Form 4 537

7.3 Teams to take part in an extended geography field 538'

trip - Form 4

7.4 Sociogram showing marked-antipathy for four boys in 539

respect of working on geography project - For 4

74 Geography fieldwork groups - Form 5 540

8. Data from the Sociological Studies in Geography Project 541

relating to the worlds of objects constructed by boys
in Form 4

8.1 Objects in the worlds of fourth Form boys 542

8.2 Boys' perceptions of the functions of the school 544

complex

8.3 Fourth Form boys' ranking of tI7 social objects 547

associated with the school complex

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 549

oft
0

(1,
 ,
XV

i
_.
-., LIST OF PLATE.
....

PAGE
. ,

1. Study alcoves and the muslin curtains in the balcony 114

of the shut

2. A 'group of rabbinical studentdand Lubavitcher rabbis 114

in the Yeshivah Gedolah (The Australian Jewish News)

3. A primary, Grade occupied' with individual, secular 138

work (Cylich Photos)

4. A fifth Form mathematics class in their own classroom 138

(Cylich Photos).

5. The Principal introduces two primary Grade pupils from 173

Nt the bimah during the Torah Evening. The curtains in
the women's balcony are drawn up (Cylich PhOtos)

6. A group of primary Grade pupils and their teacher at 176

the Torah Evening., The Ark of the Law and Ner Tamid
can be seen in the background

7. Senior boyi give a commentary on a Talmudic tractate 176

from the bin* in the shut (Cylich Photos) 4"

8. A circle of dancing Lubavitchers welcomes a Sefer Torah 179

(The Age)

9. The new Sefer Torah is carried towards the shut (The 179
Australian Jewish News - Cylich Photos)

10. The scribe writes new letters to complete the new refer 182
Torah, while members of the congiegation look on (The
Australian Jewish News - Cylich Photos)

11. Dr. Goldmann, guests and rabbis visit a primary Grade in 187
the girls school (The Australian Jewish News)

12. Dr. Goldmann addresses the assembled School (The 187

Australian Jewish News) ).

13. An interlude during an informal basketball game. The 260

fringes (tzitzit) of the tallit"katan are clearly
visible at boys' waists

lit. Unsupervised volleyball involving pulls from several 260

Grades

17
 .10 LIST OF PLATES (continued).

PAGE

15. A fourth Forme cuts cypress branches and other .340

material (srac /or the'succah

16. The roof of the succah (foreground), with the.main 340

teaching block in the background

17. Several senior students prepare to take the mobile 342'

succah to an outer suburban school during the
yestival of Succor

Op

18
 LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

A schematic diagram illustrating components of the 29

2:1
'enculturation matrix influeniing the child

9.1 Instructions for putting on the tephilin of the head 215

10.1 Location of boys' homei; in relation to the school 227

15.1 A diagrammatic comparison of the weekday routine of 326

the young Chassid and average orthodox boy

15.2 Ergograph showing an orthodox boy's allocation of 331

time during Tishrei

A1.1 A two-dimensional view of participant observation 449

A1.2 A three-dimensional view of participant observation 451

A2.1 A picture of an imaginary event 459

A3.1 The type of diagram to show the school's hinterland 480

A3.2 Example of ray diagram 486

A3.3 An example of a chart to show allocation of time to 489

major activities for a week

A3.4 Model for ergograph to show allocation of your time 490

during Tishrei

A6.1 Schematic location grid - Form 1 514

V

A6.2 Schematic location grid - Form 2 524

A7.1 Sociogram showing preferences for taking part in groups 536

to carry out tour of Melbourne Show - Forms 3 & 4

Sociogram showing preferred partners for teams to work 537

A7.2
on geography project - Form 4

A7.3 Sociogram showing preferred partners for teams to take 538

part in an extended geography field trip - Form 4

A7.4 Sociogram showing marked antipathy for four boys in 539

respect of working on geograptfy project - Form 4

A7.5 Sociogramishowing preferences for geography fieldwork 540

groups - Form 5

19
 LIST.,OF TABLES

10.1 Location of boys by Form

10.2 Occupations of boys' fathers by class groups and Form

10.3 Proportion of parents attending interviews by sex,

class level and learning problems

12.1 Academic ranking in best five subjects and

sociometric status of Form four boys in the project
sociograms

12.2 Working group re-arrdhgements for Form four project

12.3 Academic ranking in geography examinations and

sociometric statuem- Form five

12.4 Qualities seen as gaining friendship for the

fictional character, Paul

12.5 .Types of persons commenting about Paul

12.6 Types of comments made about Paul by school personnel

13.1 Summary of fourth Form boys' aspirations in relation

to fathers' occupations

14.1 Summary of t e categories of objects in the world of

fourth Form' PYs

Social objects associated with the school complex

The social network hierarchy of the young Chassid

20
 SUMMARY OF THESIS

this study aimed to explore how the values and value

orientations derived from two, differing historical traditions influence

the formal education of adolescent'bofs attending an Orthodox Jewish Day

School in Melbourne, Australia. It was anticipai d that contrasts

between the values and value orientations would produce identifiable

dissonance in boys' cognitions about their life worlds.

The writer undertook fifteen months ethnographic research as a

part-time teacher at the school, using partial 'participant ohservation,

non-reactive, unobtrusive measures and projective techniques. Unexpected

data necessitated retroductfve reformulation of the original general

orientation, and post factum development of heuristic paradigms to explain

their paradoxical features through a grounded theory approach.

The concept of enculturation is employed for the on-going,

problematical yet categorical process,whereby the child constructs a view

of the self and objective reality, through reciprocated interaction with

symbolic and extra-symbolic stimuli in a variety of formal and informal

socio-spatial contexts or enculturation matrices provided byhis cultural

group and habitat. The Jewish school is conceptualised as a formal

enculturation matrix, which partially influences the enculturation.of its

adolescent pupils. Its validating 'ideology is traced historically to the

Chabad-Chassidic (Lubavitcher) variant of the Great Tradition of Orthodox

Judaism, and the Australian adaptation of the Arnoldian Academic Tradition.

Two sets of ideal values are established more precisely by content

analysis of the charters and other literature relating to the two

traditions, usingan ideal-type, six category typology of value orientations,

and are assumed to provide the ideational basis for the schoOl's.Social

21.
 '4
tif xx

organization of tradition. Ethnographically, they are shown to determine

its structure and organization, tithetabling, selection 0 knowledge in

the curriculum, rituals and ceremonial activities. A flindamental duali,sm

dominates the school in the form cif two, almost separate enculturation

matrices between which boys move daily.

Boys' constructions of'their future occupations and themselves.

as Jews; their relationships with peers and schoOl authority figures;

their views 'of its social network of wider community links; all point to
A*
a paradoxical feature of their enculturation. Although bois have a high

degree of need achievement (nAch), value-learning and the school's

intellectual life and religiosity, i.e.'its eldos, their interpersonal

0

bothaviour in teaching -learning,interaction settings is prone to hyper-

activity, anxiety, tension, conflict and even aggression. When this is t

directed against secular and religious teachers it is dysfunctional for

effective learning. Such behaviour is significantly different from the

general ethos of the school and behaviour outside teaching-learning

interaction settings.

Comparative data suggestcthat such behaviour is symptomatic of

stress and neuroses among

9
Jews, and could result from parental pressures
--/
or minority group status. Preferred sociological explanations suggest that

the differing social constructions of learning in the two traditions inter-

act to frustrate boys' needs to learn: Couhtervailing influences and en-

culturation interference from the school's structural-organizational and

epistemological dualism make boys' reality construction unusually problem-

atical at the conscious level, and hamper successful deutero-learning at

the unconscious level. These phenomeria are formulated as a general theory

of enculturation dissonance.

22
 xxi

Nr.

This thesis contains no material which

has been accepted for the award of any other

degree or diploma in any University. To the

best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis

contains no material previously published or

written by another person, except where due

reference is made in the text of the thesis.

B.M. Bullivant.

Th

23 .
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Dr. P.B. Coy, Dr. R.H. Desai and Professor

M.G. Swift who acted as supervisors, or surrogate supervisors when one

;

or the other was on study leave, during the fieldwork and early formative

stages of: this thesis. Dr. S. Strizower contributed valuable information

about the Jewish community associated with the school.

I am particularly grateful for the constructive comments and

advice of Professor D.F. Swift and Professor,W.H. Scott, who assumed

responsibility for my supervision during the critical stages of theoretical

formulation and preparation of the final draft.

Faculty
owe a special debt of gratitude to my colleagues in theF

of Education. The Dean, Professor S.S. Dunn, has consistently encouraged

me to persevere with an ethnographical approach to research in schools.

Professor P.W. Musgrav'e has been an unfailing and generous source of advice

and conceptual clarification. Professor R. Taft provided valuable information

about Melbourne Jewry, and helped sharpen my research methodology. At various

points I have benefited from the advice of Dr. F.J. Hunt, Dr. M.B. Gilchrist,,

Dr. R. King, Mr. A.J. McKenzie, Professor R.J.W. Selleck and Dr. G. Solomon.

Many members of the Jewish community have contributed information

and advice. In particular, I wish to thank ;Dr.-bk. Billigheimer, philosopher.

and scholar, for his kindly hospitality and many opportunities to discuss

Chassidism and Orthodox Judaism. Dr. and Mrs. A.M. Hasofer also gave me

invaluable advice. Mr. M.F. Klarberg read sections of the thesis, and

provided constructive comments based on his own research into Yiddish schools

in Melbourne.

24
 ?mill

C
The quality of the thesis has been enhanced by those'whO

assisted with its preparation. Mr. Don Porter drew all the diagrams with

Meticulous care. Mr. Claude Siruni of the Faculty of Education ehlarged'

and improvIed the photographic material. I wish to thank the Editor of

The Age, the Editor of The AustraZian Jewish News, and Mr. S. Cylich for
t.

their kind permission to reproduce the photographs attributed to them in

the list of plates.

I am most grateful to Mrs. Beverly Schneider of the Faculty pf

Education, who typed thelllit of the initial drafts, and the Appendices and

Bibliography of the final draft in her own time. My thanks are due also to

Mrs. Lyn O'Keefe for the care pith which she has typed the main body of

the final draft.

In a study of this type,, no list of acknowledgements would be

complete without reference to the Principal, staff and, boys of the school,.

Their participation in its life was the raw material for the thesis. It

is as much a small tribute to those who are endeavouring to preserve

Yiddishkeit in an indifferent and occasionally hostile world, as it is

an attempt to apply a number of,social science disciplines to the analysis

of a unique educational institution.

25
 G.

s,

4p

In a civilization there is a great tradition of

the reflective few, anlpthere is a little tradition
of the largely unreflective many. The great tradition
is cultivated in schools or temples; the little tradi-
tion works itself out and keep's itself going in the
lives of the unlettered in their village Communities.
The tradition of the philosopher, theologian, and
literary manis a tradition consciously cultivated
and handed dowa; that of the little people is for
the most part taken for granted and not submitted to
much scrutiny or considered refinement and improvement.

Robert Redfield

26
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

(1) The historical context of the study-

This account of boys' reality construction in an Orthodox Jewish

Day School owes muche, to relatively recent developments in both the

.

soitiology of education-and educational anthropology. They provide the

'historical context' of the study, from which have been drawn the 'approach,,

paradigms' that have informed it throughout (Bernstein, 1972: 99). .It seems

appropriate to outline them briefly tg provide an orientation to the

theoretical basis of the thesis' substantive content and the research

methodology by which it was acquired.

During the 1950's and 1960's in Great Britain and the U.S.A., the

primary concern of the sociology of education was with organizational and

structural aspects of schooling, the social factors influencing children's

measured intelligence, and their relation to'scholastic achievement or

educational deprivation (e.g. Halsey, Floud & Anderson, 1961; Musgrii4e,

,1965; Banks, 1968). As Musgrave has commented (1974: 37), it was a pgriod

of 'political arithmetic' studies of education* It also saw a limited

number of sociological and so4o-psychological studies of schools pOr ae

in broadly structural-functional terms, and utilizing quantitative rather

than qualitative research methodology (e.g. Fichter, 1958; jiargreavei,

0

f967; King; 1969).

The second major approach to the sociology of education,arose in.

the mid-sixties, and was stimulated by new sociological perspectives in the

Q.
U.S.A., which were phenomenological, symbolic-interactionist, and ethno-

methodological in orientatiod. In consequence, sociology of education in

.Great Britain and, more recently, in Australia has begun to emphasize

-9 2
 2

`questions, concerning the construction of social reality out of negotiated

encounters with others, with particular reference to what counts for

,

educational knowledge in schools. As Bernstein has suggestid (op. cit., p.

103): 'It would not be too much to say that the emphasis was shifting

what was
from the organizational structure of schools to an emphisis upon

to be taught'. This has resulted in the sociology of knowledge gesuming

strategic importance in the thinking of those who follow this seco d

Britain
approach, as exemplified by writings such as those of Young in Great

(1971) and Musgrave in Australia (1973, 1974). This thesis is weddedmore

to the second, rather than first, major approach.

To establish the 'content' of what is taught in the Jewish Day

School and its validating systems of value orientations, I have had

recoufser

Like the sociology of education, this disci-

. to education41 anthropology. ti
Prior to-this
-pline hAs only assumed importance in the 1960's and 1970's.

___pipdjinBrikson'seuccipct opinion (1965: 105), child training has tended to

be an 'anthropological no-man's land'. Two major approaches have coloured

educational ant pology in the U.S.A. The first, as exemplified.by the

1963), has employed

Six Cultures Series of child-rearing studies (Whiting,

Freudian and psychoanalytical hypotheses and thinking to interpret

child-rearing,
differences in personality that result from different modes of
A
The ethno-
patterns of values, and preferences in different communities.
characteristic of a more recent
graphic aPproach used in this thesis is
editorship
series of case studies in education sand culture under the general

of George and Louise Spindler (e.g. Warren, 1967; Wolcott, 1967;

Hostetler & Huntingdon, 1971). Each study is basically

Singleton,,,. 1967;

setting.
descriptive, and emphasizes the educational process in its cultural
the
Particular attention is paid to the interaction between those engaged in

28
educational events, tfieir pinking and feeling, and the content Of the

process of education.

Many of the concepts, and emphasis on a cultural approach to my

study also receive. support from a growing body of literature relating to

more theoretical issues in educational anthropology. Like tie case-studies

C
above, the stimulus for these has come from the U.S.A., ind suggests that a

gradual evolution of consensus about an approach paradigm is, occurring. .The

major thrust of this,development has come from such theorists as Spindler

(1963, 1974),, Kneller (1965), Wax, Diamond andiGearing (1971)., Culture,

values, education (variously conceptualized as socialization or encultura-

tion or both), the transmission of cultural tradition, and the problems of

educating children from ethnic and racial backgrounds have teen some of the

central concerns. The majority have informed my thinking both in this

thedis and other Contributions to the growing corpus of educational anthro-

pology (Bullivant, 1972, 1973a, 1974b).

In contrast to the ferment that, has characterized the development

of approach paradigms-in the sociology of, education and educatioial

anthropology, education as an institution has received relatively little

attention among social anthropologists in Great Britain. Some impetus has

been developed since the publication of the A.S.A. Monograph Socialization:

The Approach from Social Anthropology (Mayer, 1970), bnt.the narrow,con-

ceptualtzation of education as socialization has been of limited use for

this thesis. Of more relevance inthe discussion by Richards indidsting

growing awareness of the importance of value systems, world views and

cosmologies, and systems of knowledge; and Jahoda's hopes of a possible

rapprochement between social anthropology and psychology (ibid., pp. 1-49).

His-suggestion that one fruitful area of anthropological exploration might

29
 4

be into the relationship between'achievement motivation' (nAch) and social

structure has born fruit in'the explanationi offered in Part Four of this.
4
thesis.

Its histOrical context is thus a coalescence of many of the con-

cepts and theoretical orientations referred to above. As far as the thesis

has been.concerned,Ithey.ha e been ideas come-into their time - to paraphrase

:-
Victor Hugo. The thesis isItheoretIcally and conceptually eclectic, and may

even be, seen as an attempt to devise a further approach paradigm of specific

relevance and use for studies of schools. Its explanations and theory of

enculturation dissonance proposed in Part For also reflect a further

development in approach parlidigms through the use of inductive 'grounded

theory' suggested by:Glaser and Strauss (1967)4 In Filst/rd's opinion

(1970: 2) this is more productive of explanatory schemed of human behaviour

than the 'villain [which] is adductive theory, with its labyrinth of various

logical, mathematical, and technical parafhernalia'..

Bernstein has also commented on changes in research methodology

coinciding with the development of the second of the theoretical approaches

discussed above (1972: 104). The major technique for studies of macro-

'structural relationships (the first approach in the sociology of educapion)

was 'the social purvey or enquiries based on large populations by means of

the closed quedtionnaire, the second approach favours caswstudies of

ongoing activities in'which participant observation, the tape recorder and

video machines play an important role in the construction of close ethno

graphic descriptions'. Although I was limited in the technical,apparatus

I could use in the field, the research for my thesis followpdthis latter

orientation. My research techniques and some of the problems I encountered

are discussed in Appendix 1.

30
 1 5

Coupled with the quest for more affective and appropriate

research techniques for use in cultural anthropology (Naroll & Cohen, 1970),

there has developed, in the U.S.A. at least, a self-conscioas concern to

make explicit the successes and shortcomings of one's research in the field

'warts and all' (Spindler, 1970; Kimball & Watson, 1972). Some of`my own

problems and shortcomings will be implicit in the body of the thesis itself.

In Appendix 1, I follow the current trend in cultural anthropology by

examining a number of issues, which seem particularly relevant for those

In
who may wishtoundertake comparable ethnographic studies of schools.

par4cular, I take up thj issue of matching one's research methodology with

the theoretical approach paradigm, which one adopts'to order and explain data.
t\e
It seems inconsistent otherwise to become wedded to the second of
.6
theoretical approaches discussed by bernstein, without also following its

condomitant,types of_fieldwork techniques.

(2) Ethnographic studies of schools in Australia

(a) The background

Of potential interest for the sociology of education and educa-

tional anthropolo y are those relatively small, self-contained, denominational

schools, which ex t parallel to, but independently of, the State education

system in Australia. Such schools attempt_to promote a form of education

based on a religiot.I's ideology. However, with the possible exception of

Hansen's (1971)_tudy of six major Independent schools in Victoria, there

have been no detailed ethnographic accounts of small, denominational schools.

Ldcunae in this area of r earch may reflect not only pre-occupation of most

thmetic' considerations (e.g. Fensham, 1970;

workers with 'political a
that an ethnographic
Katz & Browne, 1970), but also very slow recognition

approach to research can be as productive as quantitative methods.

31
 6

Some attention has been paid to the saliency of values and va ue

systems in the education of ethnic groups (Watts, 1970), and in the peert

group and adolescent'contexts (Campbell & McSweeney, 1970; McSwgeney, 970).

However, the influence of a socio-cultural groupts value orientations on

how a school under its aegis selects and organizes the. transmission Of

tradition, and the resultant constructions pof reality achieved by its

has been a neglected area of research,odespite the theoretical links betliie,

k

value systems and education noted by such writers as Dahlke (1958),

Honigmann (1959), and Spindler (1963).

VA
My general orientation in research is motivated by the desire t

explore the implications of these theoretichl aspects of schooling. It

endeavours to take up the challenge implicit in Young's expectation (1965:.

52) 'that some of the most rewarding research'In the next quarter of a

.centuryiwill be anthropological in inspiration small-scale intensive

re studies of individUal schools and classrooms, and the richness of human

relationships within them'. Hopefully, this thesis will make some contribu-

tion to filling t?e lacunae in such studies, and to the newly-emergent

theoretical andjtethodological approaches discussed above.

(b) The suect of research

Lubavitcher School is one of six full-time Jewish day schools in)

Victoria. At the time o the fifteen months fieldwork undertaken during

1969 .and early 1970 it h a total enrolment of 259 pupils in primary and

secondary Grades. The n adopted for the school is a pseudonym to accede

to the Principal's reques at I should preserve relative anonymity about

the school and its location. The latter has similarly not been identified

precisely, and is strictly not germane to the lests. It is in 4 residential

area some six miles from Melbourne's central business district, and is of

32
 predominantly affluent, middle- to upper-class socio-economic status. It

houses some sixty five percent of Melbourne's Jewish pnpulation.

The selection of the school as a subject for research was due to

a combination of purposeful and fortuitoUs circumstances. Firstly, the.

study takes forward a library-based, cross-cultural survey of the socializa-

tion of children in a number of small communities, pre7literate socio-

cultural groups and ethnic minorities within wider societies (Dullivant,

1968). The focal interest of that survey was the processes by which the

0 groups' values and value orientations are transmitted formally and in-

formally'to each generation of children. Of immediate relevance for this

thesis was the finding that a form of,dissonance or value conflict results

in situations where indigenous system values confront macro-system values.

The dissonance appears to adversely affect the child's socialization and

the cohesion of, his socio-cultural group. 9

It was decided to test the wider applicabil$ty of this finding in

what could be a paradigm case, namely a school run by a group holding to

strong values and value orientations, yet subjected to differing orienta-

tions froncthe wider society. A number of suitable ethnic communities was

considered. After failing to establish a viable research relationship with

the first school selected, due to its 'closed' nature and lack of suitable

subjects I could teach, I approached the Principal of the Wbavitcher School,

initially through correspondence, and followed up by telephone conversations.

The former was supported by references to several Jewish teaching and

educational research colleagues known to the Principal to establish my

caw
bona fide: although the added precaution may not have been needed. An

interview was obtained at which I outlined my hopes of conducting research

at the school.

33
 The fortuitous circumstance which confirmed my choice of the
V
school for research was the offer of a senior teaching position there

under circumstances which would provide me with some opportunities to

carry out research, but which were also subject to certain conditions.

The Principal requested that research should be conducted as discreetly as

possible, and that my ulterior motive for being at the school should not be'
ti

di closed to the boys. He also asked that the name and location of the

school should not be made explicit in any ensuing publication, and requested

to see any references to him perslnally. He also offered to read and check

the accuracy of my descriptions of the religious background and life of the

school, if I cared to submit them to him.

Alt these et...uditt,o0 havR been complied with to the fullest possible

extent. I .q41, grateful fo thl advice about the school's religious policy

'hat I was given, and my acknowledgements are recorded above and at points

throughout the body of the thesis. Parts of my description of the school's

origin and religious curriculum have been submitted to both the Principal

and the Director of Religious- Studies. I prefer to assume that their lack of

reply or any comment on what I have written reflects its accuracy rather

.
than any ulterior reason, 'although I appreciate the heavy demands on time

4'
both are experiencing.

(3) Research design

(a) Original aims and instruments

p
The original aim of the research was to conduct an exploratory

study of boys' attitudes and valueusing a battery of research instruments

of the kind developed inter alia by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961),

Dawson (1969a, 1969b), and the research team undertaking the 1966-67 Jewish

Community Survey (qedding, 1973: 270-291). I planned to supplement

34
selected questions from these instruments by a revised version of an

attitude inventory developed and tested in previous research at an

Independent, denominational girls school in Melbourne. 'Through these

measures I hoped to establish what values 4nd attitudes the boys held

about their religion and the wider Jewish community, and the influence

on these of the values from the wider 'secular' community.

However, it was obvious almost from the outset that this type of

research could not be conductU with the discretion insisted upon by the

Principal, although it might be possible to use some instruments once I

had become established in the school, and had shown that I could be trusted.

Similar problems have been discussed by Hargreaves in a closely comparable

school-based study (1967: 193). But even these hopes received a further

setback some three or four weeks after I had started teaching. This was

a bland request from the Principal that I should not question the boys

about their religious beliefs, as he had been told, but should approach

him for information instead. In fact, the information he had received,was

*

not strictly correct. I had not been questioning the boys, but was not

averse to listening when they spontaneously broached religious topics, and

by my actions had indicated that I was very interested in Judaism and their

beliefs. By this point, however, it was obvious that the relatively con-

ventional, quasi-experimental research design I had hoped to employ was

entirely out of the question and had to be abandoned, although my interest

in the boys' religious beliefs still remained. Data about them were obtained

through unobtrusive measures and more discreet means.

The limitations placed upon me indicated considerable sensitivity

on the part of the Principal and those boys, who presumably had complained

to,him, about being 'studied'. They also illustrated the speed of the

3i
 10
'
-Es to become very apparent as the
'grapevine' within the scho91, whiciiter,

study progressed, and how quickly boys could gain access to the Principal.

In addition, these aspeCts were, in themselves, not insignificant evidence

of some of the attitudes held by a number at the school. They indicated

that my approach to the research had to be radically modified if I was to

have any hope of achievIng,even a part of my objectives.

(b) Modifications due to constraints in the field

Although I had not set out with a major hypothesis, my dilemma

was similar to that discussed by Strodtbeck (1964: 223-9), who points out

that an elaboration (in my case virtually a major reconstruction) of an

original hypothesiQ in the form of ietroduction is almost inevitable in a

situation where fresh or unexpected data compel the observer to take new

directions in the field. It was obvious that I would have to abide by the

Principal's request, and be even more discreet than I had anticipated when

I accepted the position. Research techniques, which would not arouse

anxiety, would have to be chosen, and more reliance would have to be placed

op the type oepartial participant observation employed in studies of

organizations such as those reported by Becker et aZ (1961), Coffman (1961),

Ball (1970) and others. The use of 'classical' anthropological partillpant

observation with tbp assiotance of one or more informants was obviously out

of the question. In any 'ease, it would not be appropriate as my contacts

with the school would necessarily fluctuate due to my teaching timetable

and commitments elsewhere.

It still seemed possible to obtain data on values and attitudes,

despite all the. restrictions I would be faced with. Kluckhohn has suggested.

(1951: 404) that the observer can look for explicit evidence of approval or

disapproval expressed towards acts and conduct. Such evidence may take the
 11

form of strong emotional responses in those observed towards certain acts

or group problems. Whether it relates to an individual 4i a group, evid-

ence of ,'differential effort exhibited' towards the attainment 9f an end,

access to a means, or acquisition of a mode of behaviour' means values

are involved and can be observed and.inferred by the retarch worker. Con-

sistently chosen courses of action in situations where'an individual or a,

group is faced with making a choide out of several possible solutions to a

life problem are also dataand accessible to the observer.

(4) Theoreticajftmodifications and conceptual outcomes

The effect7of the enforced modifications to the research design

was to direct attention to a wider theoretical orientation for the study,

which would make it both more feasible and also easier to execute. It can

be conceptualized that a school functions as a formal mediator of tradition,

i.e. the valued knowledge, values, beliefs and ideas brought forward from

the historical past of the group the school serves. Elements of tradition

are selected in the light.of the 'master templates', value orientations, or

world view to which the group subscribes. These elements of tradition and

their validating value orientations can be reconstructed in ideal type

terms by the observer, through content analysis of the body of literatUre

or formal 'charter' td which the group subscribes. The school effects the

'social organization of tradition' (Redfield, 1956: 44 ff.). Systematic

observations-of its operations over a yearly cycle provide data on their

degree of correspowNce with the reconstructions of traditional elements.

Pupils' constructions of reality can also be directly observed, or inferred

from verbal, and non-verbal behaviours. These will give some indication of

the degree to which tradition is being accepted unquestioningly or modified

in the way discussed by Smolicz (1974a; 1974b), and will provide 8700'

37
 12

evidence to indicate how problematical pupils' reality construction is.

The outcome of this theoretical orientation in the case of

Lubavitcher School was to suggest that it serves two social groups: those

comprising its'OrthaelOx Jewish adherents and their tradition, and the wider,

urban society Within which the school is located. The latter adheres to

more diffuse, thbugh still distinguishable educational tradition. For ease

of reference, I refer to these as the Great Tradition of Orthodox Judaism

and the Academic Tradition of the Victorian education system. What follows

in the thesis is an attempt to follow through the logical development of

these theoretical ideas.

In Part One, schooling is conceptualized as a process of encfiltura-

tion within an enculturation matrix through which the developing child is

assisted to construct reality. The historical roots of the two traditions

influencing the school are established, and their eletents are extracted

from their respective bodies of literature through content analysis

utilizing a typology of categories of value orientations drawn up for the

purposes of this study.,

In Part Two, the suggestion of Redfield is taken up (1956: 56)

that it is possible to study and describe 'those activities and personnel

that exist for the purpose of communicating the great tradition'.

Lubavitcher School'is-described ethnographically as enabling the 'social

organization of tradition'. The difficulties of maintaining an objective

stance, and the weaknesses of the observer's 'reconstructed logic' of

others' behaviours are taken into account at this point, and receive more

detailed consideration in Appendix 1 which describes the meta-method and

problematics of-the research employed in this study. In particular, it sees

the research worker as a type of 'boundary patroller' by logical extension

38
 13

of Kai Erikson's ideas (1962).

Part Three describes as much of the boys' own constructions of

reality as could be ascertained by a variety of unobtrusive measures,

thematic apperception tests, and similar projective techniqUes. These

.00

are described in detail, and their shortcomings discussed in Appendix 1.

The underlying rationale of this Part is to obtain something of the 'inner

logic' of the boys' interactions with the school enculturation matrix and

its bodies of knowledge, ie. their constructions of reality. Although

,,

ethnography is employed in Part Two,'it is in Part Three that the studs'

0

comes closest to being anthropological. Its central aim is to arrive at

what Pouwer has referred to as the 'inner,perspective of human reality'

(1968): in his qpinion this is the major raison d'être for the continued

existence of-anthxopologx.

The various conceptual outcomes and threads of analysis in Parts

Two and Three suggest that the school has an eidos and ethos (Bateson,

1958: 118, 220), which are distin4ive and, to'some extent, paradoxical.

The eidos of the school is bound up with respect for learning, intense

intellectual activity and religiosity, and is quite compatible with the

ideology and value orientations of both Traditions. The ethos, on the other

hand,.shows a blend of paradoxical behaviours on file part of the boys.

Outside the classroom and other teaching-learning situations within the

4.14

school campus, they are excitable but friendly and informal in their

approaches to both religious and secular staff. Inside the classrbom,

however, behaviours can be violent, anxious, hyperactive, and conflict-prone,

both between boys and their peers, and between boys and teaching staff in

the religious and secular domains. Such behaviour is incompatible with the

ideology Of the school, and is of a kind that calls for explanation.

39
 14

Part Four attempts to account for the paradox in a number of ways.

Sociologically, it is shown that a fundamental duality exists within the

school. It is, in fact, two enculturation matrices, each of which competes

for.boys' allegiance, time and effort. Epistemological dualism exacerbates

the problematical nature of reality construction, and hypothetically results

in boys becoming frustrated. Psychological pressures on the boys can be

identified, which have .their origins in tensions in the home and the wider

'Jewish community. These also can be held to contribute to the boys'

seemingly pathological behiviour.

,Neither of the above explanatory theories fully accounts for

all the factors involved in the eidos-ethos paradox, and a supplementary

explanation is suggested in terms of a theory of'enculturation dissonance.

This stresses the fundamental importance of deutero-learning in the boys'

lives, and suggests that they are being frustrated at this higher level of

enculturation, with consequent anxiety, conflict-tension, and violence.

These are culturally-specific ways of reating to stress among Jews accord-

ing to a number of mesearch workers. Pupils from ther cultural backgrounds

placed in similar situations may react to stress in a manner which is

appropriate to their cultures. In consequence the theory-of enculturation

dissonance may have general applicability to studies of schools and educa,

4

tional systems in pluralist societies.'

(5) The methodological and theoretical validity of the study

The study reprcOe s a departure from the orthodoxy of a linear,,

hypothetico-deductive, experimental-research design. This was partly

unintentional, due to the constraints put on using overt interview and

b
questionnaire techniques, and partly intentional. It must be seriously

questioned whether the observer's reconstruction of reality in an

40
 15

ethnographical study,can be other than a dialectical process, akin to the

nature of the social processitself-,'-The reasons for holding to this

position are discussed in Appendix 1.

Similar reasons Can be put forward for the methodological

eclecticism of the study. The research design cannot claim strict adherence,
I
to any one of the social science approach paradigms, as it drew upon

sociology, social psychology, anthropology, history, and even geography.

It is inter-disciplinary and qualitative: an approach which !allows \ he

*\

researcher to "get close to the data", thereby developing the analytical,

conceptual, and categorical components of explanation from the data itself -

rather than from the preconceived, rigidly structured, and highly quantified

techniques that,pigeonhole the empirical social world into the operational

definitions that-the researcher has constructed' (Filstead, 1970: 6).

Such an approach may render data themselves problematical, but .

considerable confidence may be held in their validity on a number of grounds.

- The study was conducted over a period of nearly fifteen months, which is-
-

long enough to allow for considerable, though not total, immersion in data.
"'
Through the amount of observation, discreet questioning, and direct

experience achieved in that period, exhaustion of domains of meaning

resulted along lines suggested in the grounded theory approach of

Glaser and Strauss (1967). By the end of the fieldwork, I was finding'no,

nee data, but only information that confirmed thoie I had received at

earlier points in research. The types of data themselves were'Mutually

supportive, with a high degree of collateral 'data triangulation' (Webb

et al, 1966: 3). Confirmation of this nature was achieved by multi-:

operational l'esearch techniques and instrument's, viz. 'classical' field

notebook and other written records backed by a variety of `unobtrusive

4
 16

measuresApscribed in Appendix 1. It was also realised that the 'research

act' of the observer'himself injects unknown qualities into the total field

situatiot( oung, 1965: 13; Bruyn, 1970; Denzin, 1972). I monit6A6-my

0

own reactions to the tensions of fieldwork by consciously recording my own

'personal equation' and its possible biases (Nadel, 1951:,48), and through

regular discussions with a leading psychiatrist with an extensive clientele

. of Jews in Melbourne. On more than one occasion his advice made me see my

reactions to the pressures of fieldwork in an objective light, and reduced

the risk of them contaminating data.

04
Theoretically, the study is one, in grounded .theory .(Glaser & Strauss,

1967; Glaser, 1968; Brown, 1973). Conceptual closure was delayed as long

as possible during fieldwork, but once having left'the school it was clear

that considerable refinement of the theoretical framework and general

orientation which had guided me initially was necessary. As Brown has

commented (1973: 12): 'This IcLnd of methodological rescue operation is

sometimes possible'. It entailed the forMUlation of both the enculturation

matri4 model and the typology of value orientations which are the major
MA

'constructed types' that have enabled me to order much of my .ata and

facilitate some of the generalizations I have made (Becker, 1945$

Theodors9n & Theodorson, 1970: 74-5). The logical reason for adopting this

procedure was the realization that the research would only achieve a satis-

factory explanation of data if it resulted in a grounded, middle-range

theory. However, its degree of explanatory and predictive power is open to

question. As Merton has commented (1957: 93): 'Post lfactwn explanations

remain at the level of plausibility (low evidential va e) rather than

leading to "compelling evidence" .(a high degree of confirmation)'.

42
 17.

The success of-an enterprise conducted in the way that has been

outlined in this Introduction depends not so much on its 'scientific'

respectability, as the degree to which it commands the reader's assent to

the explanations offered, as Redfield has suggesZgd (1956: 70). It is also

important that the observer has 'trust in [his] own credible knowledge'

(Glaser & $trauss, 1970: 294). Humanistic'research must inevitably

produce an account in which there is a blend of the objective and subjective

(Redfield, 1956: 136):

There is no one ultimate and utterly objective account of

a human whole. Each account, if it preserves the human quality
at all, is a created product in which the human qualities of the
creator - the outside viewer and describer - are one ingredient.

The observer may never know the depth to which he has been able to

achieve an 'inner view'. He gains in confidence and assurance if he is told.

In what follows, I describe a unique school and community, although to pro-

tect it I have chosen,to suppress much data that would enhance the quality

of the description, and thus increase its power of.commanding the reader's

assent. I do not feel that this is the ultimate test, however, and prefer

to place more faith in the judgement of a member of the school itself. As

I entered tire shut (synagogue) to participate in the ritual welcome of.a new

Sefer Torah (Scroll of the Law) in the later Stages of fieldwork, I bumped

into one of the teaching rabbis. With an 'outside' observer's innate caution,

I asked him whether I was permitted to watch. 'Of course, of course', came

his instant reply, accompanied by a warm handclasp. 'Come right in, of

course you can see: you are one of us, one of the community now'.

(6) A note on orthography

Following anthropological convention this account is written in the

0 'ethnographic present', except where the use of the past tense is both

43
 18

ogically and stylistically warranted, as in historical analysis of the

history of Chassidism and the value orientations of the traditions. The

transliteration of Hebrew and Yiddish in these and other sections of the

thesis presents orthographic problems, as there are several ways of writing

.
-
anglicized vOsions of these languages. It has not been possible to be

absolutely consistent in the spelling, as different versions appear even in

.

such literature as that issued to parents of boys at the school, where one

might have expected consistency. In such cases, the original versions have

been retained. This practice has alsO.been Adopted for words quoted from-
4
literary sources, even where they conflict with another version as used at

the school. Because of their different backgrounds, some boys used different

pronundiations of common terms, and these have been represented as spoken.

They are primary data, and, as such, should be recorded faithfully.

For other terms I have adopted a number of conventions. The

Ashkenazic (East European) spelling is used and not the Sephardic

(Mediterranean) version. Hebrew and Yiddish words are written phonetically

to assist pronunciation, e.g. shut (Yid.) pronounced isho611, rather than

schul (Yid.) to avoid confusion with the English school, and its sk pro-
,

nunciation. The Hebrew th is pronounced s. Thus I have written Succos

for Succoth. Consistency has been abandoned where writing a term as pro-

nounced at the schOol would produce a clumsy departure from the accepted

and familiar spelling, e.g. ROSh Hashanah.

One Hebrew and Yiddish sound needs special mention. This is.

designated by phoneticists as kh, as in the Scottish loch or the German ach.

This is a combination of the glottal stop of k immediately followed by an

aspired h.' I have used oh to indicate this sound rather than kh, because

k might confuse the English reader into producing the hard sound. In
 1.9

addition, oh appears in so much Chassidic literature that a departure

A
from this form seems unwarranted. Inconsistencies in spelling may bet

noted. These arise from using Yjddish or Hebrew interchangeably, or

where a quoted passage adopts a different style from that employed

throughout the thesis.

Biblical, Talmudic and related rabbinical citations geneikly

follow the style used, in The Encyclopaedia of the Jewish Religion (Werblowsky

& Wigoder, 1965). The former are set out conventionally in abbreviated

roman type. Sub-divisions of Talmud (orders, tractates; chapters) are

abbreviated in italics. Talmud is the comprehensive term usually employed

for the Mishnah and Gemara. It is avast compilatiOR of the discussion,

commentary, and interpretation of the Written Lavi, i.e. Scripture (Torah),

which developed in the scholarly academies overthe eight centuries since

the time of Moses. Miqhnah (Heb. 'teaching') is more of a textbook than

a code and gives the essence of the Oral Law in six orders (Heb. sedarim).

Other material was collected in a supplementary work, Tosephta (Heb.

'supplement'). Gemara (Heb. 'completion') is the complement to the Mishnah

and records in orders, tractates and chapters' the discussion focussed on it.
 ge"

PART ONE

rry

ENCULTURATION, SCHOOLING AND THE TWOATADITIONS

ti

a
 21

CHAPTER 2
4

SCJOOL AS THE LOCUS OF FORMAL ENCULTURATION.

The ubiquity of schools and schooling in all but a few pre-

literate societies has resulted in a variety of taken-for-granted assump-r

tions about their function, only lately being challenged by micro-

ethnographic, anthropological, and sociological research and theory

(e.g. Jackson, 1968; Keddie, 1971, 1973; Postman & Weingartner, 1971;,

Smith, 1967; Wax et al, 1971; Young, 1971). One such misconception has

been noted by La Belle (1972: 519): 'We have been accustomed to viewing

education as an institutional outcome something which results from attend-

.
ing a school. Thus experiences which occur outside of school become,'in

terms of sociocultural expTtations, non-sanctioned learnings'. Not only

is this an inadequate view of the child's total development, but it confines

the meaning of education to the commonsense types of actiyities that are

conventionally meant, by schooling. As the following analysis attempts to

show, school is a locus for what can be termed the child's formal encuZtura-

tion: this process has far wider connotations than commonsense notions of

schooling. The concept of enculturation, and the heuristic model of .the

enculturation matrix developed from it, are central to the analysis of the

Orthodox Jewish school in this thesis.

(1) lectic model of the education rocess

The ducation process has traditionally concerned theorists in the

spheres of phil sophy, history, and psychology: those in sociology and

anthropolog are relative newcomers to the field. Members of each sphere

have been committed to similar rules of procedure and standards, i.e. to

'shared paradigms' (Kuhn, 1962: 10-11), which have delimited their legitimate

areas of concern with education. The tendency for bodies of knowledge to be

ti

47
 22

surrounded by 'borders' or 'boundaries' and guarded by 'sentries'

(Holzner, 1972: 168) has led to paradigms being regarded by their adherents

as exclusive properties. Inter-sphere debate in the field of education has

\tended to be polemical and concerned with validating the legitimacy of the

aradigm, rather than constructive and aimed at exploring the possibility

integrating patadigms to focus on a specific problem.

A notable exception to this tendency is the discussion of Richards

andJahoda (1970: 1-49) relating to the process of socialization, which N.

hith rto has been treated differently by psychologists and social anthropolo-

gists Although few guidelines emerged to indicate how an integrated

4prosch might.be achieved, the writers at least raised the possibility,of

apapptochement between the two spheres. The contribution of Swift

(1965), \suggesting how the controversy between sociology d psychology

might be reconciled, was an important forerunner to the Jahoda-Richards

debate, and has informed the model that follows. There is also a growing

trend (adoOted in this thesis) for anthrdPological and sociological research

to draw on .ommon qualitative procedures (Filstead, 1970). Social psychology

has also proirided a number of concepts.

In 'what follows, an attempt is made to further inter-sphere co-

,

operation by the construction of an eclectic, heuristic model to debcribe

the process of\ist child's education - used,here in its broadest sense - and

the social and Man-made environments within which it occurs. The model will NI

strive for logical consistency, and its usefulness may be gauged by the

degree to which ik, assists subsequent stages of discovery, description,

and analysis of the ethnogTaphic data concerning the Jewish school.

(a) The proce0 of enculturation

To avoid the problems raised by competing paradigms' definitions

48
 rr

23

of the term 'socialization' - compare, for instance, Brim and Wheeler

(1966: 2),'Mayer (1970: xiii), Zigler and Child (1969: 474) - it is proposed

to employ the term 'enculturation' first introduced into social science by

Herskovits (1948: 310). Although it has not gained wide acceptance since,

it has come to be used in two senses. The most general refers to the trans-

mission of a society's culture t9 each sucCessiye generation. In this sense,

J

eritage.
culture is seen as a form of social or cultural 11( However, to

conceive of the child as a passive recipient of the social heritage is an

over-simplification and even misleading. As Bidney has pointed out (1967:

27):

The identification of culture with the social

heritage is, to my mind, not only a misnomer but also a
serious error, since it implies that the essential
feature of culture is the fact of communication and
transmission, whereas I maintain that the essential -
feature is the com nation of invention and acquisition
through habituation and conditioning.... In brief,
human culture is historical because it involves change
as well as continuity, creation, and discovery of
novelties together with the assimilation of traditions.
To define culture as a social heritage'll"*Agnore the
equally significant element of historical novelty and
discontinuity.

The second usage suggested by Herskovits Is child-centred, and

similar to the personalistic and humanistic view of culture adopted by

Bidney (ibid., pp. 136-140). Enculturation to Herskovits (loc. cit.) is

'a single process whereby the individual masters and manipulates his

culture' (my italics). This definition haa'phenomenologica implications

which strengthen its adoption for.the purposes of this Ludy, although I

would wish to develop it further. in what follows.

ti

41
 24

The ontological nature of culture has provoked considerable debate

(e.g. Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952; Bidney, 1967; Kaplan & Manners, 1972)

into which it ds not intended to enter. Fdr4the purposes of this analysis,

4
I am concerned with the culture of a social group, rather than the concept
)1r,

of culture per se. By group I mean a plurality of persons, who share certain

common traditions and interests, a distinct sense of identity, structure

and organization, and which has existed as such for a determinat , istorical

period. Such a group develops a form of 'problem-solving device'

(Thompson, 1969) which is its culture. I define this as a social group's

V

way of life based on shared meanings and symbols concerning its technology

and skills, customary behaviours, beliefs and values, which evolve, and are

being continually modified from generation to generation, to solve titer

problems of living in a particular'habitat. The three components of

technology and skill, customary behaviours, beliefs and values are welded

together by, and derive their unique characteristios from, the social group's

value orientations or 'world view'. In combination they give to the culture

a synergistic quality which distinguishes it from other cultuies.

In broad terms, the culture of a child's group provides him with

the experiential 'raw.material' which he can manipulate in constructing a

subjective version of cultural reality or 'tacit theory of the world'

(Kay, 1970): In essence this constitutes the process of enculturation.

However, even as defined, the concept of culture is too broad tq be useful

analytically. Certain salient components are involved in-the enculturation

process, and need further consideration.

(b) The saliency of tradition and values in enculturation

In their comprehensive review of the concept of culture (1952)

Kroeber and Kluckhohn comment that 'the essential core of culture consists

50
 25

of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected), ideas and

especially their attached values'. In the literal sense of tradition as

'transmission' all elements of a culture would be regarded as traditional,

except for components which a social group'either borrows from another, or

invents afresh. But many aspects of a culture cannot be regarded as tradi-

tions in the sense used by Kroeber and Kluckhohn, and other theorists (e.g.

Radin, 1934; Sampson, 1964; Smolicz, 1974a, 1974b). For instance,

customary behaviour or habitualized actions are largely taken for granted

by a person. But they 'retain their meaningful character for the individual

although the meanings involved become embedded as routines in his general,

stock of knowledge' (Berger & Luckmann, 1971: 71). Even though customs may

extend over several generations and thus have historical respectability,

they may still not be regarded as traditional.

To qualify as a tradition an institution must be recalled as

having existed in past times, and be valued enough in the present for

members of a social group to want to continue or mo fy it. 'What is

really a tradition therefore is not the institutio., but the belief in its

value ... Strictly and properly speaking therefore, a tradition is not a

mere observed fact like an existing custom, nor a story that exhausts its

significance in being told; it is.an idea that expresses a value judgement'

( Radin, 1934: 63). In a discussion of Szacki's work, Smolicz notes (1974a:

18-19) that tradition is a 'highly malleable phenomenon'. It is 'that part

of the heritage about which the current generation is not indifferent, i.e.

it is that part of the heritage which is evaluated (either positively or-

negatively) by those living today'. )

The link between value and tradition is virtually axiomatic in

the above views, but raises a number of conceptual problems. The highly

51
 26

compressed view of Smolicz (1974b: 78-79) that tradition is 'a value from

the past' appears to imply two aspects. Tradition involves an act of

valuing some 'thing' from the past, and also the !thing' that is valued.

The former, however, is considered by Firth (1964: 221).to have an,

obligatory character, 'an eleMent of "ought" as well as of want'. This"

raises the important ,issue of what determines or guides the normative

judgements involved. Does the current generation approach the task of

evaluating the heritage de novo, or ls it 'programmed' by some superior

scale of preferences or 'central core of meanings' (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck,

1961: 2) to carry out its evaluation in a way that ensures some continuity

in the culture? It is difficult otherwise to see why evaluation might not

be solely a matter of whim. Yet, as Thompson has suggested, drawing on

cross-cultural evAdence from a number of communities (1969: 336):

It appears that in culturally homogeneous communities

the attern of indigenous core values, mirroring the
grow 's age-old perception of the...world and its vital
) o
power dynamics, is rarely affected directly by man-made
external pressures. Usually it is affected, if at all,
only indirectly or partially.

For the purposes of this thesis, which attempts to consider'a paradigm case

of a highly resistant culture, namely, Orthodox Judaism, I subscribe to the

concept of a central core of meanings or value orientations. Further con-

sideration of their nature is taken up later in this chapter.

The second problem, that tradition is some 'thing' from, the past

that is valued, entails adopting a definition that retains the ideational

aspect of tradition, and does not reduce it to a list of customs, behaviours

and Alher culture traits. For instance, Valentine has suggested (1968: 7):
 The values of a culture include the ideals, the aims
and ends, the ethical and,aesthetic standards, and the
criteria of knowledge and wisdom embodied within it,
taught to and modified by each human generation. Thgse
values, are not simply manifested straightforwardly on
the surface of everyday life; they are related to
experience and behaviour in complicated, variable, and
indirect ways. What is priied and endorsed according
to the standards of a cultural system is not always
manifest or practically available in the exigencies of
.41

ongoing existence.

Informed by the views of the theorists discussed. above, I take

tradition. to be the valued knowledge, including beliefs, ideas and

attitudes, which represent the 'intersubjective sedimentatio derived

from the shared historical past of a socio-cultural group. 'Sign systems -

of which the most decisi$e is language - objectivate tradition and greatly

facilitate the enculturation process. As Berger and Luckmann point out

(1971: 85):

Intersubjective sedimentation can be called truly

social only when it has been objectified in a sign system
of one kind or another, that is, when the possibility of
reiterated objectification of"the 'shared experiences

arises. Only then is it likely that these experiences

will be transmitted from one generation to the next, and
from one collectivity to another.

The central function of language should not be allowed to obscure

4 .

the fact that tradition can be transmitted through non- linguistic means.

Others' styles of behaviour, the group's cultural artifacts, arrangement

of its habitat, and aestheticor artistic creations, are 'cultural media'

for tradition as Redfield has suggested (1956: 56). There is an intimate

connection between tradition and the man-made environment, because, to a

53
 28

large extent, tradition provides the 'plans and recipes' (Beals, 1973: 56)

which determine how the environment is arranged. Styles of behaviour-are

similarly derived from tradition, in the final analysis, as tradition

provides the sedimented ideas and knowledge Of the proper procedures and

rules governing peoplds actions.

(c) The contextual and situational nature of enculturation

The child does not' acquire his culture in vacua but through
CQ
reciprocated interaction with components of a series of enculturation

matrices, which he encounters during maturation. Each matrix consists of

an aggregate of persons, existing at a particular historical period, in a

natural geographical environment or habitat, and bounded by a map-made,

technological 'cultural landscape'. The concept of a matrix having an

educative function is derived from one of its 0.E.D, definitions - 'place

in which thing is developed:. The term has gained wide acceptance in

sociological literature (e.g. Blau, 1964: 253; Wheeler, 1967: 19;

Clausen, 1968: 135), and its contextual usage here owes much to the field

theory of Lewin (19671). Swift (1965) has also, suggested that from tie
child's point of view. socialization (my enculturation). occurs within an

environment which is his culture. By implication'the environment contains

three aspects - patterns of action,.a normativeAystem and physical arti-

facts. The assumption is that all three are likely to have some bearing

upon the ways in which the personality and intellect of the individual

develops' (Swift, 1965: 342). A matrix is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

The child's enculturation occurs both independently of, and in

conjunction with, representatives of the culture he encounters in an .

enculturation matrix. They are the 'source of its 'shared symbols and

definitions' (ibid., p. 343). They consciously mediate the elements of the

54
 4 SCHEMATIC DI4:GRAM ILLUSTRATING
COMPONENTS OF THE 'ENCULT!L3RATION MATRIX
INFLUENCING. THE am,
,Q!

0
F

/4FLUVIC
P.
t
r
/ /
/
i

li I. i
N
p ---, 11 r ..---r"
E R
C E." pI I
et

THE VALIDATING AND TRADITION MATAINING INFLUENCE

V
OF CORE VALUE ORIENTATIONS

INFLUENCES FROM WIDER SOCIETY

IMO MEDIATED ASPECTS Of THE. CULTURE

FEEDBACK INTO tHE MATRIX. ,MODIFICAT IONS

11 III RINI* PRODUCED BY CHILD,

PERCEPTS DIRECTLY RECEIVED FROM MANMADE AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS

Fig. 2. 1

rr
.44

30

tradition that they value through the shared,symbol system, or unconsciously

act as role models for the child. In the former case, both spoken and'written

language is of,paramount, importance An the enculturation process. 'The

speech structure mastered by the child becomes the hasiutructure of his

thinking .. Thought development is determined by language, i.e., by the

linguistic tools of thought and by the socio-cultural experience of the

child ... The child's intellectual growth is contingent on his mastering the

social means of thought, that is, language' (Vygotsky, 1962: 51). In the

litter case, paralinguistic means of communication such as 'gestures, body-

.

orientations, poSturea facial'expresaions, eye - contacts, manipulation of

proximity and phySiCal contacts' (Laver & Hutcheson, 1972r 13), also convey

meaning.

The thild 'also obtains percepts'from inanimate man-made components

A
of an ehculturation matrix, such as the spatial arrangement of the landscape,

or the style,. construction and orientation of buildings. These can reflect

'important traditional values, especially throe relating to the cosmological

beliefs.Of the grOUp. The spatial layout of some Hutterite communities, for

instance, is designed to provide a pure and holy cosmos' (Laatsch, 1971:

355). The natural environment it6elf can have important influences on the

development, inter atia, of the child's visual perception as Segall,

Campbell, and Herskovits have demonstrated empirically (196). A child is

also affected by the soci al constructions held by"meMbers of his group about
fl
the environment as Kates has suggested (1,970: 648):

There is an environment in the minds of men. It en-

compilsses the,environment of sun and rain, bricks and mortar,
people and things.; For the, human concerned it is no less
real than the external ambience despite its existence solely
in the form of perceptions, cognitions, attitudes, beliefs ,

and behaviour. the environment which men both respond

to and seek to fashiii.

rt

31.

Interaction h an enculturation matrix is reciprocal. That is,

the child both receives percepts from it, and provides feedback into the

matrix which plays a part, however minor, in modifying it An enculturation

matrix is thus never static, but evolves over time. However, it is suffi-

ciently stable in the vast majority 15f cases to enable the child to develop

a view of his self, i.e. a self concept, that is specific to the components

and processes of the matrix. As George Mead has, pointed out (1964: 42)

'A self can only arise where there is a social Kocess within which, this

self has had its initiation. It arises within that process'.

Interaction with a matrix enables the child to f 'cognitive

map' (Clausen, 1968: 141) of his social group, whichi ecomes for him a vital

Sframe of self-reference. He identifies himself in r lation to significant

others in his group, their language, their knowledge and its system of

logic. Perceptions of the environment or habitat, its territorial limits

011d geographical features, are also incorporated into the cognitive map.

It enables the child to cope with the life situations he Shares with other

members of his group.

The enculturation matrices, I suggest, play a critical role in the

child's development. The longitudinal process involved is 'the culture of

the human being - where culture is used as a verb'-(Spindler, 1963: 58).

art ,. -- _eries of matrices from the moment of birth the child cannot

but look, listen, learn and communicate with others on ,their terms. He

gathers knowledge, and underst nd what things mean, also on their terms.

He cannot abrogate his culture and tradition to any great extent as he is

himself a product of them, and to do so would need a detached perspective of

his own,culture, which cannot be obtained without knowledge of one or more

contrasting cultures. Despite some elements in the process which-are

57
 32

problematical and allow the child to manipulate a matrix, the enculturation

proceso is sufficiently compelling as to merit the appellation of the

enculturation imperative.

(d) The problematical nature of enculturation

0e-
The child receives and manipulates percepts from the enculturation

matrices he encounters over a period of time.. We can distinguish two major

phases in this longitudinal process, which correspond to Berger and

Luckmann's (1971: 149-166) primary and secondary socialization. These are

the Stages of informal and formal enculturation. Like primary socialization

(ibid., p. 154), the former presents relatively few problems:

The child does not internalize the world of his

significant others as one NI many possible worlds. He

internalizes it as the world, the only existent and

only conceivable world, the world tout court. It is

for this reason that the world internalized in primary

socialization is so much more firmly entrenched in
consciousness than worlds internalized in secondary
socializations.
.4
However, the following stage of formal enculturation can be more

problematical. Firstly the process takes place in enculturation matrices,

such as schools or institutions of learning, where the child is exposed to

the.dictates of cultural agents and ,authority figures, who did not feature

in his informal enculturation, which took place mainly in a matrix

comprising the hoMeand immediate neighbourhood. From such figures he

may learn knowledge about other matrices which conflicts with that of his

own 'spatial and temporal grid ... manifesting as it does the symbolic

structure of the. society which has encompassed [it]' (Dumont & Wax,

1969: 219). The formal enculturation agents may themselves be at odds

with each other over what knowledge the childNhould be presented with.
 33

The very knowledge itself and its logic may vary from matrix to matrix

as Keddie has implied (1973: 17-19).

Inherent contradictions can arise from the different worlds

internalized by the types of children within a formal enculturation matrix.

Even within a homogeneous society, their informal enculturation experiences

will, have provided differential access to its bodies of knowledge, so that

each child will have a subtly different construction of reality from his

peers. Where the society is a multi-Ailtural one, on the other hand,ithis

problem is exacerbated. Children may then have had differential access to

quite disparate bodies of knowledge and their logics, together with the

symbolic language and para-linguistic systems by which they are communicated.

So strong is the enculturation imperative of the informal stage that formal

enculturation matrices can, become places where hetero- cultural encounters

occur. Each child strives to construct,an adequate world view from percepts

fro- an 'alien' enculturation matrix, whilst constrained by his own subject-

ive culture - the characteristic way in which a cultural group perceivea

And responds to its social environment' (Fiedler et a/, 1971: 96). At the

same time he endeavours to cope with the subjective cultures of others in

the matrix.

In such a situation,' the problems of 'internal' and 'external'

boundaries to behaviour become crucial. Because boundaries are socio-

cultural constructs in people's minds and-not somewhere 'out there as

objective realities, uncertainty will thus exist in a hetero-cultural

group as to what 'good' membership entails. Similarly, knowledge about

others will be subject not only to ethnocentric biases deeply embedded at

the stage of informal enculturation, but may even be reinforced by face-to-

face encounters at the formal stage. Lacking adequate typifications to guide

59
 34

interaction, and in the absence of a shared means of Communication, 'real'

knowledge becomes a chimera, and the problem of defining internal and

external boundaries exacerbated '(Holzner 1972: 55 ff.).

The 'malleable' nature of tradition presents problems, especially

in situations where more than one tradition is presented to the child. He

may then be'compelled to choose either between one or the other, or to

vr>

select parts of each tradition and reject the remainder. His 'range for

praxis', i.e. the scope for objectifing himself through his own actions

and products (Edgar, 1974: 672) becomes correspondingly limited. He is

also faced with conflicting emotional attachments: 'foci of commitment

around which the known world is organized and information availability is

restricted' (ibid., p. 673; \Holzner, 1972: 88). The implications of such

a situation for the analysis of schooling in pluralist societies are obvious.

(2) School as a formal enculturation matrix

As implied in the title of this chapter, a school can be concep-

tualized as a formal enculturation matrix. It has a recognized man-made

environment with components which will reflect something of the traditions

and values of the socio-cultural group supporting the school. Teachers are

enculturation agents to whom is entrusted the group's valued knowledge. At

best, they may be permitted, and enlightened enough, to assist the child

in his construction of cultural reality by offering an assortment of knowledge

in a variety of teaching-learning situations. At worst, the agents may be

constrained in what they can offer, and will insist on teaching knowledge

derived from a 'reified curriculum ... conceived of only as historically

located, the outcome of a number of historical occasions in which what is

relevant knowledge has evolved and been incorporated into the "curriculum "'

(Keddie, 1973: 16-17). Such knowledge is likely to be taught didactically

so

60
under conditions which permit of little, if any, alternative choice)

Assisting teachers are other agents, with varying powers of coercion and

control over 'internal' boundaries and the prevention of deviance.

A child pursues a pathway through the formal matrix in a cyclical

manner. Each cycle starts with his entry into a Grade or Form, and normally

terminates when heVleaves it for another Grade at the end of each academic

year. Such transitions are points of temporal and spatial discontinuity,

occasionally marked by rites de passage, such as formal welcoming ceremonies

from a new teacher, or 'breakTup parties' at the end of the year. In each
(-

Grade, a different set of enculturation agents, norms, and behaviours will

be encountered. As Grades arelasually hierarchical, a child's process

through the matrix involves anticipatory socialization (Merton & Kitt, 1950)

in the sociological sense of learning the appropriate role behaviours,

skills and knowledge necessary for entering the next Grade in the sequence

and, finally, for the assumption of a particular status-role in the society

he .will enter on leaving the matrix. This last transition is usually a major

point of discontinuity for the child, and can involve appropriate rites-de-

passage such as Speech Night valedictions or matriculation 'farewell dinners'.

Student rags are unofficial rituals which mark the discontinuity.

Parallel with, and to some extent over-lapping, the Grade system

are other groupings to which children belong. These are more informal, and

are often of an ad hoc nature, but form part of the matrix. They are con-

cerned with extra-curricular activities such as sporting fixtures, educa-

tional visits, or merely peer group comings and goings. All these can also

be cyclical, but are usually less regular and can occur in phases, con-

trolled by such aspects as climatic conditions (for sport), events in the

wider society (for excursions), or mere whim. Groupings for children's

1 An excellent example of such a situation is Hostetler's description of

socialization in Old Order Amish and Hutterite communities (Hostetler,
1970). See also Hostetler and Huntington (1971)".

61
.7'
36

games seem to vary according to the season. A game becomes popular almost

overnight, runs its course and is'replaced by another almost in a form of

ritual sequence hallowed by tradition.

(3) The saliency of value orientations in the transmission of tradition

(a) The relationship between value orientations and tradition

The normative element of values and tradition noted above implies

that certain aspects of the cultural heritage are selected out, and are

deemed worthy of retention and transmission, while others are ignored, or

are allowed to degenerate and become lost. The persistence-of traditions

and the conservation of much knowledge seem to suggest that a socio-cultural

group's tradition-maintaining mechanism is programmed.by certain 'core

meanings' or,an over-arching 'world view' to which can be given the name

value orientations.- According to Kluckhohn (1951: 409), they are 'those

value notions which are (a) general, (b) organized, and (c) include

definite existential judgements. A value-orientation is a set of linked

propositions embracing both value and existential elements'. Honigmann

(1967: 78) suggests that value orientations are 'broad-gauge propositions

concerning what people feel positively about: they influence both the means

and ends of strikving'.

Having an organized, definite character, especially when set down

formally as propositions, value orientations can be readily identified for

fieldwork purposes, and a number of educational studies have employed

typologies of value orientations (e.g. Dahlke, 1958; Strodtbeck, 1958;

Watts, 1970). Much of the impetus for these appears to be derived from the

by now classic Rimrock study of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961). Based on

this, together with modifications suggested by Thompson and Hostetler

(1970), five categories of value orientations can be conceptualized.)L

 37

A sixth category seems warranted by the growing body of research concerning

the environmental perceptions shared by members of a culture (e.g.

Lowenthal & Prince, 1965; English, 1968; Saarinen, 1969). Their com-

bined values and emotional attitudes toward the environment and the

arrangement of its components constitute the system's 'ethnogeography'

(Knight, 1971: 45-51). Following Richards (19704 it seems appropriate

to regard this as a value orientation.

(b) The systematization of value orientations

The core meanings of a socio-cultural group can be systematized

in a typology of value orientations, which consists of six categories. No

category is weighted in respect of any other category. However, as arranged

below, it is apparent that the typology is hierarchical. Each successive

category is subsumed in the previous ones.

A TYPOLOGY OF VALUE ORIENTA NS

O

1. The origins, nature, and super-nature of e universe; its

power sources and man's relations to them -

Man-universe orientation
V.- The relation of man to nature and its biotic resources "'
Man-nature orientation
3. The nature of community and the preferences and objectives
associated with its basic institutions and patterns of
social relationships
Man-community orientation
4. Preferred forms of activity and achievement -
Man-activity orientation
\. Conceptions of time; the allocation of time to activities' -

Man- activity orientation

6. The arrangement and construction of the cultural landscape -
Man- habitat orientation

63
 38

(c) The place of values and traditions in a school

A school functions to communicate to its pupils,something of the

tradition of the socio-cultural group or groups it serves. From this

perspective, the working arrangements and timetabling (social organization),

structure, beliefs, ideas'anthnorms of the school can be seen as the

'social organization of tradition' (Redfield, 1956: 58): the past encap-

sulated in the present. Tradition also plays a major part in determining

the body of knowledge or curriculum the school transmits, as Wheeler notes

(1967: 13):

In any society where there is a long tradition of

formal school, the curriculum at all stages is closely
related to'and derives from the cultural past. The

purposes, whether stated or implicit, will reflect the

universals present in the cultural core, wtiile the
subject matter will be that which is believed to
encompass,the most valuable knowledge and skills and
the significant ideas and values of the society.

It is Tcessary.however, to guard against taking an over-simplistic

Shipman (1968: 2.8,
view of a school as the mediator oVconsensual values.
outside
33-34) has pointed out that differing values of the wider society

the school impose limits within which it must learn to work. Even within

by staff
the school there is unlikely to be one common set of values shared

and pupils: 'Not only does each class and group within the classes develop

and
its own values, but there is a division between the official values

those held iaformally',

Such a view does not appear to be shared by Musgrave however

(1965: 224). As part of the image of the ideal school, he sees one of its
The difference
functions as the transmission of 'a definite set of values'.
is
between the two points of view may stem from the fact that while Shipman
 39

referring to values in the normative sense as determining 'what is seen as

right and wrong' (op. cit., Tr. 27), Musgrave is referring to the system of

basic or 'master values' which-are referred to in this study as value

-Orientations. There could well be more consensus over these on the part

of the school, its members, and the outside society, than over the lower-

powered, normative values apparently referred to by Shipman.

A fundamental assumption for the purposes of this thesis is that

a religious school subscribes to a formal charter or codified corpus of

sacred literature. This is amenable to charter analysis using the value

orientation typology which establishes the values that are conceptually

at the foundation of the school's social organization of tradition. They

constitute a 'design for living' which those attending the school ought

to follow. The degree to which they do will depend on the consistency with

which the values guide belief and actions, and are not influenced by extra-

neous values from outside the school matrix. Where it is isolated from the

wider society as far as possible, consistent values can be maintained, and

children's reality construction is then relatively unproblematical. Encult-

uration in the Hutterite community described by Hostetler (1970) and

Hostetler and Huntingdon (1971) is an example of this situation.

However, it must be regarded as comparatively rare in modern

industrial societies, and the more common case is a school which is

committed to a design for living and a set of values-which'are at variance

with those of the wider society. The Independent religious schools, ethnic

schools supported by immigrant groups, and schools associated with the

The pupils who attend

Catholic education syetem are examples in Australia.

them may be successful in constructing adequate 'tacit-theories of the

world' without strain. However, it can be hypothesized that where the values

65
 40

of the school are not congruent with those of the wider society, this will

not be the case, and evidence of strain can be identified and its causes

isolated.

The study of an Orthodox Jewish Day School that follows is an

inter-disciplinary investigation of a situation where a formal enculturation..

matrix (the school) is validated by two sots of value orientations. The

_first is highly articulated, and,is-derived from the corpus of Orthodox

Judaism. The second is more diffuse, and is derived from traditional

ideas about academic education in Victoria, The school endeavours to

prepare boys for their roles in an advanced, Western, industrial society.

Two different world views are accessible to the boys, and influence their

constructions, of reality. The theoretical analysis of their successes and

failures in such a task may establish a general theory with some predictive

value and application to comparable school situations.

(4) Summary

Through an enculturation model of formal schooling a number of

key elements have been identified that can be assumed to provide experier

tial 'raw material' with which pupils can interact, and thereby construct

cultural rality. Traditions and value orientations can be, thought of as

necessary but not sufficient conditions for the presenee4f other elements

in the matrix. They are 'Causal to the extent that they derive from the past

but give direction to the present and MeUre of processes in the matrix.

The following chapters trace the historical origins and nature of the

traditions and value orientations validating the social organization of

tradition in the Orthodox Jewish Day School selected for the subject of this

study.

6G
 41

CHAPTER 3

THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF TWO TRADITIONS

(1) The two traditions inherited by the School

Lubavitcher School is heir to two traditions. The first both in

fi

order of time 'and priority given to it in the life of the school is the

Great Tradition of Orthodox Judaism. In its pure form this had its origins

in Biblical times, and is 'a body of religious beliefs and practices which.

.guided every facet of society, provided.guidance for every experience in

life and completely united its adherents in a "moral community"'

(Medding, 1968: 11). The Great_Tradition was established then, and has

been augiented progressively over the centuries since, by eminent literati -

thode responsible for fostering and maintaining a great tradition (Singer,

1960: 107). OE central importance in the history of the school have been
1
those literati who are adherents of the Lubavitcher Movement. This is a

branch of Judaism rather than a sect, with its headquarters dn New York.

Alternatively known as the Chabad tradition,2 it is the foremost among a

number of groups fostering Chassidism, a pietist movement which originated

among Jews in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the eighteenth century

C.E. 3

Second in both time and priority given to it at the school is an

Academic Tradition of basically non-vocational education. Its' more

classical precursor was originally fostered in English and Scottish

1 Lubavitcher - after the town of Lubavitch in Lithuania, which was the

centre of the movement for ro2 years prior to its dispersal under
Russian persecutions.
2 Chabad - an acrostic for chochma (Wisdom or Concept) bina (Understanding)
and daas (Knowledge - concentration, depth of carrying the idea to its
conclusion); Rabbi Joseph I. Schneersohn - On Learning Chassidus, p.7.

3 The spelling adopted for Chassidism follows that used in publications

from the Lubavitcher headquarters in New York. Alternative spellings
are encountered in the literature - Has(s)idism, Chasidism.
C.E. -.Common Era.

<0>

7
 42

universities, public and endowed grammar schools, and exported from the

latter during the foundation period of Australian education (French, 1959:

41k

34). Despite a'subsequent dilution of the classical content, its literati

have been eminent professors, schoolmasters and headmasters. Sore of the

latter have modelled their scholastic approach on that of Dr Thomas Arnold

of Rugby from whom the term 'Arnold tradition' has been derived, influencing

much of the teaching and learning in many Independent and some State or

government schools.

In Victoria, the Academic Tradition is still very closely

-A01
associated with the unAgtsities, although some reduction in academic

rigour has taken place, especially in the post-Second World War period.

The organization with statutory authority to speak for many of the literati

associated with this tradition is the Victorian Universities and Schools.

Examinations Board (V.U.S.E.B.) with headquarters in Melbourne. It is

pertinent to,comment that the priority given to universities over schools

in the title is neither fortuitous'nbr confined to the name only.

(2) The origins of the Lubavitcher Movement

(a) The beginnings of Chassidism

Tradition has it that Chassidism was founded by Rabbi Israel

Baal Shem Tov (the BeSIIT) born in Cr, a small town,on the borders of

Volhynia and Podolia (Rabinowicz, 1960: 23).4 Followers of the movement

were termed the Chassidim (sing. Chassid) or''Pious Ones'. The word has

ancient origins, occurring in much earlier Biblical literature about the

time of the Hasmoneda political revolt in the second century B.C.E. So it

is related, this incurred the condelination of some Hasidim (Pious Ones)

whose motives were purely. religious (Epstein, 1959: 92).

4 Baal Shem Tov (Heb.) 'Master of the Good Name', abbreviated to BeSHT.

68
 43

The adoption of the term for the later movement stressed the key-

note of the Baal Shem's teachings: zeal, prayerful devotion, and humility

to God. Chassidism appealed'stroingly to the feelings and emotions. It

4
thus developed as a way of'escape for a simple, ignorant peasantry suffer-

idg from the despaii and degradation arising ouebof the social and economic.

stagnation following the savage and barbaric Cossack persecutions under

f
Chmielnicki In 1648 (ibid., pp. 270-71). Such simple peasantry - the

Am-haaretzim or uneducated men .(sing. Am-haaretz) - found a central place

_

in the Baal Shei's love and teachings.5 This feature of Chassidism - love

of all men, no matter hoi much they have erred - strikes the so11100.,

ethical quality of the religious movement.

The rapid spread of Chassidism was due as much to its appeal to the

masses as to the 'extraordinary galaxy of saint-mystics, veritable human

dynamos, it produced during the first fifty years of its existence'

(
(Epstein, 1959: 274-75). These added to, and in some cases amended, the_

original teachings of the Baal'A em. They also gave rise to the' institution
. .
,
of the Zaddik,6 aconclept originated by Rabbi DOv Baer,-the Maggid of
. 1

Meseritz, who was the BeSHA foremost disciple and ultimately his
7 0
successor (Appendix 4:1).
-, ..

Chassidism, hoWever, aroused intense opposition 'front opponents or

$0
r-
0
Mitnagdim.8 "These were particularly strong in Lithuania, centring-on

lived'Rabbi Elijah ben Solomon, the Vilna Gaon, a fanatical'

0

5 Am-haaretz (Heb.) 'a person of the land', 'peasant'; often used in ,a

derogatdry sense Tighoramus',,'boor'.

6' Zaddik (Heb. )° 'the perfectly righteous'.

7 Maggid, plur: Maggidim (Heb,) 'preacher', 'speaker'.

8 Mitnagdim (Heb.)' .'opponents';. anti-Chassidism.

69
 if

opponent of the movement"(Rabinowicz, 1960: 42).9 He attacked it on the

grounds that it diverged from the strict observance of all rabbinical laws

and regulations, particularly those concerning the prescribed hours of

worship and the meticulous recital of prayers: The Chassidic euphoria in

worship - swaying, dancing, sighing and laughing while at prayer - were

abhorrent to him.

The Vilna Gaon excommunicated the Chassidim on the night following

Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement) in the year 1796. This act culminated a

period of intense-and protracted struggle between Mitnagdim and Chassidim.

However, this opposition did little to check the growth of the movement,

although -as Epstein suggests (f959: 281) it Aid lead Chassidim to reduce

the excesses of the cult of the Zaddik and to 'accord to the knowledge of

'Torah its proper and rightful place. In this way, Chassidism, without los-

ing any of its peculiar warmth.and enthusiasm, became one of the major

pillars of support of Rabbinism and, at the same time:one of its finest

and richest products'.

(b) Elements of Chassidic ideology

It is difficult within the limited space of a few paragraphs to

encompass the major elements of 'Chassidic -ideology, without compressing

greatly and being highly selective. It is also necessary to hedge many

statements around with qualifications to avoid their misinterpretation,

particularly where the reader4is more familiaiwith Christian usage of

certain key terminology.

In essence Chassidism represents a fusion of Rabbalah and

Rabbinism. The former is the body of Jewish mystical literature dealing

with the supernatural world with which man is linked. Man may speculate

about thp nature. of the spiritual world, including the Divinity,

9 Gaon (Heb.) 'Majesty', 'Genius'. Title originally given to the chief

of the rabbinical academy in Babylon. Outstanding scholar.

'7 0
 45

and its relations with this world, though not in the Christian sense of

eschatological speculation about the other world to come. 'The end of the

Law is obedience', not speculation. However, man may attempt to turn suc4

knowledge to practical good by trying to tap the power sources of the

spiritual world to achieve 'psychological and wonder-working effects in

the physical' (Epstein, 1959: 223). The concept of the Zaddik owes part

pf its origin to these twin speculative and practical elements in Jewish

mysticism. One of its further characteristics, noted by Epstein (loc. cit.),

has been a Messianic tendency.

Rabbinism as it developed in the Talmudic Era and continued in

the Middle Ages, on the other hand, provided a necessary balance against

any excesses in Jewish mysticism and rational philosophy. Rabbinism was

concerned to 'provide clear definitions of norms of action for every new

situation and circumstance, and thus to control and shape the existence of

the individual and the community from the most intimate and sacred details

to th4 wholly external and secular' (Epstein, 1959: 252).

Both sides of Judaism are encompassed by Rabbinism, i.e. HaZachah,

ritual and legal, Aggadah, ethical, in the writings which flowed from this

period. Prominent among these were the commentaries on the Talmud and Torah

by Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac of Troyes (1040-1105) known more commonly as

Rashi;104 the Shulchan Aruch of Joseph Karo first printed in Venice in 1565;

and codifications of Jewish law written by Moses Maimonides in Cairo during

the twelfth century C.E., and quickly spreading through Jewry 'to substantially

influence subsequent codifications of Jewish law. Rashi in particular has

es

been very influential in education through the editionfof the Bible containing

10 Rashi - from the Hebrew initials Rabbi Shelomo Itzchaki.

71
 46

his commentary - a prescribed text in all traditional Jewish schools, includ-

ing Lubavitcher School.

Chassidism combined the legalistic emphasis of Rabbinism with its

the Divine
own, unique interpretation of KabbalistiC doctrine concerning

Omnipresence. The result enabled Chassidim to see GOd's presence in every-

the
thing, so that earthly things such as the functions and appetites of

senses became elevateck to the service of God. This was allied to a strong

God.
belief in the power of prayer as the ideal means of communion with

However, the prayer is recited with an 'exalted joy and in a state of

his
ecstatic fervour (hithiahabuth) in which man forgets self and all

surroundings and concentrates all his thoughts and feelings on union with

God' (ibid., p. 272).

The Chassidic life - style- derives from this fusion of mystical

reinterpretation and belief in prayer. Strong bodily movements, swaying,

loud chanting and dancing at times were used to induce a state of ecstasy,
and held that
though some later Chassidic rabbis frowned upon such excesses,
A certain
controlled prayer was the only proper way of communing with God.

euphoria also spread to the elements of physical living. As they too were

zestfully but in modera-

a means of serving God, they should be carried out

tion: eating, drinking and being at all times joyful, avoiding sadness as

much as p7ssible. Allied to a strong social ethic stressing love of man,

life Which, though

in sum the movement set out 'an affirmative philosophy of
ethical, and rich
warmly emotional and intensely mystical, was yet highly

in the joys of life' (ibid., p. 274).

(c) ,The leaders and literati of Chassidism

41.

The mystical element in Chassidism was the,basis for the develop-.

righteous person',
ment dt Rabbi Dov Baer's concept of Zaddik,,'the perfqptly

72
 47

into an institution which became one of the movement's most distinctive

features, the 'Zaddik cult' (ibid., p. 275). The Zaddik's function was to

concentrate on'communion with Gi9d in prayer and supplication for favours in

both everyday and spiritual matters on behalf of ordinary men. These

cannot give their undivided attention to such a lengthy task due to the

distractions of making a living.

Comparable to the attraction of all great rabbis, this mediating

function, allied to the mystical and charismatic personality of the Zaddik,

attracted Chassidim to live in close proximity to him in a form of 'court'.

His supernatural pqwers were constantly invoked, and merely 4 be in the

presence of such a mystic was hold to confer spiritual benefits. Many

Zaddikim were credited with performing miracles wonders, which further

enhanced their charisma, and the Wunder Rebbell has become a familiar

figure in folk literAure and plays. 12

O

The Zaddik's court was a unique communal life of intense devotion

and spiritual fervour, which reached its peak during the Sabbath and the

Festivals and Holy Days of Judaism. At these times the Zaddik would reach

heights of exalted worship and prayer in which his ecstatic Chassidim would

share. They would join the Zaddik at a meeting (Yidd.farbrengen) around

the communal dining table and hear him expound, and comment on, sacred

texts. They would also sing mystic hymns, Chassidic chants and melodies

after him, and bask in his spiritual effulgence. Such 'courts' survive to

this day, in those parts of the world where Chassidim live, in the form of

11 Rebbe (Yidd.) 'teacher'; title given to a learned man. Usual title

of a Chassidic leader, coming to replace'the older term Zaddik. 4,
Wunder Rebbe 'miracle-working' rebbe.

12 See, for instance, Tales of the Hasidim, (Huber, 1948); and

The Dybbuk - a traditional Polish play.

' 73
 48

the rebbe's house or stiebel.13

(3) The genealogy of leaders of the Lubavitcher Movement

Although it is held that some Zaddikim did not need to possess

intellectual capacity and attainments to attract adherents, many were in ,

fact men of genius, as well as having the essential charisma which drew

Chassidim to them. Both qualities were combined in the person of

Rabbi SChneur Zalman ('The Old Rabbi') of Liadi (1745-1812), one of Dov Baer's

many disciples, and the 'philosopher of Chassidism' and founder of Chabad.

Chabad lays less stress on the emotional tendency of Chassidism,

which was a feature of Dov Baer's courj at Meseritz, in favour of an

intellectual approach attaching great'importance to the study of the Talmud

ti

in the Rabbinic tradition. The convept of the laddik, as a form of mediator

betWeen man and God, miracle worker and charismatic mystic, is replaced by

the idea of the rebbe, who is retected foi his great scholarship and

knowledge of Torah.

Many features of Chassidism are retained in Chabad, however:

ecstatic attitude towards prayer, the Chassidic communal life centred on a

venerated rebbe, Chassidic songs and melodies which are of great importance

in Chabad, and include a wordless melody (Heb. niggun), composed, amotig

other songs, by Rabbi Schneur,Zalman himself. Chabad, like much of

Chassidism, is firmly based on Halachah, even going beyond it in rigorous

'observance of ritual and ceremonial. One feature of thibs is the performance

of frequent ablutions, especially before prayers and meals.

13 See, for instance, Kranzler (1961), Poll (1962), Gutwirth (1972).

Stiebel (Yidd.) 'a little house', 'conventicle'.
 49

The Chabad dynasty was carried on by Rabbi Schneur Zalman's

successors.14 In the sixth generation came Rabbi JOseph Isaac Schneersohn

(1880- 1950), the penultimate Lubavitcher Rebbe.15 In 1920 he accepted

leadership-of the Chabad hierarchy on the death of his father. There

followed a period of intense activity in which the foundationrof yeshivoth,

or rabbinical academies, to spread the influence of Chqbad was a major

achievement,. As a result of his steadfast leadership of Russian Jewry,

in the face of government persecution and secret police denunciation, he

was imprisoned several times and finally fled to Riga in Latvia. After

moving to several other centres, he transferred to America in 1940.

In the ten y t followed, the Rabbi again engaged in

unremitting activit to spread ad:.foundat n of a publishing company

(Kehot Publication So iety), a libra and a er of societies associateA

with Jewihh literature and music. A major achievement was to found the

United Lubavitcher Yes ivoth Tomche - Tmimim of the U.S.A. and Canada, and

a central organization for Jewish education - Merkos L'fnyonei Chinuch.

Networks of educational institutions were established in North Africa and

in Israel. A school was established in Melbourne, Australia (Mandel,

1956: xi).

The present leader of Chabad Chassidism is Rabbi Menachem

Mendel Schneerson the son-in-law of Rabbi Joseph. Isaac, whose 'court' is

in Brooklyn, New York. Under his direction, the Lubavitcher1Movement, as

it is now generally known, has become 'one of the most intense religious

14 See Appendix4. 1 fora genealogy of the heads of Chabad.

15 Chassidic leaders are commonly referred to by the name of the town
where they establish courts - thus the 'Gerer Rabbi' (Rabbi of Ger),
'Lubavitcher Rabbi' (Rabbi of Lubavitch). b

7)
 50

brotherhoods in the modern world' (Epstein, 1959: 281). Highly organized

on modern lines, with its own publishing facilities, it supports a. growing

network of schools, and trains 'missionary-minded mystics'. As a form of

'outreach technique' these are sent around America and to Jewish communities

in other parts of the world to encourage young Jews to return to religious

life and practice."

The Lubavitcher Rebbe is still able to attract to him a following

of devoted Chissidim. In March 1970 he celebrated the twentieth anniversary

of his leadership of the Movement at the Lubavitcher Centre and headquarters.

Over 7000 people attended including representative Jews of all continents.17

The Rebbe's addrei;s lasted six hours, and during brief intermissions the
18
assembled. Chassidim-and guests sang niggunim.

(4) Origins and foundation of the school

The origins of the Lubavitcher Movement in Australia can be traced

to a patriarchal head of a large family who established a farm in the

Shepparton district of Victoria in the mid-1920's. His sons became

influential members of the Lubavitcher-and other Orthodox congregations in

'Melbourne. One has been President of the School Council for'a number of

years.

Following the pattern which established the movement in America

after the Second World War, the father was instrumental in assisting with

the rescue of immigrants from Eastern Europe among whom were two Lubavitcher

rabbis. These were helped to settle in Melbourne along with others gradually

16 In 1970 some 75 two-member teams of teenage boys, volunteers from

students at the rabbinial seminary, toured every section of the United
States, (The Australian Jewish. News, February 13, 1970).

17 The Australian Jewish News, March 6, 1970.

18 Niggun, plur. niggunim (Heb.) 'Melody', 'tune'.

'or
 51

attracted to the area. One of the rabbis, later-to become the Director of

the Rabbinical College or Yeshivah GedoLah, took one or two pupils in a

small house in an inner suburb of Melbourne as is the Orthodox tradition.

Gradually a small group of teachers got together there to establish a

formal Jewish school. This transferred to a private house on the present

site of the school where primary Grades only were taught. These gradually

expanded, although in the late 1950's the size of the school only took in

Grades 1-4.

In this instance, the school was not set up at the direct

instigation of the Lubavitcher Rebbe but gradually grew up around a group

of Lubavitcher adherents. The school presented its first matriculation

students in 1965 - an accepted sign of a school's 'arrival' on the education

scene. The Australian Rabbinical College was founded in 1967 around a

nucleus of the first six American Rabbinical students sent by the Lubavitcher
ti
Rebbe.

The Rabbinical College attracts post-Matriculation students, who

wish to advance their Jewish studies. Some choose to study there for a

year or two before proceeding to university in some cases, or into outside

occupations. A small number study as the basis for further training in

the Rabbinical College as a prerequisite of'becoming rabbis.

(5) The Academic Tradition

(a) Roots of the tradition - the early schools

By becoming established at the time it aid, the school inevitably

inherited a version of the Academic Tradition that characterizes much of

the teaching in most Independent (Pr{iate) schools and .a proportion of

State high schools in Victoria. The immediate roots of this tradition are

far less ancient than those of the Great Tradition. In the case of Australia,
 52

they stretch no .farther back than the beginning of the nineteenth century.

During this period, early private school education was largely classical

in content based on the intellectual disciplines of Greek, Latin and

Mathematics.

The following thirty years saw a sustained challenge to classical

studies, through the introduction into Independent schools of such 'modern'

subjects as English and French, particularly in the short-lived phase of

corporate secondary school education which occurred during the early 1830's.

This was inaugurated by Scottish headmasters and teachers, and modelled on

the public academies and city high schools of Scotland, By 1840, 'a

decidedly middle-class type of curriculum had developed in which the

humanities were-but one group of studies among several, and were themselves

as much "modern" as classical' (French, 1959:'36). Despite this however,

the curriculum was still basically academic in the sense of not offering

vocational subjects.

The following phase of developments in the State school systems

established between 1872 and 1893 might have been expected to liberalize

studies even further. In the outcome, however, this proved not to be the

case. Supposedly, these systems, existing alongside non-State, denomina-

tional and Independent schools, 'were self-contained, efficient, utilitarian

and authoritarOn'. In practice, however, 'efficiency was measured by

attendance and strict observance of prescribed courses of study. Attainment

was measured by public examinations' (Encel, 1970: 415). When this dual

system collapsed, as McLaren notes (1968: 4), 'it left as its legacy this

stern deference to outside standards and to superior authority which has

cursed Australian schools ever since'. Although the early twentieth

century saw the growth of comprehensive systems of State education, with

78
 53

multi-lateral type high schools offering a choice of several courses, these

developments did little substantially to alter the force of McLaren's

comment. Reasons for this must be sought in the second of the Academic

Tradition's rootos.

(b) Roots of the tradition - university control over the curriculum

The challenge to the classical tradition that'had taken place in

the early 1800's was partly negated by the universities of Sydpey and

Melbourne. These opened in 1852 and 1855 respectively, and instituted

matriculation examinations governed by regulations calculated to reinstate

the Classics. The large number of 'modern' subjects that had come into

the curriculum during the previous three decades was omitted, and schools,

perforce, had to curtail their courses accordingly. 'The control of the

school curriculum, in the universities' view, was one of their natural

rights... The schools, indeed, were not being asked to restore Classics to

some of their former eminence; they were being directed to do so'

(French, 1959: 38).

To counter this control, schools offered 'commerce courses' to

non-university aspirants. In time the universities themselvgs tempered

their requirements. For instance, in 1862, Melbourne University added

French and German to the other 'modern' subjects of English, History and

Geography that had been made subjects of the matriculation examination in

1855. In 1881, Melbourne University also added four branches of science to

its list of matriculation subjects. Their range and diversity meant that

the Melbourne University matriculation examination became something like the

public examinations that universities in other States had established on the

lines of the Oxford and Cambridge model. Despite these departures from

classical orthodoxy, the curriculum related to the matriculation examination

I'
 54

remained essentially academic.

For small schools there was little alternative. Lack of teachers

for non-academic courses resulted in all pupils being drafted into the one

matriculation course. Evet in the comprehensivertype State high schools,

offering a number of courses, a similar trend occurred at a time in the

early 1900's when universities were adding 'utilitarian' subjects to the

matriculation and public examination list, and dropping subject preiequisites

for university entry. Paradoxically,a tendency for academic specialization

in schools resulted when universities relaxed the requirement that a foreign

4
language and a branch of mathematics were compulsory for anybody contemplat-

ing a university course.

The Independent schools reacted to the liberalisation of the pre-

Second World War period in two ways. They added refinements of the

'classical' and 'commercial' courses devised almost a century earlier and,

where big enough, adopted a multi-lateral organization. The latter made

slight provision for vocational and technical training, but detailed pro-
As entry
vision for various kinds of 'professional' courses (ibid., p. 52).
matriculation
to the professions still largely depended on success at the

examination, if not a university degree, the curricula of the Independent

schools, by and large, remained academic.

(c) Lubavitcher School's heritage

From such roots flowered the academic heritage of Lubavitcher

School. Like others of similar small size, it had no option but to offer

still is,
an academic curriculum as mounting vocational subjects was, and

At the secondary level the major, if not exclusive,

beyond its resources.

preoccupation of pupils and lay staff alike is to prepare for the public

and university examinations in the fifth and sixth years.19 'These are
19 In 1969 these were ball the. School Leaving and Matriculation
Examinations.

8
 55

clearly valued as a means to an end, namely, preparing for Sand gaining

ac ;ess to tertiary education.

The school is not alone in taking such a view. It had been

endorsed as late as 1960 by the influential Ramsay Report on Victorian

Education (Blake, 1973: 543). The Committee responsible for the Report

remained unconvinced that examinations were undesirable or needed replace-

ment. It strongly recommended the retention of formal examinations and,

recognized that those at the matriculation level came within the province

of the university.
(
In an analysis of the myths of Australian education, Connell

(1970: 254) has pointed to a 'normal line ir progression frbm primary to

secondary school to university [which is] thought to be the natural pro-

gression and the desirable aspiration-for those who are allle to pursue the

path'. Unhappily, the same progression has tended to influence pupils,

) -

who are not academically able, to pursue the pith, so dominant is the pre-

occupation with getting to the sixth or matriculation year.

A-turther effect of the examination fixation has been to determine

the curriculum, not only at the matriculation year but also during the years

prior to it. In order to be eligible to sit for the matriculation examina-

tions, various combinatioris and groupings of subjects have to be obtained

at the fifth year or School Leaving Examination." This in turn has exer-

cised its influence on subjects chosen in the preceding fourth year, and so

on down to the previous levels. An inevitable result has been the need for

a child to select his subjects at too early an age with an eye to their

usefulness as keys to unlock the various doors en route toimatriculation,

20 See Handbook of Directions and Prescriptions for 1969, The. Victorian

Universities and Schools Examinations Board, Melbourne, 1968, pp. 13-15.
The terms 'Directions' and 'PrescriptiOns',have obvious authoritarian
connotations.

81
 56

and for the teacher to design a great deal of his syllabuses towards the

some end. Academic subjects dominate the curriculum. Vocational subjects

are rejected.

(d) Prudential elements in the Academic Tradition

Closely allied to the Academic Tradition in.Connell's view

forming a tradition on its own (ibid., p. 259) - is the prudential view

taken of Australian education particularly by parents and pupils. This

element is particularly marked in the Jewish school.

Itlooks for a tangible value for money spent. If a

1

parent pays fees for his son's educations, he wants to see

a tangible return in the shape of an examination certificate
for his expenditure, and he judges the worth of the school
by the number of such certificates\that the school pupils
.earn each year. The pupil, in his turn, is usually
interested to know what good a particular subject or
topic is to him from the point of view of his future
career, and he will be reluctant to study it if it cannot
be shown to have a bread, and butter relevance to a career
or to a public, examination which he regards as a pre-
requisite to the search for a suitable-job.

In this view, basically non - utilitarian, cademic subjects _provide the

programme for clear economic ends.

(0) The effect of scholarship examinations

A further economic pressure is present in the Commonwealth

Government's Te'rtiary and'Secondary Scholarships schemes. Designed to

reduce inequalities of educational opportunity by assisting able but

financially disadvantaged children, they exacerbate the situation facing

pupils. Both are based on Laminations. The Commonwealth tertiary

scholarships for continuing education at university were instituted in 1951.

They are awarded on the basis of high results obtained in the university
r

82
 I
57

matriculation,examination, and thus'compound its highly competitive character.

The Commonwealth Secondary Scholarships Examination <C.S,S:E.),

for which,studenisipsit in the middle of their foUrth year, is designed by

.
the Australian Council for Educational Research, on a national baSis.2I

It is'a supposedly objective measure of developed abilitein mathematics,

science, expAtssion and the humanities. Yet, aft academic orientation is

obvious in those areas tested, with some apparent undue advantage `to those

students who have elected to study sciences and mathematics. Regardless

of these drawbackd, however, the scholarships have the verall effect of

strengthening the part examinations play in the Academic Tradition.

(6) The literati of the Academic Tradition 4

As with the Great Tradition, 'literati' have played an important

part in shaping the Academic .Tradition in Australian education. As this

has been bound up with obtaining qualifications-for university entrance,

the majority of the literati have come inevitably from the ranks of the

universities themselves,

Theepost-Second World War period in the State of Victoria is

.

illustrative, and of Immediate relevance for the school. Between 1944.ane

1964 the VictOrian Matriculation Examinatiofi was directly controlled by

22 Monash University
tht Professorial Board of Melbourne University.

started teaching in 1961, but it was not until January 1st 1965 that the

two u versities set up the Victorian Universities and Schools\Examinati9ns

Boar o coordinate the work of conducting their en rance requirements.

a

Initially the Board was composed of thirty eight members. When La Trobe
s

21 See more detailed description in Chapter 94

22 These and following details are found in Blake, (1973) pp. 567 ff.-
and the v.u.s,E.p. Handbook:0f Directions and Prescriptions for 1969.

wI ,0

83
0_

58

University (established 1967) was Aiven a share of membership, and Monash

University grew to approach equality, of-representation with Melbourne

University, the total membership of the Board also increased. In 1970 it

numbere&forty-three members, with a ratio of university interests to

school interests standing at twenty to fourteen. As Blake comments (1973:

571): 'With Ne growth of Monash University and.the establishment'of

La Trobe, V.U.S.E.B. made successive adjustments to university representa-

tion in the light of enrolments. It would appear to have been less

sensitive to the changing situation in schools'.

The actual work of the Board is carried out by a large number of

StandinitOmmittees for the academic subject areas offered at the matricu-

4.
A
lation leve1.23 The constitution of each Standing Committee also emphasizes

the strength Of university representation.24 Although Committees vary.

according to the size of subject areas, almost half the numbers on each

are drawn from university ranks. 'The remainder represent non-university -

,organizations, of which the-majority are associated with the State Education

Department. Two representatives are from organizations which might reason-

ably be expected to have an academic orientation. These are ,the Catholic

Education Office-and the Incorporated Association of Registered Teachers of

Victoria (T.A.th.V.), which is closelY connected with the major:Independent

schools.

A majOiity of the literati of the Academic Tradition and its

endeMic examinations are thus theAtelves academics 'of University status.

Their influence on school curricula has been a pervasive one. Connell.

23 Those available 11}1969'are listed in Appendix 4.3.

24 The regulations go4erning the constitution of a Standing Committee are

given in Appendix 4.2.

84
 59

suggests two features that have characterized this influence (1970: 2575.

Firstly, university personnel have played a major part in designing the

\.

-syllohdaes_upon_which the university entrance examinations have been based.

Secondly, their influence has been a one-way arrangement, stretching from

the university at the top down through and on into the primary level, with

little reciprocal influence from this level filtering back up again. A

major result of this arrangement has been that all levels of teaching

have become dominated by the final matriculation examination. Even in

schools with relative autonomy to devise their own syllabuses, there has

been a strong tendency to select what is taught in-the light of its

potential advantage as preparation for sixth Formetudies.-The outcomes

of these influences le quite apparent in the Lubavitcher School, as they

are in many other Independent and 'high schools throughout the State.

(7) Summary

From the beginnings of a mystical pietist movement originating in

it

AEaste n Europe in 1700, although having far more ancient Biblical roots, a I

P
isticated, high - powered missionary- minded organization has come to be

centred in New York. Its influence spreads to numerous countries, including

Australia, especially through a network of education institutions. This is

r,
the Lubavitcher Movement.
, )

Basic to the Movementhave always been the litera i) those

/
responsible for foRtertng a Great Tradition in the form of learned rabbis,

zaddikim and rebbes. These have been, concerned to spread. knqwledge of the
0
Chabad - Chassidic way of life, which is firmly grounded on fundamental

values of Orthodox Rabbinical Judaism. Their representatives were responsible

e ,

for founding the school and its associated religious organizations. The
a
Lubavitcher ideology and traditions are thus actively promoted in this
1 j
8i
 60

immediate socio-cultural system, and through outreach contacts into the

wider Jewish community.

State high schools, Independent schools and Lubavitcher School

in particular havepreserved a traditional form of aCademic education with

roots in nineteenth century English, university and public school scholar-

ship. The innate conservatism of this Academic Tradition is bolstered by

the control of the universities over examinations and curricula, which are

oriented towards the final matriculation examination on which university

_

entry depends. Lubavitcher School has chosen to follow this tradition in

virtually an undiluted form, partly because its small size precludes it

from offering vocational subjects but also because the community attached

to the school values academic scholarship and the attainment of entry to

one of the Victorian universities or tertiary institutions. The con-

servative posture is also due to the influence of the academic literati,

through the external examination system for which the school prepares its

Students.

The evidence about the historical roots of both Traditions suggests

that the adoption of the term 'tradition' for the ideas and values of the

Lubavitcher.variant of Orthodox Judaism, on,the one hand, .and the academic

emphasis in education, On the other, is theoretically. valid. What has been

described fulfils the criteria of existence some time in the past and belief

in the value of the institution in the present. Obviously the current

generation at Lubavitcher School ia not indifferent about/thode parts of

its Judaic and secular, Scademic heritage to which it is heir.. It remains.

w
to be established what values and value orientations are the mainspring of.

each of the Traditions. This is taken lip in the following chapter. How

'malleable' the. Traditions are is considered in Part 4.

8
 61

CHAPTER 4

VALUE ORIENTATIONS AND VALUES IN THE TWO TRADITIONS

(1) Sources of data for content analyirg----

(a) The Great Tradition

Sources of the value orientations and values which provide the

'core meanings' of the Great Tradition comprise a vast compilation of

material or 'charter', dating from Biblical times. Content analysis presents

formidable problems, not the least of 1:/hich)is that 'there is no monolithic

system of Jewish values but a series of complex applications of Jewish

truth in which the more subtle distinctions and shades of meaning were

debated at length by the best Jewish triellects' (Jacobs,, 1960: 9). The

rigour of their analysis is Conveyed by the Talmudic Hebrew term pardes.

This refers to the initial letters of four types of Biblical exegesis of

increasing levels of depth and sophistication: peshat (literal meaning),

remez (veiled allusion), derash (homiletic interpretation), and sod

(esoteric signifince).

In the light of this tradition, it is necessary to'recognize that

any analysis of Judaic value orientations and values can only approximate

to a systematic review, and must necessarily be seleAive and restricted to

tge more superficial levels of peshat and remez. No review can claim to se

out an authoritative formulation of the tenets of the Jewish faith, as such

dogmatics are alien to Judaism (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 119). Whidenot

claiming to be in any way comprehensive, the summary drawn up in this

chapter attempts to sygtematize a number of the more fundamental values, not

in away that an Orthodox Jew might do so, but for heuristic purposes and

subsequent analysis of the school's social organization of tradition.

87
 62

As primary sources I have ta the Pentateuch,1 supplemented by

the Talmud, as codified in the Kitzur Schulchan Aruch or Code of Jewish

Law (Ganzfried, 1961), together with related Lubavitcher exegesis. The

legislator of the Pentateuch, which is the foundation of the Oral and

4'
Written Law (Heb. Torah), is believed with absolute faithto be Moses,

inspired by God. The Law as received by Moses on Mount Sinai 'is [thus]

Divine and contains the final revelation of God - the highest wisdom and

absolute truth' (Branch, 1969: 7). It outlines the principles of the

faith, laws of holiness and the Ten Commandments. Being the basis for

both the later Talmudgand Prayer Book it is thus a potential source of

value orientations which can be compiled from charter analysis. As Epstein

has commented (1959: 30):

[It] embraces the whole of life with its activities.

All the common ways of life, all human interests, come
under Its rule. Thus,, the Torah becomes a means for
strengthening the supremacy of the divine holy will as
the measure of.all Strivings of the human heart, and
for bringing all the details of life, individual and
corporate, into relation with the service of God.

(b) The Academic Tradition

There is no comparable charter for the Academic Tradition.

However a summary of values and value orientations can be assembled from

various educational and sociological sources relati g to the Independent

school system in Victoria. They are also described n literature relating

to the wider Australian society, which is a source of data. Thus, in what

1
Two editions are used: The Pentateuch and Haftorahs Second Edition,
Soncino Press, (Hertz, 1967); and The Pentateuch with Targum.Onkelos,
Haphtaroth, and Rashi's Commentary, trans. M. Rosenbaum & A.M. Silbermann.
The Hebrew edition of the latter is used by boys at the school.

Asi

88
 63

fol\ows, I use the categories developed in the previous chapter to

summarize the major values and value orientations of the Great Tradition

of Judaism. Where they can be identified with confidence, I summarize)

those that appear to validate the Academic Tradition.

(2) Man- Universe orientation

(a) The Great Tradition

The whole universe, its 'frame and furniture', and known realm

of existence, comprising the visible world in its two parts - that which

is above (heaven) and that which is below (earth) - is conceived as having

been created out of nothing (ex nihiZo) by a single power source, a deity

termed God (Heb. EZohim).2 'In the beginning God created the heaven and

the earth' (Gen. 1:1).3 The Hebrew term for creating, i.e. producing

something out of nothing, is logically used for the Divinity, who is the

only Being capable of such an act. Man, on the other hand, may only be

referred to as 'mak, or 'forming', but never as 'creating' (Hertz,

1967:12, f.n.l). The act of Creation is emphasized in the Liturgy

at several places, for example: 'Blessed be he who spake, and the world

came into existence: blessed be he: blessed be he who was the maker of

the world in the beginning'.' It is also enshrined in the first of the

Thirteen Principles of the Jewish faith of Maimonides: 'I belle with

perifect faith that the Creator, blessed be his Name, is the Author and

2 Elohim (Heb.) - the general designation of the Divine Being in the

Bible, implying the fountain and source of all things.
3 Genesis, the Greek or Septuagint term for the first book of the
Pentateuch, means 'origin'. The Hebrew term for the same book,
Bereshith, is derived from the first Hebrew word of the opening
sentence 'In the beginning'.

4 Preliminaries to Morning Service, B. Psalms and Passages of Song

The Authorized Daily Prayer Book with Commentary (Hertz, 1963), p. 51
and footnotes.

89
Guide of everything that has been created, and that he alone has made, does

make, and will make all things'.5

Creation is thus conceived as being continuous, rather than a

single act of God. This is an interpretation of Scripture: 'And God

blessed the'seventh day, and hallowed it; because that in it He rested

from all His work which God in creating had made' (Gen. 2:3). The implica-

tion of the phrase 'increating had made' is considered to mean literally

'which God created to make', i.e. to continue acting throughout time by the

unceasing operation of Divine laws (Hertz, 1967: 6, f.n. 3). The teachings

of Chabad stress the continuous nature of Creation (Mindel, 19664 25;

Schneersohn, 1961: 21). It also features in the Liturgy associated with

the Blessings before the Shema: '... and in thy goodness renewest the

creation every day continually'.6

Throughout the cosmogony, the diety God is considered to be the

sole, source of all power in the universe. 'God gives existence and life to

the universe and everything that exists. He is the Source of all life ...

there is a constant fl9w of "life" from the Source of all Life from God

to this earth' (Mindel, 1966: 25)'. God is Omnipresent. The Shechinah or

Divine Presence is both Immanent in Creation and manifest in the life of man

'dwelling' in the midst of Israel (Exod. 25:8, 33:15 -14; Lev. 16:16).

'There is no place without Shechinah' (Midrash Exod. Rab. ii, 9).7

God is Omnipotent. The name Shaddai, 'Almighty', is one of the

Thirteen At ibutes of God (Exod. 34:6), and receives frequent mention

5 The Authorized Daily Prayer Book, p. 249.

6 Ibid., p'. 109.

Shechinah (Heb.) 'indwelling', is derived from theverb 'to dwell'.

Midrash (Heb.) 'to inquire'; the body of literature which interprets
Scripture to- extract its full implications and mranings.

)
 65

throughout the Bible (e.g. Gen. 17:1, 35:4; Exod. 9:16; Deut. 9:29).

God's Omnipotence - often described in anthropomorphic terms - is a

frequent theme in Scripture: 'The Lord is a man of war, the Lord is His

name ... 'Thy right hand, 0 Lord, glorious in power, Thy right hand, 0 Lord,

dasheth in pieces the enemy' (Exod. 15:3, 6).

God is conceived to be Unity in both Scripture (Deut. 6:4) and

Liturgy.8 The Shema, 'Hear, 0 Israel: The Lord Our God, the Lord is One',
9
is a clear, unequivocal statement of the ethical monotheism first conceived

by Abraham (Gen. 12:1-4). It implies in addition that God is both sole -

because there is no other God than He - and Unique, wholly unlike anything

else in existence (Hertz, 1967: 770, f:n. 4).

A number of the Attributes of God are of such fundamental import-

ance in the Torah that they can be considered as transcendental values per-

vading all value orientations. The Attributes are Holiness '(Heb. kadosh),

Compassion (Heb. rahamim), Justice and Mercy. In rabbinical literature, the

most common epithet for God is 'The Holy One, blessed be He' (Heb. Hakadosh

Baruch Hu). However,as Werblowsky and Wigoder point out (1965: 189):

'Holiness is not so much an abstract or a mystic idea as a regulative

principle in the everyday life of men and women'. 'Ye shall be holy' is

the dominant theme in Leviticus 19, the'so-called 'Chapter of Holiness'.

Godfis also referred to as the Compassionate One, and man is

enjoined to imitate this Attribute. 'As God 1.s compassionate, be thou

compassionate' (Midrash Siphrei Ekev 89). Closely related is the designation

of the Eternal as 'A merciful God and gracious, long-syffering and abounding

in steadfast love and truth' (Exod. 34:6). The Attribute of Mercy is also

8 The Authorized Daily Prayer BoOk, p. 117 et passim, The term Shema
(Heb'.) 'Hear' is the first word of this fundamental statement of faith.

91
 66

expressed through the Tetragrammaton, YHVH. The Divine Name, EZohim,

expresses the Attribute of Justice.,

The relationship of man to the power source is firstly that of a

being created by God. 'And God created man in His own image; in the image

of God created He him; male and female created He them' (Gen. 1:27). Man.

is made in the image - 'in,the type that was specially made for him'

(Rashi) - and after the likeness of God. I'Man and woman both alike are in

their spiritual nature akin to God' (Hertz, 1967: 5, f.n. 26). The more

intimate relationship with God, over and above that of the rest of the

animal kingdom is implied in the use of the phrase 'and God said'unto them'

in addition to 'And God blessed them' (Gen. 1:28), which is used in describ-

ing all other acts of Creation (Hertz, 1967: 5, f.n. 28).,

Man owes obedience to God on a number of grounds. He is a child

of God, 'for in the image bf God made He man' (Gen. 9:6). For the Jewish

people, the children of Israel, this is reinforced.by a Covenant relation-

ship with God. It was firs? established with Abraham, and 'sealed in the

flesh' (Heb. berit) by the rite of circumcision (Gen. 17:7-12). Subsequently

it was renewed with Isaac and Jacob (Gen. 26:2-5, 24; 35:9-15), and con-

firmed at Sinai before the whole people. Here it was embodied in a code of

law, 'the two tables of the testimony, tables of stone written with the

finger of God' (Exod. 31:16-18). The Covenant's outward signs of circum-

cision and Sabbath observance testify to its permanent validity.

The Jewish people are taught to consider themselves th hildren

of God owing Him unquestioned obedience and service (Deut. 14:1; 32:5).

As Rabbi Akiba said, 'Blessed are Israel in that they were called children

of God' (Avot 3: 18). A related notion is that of Divine sonship. Man

(Israel) is the son of God, the term being first used of those that adhere

92
 67

to the true worship or God (Hertz, 1967': 19, f.n. 2), and later specifically

in relation to Israel as a nation. 'And thou shalt say unto pharaoh: Thus
14111.

saith the Lord: Israel is My son, My first-born' (Exod. 4:22).9 The term

first-born implies 'the universal fatherhood of God. The other nations, too,

are God's children; and in Abraham's seed, spiritually the first-born among

them, "all the families Of the earth be blessed" (Gen. 12:3)' (Hertz, 1967:

221, f.n. 22).

The extension of Divine sonship to men of other creeds and nations

has important consequences (Cohon, 1948: 156):

As a child of God, man may not be degraded to a mere

cog of either the industrial or the political order. He
forms a center of huffian value and is an end in himself.
The worth of the individual is fundamental to the demo-
cratic spirit of Judaism.

Coupled with the concept of Divine sonship is the service the

children of. Israel owe to God. 'For unto Me the children of Israel are

servants; they are My servants whom I brought forth out of the land of

I am the Lord your God' (Lev. 25:35). This implies that God has
Egypt;

prior claim on the children of Israel 'My (God's) document (deed of

purchase) is of an earlier date' ( Rashi) - thus an Israelite can never be

more than nominally a slave to any human master (Hertz, 1967: 537, f.n. 42).

Service of God is the highest honour. Both as rvants and sons of God the

Jewish people are called upon to act as God's witnesses before all nations

(Is. 43:10-12).

'Closely related is the concept of Jews as the chosen people which

'For thou art a

s referred to frequently in the Bible and Jewish Liturgy.

The
9 Note the wording of the Rashi edition-'... even my first-born'.
term 'firstborn' denotes high dignity (Rashi).

9,)
 68

holy people unto the Lord thy God, nnxi the Lord has chosen thee to be His

treasure out of all peoples that are upon the face of the earth' (Deut. 14:2).

This concept has received inte4retations varying from the existence of a'

moral and even racial excellence in the ewish-people as such, resulting in

an ethnocentric view of world hist ry, hat of the chosen people being a

'holy nation.'. 'New therefore, 44f' ye will hearken unto My voice'indeed, and

keep My covenant, then ye shall belline own treasure from among all peoples;

for all the earth is Mine; and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of-priests,

and a holy nation'(Exod. 19:5 -6). Hertz (1967: 291, f.n. 5) goints out that

this does not imply any thought of favouritism in God's choice. 'Israel's

.10
call has not beet ''b privilege and rulership, but to martyrdom and service'

Relationships between man and God are based on fear, i.e. awe,

which is regarded as the basis of Jewish religious awareness ( Werblowsky &

Wigoder, 1965: 143). Israel is repeatedly exhorted in the Pentateuch to

fear God: 'And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but

to fear the Lord' (Deut. 10:12). Said Rabbi Antigonus of Sokho, 'let the

fear of heaven be upon thee' (Avot 1: 3). Coupled with awe is love of God

which is held to be a supreme religious value. 'And thou shall love the

Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy

might' (Deut. 6:5). Hertz comments (/967: 770, f.n. 5):, 'This is the

first instance in human history that the love of God was demanded in any

religion'. Later rabbinical thinking further developed the idea, adding

mystical connotations in the Middle Ages. 'According to the Talmud the

highest form of service of God is "service out of love" as contrasted with

/I
"service out of fear" (Ned. 31a)' (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 242). Love

10 Compare Rashi's view, however, that Israel is 'a cherished treasure

more than'other peoples' (my italics).

9,1
 69

leads.man to cleave to God (Heb.'devekut), imitating His attributes of

mercy and kindness (ibid., p. 114).11

(b) The Academic Tradition

Analysis of the same value orientatiodin the available literature

on the Academic Tradition does not produce a similar codified and definitive

statement of man's cosmological viiaws, even though the religious-element of

the Academic Tradition is of Judaeo-Christian origin, and-, in the final

analysis, stems from the same Biblical source.' Much of Christian Litiirgy
.

derives from the Jewish.

What is the attitude of the Australian population at large to the

man-universe orientation? At Australian Puglic Opinion Polls survey in

December 1968 cited by Inglis.(1970: 447) showed that 87.2 percent of the

total sample believed in the existence of God, and 64.9 percent in Heaven.

A Gallup Poll International survey in 1969 cited by Mol (1971: 42) found

comparable figures, 87 and 65 percent respectively. At least nominally,

It is
there is some support for these components of this value orientation.

problematical, however, whether it Indicates that Australian society as a

whole is religious. McLeod has commented (1963: 6) that religion 'has been

singularly absent as a cultural force in Australia'. The comment of Cox,

cited by Mol (op. cit., p. 328), may have force in the Australian context:
yr
'for fewer and fewer (people) does (religion) provide an inclusive and

commanding system of personal and cosmic values and explanations'.

The Academic Tradition derived from the British model has an

It
'ethos impregnated with the Arnoldian Tradition' (Neal, 1969: 127).

fosters an image of the 'Christian gentleman' which has been quoted with

11 Love of Cod as the basis of Jewish life and human relationships is

discussed below.

9r
 76,
ci
approval by.subsequent Independent school headmasters (Encel, 1970: 426).

The term presupposes at lust token belief in the existence of God and Jesus

His Son, but, as'McLaren has observed (1968: 14), 'the schools have largely .

subordinated their ostensible religious aims until they have become merely

a kind of genuflection in the direction of well-bred decency, a code in

which loyalty to the sovereign rates well ahead of any unbecoming concern .

with the ways of the Almighty'.

However, the professed religious aims of Independent schools

supposedly constitute one oaf the chracteristics differentiating them from

so-called 'secular' State schools; despite provision under 'right of entry'

clauses for representatives of recognized religious bodieS to give religiqus

instruction to children of those parents who wish them to receive it. In

Victorian State schools, such instruction is given in normal class groups

using an agreed syllabus by instructors who are visitors to the schools,

rather Olen by professional teachers employed by the Education Department.

In some State schools, an affirmation of religious faith and belief in God

is linked with an oath of national. allegiance and loyalty to the Queen in

the flag-raising ceremony usually held at the Monday morning assembly.

Adherence to religion and belief in God seem at best to be

peripheral rather than centtal tojthe Academic tradition. As Freeman-Butts

has observed in his study of Australian education .(1955:.25): 'You accept

religious instruction and religious observances in the public schools as a

matter of course ... but ... you 4o not take religion very seriously'.

Most Australians approve of religion, but in the opinion of one Methodist

newspaper the average Australian is a 'nominal Christ &an ....right there on

the fringe of the Church's life' (Inglis, 1970: 441, 443). Hansen (1971: 142)

has shown how this attitude is mirrored in the so-called Church schools where
 sr.
71

religion also has a low status.

Some caution should be exercised, however, in claiming that the

Australian society is predominantly secular. his Mol has suggested (1971:

209): e'

Even if we accept that thescientific ethos and

religious ideology have some contradictory traits, that
still should not lead us to.presgme that human beings
must have a loWally consistent view of life or that
all educated people make stieniific method into-a system
of meaning embracing all phenomena. Religion has
important integrative functions in the non-rational realm
of human existence.

It seems clear that the man- universe orientation of the Great

Tradition is available'to the boys attending Lubavitcher School in a highly

articulated form, whereas its counterpart in the Academic Tradition is

diffuse and largely ineffectual, evgn in the Independent schools which

Tofess to f011ow the Academic Tradition.

(3) Man-nature orientation

The Great Tradition \

(a)

Man has dominion over all lild.ngthings on earth,'and has been

4
given- the task of replenishing and subduing it (Gen. 1:27-30):

And Gtd created man in His ,own image .., male and
female created He' them.. And God blesselithem; and

.God,said unto them:. 'Be fruitful, and multiply, and

replenish the earth, and subdue,it; and 4gve.dominian

over the fish of the sea, 40 dyer the fowl of the'air,

and over every living thing that cteepeth upon the
earth'. And God said: 'Behold, 1 have given youeevery
herb yielding egad,' which is upon the face of all the
earth, and every tree, in which is the fruit.61% tree
yielding peed - to you itIghall be for food; andto
TN\ 4
4 4

97
O
 16-
72

every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth ar,

upion the earth, wherein there is a liVing souI,.(I have ft.

given) every green herb for food'. And it was so.

.priginally man is placed on a level with cattle and beasts in

respect of eating similar food. When the era of the Sons of Noah began

man was permitted to eat meat (Bashi on Gen'. 1:30). 'Every moving thing

that liveth shall be for-food for you; is thegreen herb have,I given you

all' (Gen. 9:3).

Man is not granted unbridled dominion over nature, as the

principle of righteousness,governsboth animate and inanimate creation.

rj His conduct towards animalsjn particular is subject to. numerous laws

ddsigned to protect them against paint disease, hunger and overwork

(e.g. Exod. 23:5; Deut. 22:4-7, 25:4). 'Extraordinary solicitude for ;

animals is one of the most distinctive features of Jewish ethics'

(Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 32). 'The righteous Man regarde4 the life of

his beast' (Prov. 12:10). The prohibition against consuming the blOod of

animal flesh - 'Only flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood

thereof, shall ye not eat' (Gen. 9:4) - has been the basis for, detailed'

laws in Talmud regarding the ritual Slaughter (Heb.'Shechitahl and prepara-

-

-tion of meat. The former is designed,,among other things, to minimize pain

to the slain animal (Hertz, 1967: 855,,f:n. 4).

Jewish dietary laws are regardedloy the rabbis to lead to self-

discipline and obedience to God, as a way of attaining holiness (Lev. 11:

44745). Thus certain kinds of animals are declared clean and lit'for

human tonsumption (kosher) and others unclean and unfit.. Their consumption

is forbiddenterephah). The twofold division is first established in the

story of Noah, and the li's't of cleanOd unclean animals is elaborated in

98
 73

considerable detail in later Books of #a Bible (Pen. 7:2; Lev. 11:1-471

Deut. 14:3-25). In/general, clean quadrupeds are those that both chew the'

#
cud and have cloven hooves: on this basis, for instance, pigs are forbidden

diet, probably the most well-known prohibition.' Clear% marine animals are

those with both fils and scales, thus shell-fish are excluded. A number of

birds are likewise excluded, mainly those that are birds of prey, All

reptiles and insects.are forbidden with the exception of four special

types of locusts mentioned ii"the Bible. A prohibition against seething

a kid in its mother's milk,, repeated three times in the Bible, is claimed

by.some authoritaries to have been enjoined on humanitarian grounds

(Exod. 23:19, 34:26; Deut. 16:21). It has led to rules strictly forbidding

mixture of meat and milk dishes both during their preparation and consump-

tion.12

Some agrarian produce is subject to laws designed to protect

certain species. For instance, there is a Biblical prohibition (Deut. 20:

19 -20) against destroying fruit-bearing trees (Heb. Bal Tashchit 'do not

destroy'), which was later extended in Talmud to cover all senseless destruc-

tion or waste (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 56). It is particularlycor-

bidden to damage or waste food, especially bread.

Man is thus constrained in numerous ways in his relationships with

nature and its biotic resources. He is able to use his powers and intellect

to overcome those that threaten him. 'Through these endeavours man attains

the fulness of his powers. In'the language of the rabbis he becomes a co-

worker with God (Heb. ShutaphVhakkadosh baruch hu) in the on-going tasks
I

'.of creafion. Every human-being is both an instrument and an agent of

creative life' (Cohon, 1962: 172). to God that the truly Orthodox
rd"
12 flitzur Schulchan Aruch, 46: 5.

r
c / 9
4
 )

74

Jew addresses Benedictions on seeing such natural phenomena as fiuit trees

in blossom, shooting stars, an4 a rainbow 13 'Moreover, when man fulfills his

duty-and mission in life, not only does he attain his own goal in the scheme
.

of Creation imposed upon'him by the Creator, bl.rh also helps the rest of
1
the world'around.him, including the animal, organic, \and inorga
"kingdoms" to attain theirs ... This world then becomes truly "a spode"
.

for the Creator' (Mindel, 176: 23-24). 4o,

(....

(b) The Academic Tradition A,-

tlere is very little in the Academic Tradition which compares to

such detailed and .codified rdles. The most obvious diff rence is the %

complete absence of anything like the Jewish dietary law whose purpose
.
/ . .

is to make Jews 'a people apart, distinguished from all others by outward

rites which in 'themselves helped to constitute Holiness' (Hertz, 1967: 448,

f.n.). Regarding care of animals, on which such stress is laid in Judaism,

one might assume that the Christian ethic basic to the Academic Tradition

also embrace this concept.

would also However, Hertz has pointed to a reverse

situation (ibid.,' p. 854 f.n.): I

I
The duties to our dumb friends have been strangely
overlooked in most ethical systems, not excluding
Christianity. Paul dismisses as idle sentimentalism
the notion of man's duty to 'animals .N. And this
remained the attitude of the Church till recent times.
.

'In the range.and circle of duties', says the historian

Lecky, 'inculcated by the,earla Fathers, those to
animals had. no place'.

Concern for nature does.feature in the growing trend in Ind,pendent

. .

and some State schools to run camps or properties in the country, which

13, Kitzur Schulchan Amick, 60: 1-6.

160,
pupils are sent for some weeks,-and thus belefit from contact with nature

and wildlife. The objectives of such schemes are,not unmixed with,ulterior

motives,.as they also include

the developing of self-reliance and independence, the

training of practical and physical competence, the

satisfying of the desire for adventure and the less-
recognized relationship between man and,uture, with
its Understanding of the importance of, the land,,not
only to those who work upon it, but to all men
(Wilson, 1957:'43).
.\
The general value placed on the mystique of the 'Australian bush'

is clerly apparent in such enterprises. In some schools, whole Forms are

sent to participate 'in them'the best known example being Timbertop, the

property of Geelong Grammar School at which all fourth Farmers spend an

entire year.

To what extent is the notion of man being a co- worker with God

echoed in the Academic.Tradition? Ftom the pelint of view of the rational,

scientific ethos of Australian society as a whole, the notion may not find

support although, as we have seen, most people-holdsome belief in the exist-

ence of God. The idea hag ita nearest equivalent in the ideology of the

Headmasters' Conference of Australia (Wilson, 1957: 46). Dile of fits recommen-

dations to the Prime Minister in 1943 was thA Independent schools affiliated

with the Conference could make a valuable contribution to a reformed educa-

tion system through 'their efforts to train_pupils to regard their life work
The'sam e author
as a vocation in the seri,ice of God and of the community'. a
t
,

cites a broadcast talk-by an Independent school chaplain in 1957, stressing

that the advantage of some Independent schools is having their pupils under

training. This.
one management combining vocational, social and'religious

r G
101
 76

fact 'offers the vital opportunity of giving the child the idea that whether

he is doing his homework yr playing football, he is doing it as a man walk-

ing in the sight of God, ... and to the greater glory of God.'. Hansen's

empirical survey,of the attitudes held by sixth Form boys in six major

Independent schools in Melbourne paints a different picture (1971: 23-25).

A meritocratic approach, i.e. good learning, may once have bden wedded to

Christian humanism. 'If the current sixth Formers in the school are to be

believed [however], then "good learning" prevails without the godliness

that once attended it'.

(4) ManIcommunity orientation

(a) The Great Tradition

er
The relationship of man to Good imparts a special quality to his

relationship to fellow man. A single ethical programme prevails based one

I
the motive of imitatio dei with its dominant theme.'Ye shall be holy; for

I the Lord your,God am holy' (Lev. 19:2) .14 This transcendental value welds

together the religious and moral sets of laws the Torah prescribes, and is

thq root ofall Jewish ethics. Each of the sets has both negative and

positive aspects. Those based on the concept of Justice - the negatiVe and

regulative aspect - seek tq safeguard fundamental human rights. Those based

enjoin a
on the j.dea of. Righteousness -'the creative and positive aspect -

4person,to have concern for those afflicted or worse off than himself,

whether they are fellow humans or in the animal kingdom (Epstein, 1959:

23 ff.).

4pitatio dei is further implied by the Biblical commandment to

'cleave' to God (Deut. 10:20, 13:5).. Literal observance is impossible, but

le
14 The phrase is the keynote to the whole chapter, tt) so-called 'Chapter
of Holiness', that follows (Hertz, 1967: 497, f.n. 2).

102
 77

as elaborated by the rabbis this means cleaving to God's qualities., ,Tbe

righteous man (Heb. taaddik) is :one who lives righteously by adhering to

the Divine Law' (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 332). In the words of the

prophet Micah: 'It hath been told thee, 0 man, whaf is good, and what the

Lord doth require of thee: only to do justly, and to loye mercy, and to

walk humbly with thy God' (Mitt. 6: 8). Collectively, Israel is exhorted

'Justice, justice shal:thou follow, that thou mayest live, and inherit

land which the Lord tfiy, God giveth thee' (Deut. 16:20). Said Rabbi

Ch bar Chanina, 'follow the attributes of God; as He addles the naked,

so thou clothe the naked; as He visits the sick, so do thou visit the

sick; as He comforts the mourners, so do thou comfort the mourners; and

as He buries the dead, so do thou' (Sot. 14a).

.
The Biblical command 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thydelf'

(Lev. 19:18) is the 'GoldenRult' in Judaism, which transcends and embraces'

all other ethical demands. It was taken up, commented on, and elaborated

by the rabbis. Rabbi Akiba regarded it as-the leading principle of the

Torah-, a view probably related to his emphasis on man as created in the

Divine image (Cohcin, 1962: 211). Hillel summarized the intent of the entire

Torah in the words 'What is hateful unto thee, do not to ihy fellow man'

(Sab. 31a). The rule applies to both. Jew and non-Jew of Whatever race or

creed. 'The stranger that sOourneth.With you shall be unto you as the

home-born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself' (Lev. 19:34;

petits-10':19)."
4
The Golden Rule entails showing benevolence and loving kiilapess
.$'
towards others: the 'practice of goodly deeds' (Heb. gemiluth Aasa4m)

such as visiting Ow sick, paying last respects for the dead, and comf4t-

ing mourners. It also embraces showing courtesy and considerate behaviour

103
 -78

towards all men irrespective of faith or origin. The closely allied

'doctFine of forgivedess extended to those who offend is the basis of the

Jewish ideal of conduct. 'They who are offended and do not offend, who are

insulted and do not reply (in kind), who do God's will out of love and

rejoice even in.suffering, of them Scripture says(Judges 5:31) "His

,beloved ones are as the sun risVg in might "' (Yoma 22a; Sab. sqp).

,The Golden Rule also embraces charity (Heb. tzedakah), one of the

three/pillars on which the world is based (Avot 1: 2).15 The practice of

giving alms and assistance to the poor through material gifts constitutes

man's recognition ofthe duties, of brotherhood towards his fellOw-man.

Werblowsky and Wigoder state,(1965: 85): 'Provision forNhose in want has

at all times been regarded among Jews as a sacred duty. The'very use.of

the word Tzedakah shows that the rel4f of poverty is a matter of duty and

not voluntary philanthropy. This duty will never cease as long as "the

.poor shall'not cease out of the land (Deut. 15: I1)"' 16 Said Rabbi Joshua

ben Karha, 'he who closes his eye to charity is like an idolator' (Ket. 68a;

Tos. Peak 4:20; Midradh Ecci. Rah7:4).

The rabbis heid gemiluth chasadim in even higher regard:

In three !respects is gemiluth chapadim superiorto

teedakah: charity can be given only to the poor while
geMiluth chaeadim to both rich and to poor; charity can

be given only to the living, gemiluth chasadim to both

the, living and the dead: charity can be given only in
kind, gemiluth chasadim can be given both in kind and
in personal. service (Toe.. Peah 4:19).

11
15 The other pillars, in the opinion of Simon the. Just, are Torah and
Divine service.

1"6
The importance of charity and assistance given to the helpless are
stressed throughout Scripture, e.g. Exod. 22:20-26, 23:6-12; .Deut. 16:11;
Is. 58:7; Prov. 31:20.
1

,104
 79
4

The concept occurs in the daily recital of the Amidah prayer or Eighteen
4

Benedictions: 'the most high God, who bestoweth loving kindness'.17

GemiZuth ehasadim and tzedakah are pbsitive expressions of the

concept of Holiness. On the negative side, it demands self-control in

relation to both evil acts and-evil desires. Talmudic. teaching deals with

numerous vices such as envy, greed and pride which poison man's social

relationships (Avot 1: 1-4). Anger must also be checked in that it can

lead to loss of self-control and undo much good that a person might have

accomplished. Asked Rabbi Ben Zomd,'Who is mighty? Hy who subdues his

passions; as it is said, He that is slow to anger is better than the.

mighty' (Avot 4: 1).

These rabbinical aphorisms are balanced' by °their stressing the

positive virtues eschewed by Judaism, such as contentment, joy in God,

humility and a sense of moral unworthiness. 'Thus does humility become the

foundation of all human behaviour, religious and social - the fear of the

Lord' (Epstein, 1959: 158).

Higher still is love of God, a force impelling man to virtuous

deeds that result'in the 'sanctification of His Name' (Heb. Kiddush Hashem),

by reflecting credit on the'prestige of Judaism and Israel, particularly

the eyes Of Von -Jews. ''And ye shall not profane My holy name;, but I will

be hallowed among the children of Israel' (Lev. 22:32). The rabbis urged.

Jews to be guarded in their actions so that nothing light tarnish the honour

of Judaism or of the Jew. Especially did they warn against any misdeed

towards a non-Jew as an unpardonable sin, because it gives a false impression

17 The.Authorized Daily. Prayer Book, p. 131.

Amiddh-(Heb.) 'standing', i.e.,a prayer recited in a standing position.
The colloquial term,used by Aahkenerzim is'Shemoneh Esreh.(Heb.)
'Eighteen Benedictions'. 'Ashkenazim - Jews of the Western European
tradition.-

105
 80

of the moral standard of Sildaism (Hertz, 1967: 518,19, f.n. 32). Such

unworthy acts are Profanation of the Divine Nar (Heb. &wham).

The theme of Kidduch "sham is the basis of many rabbinical aphorisms and
a

anecdotes. Through it the Jew 14; urged to self-depial, self - restraint, and

self-sacrifice even to the extent of martyrdom.

The many manifestations o the Golden Rule, Righteousness and

Justice imply that man's moral beha our is a form of group loyalty. 'The

ethics of Judaism, therefore, concerns itself not only with the springs and

motives of personal behavior but also with their relations to the community'

(Cohan, 1962: 188). The rabbis' emphasize thatall'Isralites are responsible

for one another (Sab. 19e; Safer Haagadah IV, 20-22). Said Rabbi Hillel,

'Separate not thyself from the congregation; trust not in thyself until

the day of thy death' (Avot%2: 5).. The 'whole congregation of Israel'

(Heb. Adaa Exod. 12:3; Lev. 19:2),is the term used for the

community- 4:.a a religious entity.

Congregational prayer is 'a major aspect-of Jewish worship. A

dominant motif of the formulae of confession on Yom Kippur is the use of

the plural 'we'. When the congregation gathers the Divinity is held to be

present. Said Tabbi Chalafta,'When ten-people sit together and occupy

themselves w{th the Torah, the Shechin4h abides among them; as it is said,

18
God etandeth in the congregation ofsthe godly' (Avot 3: 7)

The focal point of thengregation is the synagogue, an

institution which originated during the Babylonian exile (circa 590 B.C.E.),

according to rabbinical interpretation of Ezekial's assurance that God

18 The figure ten refers to the minimum quorum of-t nJewish males over
thirteen years of ate required for liturgical purposes, i.e.
Minyan (Heb.) 'number'.
 81

HiMself would be 'a little sanctuary' (Heb. mikdash meat) for the Jews in -

exile (Ezek. 11:15-16). The synagogue 'serves as the pOwer-house of

Jewish religious life'. (Cohon,1962: 349). Each synagogue is an independent

44
organization performing two basic functions: a place for organized

collective worship, and a place of religious instruction. Religious and

communal life centtes around it.

(b) The Academic; TraditiOn

A number of striking parallels with the ethics of Judais% cm). be

found in the tenets of Christianity nominally professed by the wider

Australian society. The term 'Golden Rule'', aellived from.Judaism, is also

applied to the New Testament injunction 'Whatsoever ye would that men should

do to you, do ye even so unto them, for, this is the law, 'the prophets'

(Matt. 7:12; Luke 6:31). Emphasis on mercy, justice, rightebusness is

obirious in the Beatitddes (Matt. 5:3-12; Luke 6:20-38), and elsewhere in

the teachings of Christ. Tfie Deca]ogue, of which the last five Commandments

outline man'S duties towards his fellow-men, is shared by both faiths

(Exod. 20 :1-14; Deut. 5:6-18).

An emphasis on moral behaviour, rather than metaphysical aspects

of religion, prevails in the religious instruction curricula of some State

systems. Black suggests,(1972: 257): 'Insofar as what is taught is

identified with religion, the impression is likely to be conveyed that

religion is chiefly a code of personal conduct and th,:t the values upheld

by the Christian religion are idntical with the dominant values of

Australian society'.

The concept of the 'Christian gentleman', which is central to the

Academic Tradition in the Independent school system, stresses the ethical

side of religion and the duties man owes towards his fellow-men in such
 82

areas as charity, compassion and personal regard. But, as McLaren notes

.(1968: 5), the concept is often seen in an amoral light:

The egaential,purpose of the independent or church

School, nosfas then, is to train Christian gentlemen to
act as leaders to the'rest of the community. It is no

fault of the schools themselves if these aims are often

distorted by parents who regard social prestige and
material advantages as the most important signs of such
leadership, or if many of their ex-students show a
greater concern for exacting Christian duties from
0
others than for performing Christian servicethemselves.

The concept of community finds a parallel in the Academic Tradition

Many
.though in a somewhat different form from that in the Great Tradition.

an Independent school - 'proud aloof and privil4ee-- is a community unto

itself (McLaren, 1968: 6-7):

It is loyalty'to this community which is the secret

of the independent school's success. The mystique of.the

sportsfield, the fanaticiSm of school and house spirit,

the camaraderie of tuckshopor dormitory, the indiscipline
of the classroom - all foster the spirit of corporate
identity which enshrines the school's ultimate values.
the hub of
.01n some Independent schools the chapel is regarded as

the school community; Unlike the synagogue, however, it is solely a place

of worship rather than study. The schoQ\l chaplain or local pariah priest,

in,the-ease where the local chttroh functions as the chapel, or a visiting

''celebrant is needed, officiates .n the conduct of worship and has some

pastoral counselling responsibilities. On the other hand his funcdon may

which, like
amount to little more than operating 'the spiritual dispensary
with
the metropolitan hotels, combines the most elegant of traditions

theickest of service' (McLart4,.:1968: 7).

043
 . 13'3

- (5) Mats- activity orientation

(a) The Great Tradition,

'As'aehild of God m4, owes duties' to his Creator; as a social 4

being, to his fellow-men. Religfeusobservances and ethical conduct ire

the twin poles of man's activity.4 Both are governed 6y the:precepts of

the Torah. 'Mine ordinances shall ye do, and My statutes shall ye

to walk -thereint I am the Lord your God. Ye shall therefore keep My

statutes, and Mine ordinances, which if a man do, he shall live by them:

1 am the.Lord'°(Lev. 44,4-5).19 Balachah (He6,) 'law' is the authorit-

ative, practi41 guide to Jewish life and,'seeks to translate into action

I

the ethical and spiritual dimensions of Judaism. 'Although fully developed

d-*
in Talmudic law, it is firmly rooted in Torah and derives its authority

therefrom. The dut$.es it enumerates are dietated ttfaith, and.eie held

to be commandmentstof God (Heb. mitzvah, pl. mitzvot).' The Jew becomes

liable for their performance as soon as he reaches his religi US majority

'a son
at the age of thirteen years when he becomes Barmitzvah, literally

of the commandment'. However, long before then, he is educated into their

meaning and demands. Stydy is itself a mitzvah and a pre-requisite for r-

knowing ihd performing all the mitzvot.

The term mitzvah also means companionship or union from the

Aramaic tzavta. 'He who, fulfills a, commandment becomes united with the

essence of 64, who ordained that Precept." This is the meaning of the

19 Cf. Ezek. 20:11,.13, 21.

20 The spelling of God in this case is-that used in all publications

of the Lubavitcher Movement and circulars printed by the school
following ultra-Orthodoxy tb avoid taking the name of the Lord in
vain, the Third Commandment (Exod. 20:7; Deut. 5:11). See
discLsion
by Werblowsky and Wigdder (1965: 160-161).
 84
411

Mishnah (Aboth 4: 2),Ahe reward of a mitzvah isgthe mitzvah", for the

.

greatest reward -of the worshiper is the very communion with G-4 which is

attained through° the fulfilAment of .the' precept' (Mindel, 1966;21.7).

Communion has a joyous element extolled'by Ktbbi Jehudah Haleviz 'Know

that our Torah is constituted of the three psychological state's; Fear,

4.
.

joy, and loye. By each of these thou mayest be broUght into communion with

And' if the joy in God excites thee even to the degree Of singing

and dancing, it is a service to God, keeping ttiee attached to Rip'

(Kuzari 111 48).21

4.

To know one's duties to God and fellow -men necessitates that one

learns theM through regular and continuous study of Torah, which Moses

commanded as 'an inheritance of the congregatibn of Jacob' (Dent. 33:4).

Thee complementary verbs in the Biblical injunction, 'Mine ordinances shell

ye do, and My statutes shall ye keep' (Lev. 18:4), imply bpth mechanical

performance ('do') and the idea of studying and understanding ('keep') the
-24

Until
principles underlying the commandments (Hertz, 1967: 489, f.n. 4).
of
the Madern Period, study of the Torah (Heb. Talmud Torah) in the sense

,,'labouring in the Torah for its own sake' was considered the most laudable
t

` "kind of activity, and the ideal type of Jew was the scholar (Werblowsk

Wigoder,-1965: 124). As one of the three.pillars supporting the Jewish

worlde(Avot r( 2), it connects him witktga community of Israel, awakens

vitalizes thd
his sense of the holy, fosters the ethical consciousness, and

practice of religion (Cohon, 1962: 246-249>. Study produces a love,

respect'and great reverence for books.

The primacy of Talmud Torah is constantly stressed in Biblical

and rabbinical literature. 'Thib book of-tile-Imw-shall not depart out of

21 See also Albo, litkarim, III: 34.

 F- .85

thy mouth, but thou shalt meditate therein day and.hight'54sh. i, 8).

The passage,in the Zohar, 'How greatly it is incumbent or a man to study

6

the Torah'day and night' expresses the same idea (Zohar I,;4b). In

Maimonides' Mishneh Torah: The Book of Knowledge, the obligation is laid'

upon every Israelite 'to study Torah,.whether he is poor or rich, in sound

health or ailing, in the vigour of youth or very old and feeble ... Until

what period in life ought one to study Torah?, Until the day of one's
25:-

death, a's it is said, "And lest they (the precepts) depart from thy heart

all the days of thy life" (Deuteronomy 4: 9). Whenever on ceases to

study, one forgets' (Maimonides, 1962: 1: 8, 10).

Talmud Torah is a holy activity and earns reward in the world to

come. Said Rabbi Qhananya, 'if two sit together and interchange word's of

Torah, the Shechinah abides between them' (Avot 3: 3). The great Hillel

used to say 'the more Torah, the more life ... he who has acquiredor

himself words of Torah, has acquired for himself life in 'the world to come'

(Avot 2: 8). Said Rabbi Jose, 'qualify thyself for the study of the Torah,

since the knowledge of it is not an inheritance of thine; and let allthy

deeds be done for the sake of Heaven' (Avot Yochanah ben Bag Bag '

said, 'Turn it (the Torah) and turn it 0:visigain, for everything is in-it,

and contemplate it, and wax grey and old over it, and stir not from it, for

th/ou canst have no better rule than this' (Avot 5425).

Closely related to Talmud Torah is the great value placed on

,educatfon, particularly that of children by parents or parental surrogates

in obedience to the Biblical injunction 'And thou shalt teach them

ndmehts] diligently unto children' (Deut. 6:7).22 Rabbinic law

obligates a father to teach his sontin'orah as well as a trade.

22 Cf. Deut. 11:19; Is. 54:13.

 86

Provisioh of elementary Zducetion was considered to be of, pare-

mount importance. 'And all thy children shall be taught of the Lord and

great shall be the peace of thy children' (Is. 54:13). The world is

'poised on the breath of schoolchildren' said the rabbis. Elementary

education was establiAed very early in Jewish history, and the identity

betweeh religion, history and education is fundamental to Jewish culture.

The Talmudic contribution to traditional Jewish education was to ensure

that learning wou]d become a major institution and activity for all'Jews.
to'
The result of both led.to the creation of a professional class of scholars

and a lesser, but nonetheless important,'class of teachers. These became

highly respected memberlf the community.

Education for the Jewish chiy begins at an early age. Talmudic

teaching advocates that as soon as the child can speak, his father should

teach him the Torah. The first verses that should be taught are
r

Deuteronomy 33:4: 'Moses commanded us a law, An inheritance of the con-

gregation of` Jacob', and the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4).23 These the young

child is made to learn by healt.

Teaching is in Hebrew, so esteemed by the rabbis as- 'the language

spoken by the angels' (Rag. lea), that it became known as the HOlyTongue.

'When the child begins to speak his father should speak to him in the Holy

Tongue ... and if he does not speak to him. in the Holy Tongue ... it is as

though be had buried him' (Midrash SiphlW Ekev 46). Not only are such

injutictions de4igned to protect the Holy Tongue but stress the fact that

the ra bis invested Hebrew with particular sanctity per se.. Although

Talmudic law permits the use of the vernacular fo prayer (Sotah 7.1), in

23 Kitzur SchuZchan Aruch, 165: 10. The words of t{e formerconstitute

part of` the little chiles Morning Prayer, and are a national, motto
in Israel.(Hertz, 1967: 910, f.n. 4).

1
.15

1,12 .
 87-

Orthodox congregations at least, Aebrew iso the sole language acceptable for
.

liturgical purposes so highly is it valued.24

Jtidaism does not confine education to mere precept, through which

knowledge of Halachah. is gained, but adds the dimension of practice as a'

0

medium of instruction. 'He (Moses] did not leave practice without teaching,

nor teaching without its application into practice. He left nothing in the

life of the individual to his own caprice or discretion, regulating his

diet, social relations, andthe days for labotc and for rest' (Cohort, 1962:

'259). The historic gyriod at Lydda in 133 A.C.E. came to the decision 'Study

is most important, because it leads to deed' (Hertz, 1963: 625, f.n. 17).

Said Rabbi Simeon, 'not-learning but doing is the chief thing' (Avot 1: 17).

Practice flowing from knowledge is of decisive importance in

Judaism, thus'the rabbis attached the highest value to the unquestioning

obsery nce of ceremonial and ritual 'requirements, with their attendant.

They are 'practical observances' (Heb.

visa loi/P
le symbols and concrete acts.

mitzvot maasiyot) based on the motives of consecration and obedience to

God's service. 'I have set the Lord always before me' (Ps. 16:8) is a

'cardinal principle in the Torah'.25 Its Biblical origin derives from the

Sinaitic Covenant: 'And he (Moses] took the book of the covenant and read

in the hearing of the people; and thesaid: "All that the Lord hath

spoken will we do, and obey"' (Exod.,24:7).

ConseCration and desire for ritual purity, in addition to concern

for hygiene, are the dominant motives for carrying out ablutions such as

/4 A limited number of prayers (Kaddish, KoZ Nidrei and Ha- Zachma Anya -
the opening of the Passover Haggadah) are in Aramaic.

25 Kitzur Schuichar; Aruch, 1: 1.

113
 88

washing the hands before meals, and after using the lavatory. The same
4

motives apply to the Orthodox practice of washing the hands immediately

upon waking to counter ank impurity that might have been contracted during,

the night.26 'I will wash mf handsin innocency', said the psalmist, 'and

I will cbmpass Thy altar, 0 Lord' (Ps. 26:6-7). The face should also be

washed and mouth rinsed: 'For in the image of God He hath made the man'

(Gen. 9:6). The major rite of total immersion in the mikveh or ritual

bath is ad act of purification par 'excellence. It is enjoined upon the

pious Jew to praCtise immersion prior to the onset of.Festivals when 'he

shall bathe all his flesh .in water' (Lev. 15:16).

The dietary laws and the act of saying Grace before and after meals

also have important consecratory functions. They impart an element of

spirituality into the biological act of eating. 'And thou shalt eat and be

-satisfied, and bless the Lord thy God for the good land which He hath given

awe' (Deut. 8:10) was taken by the rabbis as the basis for the precept that
a
every meal must be followed by Grace. 'In the light of Judaism, the table

is at' altar; -and every meal is hallowed by prayer, before and after'

(Hertz, 1967:583, f.n. 10).

The rabbis singled out three mitzvot maaaiyot with their under-
4

lying motive of sanctification, which recall man to his spiritual

responsibilities and fealty to God. They are the laying on of tephillin

phylacteries worn by Jewish males of thirteen years and over at the week-

day Morning Service (Exod. 13:9; Sanh. 88b); the mezuzch (Heb. 'doorpost'),

a small case containing Biblical inscriptions on parchment affixed to the

doorposts in Jewish homes (Deut. 6:9);' and the tzitzit (40. 'fringes'),
P- 4

which are attached to each of the four corners of a garment (Deut. 22:12;

.26 KiftUr SchuSchan Aruch, 1: 2.

114
 89

NUITh 15:38-40). Nowadays, a special, cotton, rectangular undervest'is

oyrn, with bunches of fringes or tassels'ittached to each corner: This

Is termed. the arba kauphot (Heb. 'four c'orners') or tc4iit katan hieb.

'small tallit') to distinguish it from Ihe large, fringed rayer$hawl

(Heb.-tcaW gao) which fa worn during the Morning and Additional Services

on Sabbath and FestiVals. A Talmudic passage observes: 'Beloved are

Israel, for the Holy One, blessed be He, has surrounded them with precepts

Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob said "Whosoever has phylacteries on his head,

phylacteries on his arm, fringes ondlis garment, and a mezuzah on his

doorpost, is certain not to sip"! (Men. 43b).

Each of the above mit...vat, as is the case of other gitzvot, e.g.

lighting the Sabbath candles and washing the hands, is accompanied by the

appropriate Blessing Benediction (Heb. berochah). It, is' recited in a

.

standard, unvarying form: 'Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God; King of the

universe, who has sanctified us by His commandments and commanded,us II

followedbyaphrareferring.to the mitzvah to be performed. -Blessings

:

are" also, driadrink

also, said before partaking of any food or ('Blessings of Enjoyment')
r.

and on seeing such natural pbenomena.as light:ling, the ocean and a rainbow,

or on hearing either good 'CT bad .news. ''The fact that at various times

throughout the day the Jew is obtlpid. to recite a blessing and thus turn his

thoughts to God, is one of the most charactetistic-features of the discipline

of sanctification' (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 62).

The Blessing is the unit of Jewish prayer in both private devcttions.

and congregational worship. As Hertz notes, --(1963: xviii):

In t14 scheme of the Rabbis, prayer covered the whole

existence oil the Jew. It was offer t the beginning and

end of every meal, and every activity an uman experience

were hallowed by the thought of God. And they made devotion

115
se&
 90

part of the very life -of the people by ordaining

it a5 the daily du4 of the jew.

The rabbis considered that prayer was implied by the Biblical

commandment 'to serve the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy

soul' Oeut. 10:12).2/

A .1' r .
'What is heart - service ?' asked the rabbis (Midrash .

Siphra Deut. 11:13), and Answered 'Service of the heart is Prayer'

(Hertz,'1967: 792, f7n.-13). Worship, the central pillar of Judaism, is

.

extolled throughout rabbinical literature in maxim and injunction.

J2
Rabbi Joshua ben Levi believed it to be so efficacious that It breaks even

an iron wall which separated Israel ftom the Heavenly Father (Sotah 38b).

Great importance was attached to.congregational prayer. 'Wherever ten

persons pray', says Rabbi Yitzchak, 'the Shechinah, the Divine Presence,

dwells among them' (Hertz, 1963: xix).

The mfnutiae of prayer are governed-by copious regulations to bring

rule and discipline into devotion.28 However, an element of spontaneity

should also be permitted. Man should pray only in a devout and reverential

frame of mind (Ber. 5: 1). The object of the tephillin worn at the weekday

Morning Service is to direct the thoughts of the,wearer to God, and to the

teachings contained in the four paragraphs embodied in the leather cases

constituting one component of the tepha4in (rod. 13:1, 13:11; Deut.

11:13-21)-'.The Chassidim customarily wear a girdle (Yidd. gartel) made of

black silk oriwool over the long outer garment (Yidd. kapota) when at prayer,

in strict obedience to the rabbinic injundtion that a division should be made

between the lower ('profane') part of the body and the upper part. To the

44
27 Cf. Deut. 11:13.

28 The opening treatise of the Talmud, Berachoth, is entirely given over

to the subject.

,116
(
 I

4
91.

Chassidim the ideal means of communion with God is Prayer recited in a stAte

of exalted joy and ecstatiefervour ,(Heb. hithlahakuth). When words fail,

Chassidim resort to humming or chanting wordless melodies (Heb. nigspim),

clapping, and even dancing, for it is said 'And David danced before the

Lord with all his might' .(TI Sam. 6:16).

The antithesis. of such euphoria, and closely onnecied with

prayer, is fasting in obedience to the command 'ye shall afflict your

souls' (Lev. 23:27). Fasting is a sign of mourning, expiation and atone-

.

ment for one's sins. To the prophets, fasting was associated with

righteous conduct and with benevolence (Zech. 708; Is. 58). The rabbis
.

held fasting in high esteem. Rabbi Eleazar valued fasting, more than

charity, for it is a sacrifice of oneself and not merely of-one's

substance (Ber. 17a, 32b). However, excessive fasting, and individual '.

fasting were not favoured by Talmudic Judaism. The habitual faster is

regarded as a sinner (Epstein, 195§: 156).

God may also be served and His Name sanctified by one's daily

labour. f'The exaltation of labour marks all Jewish literature' (Cohon,

1962: 179'). The rabbis regarded the phrase in the Fourth Commandment

'but
(Exod. 20:10), :Six.days shalt thou labour', as binding as the phrase,
,11

do
the seventh day is_a sabbath unto the Lord thy God,'in it thou shalt not
Indolence
any manner of work°, that follows it (Vekhitta Exod. 20:9-10).
Said the
an weekdays is even thought to profane the following Sabbath.

psalmist: 'When thoU eatest ornatheur of thine hands, happy shalt thou
The proverb 'go to the ant
be and it will be well with thee' (Ps. 128:2).

thou sluggard' alsci emphasizes the value placed on work throughout

Scripture:

1.1'7p
 92
4

It was further developed in Talmud where the rabbis also stressed

the notion of apportioning one's effort between labour and spiritual

activities: 'Rabbi Gamaliel, the son of Rabbi Judah the Prince said, "Ah

excellent thing is the study of the Torah combined with Some worldly °coups-

y,tion, for the labour demanded by theM, both makes sin to be forgotten"'

(Avot 2: 2). Idleness and no-4 oppoitunity for work are condemned: 'idleness

leads to immorality' (Ket. 5: 5), while labour is considered to enhance

.P
man'a worth: 'great is labour far it lends dignity to man' (Ned. 49b).,

(h) The Academic Tradition

Activities in the ACademic Tradition centre on the twin goals of

intelle4u44 training,afid-character training (Bassett, 1963: 280-1).

s, \.4
The

former cha Ols pupils' efforts into academic learning rather than voca-
\

\4\tional, with its concomitant curricula and teaching methods. These

arp largely pOacriptive and oriented towards external examinations at the

\\

sixth Form (Grade 12) or matriculation level. For those pupils who aspire

to this goal, work is largely teacher-dominated through 'exposition,

'explanation, set home0ork, tests, and guided study of texts' (ibid., p. 281).

Although in some schools token recognition is given tostudent initiative,

research and self-directed learning, by the stage of the senior Forms at

least, whatHansen has termed 'Australia's examinamania' (1931: 166) pre-

vails, sp that intellectual. excellence may be clearly apparent in the

number of first - class honours amassed by students at the final examination$:.

ethe meritocratic approach to learning. 4

f*

The historical roots of the Academic Tradition played their part

in shaping this emphasis. on intellectual effort (ibid., p. 22):

118
 93

In Victoria in the 1850's there were two

influences to be seen, bOth Old Testament irk
nature rather than New: the Olympian-Arnoldian
emphasis uport salvation through determined effort.
in the classroom, and the Scots- Calvinist insist-
ence upon the same individual and unremitting
search for learning, with, however, comparatively
little guarantee of election.to the saints.
Ar
Character training activities were join)d to those associated with

learning in the succeeding period, which saw efie Old Testament emphasis give

place to 'muscular Victorian Christianity'. This stressed a New-Testament

Christian humanism .in which are blended the mystery of religion and its

mystical qualities, with ideals of service to the community and indiridual

social responsibility through good deeds. A feature of the extra-curricular

activities in many'Independent schools is an emphasis on undertaking social

service projects, such as working at old people's homes or in urban welfare,

organizations,-hospital kitchens and the like.

The ideological -basis of such activities is clearly evident in the

resolution to the Australian Prime Minister passed by the Headmasters

Conference of Australia in 1943 (Wilson, 1957: 46). Inter alia the members

of thd Conference taw their schools contributing to a reformed education

system through:

(1) The religious spirit of their schools.

(2) Their insistence on the training of character on the

basis -of the Christian faith.

(3) Their efforts to train pupils t -regard their life

work as a vocation in the servi of (did and of, the

community.
4

. (4) The traditional methods by which they seek to develop

in young people a sense of social responsibility.

iA

119
 94

1
An essential part of character tkainint is the leadership

qualities it supposedly produces, particularly in boys. The headmaster

of one lepding Independent school in Melbourne considered that 'the concept

of "leadership" conferred by the spe4al.qualities of private school educo-'

tion is intimately intertwined with'the Arnoldian image of the Christian

gentleman' (Encel, 1970: 426). Such a concept is not alien to the general

ethos of Australian society.' As Upset found in 'h cross-national survey

(1963: 515-531), Australians rank first on elitism-egalitarianisml. that is,

a fusion between two ideals that all members of society deserve equal respect

a4 human beings, and that due recognition be made of the general superiority

of those who hold elite positions.

Physical manliness, and participation in sport, games or other

outdoor pursuits are seen as conducive to moral virtue and character

building (Bassett, 1963: 281). They are given great prominence in the extra-
.

curricular activities of most Independent and many leading State High

schools. In support, Hansen cites,Lytton Strachey's claim to trace the

worship of athletics and good form directly back to the Arnoldian cult

(Vanden, 1971: 22-23). The same writer comments on the 'games fetish' in

the great Independent schools (ibid., p. 121). To McLaren (1968: 163

emphasis on sport is based on the Concepts of 'healthy minds in healthy

bodies and team spirit destroying individual pride [Wasch] have been handed

down from Thomas Arnold of Rugby to produce a strange antipodean effloresc nce

in whose shade mere scholarship wanes unobserved'-.

Emphasis on sport and the necessary leisure to pursue it, like

leadership, is in tune with the ethos of the:wider Australian-society. As

Aters notes (1963: 413): 'Australians place an unusually high value upon

leiaure. They take their right to leisure seriously'. By the sage token,

12
 4 95

they ta4 sport very 'seriously (ibid., p. 415 ff.).

Other activities encouraged in schools pursuing the Academic

Tradition are also held to be conducive to character building and the

production of/leadership qualities. Techniques used outside the classroom

are a house system, prefect system, cadet and scout movements, and the

*eticouragement of arts, crafts, hobbies and voluntary societies concerned

with numerous aesthetic activities, social welfare projects and groups such

as bushwalking to encourage concern for'nature. Such special features, so

P
the ideology maintains, contriIute to the education of the whole man - 'of

trying to make Tom Brown a brave, helpful, truth-telling Australian, and

a gentleman' (Wilson, 1957: 42).

(6) Man-time orientation

.(a) The Great Tradition

Man is part of a Divine order conceived as eternity. God is

'everlasting (Heb. Chei-ha-OZamim), the God of eternity (Is. 40:28;

Midrash Lev. Rab. vi, 6). His Covenant with the descendants of Abraham,

Israel, is an everlasting Covenant (Gen. 17:7).29 God's fidelity to it,

despite Israel's defections, is eternal. 'God is "the First and the Last",

initiating all movements,- calling the generations from the beginning -

and bringing them to a close' (Hertz, 1967: 61, f.n., 4). God's Kingdom

is eternal. 'The Lord shall reign forever and ever' (Exod. 15:18). 'From

everlasting to everlasting Thou art God' (Ps. 90:2)..

The Divine is the God of history. The great teachers in Israel

'saw in history a continuous revelation of Divine thought and purpose

across the abyss of time' (Hertz, 1917: 936). Jewish history is Divinely-

ordered history which began with the Creation ex nihiZo, received its

29 Cf. Lev. 26:42-45.

121

e iJ
 96

Ipecific form with the call of Abrebem and subsequent Biblical events, and .,!...
, .
. . -
. ,
. . ,.

will end in the World to Comp,(Heb., cunt Ra -ba).' 'Man is a citizen of two

worlds - This world and the World.to Come. God bath set'eternity in our

'hearts, and only in Eternity can we reach our full development. This

*orld is the vestibule; the Future Woild is man's true home' (Hertz,'1963:

255, f.n. 13). Said the Sages, 'All 'Brae). have a portion in the world to

come' (Sarah. x, 1). Said Rabbi Jacipb, 'This world is like ari ante-chamber
r

to the world to come; prepare thyself in the ante-chamber, that thou

mayestrenter into the hall' (Avot 4: 21).

In the eschatological thinking of the prophets and rabbis, is

Epstein points out (1959: 60), mankind as a wholeis seen as 'marching to

the transcendental reality of an earthly"futuie, "when the earth shall be

full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea" (Is. 11: 9)'.

This doctrine of MFssianism postulates the ultimate establishMent of'the

rule of universal righteousness on earth and the restoration of the house

of David and a reunited Israel. The Messianic hope centres on an

'eschatological king who is to rule over Israel at the end of days'

(Werblowsky &:Wigoder, 1965:.259). He Is the Messiah (Heb. mashiach

a

-"anointed!). In the words of Hermann Cohen cited by Cohon (1962: 229):

'The future which the prophets portray under the symbol of the Messiah in

the future of world history. It is the goal, it is the meaning of history,

which presents the contrast to history in its isolated reality'. The

Twelfth Principle of Faith of Maimonidee declares: believe with perfect

faith in the coming of the Messiah; and, though he tarry, I will wait

daily for his coming'.30

The Authorized Dai.ly Prayer Book, p. 255.

122
 97

If future-oriented Messioism constitutes the goal of social

F
morality, the means.to achieve it - knowing God's Will and performing the

mitzvot.- are rooted in the Biblical past. Man is vast-oriented. Moral

.

laws are'inculcated by recollecting historical instances of immoral conduct

that have led to loss of Divine favour. The Liturgy abounds with references

tb majorihistorical events from which a moral might be drawn. Remembrance

)

and commemoration of major historical episodee are fundamental to such

basic observances as the Festivals of Passover (Heb. Pesach), Tabernacles

(Heb. Succos), Weeks or Pentecost.(Heb. ShavUot). The Pentateuch and

0
Prophetic writings, the study of which is a mitzvah, are the historical

record of.the Jews, without which Judaism as a religion is incomprehensible.

/
The past and the religion are interd pendent. Werblowsky and Wigoder observe.

(1965: 187):

It was religion that brought the Jewish people into

being, gave it cohesion and endowed it with phenomenal
powers of resistance ... At the same time, while the
Jewish religion has conditioned Jewish history, Jewish
history in its turn, has conditioned the Jewish religion.

A sense,of the past is implicit in the Jewiph 'calendar. Jewish

dates are reckoned on a lunisolar basis from the date of Creation which the

rabbis placed at 3760 B.C.E. (Before the Common Era). Thus the Jew has

always before him a subtle reference to an historical event to which he owes

his yeti existence.

The commemoration of, the Creation is one concern of the Festival

of the Jewish.New Year (Heb. Rosh Hashanah), which brings past, present and

future time together and illustrates their fundamental importance in

Judaism.- As the anniversary of the Creation, Rosh Hashanah looks to the

past. .In the present, it calls Jews td acts of penitence and prayers for

123
 98

Divine forgiveness which will last for the subsequent 'ten days of penitence'

culminating in the Day of Atonement (Heb. Yom Kippur), a day spent in solemn'

prayer and the collective confession particularly of social and moral sins.

By calling Jews to repent and return to righteousness in the Liturgy,

Rosh Hashanah foreshadows-the future Messianic millenium towards which all

U
Creation is moving, but for* which repentance and restoration of man's 7,4

harmony with God are the necessary prelude.

Concern for the proper allocation of time to valued activities

is fundamental to Judaism, and finds expression in Scripture and rabbinical

literature. Of foremost importance is the Jewish Sabbath, a day set apart

from the profane by Divine decree for rest, consecration to God and the

life of the spirit (hertz, 1967: 6, f.n. 3). 'And on the seventh day God

finished His work yhich He hadmade. And God blesstd the seventh day, and

hallowed it; because that in it He rested from all His work which God in

creating had made' (Gen. 2:2-3). .The Jew is commanded to 'Remember the

sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy

work; but the seventay is a sabbath unto the' Lord thy God, in it thou

shalt not do any manner of work' (Exod. 20:8-10). Variants of the injunc-

tion occur in subsequent Scriptural passages.31 The laws detailing the

thirty nine4principal types of 'work' forbidden on the Sabbath according

A
to the rabbis occupy a.major proportion of the Order Mbed,(Appointed

Seasons) in the Mishnah.

A twenty-four hour day in Judaisi lasts from evening to evening.

Thus the Sabbath lasts from nightfall on Friday until nightfall on Saturday.

Meticulous rules were laid down by the rabbis to determine thepexact time

31 E.g. Exod. 31:13-17; Lev. 19:3;7 Deut. 5:12-14.

124
 99

of nightfall. It was establishld.as the moment when three stars of the

second magnitude are visible in the sky, i.e. when the sun is approximately

seven degrees below the 'horizon. Timetables are available to Orthodox Jews

giving the exact chronological equivalent of this-moment, for each day, .

week and month of the calendar. All other activities on Friday re to be

arranged to allow,Jews time to get home before sunset to prepare for= the

rituals in the home with which the Sabbag is greeted. They include the

lighting of the Sabbath candles with the appropriate blessing and KidduSh

(Heb. 'sanctification'), which, is-aceremgny and prayer to proclaim the

holiness of the Sabbath, based on rabbinical. interpretation of Exodus 20:8,

'Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy'.32

Kiddush has its.equivalent in the gavddlah ceremony (Heb.

'differentiation') and prayer, which is recited at the conclusion of the

Sabbath and Festivals to mark the distinction between the sacred day that

has ended and the weekday that is beginning. Appropriate phrases in the

prayer enumerate the differences between 'holy.and profane', between 'light

and darkness', and betwesp ',Israel and the gentiles' (Werblowsky & WiAder,,

1965: 178).

In addition to being a day of rest, the Sabbath illustrates the

importance placed pn the allocation of time to religious worship, and

religious ipatruction or study. Prayer, and the allocation of time necessary

for it, constitute a major man-time orientation. In the Judaic tradition

there are three prescribed times to pray each day. The first is Shacharte

(Heb. 'Dawn Prayer'.), the Morning Prayer, which can be recited at any time

from dawn until the first quarter of the day has elapsed. Prior to it,

32 apes. 106a: 'Remember it over wipe'. Kiddush is an abbreviation of the

Talmudic phrase kiddush ha-yom (Heb.) 'sanctification of the day'.

125
 100
4

private prayers can be said by the deVout immediately on rising. The second

is Minchah (Heb. 'Offeting% the Afternoon Prayer, which can be-said during

the period.from,mid-day until just before sunset. The third is likariv (Heb,

'who brings an the>evening twilight'), the Evening Prayer, said during the

period between nightfall and dawn of the following day.

Shachdris is the most solemn*of the three daily prayers. It is

not permissible to do any work or have a real before it. Shacharis is Also

the most extensive of the daily services taking some forty minutes to an

hour depending on whether a portion of Torah is read. It comprises recitals'.

of benedictions and private prayerst followed by the synagogue service

10.

proper at the heart of which are the Shema, Amidah, Half-Kaddish, 'faddish

and Aleinu. On Mondays and Thursday's a section from'the week's Pentateuchal

r.

portion is read from the Scroll.

Alr
The allocation of time to Minchah and Maariv is not as extensive

as for Shacharis. In some synagogues'' are recited sequentiilly late in

-the afternoon - Minchah being immediately followed by Mdariv. Alternatively

Mdariv can be said at home with the omission of statutory prayers such as

the Mdariv Amidah for which a minyan is required.

The value placed on devoting time to the performance of the

ceremonial laws concerning wearing the tallit and putting on tephinin'is

clearly apparent at the Morning Service. The former is worn argland the

shoulders and covering the head in obedienCeto the Biblical injunction:

'Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make throughout

their generations fringes in the corners of their garments, ... And it shall

be unto you for a ffinge, that ye may look upon it and remember all the

commandments of the Lord, and do 'them' (Num. 15:38-39). Adult males wear

the tallit; boys are not so required. It is donned with an appropriate

126
 101

Blessing: 'Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the universe, who hest

hallowed us by thy commandments, and hest commanded us to enwrap ourselves in

the fringed garment'.33

All of Barmitzvah age are expected to take time to lay on

tephillin (wear phylacteries) during the weekday services. The boxes

comprising the tephillin are worn, one on the forehead, and one on the

upper bieep of the left arm, and are put on after donning the tallit.

The at of putting the phylactery on the arm (Heb. shel yad) is accompanied

by the Benediction: 'Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the universe

who has hallowed us by Thy commandments, and has commandecrus to put on the

Tephillin'. A Benediction accompanies the act of placing the phylactery on

the forehead, (Heb. sheZ rash): 'Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God, King f
the universe, who has hallowed us by thy commandments, and haat given us

command concerning the.preCept of the Tephillin. Blessed be His name, whose

glorious kingdom is for ever and ever'.34 TephY,llin, a symbol of God's

Covenant with Israel, are not worn on Sabbaths and Festivals as these are

considered to be sufficient reminders in themselves of the Covenant and the

events and concepts ociated with it.

Time must be 'allocated to other ceremonial observances, particularly'

the mezuzah and the wearing of tzitzit during waking hours. Mitzvot such as

the Benedictions of Enjoyment also require a short period of time, during

which man's thoughts are turned towards the Divine.

Allocation of time to study is a necessary condition for the

understanding of one's ritual and liturgical duties. The study of the

33 The Authorized DaiZy Prayer Book, p. 45.

34 The Authorized DaiZy Prayer Book, p. 49.

127
 102
*
Torah (Heb. Talmud Torah) is a positive religious duty, held by the rabbis

to be more important°than ceremonial observances, as these can only be

leaihed through study (Kidd. 40b). 'In his tradition the Jewigh student

saw God's will manifest. Study, then, was also communion and learning Zia.

an act of worship. Scholarship in the sacred literature, was regarded as a

N
means of serving God' (Steinberg, 1959: 103).

Study should be a regular habit. Said Rabbi Shammai,'Fix a period.

for thy study of' the Torah' (Avot 1: 15). Neglect of the Torah for a single

day leads to further neglect (Avot 4: 11). 'Forsake the Torah a single day,

and it will forsake thee two days' (Talmud). The rabbis held that a man

-should devo4 all his leisure to study of the Torah, giving one third to

the Pentateuch, one third to the Mishnah, a one third'to Talmud

N4 .

(Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 366). Idle ess and waste of time are abhorred.

Said Rabbi Tarfon, 'The day isl'short, and the work is great, and the
i

re
labourers are sluggish, and the reward is much; and the Master is urgent ...

It is not thy duty to 117mplete the work, but ntither art thou free to

desist from it; I

if t ou hast studied much Torah, much reward will be given

thee' (Avot 2: 20-21) Said the.great Hillel, 'neither say, When I have

leisure I will siiidyClperchance thou wilt have no leisure' (Avot 2: 5).

The routine of study is set out in detail (Avot 6: 4):

Thisis the V.Ta that is becoming for the study of the

TorAh: a morsel of gad with salt 'thou must eat, and

water by measure th t drink; thou must sleep upon

the ground, and live life of trouble the while thou

toilest in the Torah.

Even wakeful periods during the night should not be wasted, and should be

spent in serious meditation. 'My soul is satisfied").. when I remember

Thee upon my couch, and meditate on Thee in the night- watches'

128
 103

(Ps. 63:6 ff.). RabbiChanina, the son of Chachinai, said,'He who keeps

awake at night, and goes on his way alone, and turns his heart to idle

thoughts, such a one sins against himself' (Avot 3: 5).

4

Study is not merely confined to childhood but continues through- .

out life. The rabbis allocated certain periods of a man's life to defined'

types of study and other activities (Avot 5: 25):,

He [Rabbi Judah, the son of Tema], used to say

At five years the age is reached for the study of the
Scriptbre, at ten for the study of the Mishm, at
,
thirteen for the fulfilment of the commandments, at
fifteen for the study of the Talmud; at eighteen for
marriage, at twenty for seeking a livelihood, at .

thirty for entering into one's full strength, at

forty for understanding, at fifty for counsel, at
sixty a man attains old age.

(b) The Academic Tradition

' Man-time orientation in the Academic Tradition contains a number of

superficial similarities to the Great Tradition primarily because of the

tenets of Christianity to which the Academic Tradition nominally subscribes.

An eschatological view of history and man's progress looks towards the

Resurrection and the second coming of a Messiah in the person of the Son of

God. At this time mankind will be. judged. A sequence of religious

festivals such as Christmas, Lent, Easter, Ascension-Day and Whip-Sunday

punctuates the cycle of the religious year, and commemorates historical

episodes of the Christiantradition. To many, however, they provide purely

secular holidays in which religious significance is lost.

Allocation of time to activity during the week makes a distinction

between five weekdays devoted to teaching and the weekend in which the

Sabbath on Sunday is nominally a day for rest and church attendance. In those

129
 104

hic

Independent schools with boarders, provision is usually made for collective

worship in the school chapel or the local parish church. However, except

for the few schools affiliated to strictly fundamentalik denominational

the concept of the Sabbath as a day of rest anditotal work avoidance ie

nowhere so devloped as'in Orthodox Judaism. Neither are the length of

the day, ite ritual beginning and ending so strictly demarcated.

Allocation of time to collective worship at times other than

Sunday traditionally takes the form of the daily school assembly, which

typically incorporates the Lord's Pray6k, a hymn or two, possibly a short

homily from the 4leadmaster or 4aplain, and a concluding Benediction.

the State schools, this is 'paralleled'hy the loyal assembly, at which the

headmaster couples the names of the almighty and the sovereign' (McLaren,

1968; 149). In Independent boarding schools it is.ali3o custotary for the

duty master to intone Grace before one or more mealein the dining hall.

Allocation of time to secular study occupies all the normal

teaching day. There is also provision for a weekly scripture dater-

(ibid., loc. cit.), and one or more periods of physical education. Extra-

curricular activities, and,either compulsory or optional sport, take place

after normal school in the evening or during weekends. Such 'out-of-school'',

activities are a distinctive feature of the Atademic Traditith and reflect

the value its schools place on educating 'the whole man'e Nilson,-1957: 391.

The`accent on sport id the Independent school necessitates a

considerable allocation of time being set aside for it each week. Even in

a State High school this can amount to the equivalent of two teaching weeks

in a thirty week year. In the Independent school the time will vary accord-
16.

ing to the level of a boy's participation. If he is a member of a senior

team or crew, for instance, some twelve hours or more can be devoted to

training and'competition in after-school time each week. The weekend sees

1 30
 1'

105"
t.
most activity, and even Sunday, the nominal day of rest, is not exempted

in some Independent schools.

(7) Man-habitat orientation

(a) The Great Tradition

In common with other religious groups, to carry out the valued

activities of the Great Tradition, the Jevishcommunity structures parts

of its habitat into a 'pure and holy cosmos' (Laatsch, 1971: 347 ff.).

Of central conceris the synagogu.building, the architectural embodiment

of the synagogue as a social institution. 'The rabbis taught that a

synagogue should be erected wherever there existed a Jewish community.

Where possible they ware built on hills so that they should not be over-,

looked by other buildings (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 369). A major

.
architectural feature of the building is the Ark containing, the Scrolls

of the Law located on the 'eastern wall', i.e. the one oriented 'towards

Jerusalem'.

Although the synagogue itself can provide a place of instruction

4

and study, traditional Jewish communities constructed a building adjoining

the synagogue for higher rabbinic education. Called the bet midrash (Heb.

'house of study') it housed rabbinic texts such as Mishnah, Talmud and

Codes, and had a sanctity considered by the rabbis to be greater than that

of the synagogue itself (Ber. 8a). The bet midrash also served as the

community's library housing its collection of rabbinical and other books.35

The value placed on ritual purity, particularly for women, and

the mitzvah of the mikveh, led Jewish communities to construct a ritual

bathhouse (Heb. mikveh - lit. any gathering of waters, Gen. 1:10). It was

35' The first mention of the bet midrash occurs in Ecclesiasticus 51:50;
also referred to in Proverbs 8:34.

131
 .14

106

((JIP
considered s important by the rabbis as fo take precedence oyez the con-
.

stroction of a synagogue. The synagogue might even be sold to raise the

money needed to build a mikveh.

'Temporary restructuring of the habitat occurs during-the Feetiva].

of SUeeos (Booths), when it is customary for each Jewish congregation to

construct a communal sueeah 'in,order that your generation may know that I

caused the Children of Israel to dwell in tabernacles when I brought them

out of the Land of Egypt' (Lev. '23:42=43). A sueeah must have a minimum of

three walls, and must riot be more than twenty cubits high. Its roof is con-

structed of'cut vegetation laid over.laths and open to .the sun." In

Welittern communities a syceah is customarily built adjoining the synagogue;

and is visited by members of the congregation for light refrolshment after

services during the Festival.

(b) the Academic Tradition

In the Academic Tradition, the school chapel is comparable with

the synagogue as the architectural embodiment of the value placed on

collective religious worship. It often occupies a position of prominence

in the layout of the Independent schools and, where practicable, is also

the venue for the solemnization of marriage, baptism and christening of

former pupils or their,. oMspring. Often the chapel incorporates an organ

a

reflecting the value placed on hymn music in the Liturgy of Christianity..

The value placed on sport and gamqs in the Academic Tradition is

reflected in the amount of space and number of buildings devoted almost

exclusively to such activities. A sports oval (or several ovals) occupies

ptide of place as a venue for football, cricket and athletics. A sports.

36 Detailed rules for construction are specified in the sixth'Mishnah

tractate of Moed. See also Kiizur Schulehan Arueh, 134 -135.

132
 pavilion and changing rode, often incorporating a grandstana in more

lavishly endowed schools, are located nearby. A scoreboard is ubiquitous.

Swimming pools, either open or closed, aria a gymnasium with its ancillary

roomfor equipment and staff are also part of the constructed landscape.'

The gymnasium can also double as an examination hall during tie yearly

examinations at the senior level.

Other sporting facilities areqtrovided according to the financial

strength or speciality of the school. Rowing schools located on a river

\ have boatsheds nearbIlftor own, a boatshed on the nearest stretch OT water.

I
The school landscape can also incorporate tennis, fives, and even squash

courts.

The value placed. on close staff interpersonal relations in some

Independent schools has led to part of the school buildings being devoted

to staff rooms, which are often well appointed to provide both,places for

work and relaxation. Those schools which conduct pastoral care programmes

and house systems also have rooms for house masters and others to conduct

interviews with students and their parents.

0

The overall layout in some Independent schools devotes space to

gardens, shrubbery, 'green and pleasant places', as opposed to the bare

concrete or` asphalt playgrounds, where staff and students can relax during

the day. Landscape design of this nature reflects the value placed on more

subtle influences which might contribute to the education of the 'whole man'.

(8) Summary
4
The typology of value orientations, which form the ideological

basis of the two°Traditions assumed to validate, the ideology of Lubavitcher

School, has focussed on six areas of human concern which relate to 'the means

and ends of striving' (Honigmann, 19674 78). .Thera are broad similaritiesip

133
 A

108

the uliimate
. areas of cosmological belief and views of a future millenium as

end of human existence, as both Traditions share common historical, Biblical

roots. Both Traditions emphasize learning and study as means, though the

ends towards which they are oriented differ. In the Great Tradition they

norms and values at

are oriented towards learning the multitude of rules,

the heart of Orthodox Judaism, in order to become a strictly Orthodox{''

observant Jew. On the other hand, the Academic Tradition can be said US

be knowledge and assessment, oriented in order to succeed in ameritocratiC,

competitive examination system, and gain a prestigious status in the economic

world.
f'

In the ethical domain, both Traditions share the common Golden 1

Rule, but the Great Tradition lays down far more detailed prescriptions

for human Conduct than does the Academic Tradition. In particular, the

dietary rules ensure that the Jew will remain separate from the Gentile,

but maintaining them would obviously pose great problems in a secular world.

Allocation of time to activities, and the arrangement of the

habitat necessary to facilitate them, reflects basic contrasts in the views

held about the ideal man by the two Traditions. In the Great Tradition the

ideal man can be said to be the scholar, reflecting the veneration given to

the intellect and learning. Such a view has no place far things of the

body, such adsport. On the other hand, the Academic Tradition places con-

siderable emphasis on the 'whole man'.. Sport and games ar aluable as'

necessary concomitants of such a view.

(--
Following Schutz (1964:.11) it deems possible to make a distinction 'I*

between the motives underlying the orientations of the two Traditions. In

the case of the Great Tradition, Biblical literalism validated by Divine

The
fiat, in the final analysis, provides 'because motives' for conduct.

134
 109

pragmatic orientation of the Academic Tradition provides 'in order to'

motives for conduct.

A boy attending LubavitcherSchool is thus presented with two

world views contending for his commitment. Smolicz has suggedted'11974a: 19)

age
hat 'were [a tradition] to remain completely faithful to its ancient us

it would have undoubtedly perished', but this must be disputed in the case

of the Great Tradition of Orthodox Judaism. Because of its Divine origin

it is regarded as immutable, and thus not 'malleable' in the way Smolicz,

It remains tradition, nonetheless. It is

following Szacki, suggests.

historically derived, and the possibility of it being either positively or

negatively evaluated still exists.

It -c-anticipated that the Orthodox Jewish Day School selected

the 'social
for this study attempts to operationalize both Traditions through

organization of tradition' (Redfield, 1956: 40). By doing so it places boys

attending the school in a situation where two traditions provide 'raw

material' for praxis. Reality construction under such circumstances is likely to

be highly problematical with the possibility that opportunities for praxi4

will be greatly reduced.

*.

.1 3 5
 PART TWO

THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. OF TRADITION

c?

136
 o
111
CHAPTER 5
es,

SCHOOL CAMPUS, FACILITIESAND_STAFF

enculturation matrix
The communication of tradition in a school
teaching,staff and other personnel,- the
is a process that necessitates
facilities in which their
enculturation agents - and the technological
(positioned status-roles) and
activities are conducted.' The structure
3

adopt Firth's useful

organization (working arrangements) of the Staff, to
layout of buildings
distinction (1964:35ff); together with the design and
the social organization of t
and campus are the administrative element of

tradition.
facilities
(1) The arrangement of religious and teaching
small-scale religious
The school billows a pattern common to many
both secular and
denominational schools by having facilities providing
}lading pride of place is the
religious education on the same campus.
Attached to the rear is a
synagogue fronting onto the main street.
toilet facilities. Some distance
meeting. hall, kindergarten, kitchen and
classroom block providing ten class-.
lack fram these is the main two-storey
bounded on
rooms. This building looks out onto a small asphalt playground

the boys schooltfrom the adjacent.

its eastern boundary by a fence dividing
Here are also located.
girls 'sister' school in a neighbouring campus.
the preparatory grade of the
another kindergarten, a small classroom for
in rotation by students frqm
boys schodl and science laboratories shared

both schools.
odd corners of
Several small, older red brick buildings occupy
cloth-
bothcampubes. One. on the girls' campus is a store for secondhand
shop, run
ing and household articles intended-far
o
sale in an'opportunity
contribution to JeWish
by members of the school community towards its

137
 112

charity. In the boys' campus a similar building is used as a library and

overflow classroom for senior boys. Attached to it are two smaller

fulldings used for storing equipment and housing toilet facilities. The

construction of aI these old buildings is in marked contrast to.the

'Modern, yellow-brown sandstone brick design of the. other main blocks and

the synagogue itself.

A noteworthy feature on campus is the number of large stainless

steel wash troughs placed against suitable walls on the outside of

buildings. In construction these are all unremarkable apart from the

number of alumitiuni water jugs or pitchers provided for each trough, in-

securely attached to the wall by a length of chain some two feet long.

An old concrete trough, unplumbed and. surmounted by an inscription in

Hebrew stands against the wall of the old red-brick building in the boys'

.campus, but no pitchers are provided. The number of jugs fluctuated during

the year either due to weaknesses in the chain or the cycle of religious

Festivals'and Holy Days. On these occasions jugs were replaced so that a

full complement was available in each trough. In the foyer of-the synagogue

there are two chinaware basins, one in each alcove beside the main etrance

from the street, and provided with aluminium pitchers. These apparently

mundane facilities reflect 'the importance placed on he ritual washing of '

hands before meals and after using the toilet.

Inside the synagogue and meeting hall block are several small

rooms. Three on the ground floor lead off from the foyer, and are occupied

the Principal of the school, the bursar, and the school secretary. On

the other side of the synagogue chamber there are two other T oms. At the

time of the study, one was used as the sixth Form home-room, the other as a

138
 venue for prayer. On the same side of the synagogue, but on the second

storey, part of the landing from the stairways has been converted into

. small rooms. One is used infrequently by small classes, or as a quiet

place to study, the other is occupied by the Lubavitcher Youth'group

attached to the school.

The second storey of the synagogue is little more than a wide

balcony occupied by pews. These run along three sides of the chamber.

This is the area reserved for women at all religious services, while their

menfolk assemble in the hall below, and reflects the separation of the

sexes on ceremonial occasions maintained in Orthodox congregations.

Around the entire length of the balcony, and rising some four feet above

the front parapet and its brass railing, is a white bdtter muslin curtain

which renders the women in the balcoiy all but.invipible to the men below.

The balcony is approached by a stairway originating in the porch of the

synagogue but outside the foyer, which is not ordinarily used by women.

At the top of thfe stairway is a cloakroom, used as a classroom, lunchroom

for staff, and staff meetings during the week. Toilet facilities for women

are adjacent.

The synagogue chamber is separated from the meeting and dining

hall by a folding partition which is drawn aside after services to give

full access for the worshippers. Another partition divides the northern

end of the dining room into a small room to which access can be gained by

a corridor from the end of the synagogue chamber. This is the bet midrash

proper used throughout the day by the students of the Rabbinical College or

Yeshivah Gedoiah. .

139
 7.4

Study alcoves and the muslin'curtain in the

balcony of the shut.

bi

A group of rabbinical students and Lubavjtcher

rabbis in the Yeshivah Gedolah.

140
 Along theontire Southern wall of the dining room there is a wash

trough provided with pitchers. Leadifig off the hall is the kitchen and its

ancillary storerooms. On the eastern side of the hall, glass doors open
*

out onto a small concrete patio which converts into the communal succah

during &COOS, and the kindergarten itself. Attached to the doorpost off,,

most doors throughout the building is the mezuzah.

From the street, the west wall of the synagogue is built in a

series of dngled steps. Each has a tall window set into the south-facing

wall and reaching almost to the roof. When viewed from inside the building

the effect tends to be masked by pews on the ground floor. In the balcony,

however, the steps become a series of brightly sunlit alcoves along the

western wall, each furnished with a study table and chair. In comparison,

the eastern wall has only small head-high windows looking out over the

roof of the hall and towards ehe playground and classroom block (see p. 340).

A duality is evident in the uses and functions of the buildings

on campus, although this is not immediately apparent due to the constant

coming and going of boys and-other personnel in the complex which blurs

the distinction between secular and religious facilities. Some facilities

such as the synagogue, communal dirkng hall, wash troughs, Yeshivah Gedolah,

and the library building, which also functions as a place for communal

prayers and houses a matzahl bakery, can be legitimately considered as

constituting a 'pure and holy cosmos' facilitating thedperformance of

rituals and mitzvot. Other facilities are obviously designed to assist

secular teaching, but even classrooms in the teaching block are used for

1 The unleavened bread baked especially for the Festival of Passover

(Pesach) described in more detail-below, Chapter 7.

141,
 ,.116
r.

religious instruction further blurring the duality.

:The overall impression produced by the arrangement of

buildings and strengthened by daily usage, is the synagogue's place as a

natural hub of activities, communication-routewa; between the classrooms

attached to itand other parts of. the campus, and central gathering point_'

for students and adults. This seems only partlylue to the location of

the Principal's office which attracts a steady stream of visitors from the ,

outside community as well as boys and teachers from the school. The

synagogue itself is an Infoymal meeting place for all and Sundry, though
\
it is apparent that only males are involved. An ebb and fix* of men and
rt

boys 'persists in and around it during the day, gossiping, relaxing in pews,

studying, praying - all expressive of its multiple functions and several

2
terms of reference.

(2) The 'sacred and traditional geography' of the synagogue

qv
The furnishings and appurtenances within the synagogue reflect

its multiple functions, and also indicate how,closely it'adheres to strict

Biblical and East European traditions. The entrance,. through heavy swinging
+T.!

doors off the spacioU1S4foyer, gives access to the rear of the synagogue and,

the ordered rows of pews facing the front or focal 'eastern wall' directly

opposite the entrance. This is a mandatory feature of synagogue architec-

ture. The 'eastern wall', i.e. that facing the direction of Jerusalem, is

the one faced by the congregation- in prayer. Against it a located the

Ark of the Law ,(Heb. Aron ha=kodesh) or carved wooden closet in which the

Scrolls of the Law are kept. In t-son.ajof the richly decorated doors an

2 Shut (Yidd.) 'school'; Bet Hamidrash (Heb.) 'house of study';

Bet Hatephillah (Heb.) 'house of prayer'.

142
 117

embroidered curtain (Heb. parokhet) hangs, also decorated with Hebrew

motifs and the Star of David. The colours, normally maroon and gold or

royal blue and silver, change to white and gold for the High Holy Days of

Rosh Rashanah.snd Yom Kippur. The parokhet is used. in obedience to the

Biblical injunction: 'And thou shalt make a veil of blue,-and purple,

and scarlet, and fine twined linen' (Exod. 26:31).

In front of the Ark is a raised platform (Heb. dukhan) reached

by a ,number of steps, and used by the priests (Heb. kohen, pl. kdhanim)

when reciting the priestly blessing during the Additional Service on

Festivals (except on the Sabbath) and Yom Kippur. Over the platform,'a

little above and in front of the Ark, hangs a brass lamp with red glass

inserts through which shine a light at all times. This is the Eternal

Lamp (Heb. Ner Tamid) prescribed in Exodus (27: 20-21) and LeviticusA

(24: 2-3) to hang 'without the veil of testimony in the tabernacle of the

Congregation' as a symbol of the eternal watchfulness and providence of

1

God over His people (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 284). Seating against

the 'eastern wall' is available during services for prominent members of

the congregations and distinguished visitors.

Normally the majority of the congregation occupy pews. Many of

these have small braes plaques inscribed with the name of the congregation'

member who has purchased his seat. Not all are able to do this as the

charge is expensive,-as are congregation dues or'fees generally. Strangers

in the synagogue traditionally stand at the back, or sit around a large

polished wooden table adjacent to the entrance. This is a feature of the

... _ .....
_ ......

traditional East European shut. Part of the back wall itself is occupied'
3
by glass-fronted bookcases holding prayer books, copies of Chumash or

3
Chumash from chamesh (Heb.) 'five', i.e. the five books of the
Pentateuch.

143
 118

Mishnah as the shut is both a place of worship and study. The latter iS

evident most hours of the day when groups of boys study and argue

vociferously around the table under the direction of a rabbi, or the

rabbi himself studies alone, chanting aloud and punctuating the cadence

of Hebrew by emphatic sways of the upper body in the accepted traditional

style, the 'only way' of learning. Through it all others come and go,

and the Ner Taid glows on.

Almost in the middle of the shut, in the wide centre aisle,

o

.
stands an elevated platform or pulpit (Heb. bimah), mounted by ashort
0.

stairway. On the side facing the 'eastern wall' there is a tilted desk

on which the Scroll of'the Law is placed wilen Readings occur during the

prescribq/services. The area near the bimah is free of pews and allows

congregants to .cluster at'the foot of the platform during prayer. It also

allows room for circuits or processions with the Scrolls, especially the

ritual circumambulations (Heb. hakkaphot) of the bimah during some major

Festivals.4

A notable feature of the shut is the marked absence of an icono-

graphy - statues, holy pictures, medallions - of the e commonly

associated with Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox rches, among others.

This follows the strict Biblical injunction in the econd Commandment:

'Thou shalt not make unto,thee a graven image, nor any manner of likeness,

of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or

that is in the water under the earth' (Exod. 20:4; Deut. 5:8).5

4 Described more fully in Chapter 8 below.

Note the variation in the second,version - 'even any manner of likeness',

held by some authorities to make it clearer that every 'manner of like-
ness' comes within the category of 'graven image' (Hertz, 1967: 766 f.n.

144
 fl

119

Although modern rabbinical authority tends towards liberal interpretation

d'
of this law, ip is apparent hat the shut adheres to the strictly
oel .

Orthodox view, which traditionally holds that artistic embellishments tend

to distract the worshipper from concentration on his devotions.

(3) The staff

The composition of the teaching 'and administer ive staff of thd\,s.

school reflects its dual functions. Each of the Tradiir

ions is served by a

body of specialists in the form of secular teaching staff for the Academic

Tradition, and rabbis and lay religious teachers for the Great Tradition.

Apart from the two Jewish primary Grade teachers, who take their Grades

for both secular and religious work, there is no overlap between the two

.'bodies. On the other hand, all the administrative and pare - administrative

staff carry gut duties that relate to both Traditions.

(a) Composition of the secular teaching staff

The complement of secular teaching staff is summarized in

Appendix 4.4. Of the twenty-one full-time 'staff, twelve are men and nine are

women. There is a basic division between those responsible for the

administration of their Grades, and those with specie ist functions but

no administrative duties. They are the sports master, art stress for

Forms 1 and 2 (Grades 7 and 8), and a male Hebrew teacher responsible for

this subject in all the secondary Forms. The position of.the sports master

was initially filled by part-time instructors. During the year of the

study, two came and went in rapid succession, and the position was

finally filled on a full-time basis by an ex-Navy physical training

instructor.

The school has a large complement of part-time spec list

teachers. These all teach in the Senior School, where diffic lty is

44

145-
 120

experienced in finding qualified staff able to teach at the fifth and

sixth Form examination levels. Most are employed for the latter, Their

numbers and composition fluctuated during the yeak".of the study for a

variety of reasons, among which is the strain some feel coping with extra

work. on top of heir normal teaching load. All the part.-time teachers are

on loan from other;secondary schools, or hold positions in tertiary

colleges. In consequence most can only work At-ihe school after norms

working hours, during the evenings, or on Sundays. The PrinCipal considers

such after-hours clases as part of the boys! timetable in order to obtain

full, schooling. The boys themselves accept -the situation as an inevitable

outcome of the difficulty the school faces in getting highly qualified

staff. Provided they get value for money in terms of good teaching, they

4
accept the situation with goOd grace.

In view of the religious background of the school, a striking

feature of its secular staff is the law proportiOn of Jewish teachers.

Of the twenty-one teachers only seven are Jewish - two men and,five women.

Four of the latter teach the preparatory or loiterprimary Grades full -time.

The other is on loan from the sister school 4teach Matriculation

Australian Hiatory. The two males are the senior English master and the

Hebrew teacher. At the end of the school-lear, the former emigrated to

Israel, and in the following year his place was taken by a non-Jew.

From this situation it shoulft not be inferred that teachingis

not a preferred profession among Jews. Dr Geulah Solomon has pointed

out that there is a shortage of Jewish teachers comparable to that facing

non-JeWish teachers. In addition, /however, a high esteem is traditionally

accorded to teachers of Biblical studies, and this has been the case for

centuries. Ideally, 'all Jews are teachers'. In comparison, teaching

 seeular studies with their concomitant secular values is not so highly

esteemed.6

The Principal has.the'administrative responsibility for both

the secular and religious sides of the school. He does no formal teach-
.

ing, as a great deal of his time is spent in fund-raising and other publid*

relations °activities in the Jewish community both in Melbourne and Sydniy,

'3

Consequently he is frequently absent from the schOol. When available, he

does deputize for an absent member of the religious teaching staff.

(b) The hierarchy of responsibility in the secular staff

The composition of the secular staff-leads to a diffused alloca-

tion of responsibility in'which the chain of coMMand from the Principal

..doiht is not clearly established.- A non-Jewish senior mistress, who

teaches the sixth Grade, heads the primary school, and she is autonomous

ca a considerable degree in matters which concern... this level. De facto

,3

respansibility,foT organizing and presiding ove;motit of the formal

assemblies of the ;gale school is held by the Sewish genie English and

sixth-Form master. He has not only a flair for dramatic ratory, but also

sfi`eaks Hebrew and Yiddish. Both languages feature in homilies and songs

which occur during meetings to honour important guests or Jewish and school

anniversaries .7

Next in line, and responsible for tasks which demand different

skills is the senior mathematics and fifth Form master. He arranges the

timetables, alloCates staff to daily playground and dining room supervision,

6 From personal discussion.

7 Described in greater detail in Chapter 8.

147
 122

and arranges the times and rooms of the examinations held each Term.

Such tasks do not need a knowledge of Hebrew or Yiddish but the

capacity to juggle permutations and combinations of, staff, space and

time. The mystique of mathematics, together with highly effective

discipline and control over senior classes, validates fhe teacher's

status in the authority hierarchy.

Despite the largely, complementary functions"of these two masters,

the exact extent and nature of their areas pf responsibilityareseldom

established with sufficient clarity to enable either to make decis/ans,

and be confident of support from the Principal on his return from an

absence. This is an inevitable, dysfunctionalsouttothe of the Principal's

multiple roles and responsibilities. Consequently, there is often an air

of uncertainty about major events, which can flow over into boys' percep.

tions of situations producing behavioural reactions indicating a level

anxiety, which occasionally reaches complete bewilderment-and eveiyhostility

v7
when organization breaks down.

Other secondary teachers take less administrative responsibility.

Each has charge of a Form but, unlike the primary Grade mistresses, who

teach all subjects, is not solely responsible for its discipline-and

control, as each Form is taught by several subject specialists. Each

master's authority depends on a number of factors such as strength of

personality and capacity to exert authority and control, but it is clear

that boys' respect is also gained by teaching competence and subject

expertise. If these are lacking, complaints from the boys can be out

spoken, and .0m-occasions clearly indicate the lack of respect they have

for the master concerned.

148
 123

During the course of any weekday, it can be obvious which class

is being taught by a weak teacher from the amount of noise and indiscipline

th t prevails. This is not an unusual situation in any school, but here

4
il...
there is a close correlation-between a disruptive class and the boys'

apparent perceptions of the teaching competence of the staff member taking

it. Even where a master holds a senior position.in the status hierarchy of

sixth Form subject teachers, he is judged on class performance at the level

he happens to be teaching. A master occupy/ng a more junior position in

charge of a lower school Form, but nevertheless expert in his field, is

accorded greater respect, and has fewer discipline woFries. There i also

a difference' between the amount of respect accorded each subject. ose

which are critical for high results in the matriculation examinat$ n, and

play the greatest part in university selection - the science and mathe-

maties group - gain more attention than those which are thought be 'soft'

options, such as the branches of history taught at the school. Economics

and accountancy are well regarded because of their potential importance in

-business careers.

The sports master occupies an interesting position in the hierarchy,

and has a strong reputation, but for reasons very different from those

discussed above. He has no Form responsibility and thus holds no formal

position in the secondary Form hierarchy. He has no academic teaching

duties or expertise, but gains respect for his obvious sporting an

skills, physical strength and air of 'tough' compAence which

1

indicates to boys that he stands no nonsense whatatiever. In contrast, the

two previous incumbents lacked these chgraiteristics, and did not last long'

in the position. Activities during a sports period in the playground are

consequently orderly, die lined and relatively quiet, in marked contrast

149
 124

to the noisiness that can prevail during unsupervised recreation.

(c) The religious teaching staff

The religious teaching staff can be divided into two broad groups,

clergy and lay. The former comprise rabbis of various kinds, and holding

positions of varying responsibility. By virtue-of their full beards and

black clerical garb and hats, they are very conspicuous members of the

school enculturation'matrix. Lay 'teachers are less easy to identify.

The senior rabbis teach at the school either full-time o part-

,,,--`

time.

time basis as teaching rabbis with no communal respon# ility.

a
/
There are two rabbis permanently assigned to the,sch DI on a full-

One takes

The other
the sixth Form and an advanced junior class studying Talmud.

takes middle and junior school classes in-"Mishnah.

Part-time rabbis comprise a somewhat heterOgeneous group. There

are two communal rabbis,with their own congregations elsewhere, who come

to the school to---take religious classes during the early morning period

between-6:50 and 10.50 cr.m. but not usually at other times of the day.
.

n addition, there is a number of rabbis with no congregational'

responsibilities but loosely attached to the-school community. Young

rabbinical students, all rabbis, from:America comprise another group from'

which teachers are drawn on a part-time, infrequent basis.

4

There were six representatives of the Lubavitcher Movement

studying at the school when I started work,there. During the year they

returned to the United States to be replaced by six others, who would' stay

for two years studying at the Rabbinical College. Aside from this involve-

'
ment they periodically address the local congregations, and Are in contact

with the Australian Jewish communities at large as part of the out-reqch

1 50
 ?is

125;

religious work.of the Move nt..111 The occasion of the departure and arrival ,

of these young rabbis' was marked by several farewell and welcoming cere-
,

monies held in the synagogue. Senior students from the school attended
111

these, and a group went out to the airport.to meet the newcomers.

The young rabbis and other Seminary students are the focus of

attraction for boys of all ages, when their recesses coincide. !We

senior students tend.to predominate, with endless discussions and some

Ace

ragging carried epn, when they are not kicking a fbotball playing volley-

ball or a form of fives against the walls of the classrooms. From the

cohments.of some senior boys I taught, it is obvious that they regard the

young rabbis With feelings tantamount to hero-worship. They exercise a

strung influence in religious ceremonies through their euphoric style of

4k,

worship and their omnipresence in all rituals.

((I) Proprieties in covering the head for males

4 Like all the male Jews from kindergarten to staff in or

associated with the school, each of these young men wearka hat or

yarmelkeh, or both, at all times. This, at first is a novel sight,

especially in the clasRroom when eonfronted by pupils still wearing caps.

However, it soon loses its unfamiliarity until the sight of,a boy not
ts
, .

.wearing his yarmelkeh, usually due to it falling off un -noticed during

4
some vigorpus activity,4prompts an automatic reminder to him to cover his
A i
head properly.'

The attitude of the Principal to wearing a yarmelkeh is uncom-

promising. On one occasion during a staff,meeting, he was asked by the

gentile sports master/Ito permit boys to remove their caps or yarmelkehs

while tumbling on mats in the gymnasium, After a Moment of grave reflec-

tion, the Principal said that such dispensation could not be granted.

Lubavitch News Service Press Release, (4/20/69).

151
 126

Yarme4kehs could be pinned to the hair.

None of the gentile male secular staff wears a yarmeikeh or

hat, and as a,partitipant observer,my own attitude to this remained

ambivalent throughout the year. The upshot was to wear either a hat or

yarmeikeh.- the latter usually when visiting a JewiO home - on occasions

When I was acting as a research worker, either just watching or seeking

information in whatever context. When teaching I went uncovered, as

wearing a hat is not expected of gentile staff, and it would have been

out of place and conspicuous.

(e) Lay teaching staff

Lay staff domprise men and women, the former taking secondary

Forms. The community's shochet (Heb. 'ritual slaughterer), who is also

a scholar and scribe, takes the fifth Form. The fourth Form was taken

initially by 4t English Lubavitcher rabbi. On his return to England a

male lay teacher took over, continuing for the remainder of the year.

Women 'take primary Grades. Where they know Hebrewlpnd Scripture the

normal teachers take their own Grades. Part -time teachers are brought

in to take the two Graded normally taught by non-Jewish women. Apparently

only two of the women teachers are in Hebrew and have a solid

background in Scripture. One of them-els the daughter of one of th

communal rabbis.

According to one informant there is a desperate lack o , and

fl
need for, trained Jewish teachers for Jewish schools.9 The same comment

was made at the community dinner held to farewell the sixth Form iqaster on

his departure for Israel: 'Here is a young Jewish teacher Ieavin'g for

Israel, and who is there to replace? There is a need for young Orthodox

9 Discussion with a visiting teacher of Scripture.

p

152
 127

Jewish teachers, but they are not coming forward."

(f) Dysfunctional and hierarchical aspects of religious staff

A situation exists among the religious teaching staff comparable

to that in the secular side of the school, in that various trained,

partially-trained and almost untrained'teacfiers are employed. Some are full-

time and others part-time. There are corresponding difficulties with frac-

tious classes, which may be for siqklar reasons." During the periods whed

religious study proceeds, a survey of the campus quickly reveals those

teachers - both rabbinical and lay - who ere having discipline problem

Many explicitly complained to me about the lack of respect from

the boys, which they put down to them being thoroughly apoi at home. So

0
freque4tly was this mentioned that it leads to speculation concerning the

existence of what can be termed. a 'spoiling syndrome' among staff, even

including the Principal. Lack of respect is surprising as one might expect

the boys to show tespect for their teachers' religious calling in tradi-
cr

tivaal fashion,.but this does not appear to be the case. Neither does

the inherently sacred, serious nature of the, studies appear to curb bad

behaviour. In senior Forms a dialectal style of teaching is sometimes

employed in which the boys are encouraged to argue with the teacher and

among themselves. This may be conducive to excitement which quickly gets

out of hand, but is not sufficient to explain all the incidents witnessed.

Establishing if there is a form of authority hierarchy is

difficult as the normal secular Grade and Form structure provides the

basis for dividing into classes, andthere not appear to be an

obvious relationship between the status of the religious teacher and the
%

Form or Grade taught. The Principal is at first sight the obvious head of

Referred to in the School President's Valedictory Speech.

t,

153
 128

what hierarchy there is, But further -invenisation reveals that the whole
w\l./
)

teaching esamblishment comprising the school and Rabbinical College is

nominally led by its original founder.. He is an elderly rabbi who spends

the great majority of his time supervising the rabbinical and other

students, who are taking tertiary Jewitih studies in the Yeshivah Gedoiah,

either as foimal preparation for the rabbinate or from choice for a year

prior to going to university or into'an occupation. Next in authority is

the Principal, who attends to the majority of the day to day running of

both religious and "secular sides of the school. The women teachers would

be regarded as junior members of the hierarchy.

(4) Other school personnel

4
Like most medium-sized schools the members of staff are not con-

fined solely to secular and religious teachers. A number of non-teaching

staff also assist in the running of the school. These are the school

secretary, bursa4 cleaner-gardener and catering staff in the kitchen. To

Biddle the presence of such personnel is a function of the size of a school

(1970: 171). However in tile case of the secretary, bursar and catering

staff at least they also perform tasks which are related to the Orthodox

nature of the school and not its size. These necessitate their presence

in any case.

(a) The bursar

The bursar has the dual role of looking after the school's

finances - levying and collecting school fees, paying staff, meeting its

running expenses - while also acting as the treasurer for the synagogue

and its congregation. In the latter role, he collects congregation member-

ship dues, organizes and receives money through appeals and charities, and

looks after the everyday running expenses of the synagogue congregation.

154
 129

For the major Festivals of Rosh Rashah and Yom Kippur seats in the

synagogue are at a premium and are rented or sold to people wishing to

attend, who have not already bought their seat as a regular member of the

congregation. At this period the bursar's role related to the synagogue

is very obvious, with 'phone-calls and constant visitors coming into his

office making requests for seats,pr paying a contribution to the appeals

conducted on behalf of the congregation at this time of the year.

(b) School secretary

4i
In these tasks he is assisted by the school secretary who also

has a dual role. As secretary to the Principal she is the link between

him and staff, boys and parents. She handles most routine inquiries and

petty troubles of the boys, assists staff in their typing and duplicating,

handles inquiries from parents and visitors to the school or synagogue,

and organizes sucirmatters as orders for books, stationery and the like.

All of these would be considered normal tasks of a school

secretary. However, she also assists with the supervision-of the boys'.

lunchtime in the hall adjacent to the synagogue and kitchen; a task which

entails hearing boys recite the appropriate Benedictions and/Graces and

making sure they wash their hands. Another supervisory task is assisting

primary school teachers to load some of their pupils into taxis, which 4

call to collect and take them to their homes,each afternoon when the

primary school finishes. Besides assisting the bursar with community

appeals - typing and mailing letters, organizing stationery - the secretary

also handles petty cash matters. One of these is the sale of the tallit

katan to the boys. In consequence her office, like the Principal's, con-

tains a clutter of sacred and secular paraphernalia.

 130

(c) ,Para-administrative staff

Many schools have tuck ) hops or lunchrooms staffed by one or two

permanent personnel, often marl depending"on the size of the school.

Their tasks usually entail the preparation.of a 'variety of snacks such

asandwiches, rolls and cakes sold to pupils at recesses and lunchtime.

,.

Often Commercially produced soft drinks and confectionery are stocked and

d at a profit. In this work the permanent catering staff are often

assisted by mothers on a roster basis. If the school has a mothers'

club, staffing the tuckshop.is one of its most important functions, and

considerable control can be exercised over the quality and type of foods

supplied. A well run tuckshop is also a source of extra funds for the

school, with profits being used to purchase extra equipment or provide

amenities which die school could not otherwise afford.

The school follows this pattern by providing lunches through the

kitchen at a charge of one dollar per week." A tuckshop is also organized

by the very active Parent-A' Associatlbn on one day a week. Proceedi go

towards the purchase of sports equipment, school furniture and other

educational amenities- :luring -the year the tuckshayservice was-extended.

On Mondays every delicious fried beef-burgers are sold, and on Wednesdays

hot dogs' .12 Orders for these are canvassed by a boy monitor who goes

round classes during the first period after morning recess.

11 This and following information regarding the tuckshop is taken from

the school's cyclostyled circular to parents, February 1969 and
Newsletter, Volume 8 No. 1 (February-April, 1969), and based on
. observation.

12 NewsZetter, Volume 8 No 2. (June-September, 1969) and observa-

tion.

156'
 C7

13).

The Parents' Association is also involved in organizing major

functions such as welcomes and farewells to promineUi'members of both

religious and secular staff, and other people associated ----

with the school.

-A number of these functions take place in the homes of parents, others are

held at the dining hall of the school. In all such activities there is

II
itlittle difference between the work of the Association or shop and

similar organizations in schools of similar type.

(d) Religious importance of pare-administrative duties

In one respect, however, there is a considerable difference,

The kitchen and tuckshop function to support the system of religious

observances and values entailed by the schOol's Orthodox basis, which

would be impossible or*difficult to sustain Otherwise, The circular to

parents at the beginning of the school year states that 'Boys of Barmitsvah

age should attend daily services which commence at 7,20 a.m. followed by

breakfast, for which there is a nominal charge .13 The breakfast is

( supplied by the kitchen.

A number of religious services during the year and celebrations

such as a Bar Mitzvah are followed-by a community meal in the hall adjacent

to the synagogue. The kitchen again plays an important function in providing

the nucleus of the organization that goes into the preparation and serving

of food for such occasions. At big gatherings its normal staff of two to

three elderly, women is supplemented by the wives of male members of the

congregation. The men sit at the tables erected in the hall. The women

do not eat with them, but wait on the tables.

Other schools have tuckshops and kitchens that prepare and serve

lunches, but in this case the preparation takes on a religious significance,

13 Circular to Parents, February 1969.

 132

All food is prepared with strict regard or the ka th laws. Hot lunches

are usually dairy produce of one sor or another. When meat is' served no

milk products are supposed to be taken. Should a child bring a meat-lunch

he cannot have milk nor mix with those having dairy or milk lunches. Re

usually eats outside the hall. The circular to parents stresses 'that

children bringing their own lunch should be provided with HILCRIG dishes

only" .14

.
The kitchen and its staff thus perform a function which trans-

cends the mere provision of food, as would be the case in non-Jewish

schools. This is to maintain a whole system of ritual behaviour based

on religious values and beliefs about keeping kaahruth. The consumption

of food accompanies many religious ceremonies central to the life of the

school complex. Without the kitchen as mediator between the system of

religious values and their enactment in terms of ritually pure eating

behaviour and ceremonial, it is conceivable that much of the religious

functioning of the whole complex itself could be impaired or even rendered

I
impossible.

(e) The caretaker

One of the d.mportant non-teaching personnel of the school is the

caretaker. In 1969 he was a non-Jew, and had a status that was unrelated

both to the secular and religious teaching structures. However, both had

behavioural expectations of him which combined to define the major part of

his role in the establishment. This involved not.only keeping the class-

room and'other secular premises and furniture clean, orderly and in good

repair, but also maintaining the synagogue and adjoining religious build-

ings. At important times of the Jewish year such,as Yom Kippur, Rosh

14 Ibid., Milchig (Yidd.), MiNchik (Heb.) 'Dairy'; pertaining to dairy

food.

158
 ' 133

Hashanah, the Ninth Day in Av,15 the caretaker's teaks entail major re-

arrangement in the seating accommodation in the synagogue, as well de the

subsequent cleaning up that is necessarybafter services. In addition to

indoor tasks such as these, he is responsible for the grounds of the

school campus. This involves maintaining the small flower beds, shrubbery

and patches of lawn located in it.

To a large extent these tasks constitute a 'definite field of

competence' seen by Shipman (1968: 56) as the outcome of having duties

that are specific and able to be determined rigidly. However, like the

school secretary, their variety and degree of over-lap between secular

and religious aspects reduce this specificity. In conaequeace thesstatua

tt

of the caretaker is not ao much neurrel-- uninvolved with staff or pupils

as persons to whom Oligatior, are felt - as Shipman considers it to be,

but indeterminate..

He does so many 'ypes of odd jobs that it is hard to delimit the

area of his responsibilii.: r.:anstquently many unusual requests for help

made to him hy the Princi.pd , administrative personnel, staff and even

boys are complied wiLL.16 In many other schools where the caretaker can

be a petty tyrant - ir Alirvan's terms 'ruthlessly impartial' (loc. cit.) -

they wou% never h ?ve bv,..a made, let alone met, as both caretaker and

staff would haVeknown precisely the area of legitimate responsibility,

and respected it. The relatively small size of the school, its more

informal organization, and even the compliant personality of the caretaker

15 Tisha B'Av (Heb.) - Fast commemorating the destruction of the

Temple in 70 A.D.

16 During the year the caretaker took to wearing a hat at all times
around the school in keeping with its Orthodox character. Un-
verified rumour had it that the Principal made the request for
-\, the hat to be worn, although the caretaker is a non-Jew.

159
 134

himself all may hive

/ played an equal: part in encouraging the relaxed,
1

personal-relation/ships with staff and boys. However, even this,wasnnot

enough to preve4 apparent role conflict-on occasions whdn demands seemed

excessive from the caretaker's role set.

(5) Summary

The organization of the'campus, facilities and staff in the

school clearly relate to the necessity to transmit the two Traditions,

even though a small degree of overlap, occurs in a few cases, with some

personnel and facilities having to fulfil dual roles. In'other respects

the duality of the enculturation matrixAs preserved.

The corps of enculturation agents is of varying degrees of com-

petence and commitment to the school, and,8440sfunctional results of

1
this have been ident1e0, Their efr e a-on-the boys are to create

anxiety and tension in th6Majority of'Cases,that show out in conflict-

F
-

prone behaviouf and indisLpline: These conditions are reduced when

. ,

enculturation agents are clearly competent in their subject areas in the

case of the secular teachers, or of a maturity and wisdom in the case of

religious teachers.
I.

The division of functions is less obvious in the case of the

administrative, catering, and caretaking personnel, where there is con-

siderable blurring of areas of responsibility. As a result there is a

heightening of their participation in many facets, of school life,

leading to a reduction in social distancd vis-avis pupils, and a con-

camitant increase in the informality of interpersonal relationships which

is eleature of school life outside the classroom.

160
 135

CHAPTER 6

THE ORGANIZATION OF TIME IN THE SCHOOL

The allocation of time to activities in the school relates

closely to the way the school is organized and-structured. A day is

divided into periods for prayer, religious study, recreation and secular:,

study. As a boy proceeds through the day, he firstly comes undei the

discipline of the Great Tradition and its attendant norms and authority

figures, then 'under the discipline of the Academic Tradition and its

authority figures and norms. In effect, there is a dialectical interplay

between the two Traditions due to the way time is organized. Like a

pendulum, the boy, swings first to the Great Itadition,then to the

Academic Tradition, then back again, and so on during the day. During

these oscillations, he snatches biief moments to perform personal religious

rituals or mitzvot, which are based on an inner discipline rather than

compliance to an external authority figure.

(1) Morning Prayer and religious study

For boys of Barmitzvah age the school day begins early. It is

a school rule that they should attend Shaeharis, the Morning Prayer, whtch

begins for them at 7.20 a.m. in the shuLl Some strictly observant boys

would have already said private prayers on rising and before coming to

the school. Shacharis is followed by a communal breakfast is the dining

hall, provided by the school at a nominal cliarge, the boys being forbidden

to eat prior to the Morning Prayer. As for all group meals it is pre-

ceded by Benediction and followed by Grace.

By 8.50 a.m. all boys of Barmitzvah age, whether they attend

1 Circular to Parents, February 1969.

161
 136

Shacharie or not, are expected to be in their classes for the

two hours
of religious study that follow. This is supervised by theirJewish lay

end rabbinical teachers.. Some boys worship in their local synagogue

hen come on to school far religious 'studies. Other Senior boys either
tinder pressure from prepring for examinations of other, per 1 reasons
dlo not get to school until secular studies start-.
If o srvant, they are
able to pray in their local synagogues, .or the ehu during the morning
rt

before midday.

The secular Grade and Form stru ure provides the basis on which

the boys are divided into groups for religious studies. However, a few

third and fourth Form bo s are in advance of their peers, and attend more

senior groups in other c asses. One group studies around the large table

in the shut, another in he library, and a group of junior boys in the

staffroom.

During the period from 8.50 to 10.50 a.m. the school settles to

a quiet hum of classroom activity with no distracting activities such as

games or sport taking place in the playground. Discussion punctuated by

the teacher's explanation, the rhythmical sing-song cadence of a boy

reading from Church, or of a group chanting in Hebrew, comes from some

Lower School Grades. More animated discussion takes place am64 the fifth

and sixth Forms, who are tackling Mishnah. A rabbi expounds the Law in

one room, a woman's voice leads the singing 6f-a primary Grade in another.

From subjective and impreiiionistic observations of this nature, a picture'

of the school emerges that is qualitatively different from what it is when

secular work is taking place.

1

Religious studies continue until 1Q.50 a.m. when they are

adjourned for a short recess. After this and a short school assembly,

primary Grades and Forms 1 and 2 start secular work. The rest of the

162
 :
137

secondary school goes back to religious studies. for afurther fore minutes.

(2) Secular Studies - the morning period

The secular part of the day begins at five minutes to eleven when

the siren sounds at the end of the short recess.' At,this signal:ell

primary and secondary Grades line up in front of the main teaching block

with their teachers. The Prindiparar senior master bakes routine announce-

ments, and all Grades move off into their classrooms. The primary children

customarily keep ip a more-or-less neat 'crocodile' fussed over by the

teacher in charge. Jostling, chatter and silliness are verbally. checked.

Secondary students are less, well shepherded, and normally make their way

to classes independently. Punctuality of both staff and students is con-

stantly stressed by the Principal: time is too valuable to be wasted.

His periodic visits to, the playground and classrooms during this assembly

provide both visual and verbal reinforcement of this norm.

Secular work is under way for all -by 11.40 a.m. when the four more
0

senior Forms complete religious studies. °This pime Sees an exodus of

religious teachers; some rabbis go to the kitchen for a cup of tea or

snack.. Two., forty minute periods follow, with each Grade adhering to its

individual timetable. Each class remains in its own room, and the

specialist teachers Move around the school from class toclass as their

periods become due. The break between lessons creates a hiatus in control

and discipline, as a class can be left unsupervised while its teacher

departs for another room and the next teacher may be late. Noise, scuffling,

and rowdiness are common occurrences in classrooms during the hiatus.

Phyaical education classes carry on in the playground, and the noise of

boys adds to that from classrooms. There is a discernibly different tempo

about the school during secular work in comparison with the tempo of

163
 AIL

Air

r'

A primary Grade occupied with individual, secular work.

4.140411'

A fifth Form mathematics class in their own classroom.

1(34
 0-1
139

religious studies.

All Grades have a lunchtime recess between one and two oclock

each. day for part of the year. HoweverbetweenIcasaoh (April) and

Succoe (October) school finishes on Friday at i.15 p.m. for all boys to
1
.enable them to-get home belore nightfall for the begin*ingof Shabboe.

and theritual kindling of the candles. As there is no Minchah prayer

on'Friday.in view 8'f its association with the Sabbath, lunchtime, is

^t.

reduced to three quarters of an hour. School begins again at a quarter

to two on this day.

The ten minutes beforb the-beginning of the lunchme recess

see 'crocodiles' of primary-school boys being taken to the toilet, Wand'"

to wash their hands at the large stainless steel troughs (with varying ,

degrees of thoroughness), before being shepherded in line to the dining

hall for supervised lunch. The Secondary.school stops at one oclock.

(if -

Many boys leave the classrooms boisterously, only a small proportion

yeaching:up to touch the mezuzah on the door jamb. Others linger behind

to discuss work, gossip, or waste time. They have to be shooed out and
stit

reminded to get to Minchah.

(3) Lunchtime rituals - the Minchah prayer and recreation .

The Afternoon Service (Minchah) starts at about 1.15 p'.m.,'and

O
must be attended by'all ys
bor- who are Barmitzvah before they have their

totufiChes. In contrast toBhacharia, which takes, place in the shut, Minchah

is conducted in small groups at various locations around the campUs. The

sixth Form uses its own small room at the rear of the shut. Junior-and
.
.

Middle Forms, assemble in the synagogue itself; fourth and fifth Forms

pray in the red-brick library building. The prayers are led by a senior

sboy,,,,an adult, or. by a rabbi if present..

O
 140

_At this-Hu-fel-students of the Rabbinical College also pray

together,.and their room at the end of the dining hall beyond the parti-
,

,tion echoes with the quiet drone of voices, now all in unison, now anti-

phonally as the prayer leader chants, the phrases and others respond. The

metric beat and stress used in the prayer produce an almost hypnotic

rhythm taken up by some worshippers, who rock forward and ck in time

with the cadence. Other boys, however,'seem.less observant. Some of

those praying in the library, gaze out of the vindow in seeming disregard

of the proceedings.

Meanwhile the, junior primary Grades complete their meal with'a

Grace, and some wish their hands supirvised by the duty teacher if she is

Jewish. The school, secretary sits at a small table near one of the glass

doors into the adjacent kindergarten, and eats her own meal. She also

supervises hand-washing before and after the meal, and has a pile of cards

on which the-Benediction is written to give out to those at each table.

A duty master or mistress watches over the,.boys, and tries to maintain a

degree of good behaviour and order.

Following Minchah the senior boys come in. Some wash their hands

perfunctorily, or have already washed them in one of the troughs in the

playground. A great variation in the care taken over this is evident.

Some, usually junior, boys merely touch the tap with their fingertips or

allow a few drops to fall upon them; even though it4is forbidden to eat

without first washing the hands.2

The more careful take a longer time and carry out the ritual

delibeiately and carefully. The water pitcher is filled, held in the left

hand and water poured twice over the right, covering the entire hand as far

Kitzur Schuichan Aruch, 40: 14.

0

166
 141 .

as the wrist. This is repeated for the left hand, holding the water pitcher

in the right. After rubbing the hands together a Benediction is recited in

Hebrew with the hands uplifted: 'Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God, King of

the universe, who hath sanctified u.A. by His commandments and hath commanded

us concerning the washing of the hands'.3 The-hands are then dried. In one

instance observed, one boy, known later for his Orthodoxy, goes further to

avoid contaminating his washed right hand by contact with either his left

hand or the pitcher.4 He covers the right hand with the towel hanging on

the wall before pouring water from the pitcher onto the left hand, despite

the obvious awkwardness the action causes.

' Lunch is a noisy occasion. The boys sit at long trestle tables

and, following Benediction, chatter without stopping. Often so much food

is spilt on tables and occasionally on the floor, that the room has to be

thoroughly cleaned and swept out by the caretaker at the end of the period.

As soon as all the senior boys have left, the students of the Rabbinical

College eat lunches provided by the kitchen. Washing of hands and the

Benediction are carried our punctiliously. Finally all are finished,

Grace is recited, hands are washed, and the hall is vacated for the care

taker to start cleaningup.5

Some boys eat their lunches outside in the playgrdund. By 1.30 p.m.

most boys aretin the playground occupied with a variety of games accordirig

to the season, the weather or space available. Some hang around the class

rooms, although they are strictly out of 'bounds. Lunchtime sees another

3 Ibid., 40: and personal observation.

4 Ibid., 40: 6.

5 The form of both Benediction and Grace varies according to the number
and kind of persons present at table (ibid., 41-45).

167
 142

form of hiatits in discipline and control, as most /senior staff are having

their lunches, and the one duty master or mistress in the yard cannot be -

everywhere at once. A probationer prefect is supposed to asaiit with

maintaining discipline. He has the duty of going around the teaching

block before and during the lunchtime to make sure that all rooms are

vacated and doors locked. However, as in any school, this does not

prevent some boys getting im again later, through one devious means or

another.

(4) The secular afternoon

Teaching starts again at two oclock. Classroom work takes place

over three forty minute periods in the secondary school: These last until'

an afternoon recess at four oclock, which gives an opportunity for staff

carrying on teaching later in the afternoon to get a cup of tea. At this

time those Lower School boys who do not remain behind for special religious

classes go home. Recess also sees an influx of some part-time teachers who

are able to finish their full-time teaching jobs sarly enough to get over

to the school to start teaching at 4.15 p.m.

The secular period after lunch is also occupied by sport or

physical education classes in the yard, and, again, the noise of the

activities combines with that of the classrooms. Just before 3.30 p.m.,

parents of the primary school children gather-in the yard to await their

charges who are dismissed at that tittle. Girls from the sister school make

their way to thp same spot. The noise of greetings, gossip by the women,

and finally emergence of the primary Grades can pioduce such distractions

in the classrooms, that teaching in the senior Forms is almost impossible.

An exception to the predominantly secular afternoon is the work

of a small, dpecially selected group of primary school boys.* They are

168.
 143

taught by a male Jew, in a small, prefabricated but in the girls' play-

ground. Their studies are almost entirely Jewish, with Biblical study

taking place athe table in the shut under the guidance of a senior

teaching rabbi. Even at'such an early age the knowledge of these youn)

pupils is extensive, arid rivals that of many sixth Formers. This is the

equivalent of the traditional cheder or elementary Jewish school, which

is the prelude to higher Jewish studies and a life devoted to Jewish

learning.

By 4.15,-p.m. all the primary Grades and Forms 1 and 2 halm)

departed, with the exception of a small group which remains behind to take

studies in Mishnah (Vishnayis) under the tuition of a senior teaching rabbi.

They work from 4.10 p.m. until 5 p.m. The class is voluntary for primary

Grades, but supposedly comp4sory for junior Forms.6 Despite this, not all

A
from Forms 1 and 2 attend.

Boys in the Middle and Senior school continue secular Volt-Under

4

either full-time or part-time secular staff. Third formers go home- after

one period; the remainder continue until 5.30 p.m. Matriculation students

in some subjects may have to continue studying well into the evening if

this is the only time available for a part-time teacher. Their work is

strictly secular. Maariv, the Evening Prayer, is said at home in private,

or at the local synagogue. For many senior boys, another period of

religious study is undertaken before going to bed.

More time for religious work is 'available at school on Sunday.

Classes for Grades 5 and above are held at the school between 10 a.m. and

1 p.m. It is a school rule that all students at these levels should attend:

6 Circular to Parents, February 1969.

7 Ibid.

1
169
 144

Senior students are exempted where they have to take secular instruction

on the same day if their secular teacher cannot come at any other time.

weekdays between 8.50 a.m. and 11b.50 a.m., the drone of activity in

the assrooms continues uninterrupted by sport or games in the yard.

Apart from the one or two part-time secular teachers, who might be taking

a class for a secular subject, the remaining teachers are all Jewish

lay staff and rabbis as on weekdays.

(5) Summary

The organization of time in the school allocates periods to

religious activities and secular work in a proportion that slightly

favours the Great Tradition. In sum, approXimately four hours are

devoted to religious ceremonials and study on an avenge day. Sec ar

=work for most students occupies a little over three hours, but thi is

exceeded by those senior bogs who stay behind after four oclock. f we

add the religious classes on Sunday for a majority of students, the pre-

dominance of religious study and activities is quite apparent. Always, it

would appear, the boy is given more time and training to become an observant,

Orthodox Jew than a secular scholar, despite the emphasis placed on

secular work in the school.

170
 145

CHAPTER 7

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE YEARLY CALENDRICAL CYCLE

The ceremonial and teaching life of the school also involves a

dialectical interplay between two calendars. Major events of the Academic

Tradition - school Terms, tests, vacations, examinations, Speech Night -

come into their time, produce their scurry of activity and emotion; but

finally pass into school history. Religious Festivals and other ceremonies

of the Great Tradition reign for their prescribed periods, following a more

ancient and immutable order. For each the pace of 106 in the school

quickens, and far older rituals replace those of the secular calendar.

SuCh, in essence, is the alectical hythm of the y

(1) The two calendars fo1 owed b ool

The chronological structure of the :r is outlined for parents,

staff and others associated th the school by a printed circular distri-

buted at the beginning of theschool year (Appendix4.7). Like all official

circulars it carries an abbreviation in Hebrew in the top right hand corner

signifying Barukh Ha-Shem (Heb.) 'Blessed be the Name' rvp:1 .

The timetable gives the dates of the major religious Festivals

0
and holidays during which the secular teaching functions of the school stop.

Others coincide with the weekend, and do not involve interruptions to secu-

lar schooling. A few other religious events fall on weekdays, but do not
0

entail interruptions to schooling. Their importance to this analysis lies

in the demandsNthey make on boys' time, and emotional and physical reserves.

Only the barest details of secular activities are provided,

namely, the start and finish of each Term. Bank holidays are not stated as

the school does not observe them, as do the majority of Independent schools.

171
 146

The State vacation sequence is followed, with just over kweek's holiday

at the end of the first and second Terms, rather than the fortnight custom-

ary in the Independent system. To an extent the vacation time lost iS made

up by the days the school is closed for religious Festivals. However, the

interplay between the two calendars means that time for secular schooling

is still short despite the curtailed vacations. There is also a deficit

due to the early closure of school on Fridays between Pesach and Sitcom,

a period of some months, and the loss of two hours teaching time

before eleven oclock each day.

There is also a concealed deficit in teaching time, which occurs

despite the fact that boys can attend secular classes. Each Festival is

preceded by a euphoric.'build-up and tension when thoughts are not on work.

Obligatory fasting, fatigue after all-night religious ceremonies and

celebrations, and prohibitions on performing certain types of work on both

the Festivals themselves and their intermediate days (Heb. Choi Ha -imoad) all

effectively reduce the boys capacity to make the most of available time in

the secular calendar.

(2) The dialectical interplay between the-two calendars

(a) Religious ceremonies during the month of Tishrei

Due to the arrangement of the Jewish calendar, Rosh Hashanah and

'Yom Kippur, with which it is inextricably connected, occur three quarters

of the way through the academic year in the ninth and tenth months of the

Common Era calendar. In the Jewish calendar, however, Rosh Hashanah marks

the first two days of the first month (Tishrei) and inaugurates the cycle

of religious activities that are to follow. It commences the Ten Days of

Penitence during which the Fast of Gedaliah occurs on Tishrei 3. The

period of solemnity of the Ten Days of Penitence reaches a climax of

172
 147

emotional and spiritual endeavour on The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur),

the most solemn day in the Jewish calendar.

The whole period is very demanding both psychologically and

physically. On both Rosh Hashanah and Yam Kippur abstention from work is

obligatory, as it is on every Sabbath. In this respect Yom Kippur, the

'Sabbath of Sabbaths' is subject to the same prohibitions. It is also

strictly observed as a twenty four hour fast based on the Biblical injunc-

tion 'ye shall afflict your souls' (Lev. 23:27). It Taste from the evening

before the Day of Atonement proper (Erev Yom Kippur or KoZ Nidrei) until

the following evening. A further abstention among the strictly observant,

is from wearing leather shoes) Many members of the congregation take

their shoes off on entering the synagogue or wear tennis shoes. The

ultra-Orthodox reputedly wear them on the wrong feet and devise similar

ways to increase the degree of affliction.

Tishrei continues to be rich in religious activities. At the

completion of Yom Kippur - even just before breaking the fast in the case

of the pious - it is a worthy activity to start building the ritual booth

(Heb. succah), which features during Succos, the Festival of Tabernacles

starting on Tishrei 15. The intermedic (3rd-7th) days of this Festival

constitute a period termed Chol Ha -moed, and are treated as a combination

of weekday and Festival. It is perlmissible to perform only urgent work.

Other work is permitted but only if it is performed in a way that is

different enough to distinguish it from normal work. Mourning is

restricted and marriages are not performed.2 The seventh, day of Succos 18

1 One of 'five mortifications' featured on the day. The others are:

abstention from a) food, b) drink, c) marital intercourse,
d) anointing with oil. Strictly, the fast is 25 hours.

2 These and other restrictions are detailed in Kitzur Schulchan Aruch,

104: 19-22.

173
 148

Hoshana Rabbah, falling during a weekday. For the pious, this day involVes

an all night vigil (Tikkun Leil Hoshana Rabba 3 in which the Liturgy

includes readings from the Book of Deuteronomy, Psalms and passages from

the Zohar. The last two days of the Festival are marked by Shemini Atzeret

(Eighth Day of Assembly) and Simchas Torah (Rejoicing of the Law). The

latter celebrates the custom of completing the reading of the Pentateuch and

its immediate commencement with synagogue ceremonies in which the accent is

on joy, feasting with some licensed intoxication, dancing and song.

(b) Clashes with secular activities during Tiahrei

It is thus most obvious that Tiehrei occupies a position of great

prominence in the Jewish calendar and is a very busy period in religious

matters. H5wever, it is precisely this time of the academic year that is

of critical importance for the fifth/and sixth Forms. The 'October Tests'

organized by the Incorporated Association of Registered Teachers of

Victoria (I.A.R.T.V.) are traditionally held during the last week of

September and irst week of October. The dates are fixed so that all

schools taking the tests do do at the same time to avoid possible leakage

of the questions to schools which may have to take these tests at other

times. I.A.R.T.V. regulations to this effect are quite stringent. A

period of demanding academic endeavour thus closely follows, or actually

coincides with,a period of intense and demanding religious activity. For

these Forms, the former is but the prelude to the true academic climax of

the year which occurs a month and a half later in mid-November when the

Leaving and Higher School Certificate Examinations of the Victorian

Universities and Schools Examinations Board (V.U.S.E.B.) start. Lower

Forms are spared these October Tests, but they too face final year examina-

3 Tikkun - Order of service for special occasions mostly recited at night.

174
 149

tions towards the end of November.

(c) The quiescent period following Chanukah

The Festival of Chanukah falls at the end of the school year, but

makes few demands on time or emotional resources as the prohibition on work

does not apply.4 Some senior boys are still taking external examinations,

but the rest of the school enters the period of academic relaxation and

let-down which culminates in the Speech Night marking the formal er14 of

secular studies.

Events in the Jewish calendar continue unabated through the

vacation and on into the start of another academic year. This begins to

get under way for administrative staff in January, but does not formally

involve teachers until the beginning of February. Many come in to the

school to prepare work, check classrooms and order books prior to this,

however.

The period of the vacation is also a quiet one for religious

-

observances. The Fast of Teveth occurs during the third week of December

(Teveth 10), but otherwise the procession of Sabbaths and daily prayers is

the main call to religious duties.5 Many boys are away on family holidays

or at camps. The school closes down for the vacation, although activities

continue in the Yeshivah Gedolah and, of course, in the shut.

(3) Resumption of the dialectical interplay at Purim

(a) Rejoicing and catharthis at Purim

The dialectical interplay between the religious and secular

calendars isregenerated by the Fast of Esther. This occurs on the day

4 A full Festival commemorating the rededication of the Second Temple

by Judah the Maccabee on Kislev 25, 165 B.C.E.

5 A fast day commemorating the start of the siege of Jerusalem by

Nebuchadnezzar,

175
 150
V

before the Festival of Purim, which commemorates the deliverance of the

Jews of the Persian Empire from extermination. The two-day event is

marked by considerable rejoicing, exchanges of gifts and festivities, at

which a.certain degree of licensed intoxication is obligatory (Heb.

Adloyada). This cusfom has arisen from the rabbinical injunction that on

Purim a man should celebrate until he cannot distinguish between 'blessed

be Mordecai' and 'cursed be Haman', the two main characters in the Purim

story. Shushan Purim (Adar 15) is the day after the main Festival and

shares many of its characteristics, although it is not taken as a formal

holiday. It is customary to be merry on Shushan Purim and to have festive

meals.

(b) Ritual preparations for Pesach

Following Purim comes Pesach, the Festival of Passover, an

eight day holiday which occurs some fifteen teaching days before first

Term tests and examinations. Prior to this major Festival, there are

many activities taking place in the school complex, in particular the

baking of matzos (u1leavened bread) during the preceding weekends. The

search for hametz (leaven) in classrooms takes place on the morning of the

day the school breaks up for the holiday, and is the occasion for much

industrious and squirrellike activity particularly on the part of junior

boys. They thoroughly clean out cupboards and desks in a search for the

prohibited leaven. If found, it is taken to be destroyed. The room off

the shut normally used by the sixth Form becomes a storage place for

cooking and domestic utensils deposited by members of the congregation in

compliance with the strict laws of ritual purity which are in force during

Pesach.6

6 Kitzur Schuichan Aruch, 111-116.

_1 7-6
 1 1

The baking of matzos is an example of how strictly the Halachah

is foll4ked by the Orthodox congregation attached to the school. Mdtzah

(pl. matzos) is the thin, flat, unleavened loaf some eight inches in

diameter which has central place in the Seder, and accompanies subsequent

meals during the whole of Pesach. Strictly Orthodox Jews bake 'specially

guarded matzah' (Heb. Shmurah matzah) from flour which is carefully super

vised from the moment the wheat is harvested. Strictly observant Jews can

obtain supplies of shmurah matzoth from the school complex, where baking

takes place following the conclusion of Shabbos on weekends prior to Pesach.

All boys attending the school cannot help but be aware of this

activity. The small redbrick building which nipmally functions as the

school library is cleared of books and all other paraphernalia, and is

then purified of hametz. A large wooden cover bolted against one wall is

removed to reveal a baker's oven fired by a wood furnace. At the rear of

the building, a temporary leanto of timber and hardboard is erected to

house the flour and water when baking is in process. Normally the farmer
*'4

is kept in a small room leading off the library/bakery. It is ground from

special grain which has been cut by an Orthodox Jew. The water must be kept

cool. Well before the library is cleared for baking the

.
flour must be care

fully ground. On two occasions, my matriculation social studies classes in

the library were interrupted briefly by the emergence of the baker, eyes

red and his whole body covered in flour after a session of grinding. I

was momentarily startled, although the boys took it in their stride.

Baking itself is a highly organized and ritualized process,

carried out as quickly as possible so that the dough does not have a chance

to ferment. A disciplined team of Lubavitcher rabbis, women, pupils from

the school, other rabbis and the shochet was involved the day I went to

1 77
 152
r-N

watch. Two Lubavitcher rabbis were kneading dough in a metal pan on a small

table in the shelter. From there it *as iimediately passed through a

window to a group of women at a large table where it was rapidly divided

into portions, and rolled into thin 'pancakes' about eight inches in

diameter by the use .of smooth wooden rollers some eighteen inches long.

Equally quickly, the 'pancake' was impressed with small hole; by boys

using spiked metal rollers or a single spiked metal wheel. Each portion

of flat dough was draped over the end of a twelve-foot long wooden pole

and handed to the baker, who pushed it into the oven, and with a dexterous

twist flipped the 'pancake' onto the hotplate. Baking took about a minute

in the intense heat, then the matzah was removed by a long-handled metal,
Q.

spatula and placed on a nearby table to cool.

Speed and ritual cleanliness were of paramount importance to

prevent the dough from fermenting or becoming contaminated by hametz.

Many poles and rollers were used in relays. After several uses the latter

were taken outside to the nearby wash troughs and meticulously cleaned, as

they had to be free from any adhering dough. A team of boys and men was

involved in this operation, using sandpaper to rub down the rollers. This

was closely supervised by the shochet, with the.function here or ensuring

the ritual purity of the food. Periodically, all had to wash their hands

at the troughs.

The overwhelming'impression was of orderly disciplined bustle,

quiet excitement, and children darting around all over the place obviously

sharing in; and thoroughly enjoying, the atmosphere. Yet no sign of all

this industry remained on the following Monday, except for the shelter at

the rear of the building and the heat still radiating from the chimney

built against the wall.

178
 153

(c)1 Activities during Pesach and the following weeks

The day. before the school recesses for Pesach considerable

euphoria builds' up, acc4ntuated by the several ritual preparations

O

relating to the search for hameiz. The first two and last two days of

Pesach are considered holy days: all work on them is prohibit d. Special

dietary laws also apply for theduration of the Festia1.7. The intervening

days are not entirely a holiday, but is a period during which some academic

work can'be undertaken, provided it is not enjoyable.

Nbt all activities are so constrained. On the first Sunday,

tD
Lubaviteher Youth organizes.a re-union get-together for.those who attended
9 e 9

the summer camp bdek in the long 'vacation. The event isbeld'ht a small
9

,.tourist resort.in-a range of hills to the east of Melbourne. A kosher

restaurant-and hotel are located there,.and it is not uncommon' to.be waik-

ing'inthe surrounding woods and meet Jewish families, dressed in their

Sabbath best, striding along the pathv heartily singing traditional Jewish
t '

melodies or Israeli folk songs.

. e

The re-union is advertised by Lubalatcher Youth by'a7nulti-

.

coloured, cyclostyled sheet9which iscirculated to all the boys

(Appendix 4.9). It combines schoolboy humour with some featured that refl6ct

some of the hidden aspects of:being a Jewish boy at:such a time. For

instance, a cartoon on the sheet (not reproduced) shows a train puffing along
14

a railway 1 e, with a Jetoish boy, complete with yarmelkez clingingwildly

to the last carriage. Further along therack another boy (with yarmelkeh)
4'
and e science fiction fantasy figure prepare to dynamite the track. These 1

areonly incidenthls in "a sheet which nevertheless contains two or,three

1,

interesting features. ,
Prominence is.given"to the phrase FEEL LIKE LETTING
( 9

17
 0

154
4

OFF A LITTLE STEAM, and the Jewish abbreviation occurs as indicated at

the top and the bottom of the page. Reliance on Divine protection for a
e
safe return seems implied.

Thelmtermediate -days (2nd-6th) are Choi Ha -moed and subject to

the same restrictions noted for the intermediate days of Succor. Associated

rituals also continue. From the second day of Pesach begins the Sefirah,

Counting df the Omer, usually `incorporated into the Evening Service (Maariv)

after an appropriate blessing.8 It is followed by a prayer for the

restoration of theTemple. The first thirty two'days of%the Sefirah cod-

/ .

stitute'a period of'seml-mourning and sadnass.8 During it, merriment,

having one (fir cut and the wearing of new clothes are all forbidden.
A

The ban is lifted on the thirty third day at the minor Festival of Lag

Ba-Omer. During this day at schfool, numerous boys request permission to

go for a haircut.

The Sefirah continues for a full seven weeks (forty nine days).

The fiftieth day sees_the start of ShavUot, Festival of Weeks (Pentecost).18

During the evening and night before Shavuot, (Erevjhavuot), an all-night

service is conducted in-the synagogue, the Tikkun Leil Shavuot (TikkUn for

the eve of Shavuot). This includesextracts from Chumash and Talmud, with

(elated interpretative commentaries and mystic literature." Prayers,.

8
Omer - sheaf Cut in 'the barley harvest; a measure of barley offered
1n the Temple during Biblical times. (Lev. 23:$1014).

9
The notion that this period involveslin element of mourning is based
on a Tiltudic reference to the plague that killed 24,000 disciples
of.Rab6i Akiva (Yevamot 62b).

10 The alternative Mishnaid name Atgeret, (Heb.) 'Termination', for

Shavuot signifies that the counting has been completed.
t '

11-Midrash and Zohar.

180
rf
 155
0

recitations and liturgical poems dealing with the 613 Precepts, or

Commandments of Moses, form part of the all-night service.

Proceedings start with a party and games organized By Lubavitch

Youth for younger boys and girls. A duplicated circular advertises the

event (Appendix 4.10), which goes on until later in the evening when senior

boys escort the younger children home, and return to the synagogue to

take part in Shavuot-Zerner circles on a variety of topics. These go

from about 9 p.m. to 2 a.m., and bring out the function of'the synagogue

as a place in which to learn, hence its alternative colloquial name shut.

The Shavuot-lerner circles are conducted in a mixture of Yiddish, Hebrew

and English which effectively precluded my attendance.0"You.wouldn't

possibly be able to under tand anything - pointless you coming , was the

defensive rejoinder from a ewish staff. member when I inquired about the

possibility. The night en s with Shacharis,, prayed early in the morning;

then the boys go home to sleep.

(4) 4The e ents of the second Term - a quiescent period

n contrast to first Term, with its abundance-of Festivals and

religio's observances, second Term is relatively free, and long periods

of unbroken Secular teaching are possible. Th.( Fast of Tammuz (Tammuz 12)12

takes place in July and marks the beginning of the annual Three Weeks

of Mourning. During these all festivities and haircuts are forbidden.

The ree Weeks ends on Tisha B'Av, Ninth of Av, which. is a Da 301 of

Mou ng when the school is closed. It is.observed as a fast which, like

Yom Kippur, starts at nightfall and lasts for twenty four hours.

, 12 The date commemorating the breaching of the walls of Jerusalem by

Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C.E. and by Titus in 70 C.E.

181 a
 156

The special Liturgy for the day includes the recital of kinot

or dirges, and readings from the Book of Lamentations. Tisha B"Av

commemorates not only all the historical disaiters to the Jewish people,

which have reputed4 occurred on that date, but all the tragic events in

which Jewish history abounds. To mark the special sadness of the day

lights are replaced by candles in the shut, and the normal. pews are re-

arranged to permit members orthe congregation to sit on the floor or low

benches as a sign of mourning .

Secular teaching at this time is suspended while the school is

closed, but resumes immediately afterwards for an unbroken three weeks or

so, culminating in second Term tests or examinations. The week's vacation

that follows provides a much needed break for all, as this Winter term id

typically the most taxing on health and energy. As soon as third Term

commences after the vacation, the introdubtion of Selichat or penitential

hymns into the Liturgy of the Shabbos before Rosh Hashanah heralds the

approach of that Festival, and the completion of the cycle and dialectical

interplay it started.

(5) Variations in the calendrical cycle in the following year

The dialectical interplay between the two-calendars varies from

year to year. During 1969, a number of the Jewish Festivals coincided with

weekends or religious events in the Christian calendar, and their effects

on secular activities were minimised. In 1970 there was less of this type

ofcorrespondence. As the circular shown in Appendili 4.8 indidates, the

school closed for the Easter period in deference to the non-Jewish staff,

although the reason for the closure (March 27-31) is not indicated. In

addition more major Festivals corresponded with weekdays. To balance some

of the time lost, the, vacations between Terms were reduced by one day -
D
1-8 2
 157

Terms 2 and 3J)eginning on a Monday rather than on Tuesday. The school

also closed for the summer holidays a wee lic

later. As in 1969, no

Australian Bank holidays were taken.

(6) Summary

The calendrical organization of activities during the school

year brings two systems of arranging study and ceremony into dialectical

interplay. The calendar of,the Great Tradition is fixed by immutable,

Biblical law and involves a marked historicity and past-orientation.

This is nowhere so obvious as when it comes into Iconflict with the

Academic Tradition, which is markedly future-oriented at times when

boys are feverishly preparing for the examinations on which their future

roles depend. When such a clash occurs, the Academic Tradition has to

defer to the Great Tradition.

The dialectical interplay has a marked influence on boys'

emotions and behaviours. Major events in both Traditions carry them up

to peaks of cathectic tension, which are followed by'discharge of tension

or catharsis which is her ritualized as in the celebrations of Purim,

or unintentional as when the post-fast period produces a lethargic let-down.

j The boys' reactions to the dialectical interplay are analyzed in more

detail in Part Three.

 158

CHAPTER 8 0
THE CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATION OF TRADITION
.

Ritual and ceremony are important ways of reinforCing and organiz

ing the transmission of tradition. In a school, they are camplonents in the

learning experiences available to the children (Bernstein, Elvin & Peters,

1971). Through them 'distinctive patterns of collective feeling and

belief [are] passed along to new group,members' (Katz & Rahn, 1906: 66).

Group cohesiveness is strengthened: 'important historical associations and

their meanings are4rehearsed, and reinforced for each generation.

A
The distinction between ritual and ceremony has been considerably

debated (Leach, 1964: 607-8), but is taken here to be one of scale and

complexity rather than of kind. For the following analysis, the view of

Theodorson and Theodorson (1970: 351) is'followed, and a ceremony is

defined as a more or less fotmal, standardized sequence of rituals performed

or celebrated collectively by a group. Rituals can be performed by an

individual acting alone. In the preceding chapters several examples have

been noted: reciting a Blessing, washing hands, touching the mezuzah.

Secular activity in school can also be ritualized, for example, putting

up one's hand to attract attention in class, standing up when someone

enters the room.

By such ritualization, actions are invested w"th an importance 4

which transcends their mere performance. 'Ritual in humans generally

refers to a relatively rigid pattern of acts specific to a situation which

construct a framework of meaning over and beyond the specific situational

meanings' (Bernstein et aZ, op.cit. p.160). As defined, ceremonies'are

collectively performed rituals, and thus also construct frameworks of

184
 159 .

meaning. The main concertof this chapter is with the types of ceremonies

that can be distinguished in the school, and the extent to which they con-

firm the duality that has begun to emerge in previous chapters.

(1) Types of ceremonies

Devising typologies is generally fraught with dangers, but, pace

Leach (1961), an attempt is made in this section to devise a schema of

ceremonies that were witnessed isn the school over the year. It can'firet

be considered in 'secular' terms, following Bernstein et al (loc. cit.),

as transmitting two cultures:,, an instrumental one and an expressive one.

The former consists of 'activities, procedures and judgments' involved in

the acquisition of specific (vocationallycimportant) skills. The latter

consists of 'activities, procedures and judgments involved in/the trans-.

mission of values and their derived norms'.

The expressive/instrumental dichotomy is familiar in anthropology

(Beattie, 1964: 202 ff.), being usually applied to ritual and ceremony.

It thus seems appropriate to take the view that the school transmits the

instrumental culture through instrumental ceremonies and the expressive

culture through expressive ceremonies. Thus, equating 'secular' with the

Academic Tradition; we might expect to find in the life of the school,

ceremonies that relate to the acquisition of kn ledge and skills

appropriate to the academic curriculum, and ceremonies that convey its

'values and their derived norms'.

We can assume that the Great Tradition is also transmitted by

rituals and ceremonies, which are both religious and infused with the

'totality of Jewishness' (Medding, 1968: 13), albeit with a strong

LubSVitcher quality. It seems proper to refer to this element of the

school as religious. Following Robertson (1970: 54 ff.), we can apply

 ,160

the instrumental/expressive dichotomy to its 'orientations to religious

activity'. Thus, allowing for both religious and secular activities in

the school, and the two types of ceremonies relating to each, four

distinctions can be cross-tabulated as in the following schema.1

Tradition Religious Secular

Ceremonial (Great Tradition) (Academic Tradition)

Expressive 1 3

Instrumental 2 4

Four types of cerponial orientation can be distinguished. :The

first can be termed the expressive-religious type of ceremony. This

entails purely religious rituals relating to the 'transmission ofvalues

and theic derived norms'. Those involved are adherents of the ideology

and congregation associated with the school. The second type of ceremony

can be.termed instrumental- religious, in which rituals are used to

disseminate aspects of the ideology, particularly knowledge and skills,

in order to perbuade others of its desirability or superiority. A clear

manipulative element is present, with ceremony being a means to an end,

rather than an end in itself.

The third and fourth types are those associated with the

Academic Tradition. Expressive-secular ceremonies are designed to express

the values and norms of the school as an academic institution.

InstruMental-secu ar ceremonies involve activities relating to the

acquisition of kn ledge and skills which are likely to be vocationally

important. As with their religious counterparts, instrUmental-secular

ANL

ceremonies are manipulative and involve altering or attempting to alter

Bdsed on a similar, schema of Robertson, but substituting 'expressive'

for, his term 'consummatory'.

1843
 161

the statq quo, even if only to improve standards of academic achievement.

We can discuss a number of distinguishing features common to

each of the types of ceremonial orientations along the lines of Sklare

(1958: 357), who applies the features to religious worship. These are the

programme, content, and form of the ceremonies. The first refers to the

sepKimes and customary occasions for holding ceremonies. The second refers

to their logical and philosophical justification in terms of interdependent

beliefs, traditions, myths, and principles. The third refers td the

'external appearances' of the ceremonies - the behavioural outcomes,

!
expressed attitudes, and shared goals. As Sklare notes (loc. cit.), conte t

andlorm are strictly inseparable, but are distinguished separately here C :r

purposes of analys is.

(2) Expressive - religious ceremonies

(a) The progiamme

The school meticulously follows the yeligious calendar of Orthodox

Judaism. .Expressive-religious ceremonies are held on a daily and weekly

basis. Other prominent ceremonies are calench,ical, marking stages 4n the

annual cycle of activities. The weekly Sabbath, the three-set times for

daily prayer, and the major Festivals and Fasts constitute. the basic

programme.'

The Sabb4th and daily prayers have been discussed a1ove, and the

emphasis was placed AI their function in making time available for religious

worship. The major Festivals are also'important occasions for worship, but

their nature and dominant themes are thrown into relief, however,.wheri they

are considered en bloc. There are five Festivals observed during the year:

the three Pilgrim Festivals (Pesadh, Shavuot and Succos), Rosh Hashanah

and Yom Kippur. To these Biblical Festivals have been added somepost-

187
 162

Biblical ones. These are divided into ftill Festivals, with their special

ceremonial and Liturgy (Purim and Chanukah), and semi-Festivals such as the

New Year of Trees; the anniversary of the traditional death of Moses;

Lag ha-Omer; and Hoshana Rabbah.

There are six Fasts which the observant Jew must observe during

the year. Of'these the most stringent are Yom Kippur and Tisha B'Av, which

both last twenty four hours. The period of abstention for the remainder is

from daybreak until nightfall. Apart from Yom Kippur, all Fasts which'

coincide with the Sabbath are generally observed on the Sunday following.

(b) Content of ceremonies

The ideological justification for the ceremonial life-of Orthodox

1

Judaism has involved cfmplex rabbinical debate which cannot be exp]ored at

length-here. Some ication of its complexity emerged in drawing up the

value orientation t ology, but it seems possible to bring together some of

the interdependent deal about which some consensus seems to have been

established.

Ceremonies have au underlying ideology which stresses their

consecratory a d disciplinary function whereby fealty to God is expressed

(WerblOwsky Wigoder, 1965: 83). As Epstein has commented: 'Consecration

is also the keynote of the multiplicity of rites that encompass the life of
o

the Jew'/(Epstein, 1959: 161). As ceremonies have historical roots dating

back to Biblical times, historicity seems an important component in

ceremonial. The Pilgrim Festivals combine motives of agricultural thanks-

,

giving'and commemoration of major historical events in the life of the

1

Jewish people. Pesach commemorates the anniversary of the 'Exodus from

Egypt; Shavuot, the Revelation upon Mount Sinai; Succos, the forty years

wandering in the wilderness.. In contrast, the Festivals of Rosh Hashanah

'188
 163
yv Alp

and llom Kippur 'are celebrated as purely religious occasions of judgment,

atonement, and reconciliation with God' (Werblowsky & Wigoder, 1965: 144).

However, their histotical origins are still obvious in the Biblical

injunctions on which they are based.

All Vests are similarly derived from historical events or, as

in the case of Yom Kippur, a specific Biblical-injunction 'ye shall afflict

your souls' (Lev. 23:27). The remainder are days of mourning commemorating

tragic events in Jewish history. Four of them date back to the period of

the First Temple, or immediately after its destruction ty Nebuchadnezzar in

587 B.C.E.2 .The Fast of Esther (Adar 13), to celebrate the delivery of the

Jews from the tyrant:Haman, was a latei addition.

Collectivity is a closely related component of ceremonial. It is

,part and parcel of ceremony by definition, but the collective character of

,ceremonies is given explicit recognition in Judaism. It is firstly apparent

in the liturgical, as opposed to the Biblical, names for the Pilgrim

Festivals, in which the term 'our' occurs. Pesach is 'The Season of our

Freedom'; AdValo4-4,The Season of the Giving of our Torah'; Succos 'The

Season of our Rejoicing'. Collectivity is clearly apparent in the

Liturgy and worship which are fundamental to all ceremonies. Although

worship is collective, its style is 'individualistic, informally-conducted

and Iffshipper-centred' (Sklare, 1958: 653.f.n. 12). These are the connota-
,

tions of the Yiddish termLdaven meaning 'pray', as seen in Orthodox shuts.

c) Form of ceremonies f:
.
P/

edbtcomes of t inter-dependent content components of con-

i'idOracion,'-iiistotcity, co Jectivity of worship, and style of prayer are

various types of interaction incidents which involve boys and adult members

Tisha 11:Av (4v 9); Tammuz 17; Tishrei 3; Tevet 10.

185
 164

of the congregation attending the shut. Although this is but one of the

settings in which such incidents occur, it is there that expressive-religious

ceremonies are most obviously conducted in a manner sanctioned both by

tradition and Holy Writ. In the following count, no attempt can be made

to describe fully every major ceremony I ed. Instead, I try to

catch something of the 'flavour' of ceremonial life in the ahuZ -

general patterns of collective behaviodt and its concomitant emotional

dynamics.

, Participants in the majority of ceremonies comprise adult men

and women, and children of both sexes. There seems to be no problem of

obtaining a minyan of adult males, as not only laity but also young

Lubavitcher rabbis daven in the shut. This may seem unexceptional, but

other synagogues in the area cannot always gather the necessary minyan.

This was brought home to me when I overheard F in my Form

urgently pleading with a friend to come to his small synagogue and make

up a minyan for Maariv. Some days previously, he had told me that his
11,

family had moved into the neighboprhood of the school, because getting a

minyan in his former suburb had been virtually impossible.

Although worship is collective in the shut, participants are

physigally separated according to the sexes. Women and adolescent girls

sit in the balcony. Their separation from the men is compounded by the

muslin curtain, which is an effective screen during most services.

However, at ceremonies such as the Reading of the Meginah (The Scroll of

Esther) at Purim, or during Simchas Torah both occasions of rejoicing

and mild, lensed merry-making - the curtain is dispensed with altogether.

Even during the Sabbath services, it is not uncommon to see women drawing

the curtain aside' momentarily for a quick peep at the proceedings below.
 165

Breakdown of sexual separation, with a consequent increase in

%

the informality of the proceedings, occurs to an extent from the custom

of 'visiting'. Small children of both sexes wander into the main chamber

of the OW to find their fathers, or -may accompany them for part of the

service. During'the procession of the Scrolls at SOIchas Torah, or

throughout the Reading of the Meginah, small children take an active -

role in proceedings. In the former they join the procession, carrying

small scrolls or flags. In the latter they help raise the derisive

cacophony with rattles (groggers), or by banging and stamping whenever

/the name of the 'villain' Haman, occurs, as the reader tells the story from

the bimah. Their too energetic participation in this tradition, which

dates back to the 13th century in Germany and France, earns them frowns

from the adults.or a reprimand from the bursar. He scurries anxiously

around stopping small boys from banging pew lids dp and down.

Adolescent boys are in the congregation as a matter of course,

or worship.in an adjoining room at servicds conducted by the LubavitcIer

Youth. Occasionally an older girl is sent down from the balcony to fetch

a small child, but comes only to the door of the vain hall without

venturing in She either manages to signal to the child, or gets a

message relayed to her father by other members of the congregation.

Involvement of young children and adolescent boys and gir

thus a notable feature of 'life in the shul. They are always there o

Sabbaths and Festivals, boys dressed in best suits and wearing hats or

yarmelkehs - miniature editiOns of their fathers - girls in best dresses.

Little ones wander around freely. Young boys May keep together in small

groupS, taking part in.worship, or chatting and sometimes sky-larking so

that they earn a reprtaiand from nearby adults. Older youths keep in

191
 166

'Smaller groups, and are more conscious of their religious duties. On

occasions, however, this does not preVent them looking up to the balcony

to catch a glimpse of, the girls present, or obviously indulging in social

gossip during the Readings. The most serious youths take an active part

in worship. Same Congregate in small groups around.the,bimah during prayer

474

and Readings, others &Oen-with fervour in the aisles at the side of the

hall.

The presence of children and youths accentuates a marked feature

of all the ceremonies I attended - the nsformality and mobility of adult

participants. Pews are available and'some are occupied at all times, but

men frequently wander out of the main hall diming the Reading orrepetitibn

of some prayers for a chat or smoke in the foyer. Meanwhile the service

continues behind the heavy swing doors.that separate it frOm,the

Even inside there is an impression of incessant motion and apparent lack

of order. Some men it relatively still in their pews intent on dekrotions,

only rising and moving at the appropriate ritual moments in the Liturgy.
ti

Others are constantly turning around to look at others, or occasionally

half rise and lean over to talk to a neighbour. Apparently inattentive,

worshippers' eyes rove around the shut glancing here and there Heads crane

to catch a glimpse of an acquaintance, a hand automatically flicks the

tat/it over the shoulder from which it has fallen or more draMatically

sweeps it back into position.

Many worshippers stand and move around in the aisles or the space
0

at the back of the shul behind the_pews. Some of their movement is purely

spontaneous, while parts of it are related to the ritual gestures

associated with prayer. This is particularly evident in the genuflections

 elf
O
ir 167
r

anil prescribed steps at various points in the Shemoneh Eereh,3 a Silent

Prayer which constitutes the most important part of the Morning Service

next to the Shema. The Lubavitcher rabbis, some conspicuous in their

black, rsilk kapotas, garteZs, and broad-brimmed black hats, are more

emphatic in their moVements than others .k ,On occasions, their actions

have a charismatic flamboyance, accentuated, by their distinctive dress 1

e'
and the intangible authority of their general demeanour. They-are 4ways

quick to start the Chassidic chanting and hand,clapping if the mood and

moment of festive ceremonies are appropriate. One senses that here is

. .

something of the euphoric hithlahabuth of the C asidim, the 'ptratroopers

of religion' tb adopt Firth's description oddedicated religious mystics

(Firth, 1964: Q94),

Despite seerning disorder and lack of decorum, due in part to

there being t` distinction between the secular and sacred in Judaism, there

is always prel4nt in the shuZ a basic reverence and devotion, accentuated

,
.
- . I2'
by symboliC of many kinds. As the Scroll is taken from. the Ark t&

the bimah by a rabbi, worshippers move forward to touch or kiss it

reverently. On Simchas Torsi when all Scrolls are processed it is mitzvah

for .all to perform this act. 'As many as possible press around the Scrolls,

cradled carefully in the arms of those carrying them in the euphoric'seven

circuitshalchaphot) of. the hall. Chiiren are held up to kiss the Scrolls,

-anethose old enough may even have an opportunity to carry one in the circle

dancingthat occurs, on this Festival after the service.

3 Shemoneh Esreh (Heh.) 'Eighteen Betedictions;; more usually known as

the; krridah: the 'prayer to be said standing'.

Kota (Yidd.) 7 a calf-length, black,coat morn by extremely Orthodox

Jews and Chassidim; garteZ (Yidd.) - girdle made of black silk or wool.

193
 168

Reading the Scroll is similarly invested with symbolic actions that heighten

At reverence in which it is held.C' a

6 At Accos, symbolism is a dominant aspect (Wring the HaVel

prayer on each of the days of the Festival. After reciting the appropriate

Benediction. = 'to take the lulav', adult males hold the four species in

their hands, and 'wave' them while reciting the Psalms constituting the

prayer.5 'Waving' consists of making jabbing movements of the four species

in four directions as well as upwards and downwards.. They are also carried

in a circuit of the synagogue on each of the days. The spectacle of waving

palm fronds and absorbedldevoted, ritual movements in the shul is a

memorable one, anA etphasizes dramatically the ancient, historical basis

of Orthodox Judaism.
.

Such a Aescription conveys little of the Lubavitcher style with

which this particular ceremony is carried out. The day I attended, about

a quarter of the congregation had the fdur species. Befdre Hanel many

left.the hall to fetch them. The'shammasbeckoned me out to the communal

succah.at the back of the dining room where a bustle of activity was

taking place.6 Men were straightening their Zutavim, or arranging the

willow fronds by passing them with a caressing motion through their

finger.' After the 'waving'In the Shut the circuit began. All those

5 In obedience to the Biblical injunction 'And ye shall take you on the

first day of the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, boughs
of thick trees and willows of the brook and rejoice before the Lord'
your God seven dSys' (Lev. 23: 40). The four species (Heb. Arbaah
minim) are traditionally made up of one palm branch (lulav), held in
the right hand, one esrog (a species of citrus fruit) held in the left
hand, three sprigs of myrtle and two willow twigs which are bound
together and held with the lulay.

6 Shammas (Heb.) servant'. A key official in the shut, and equivalent

to a church shxton DutA4p.include keeping some order during worship,
supplying visiting membe of congregatibn with tanirfAH(prayer shawls)
or prayer books if they have none, and making communal announcements
in this shut 4n Yi ddish. 6

(
194
 . .

s
169

with the four species joined in, chanang quietly. One ox two fathers

carried their little sons in the procession. The rabbi beckoned other

chill-en to the bimall where lie handed them sweets fished from his pocket.-

While members of the cong egation filed out after the service; the rabbi

sand othet Lubavitchers st rted a Chassidic round dance, with several

rabbinical students and boys from the school. The rabbi carried a little

boy during the euphoric dancing, hand-Clapping and chanting of 'oi, o4, oi'.

.While I watched, my friend's son came up to invite me to a meal in the

suceah his parents shared'with the shammas and others living in the same

block of flats.?

.
The emotional fervour evident on this occasion, as at many otber,

ceremonies, owed much to Chassidic and East European influences. Purely, .

religious rituals such as the spjne- chilling blasts of the shophar on

Posh Hashanah, or the rabbi's deeply moving rendition of KoZ Nidrei which

ommences Yom Kippur, have an intrinsic emotional impact. Their effects,-

are heightened by the often unobtrusive Chassidic style of conducting wor-'

ship. In concentrating on the bimah during the Reading of the Scroll, I

almost missed-noticing a rabbi leaning across the vacate&llayer desk at

the front of the shut. This 'is an old Chassidic custom, I Vas informed.

While Torah is being read, a Chassid must guard the prayer desk. Unless

told, I would also have been unaware that the Lubavitchers use their own
/'
variation.of Hebrew and Aramaic in prayers; one they consider more akin

to the original language of the-Bible.

7 For personal reasons out of deference to my hosts, I have chosen not

to describe in detail this memorable occasion, although it entailed'
a number of important ritual and symbolic incidents germane to the
tenor of my argument in this chapter concerning the all pervasive
influence of expressive7religiouo ceremonial on children.

19f
 170
t4

Some customs, whether of East European folleor Chassidic origin,

are more obtrusive. The:rabbi in white kittel, patrolling the shut during

the long Morning Service of Yam Kippur, hushes the gossip of a group of

men seated atthe back of the hall, the offers us all a pinch of snuff

from a small silver box.8 'Phew: Th t's s rong , comments one with a wry

grimace, 'but it will keep me awake'. Of East European tradition also'is

the cuktom of auctioning Read40b of the Torah or the` privilege of

officiating at various rituals to do with unbinding, holding and rebinding

Ole Scroll on the bimah. On Rosh Hashanah, for instance, many honours were

.auctioned by the s*rimas, and conducted as usual in Yiddish.

Young Lubavitcher rabbis and boys from the school,formed a solid

group in front of the bimah on this occasion, and were a focus of much

prayer and song. The rabbi frequently turned to, them to whip up the 11

singing with broad sweeps of his clenched hands. The obvious fervour they

generated was a welcome spur to devotion in a service Which,-by that time,

had already lasted some three hours on into the early afternoon. It

fished at about 2 p.m.

However, the expression of Oithodox devotion was still tot

exhausted. Some eighty or so members of the congregation walked to a

nearby beach later that afternoon - a distance of about two miles, - where

they were joined by a'large group from other Orthodox shuts for the

cereqpny of Tashlikh.8 At this, Blessings and Readings from Scripture

8 Kittel -.a long ankle - length white robe worn by traditional Ashkenazim
during prayers on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.

9 A custom originating in the late Middle Age based on Micah 7: 19

'He will again have compassion upon us; He will "subdue our iniquities;
ana Thou wilt cast (Heb. tashlikh) all their sins into the depths of
,

the sea .

ti

196
 4 171

are recited, and males shake their tzitzit over the water as a symbolic

casting of sins into the sea. Aftet Tashlikh, all danced on the.eand.

(3) Instrumental-religious ceremonies

(a) The programme

losely related to expressive-religious ceremonies are those that

are related to religious or traditional beliefs, but do not form part of

the .official religious calendar. Instrumental-religious ceremonies thus '

need not necessarily adhere to any set timing, and can even be arranged on

a more or less 'ad hoc basis. I witnessed two such ceremonies during the

year and have sufficient detail to comment briefly on a third held just

after I left the school. Others, such as the welcome to the six Lubavitcher

rabbis, were held at times when I could not be present.

A Siywn Ha-Torah celebration, marking the completion of a new

6

Sefer Torah (Scroll of the Law), was held in late August. This date was

contingent upon the new Serbll's arrival from Jerusalem, where it had been

especially written for the congregation. A Torah Evening at which boys

demonstrated their knowledge and skills in Jewish studies was held inlaid-
.

September. In the following year just prior to Pesach, a school assembly

was held to mark the break-up for this important Festival.

Content of ceremonies

Although there are religious overtones in all the instrumental-,

. .

religious ceremonies their ideological bases seem subtly different,. Firstly,

they are opportunities to extol by word and deed the desirability of the

group's way of life, its knowledge and skills, In consequence the collec-

'tive rituals have a strong hortative component, in which remarks stress the

significance of what is occurring, point to a moral, and emphasize the

desirability of adopting such a way of life or ideology. In short, the

197- -
Sr
 . 172

beliefs of the participants are being manipulated, if only to the extent

of being reinforced, In contrast, the expressive-religious ceremonies

'speak for themselves'.

The message is enhanced by an emphasis on tradition which comes

through in both whet isuaid at the ceremony and,how it is conducted.

Precept is allied to example. A clear sense of the instrumental function

of the ceremony - ceremonial as a means to a defined, foreseen end rather

than.an end in itself - colours what occurs. In consequence, much stress

is laid on the future outcomes which can be anticipated provided the

exhortations are heeded. This future-,Orientation is most, apparent in

ceremonies that anticipate or foreshadow an expressiVe-religious ceremony

to come. Its dominant thethe is used to point the moral of the exhortations.

(c) Form of ceremonies

The two instrumental - religious ceremonies I attended were

sufficiently Self-contained and unique during the year to be described

in full rather than, as above, by drawing out significant featureucommon

to a larger number of ceremonies.

o

The Torah Evening, which had been advertised in the Jewish press

a'weSk earlier, .started at about 7.30 p.m. on a weekday in the main hall

of the shu/. In contrast to the Sabbath and Festival occasions, the

balcony curtains were raised so- that some twenty or so women, and-girls

could watch proceedings. About thirty to forty men, including the boys'

teachers, constituted the'remainder of the audience.

Proceedings gotoff to a ragged start. Informality seemed to

be the keynote of the evening, with the rabbi acting as compere and speak-
! ft_

ing almost exclusively in Yiddish, often addressing members of the audience

personally. He moved around the bimah while boys save their recitations,

198
The Principal introduces two primary Grade pupils from
the bimah during the Torah Evening. The curtains
in the women's balcony are drawn up.

1.99
.;.
0
 1Z4

occasionally interjecting in approval, correcting here and there, or

quevtioning.to find out what had been done. Meanwhilethe boys' male

teachers 'fussed around their pupils, obviously nervous and apprehensive

as to how ehey would perform. Several remained close to the bimah to

help where needed, adjust a faulty microphone, or lend moral support.

In an introductory speech in Yiddish, the rabbi

o
appeared 'to
,

mention that excerpts from TeNaCh Chumash, Mishnah, Gemara, and the

Lubavitcher Rebbe's letters and addresses would comprise the programme.

Reference was also made to pilpulim (diecussionO)-.

A! small group of, Grade 2 boys then recited the names of the

Parshes of the Torah, and recited excerpts." Before t is more formal

rendition they sang a little song in Hebrew incorporatingthie days of the

week. They were over-excited, and would have gone on and on had not the

rabbi checked them quickly. Grade 3 followed with a short synopsis of the

Sidros Lech Lecha and Vayera, and both-translated into English and gave

explanations ofvarious parts."

Two Grade 4 boys from the special group studying Mishnah .

ekplained two mishnos of the tractate Shabbos.12 These were followed by

10 Details of each rendition have been compiled from field notes and a
October 3, 1969.
report on the evening in The Australian Jewish News,
The latter has been quoted extensitely as most announcements-at the
time. were in Yiddish and only the most obv0us words based on slight
knowledge of German could be distinguished.
(
The 54 striptural
Parshes (Yidd.) 'portions' (iieb. parashiyyot pl.).
readings into which the Pentateuch is divided.

Two parashiyyot - Gehesis 12:1 - 17:2 and 48:1 - 22:24.

11

'Appointed
12 One of the twelve tractates into whlchlfie second (Moed
times') of the six orders of Mishnah is divided. Agshnos - chapters
op

within a tractate.

20O
 4/75

Grade 5 boys who donversetl in modern Hebrew about the Holidays. A student

from Grade 6 lave an explanation in Yiddish of the Judicial System,

Sanhedrin.

The rabbi took a more active role when introducing boys from

the secondary Forms. One senior boy was referred to as 'our young Chassid

and scholar', and a group of fourth and fifth Form boys as yeshivah

bokkerim - students of Talmudical high school. A third Form boy was

introduced in glowing terms as a brilliant scholar and the son of a rabbi

in Sydney, himself a, noted scholar. The tone of the rabbi's comments

undoubtedly indicated a high regard for religious scholarship, which he

wished to convey to the audience.

The fourth and fifth Form boys gave a commentary on a Talmudic

tractate, reading in Hebrew with immedidte translation' into English.

Commentary, counter - arguments and conclusion were discussedin pilpulistic,

dialectical style. The more senior students gave individual speeches.

One, in Yiddish on the mitzvot associated with Rosh Hashanah was read withi

considerable maturity of style and oratory by a matriculation boy. Also

read, was part of a letter on Rosh Hashanah from the'Lubavitcher Rebbe.

The tour-de-force was undoubtedly the performance of the rabbi's

son from Sydney. He gave a Talmudic commentary in Yiddish entirely from

memory for a period of some ten minutes. There was no falter whatsoever,

although the delivery style was of monotor?us intensity, metallic

tone, and lacking the warmth of the matriculation student. I had heard such

memorized recitals before. On his Bar Mitzvah, the son of a prothinent

O
Lubavitcher had given the traditional Talmudic discourse at the feast which

followed Morning Service. He spoke in Yiddish for nearly fifteen minutes

\

entirely from memory, while his rabbi foll d the speeph from a written
 4,;"
Ft

.4,

A group of primary Grade pupils and their teacher at the

Torah Evening. The Ark of the Law and Ner Tamid
can be seen in the background.

Senior boys give a commentary on a Talmudic ,tractate

from the bimah in the shut.

202
 177

copy held unobtrusively under the table at which we were sitting. Both,

performances were undoubted feats of memory, but far from uncomMon in

Jewish_ scholarship.. Rumour had it that this rabbi himself knew all five

Books of the PentateUch by heart.

On the Torah evening, many of those present in the audienCe

obviously appreciated the pslpul and followed it closely, nodding at

pointsin the argument, and giVing spontaneous exclamations of approval

A when it was completed. The young Sydney scholar's performanfe drew warm

N"applauss, from both the audience and the rabbi personally. Swinging

around triumphantly to those present,/he congratulated the boy in ringIng

Yiddish with a warmth that again indicated the high value placed on the

knowledge and skills'the evening demonstrated. Despite his obvious

enthusiasm, however, towards the. end of the evening which ended at

9.30 p,m., several adults showed signs of wanting to leave but'were

persuaded to stay. Many of the smaller boys were obviously over-excited

and needed some disciplining at times, although 'the keynote of the wile

evening was its informality and homeliness.

In contrast:, the Siyum Ha-Torah was a much more elaborate affair.

A formal invitation to attend was extended to the whole Melbourne Jevash

Community through a large advertibement in the Jewish press, as well as

in a circular to parents of boys, at the school. The celebration; held on

excited
a Sunday morning, was very well attended and resulted in a packed,

shul. When I arrived, there was the usual jam of people in the foyer and

outside. Several pbbis bustled around importantly in obvious excitement.

The Lubavitchers were dressed in their kaftans and gartels. Other men

wore either semi-formal or business suits. Children and women also wore

semi-formal clothing. The 'smart' appearance associated with Shabbos was

2g3
 17 8

not so evident at the Siyum.

Inside the main hall, a croWesurged around the rear table where

the bursar-was selling silken lapel badges for ten dollars and eighteen-
.

&Mars a letter to those who wished to have them ritually inscribed in

the new Scroll. They were printed in blue on a silver background. A

senior boy cane'up and welcomed me. He had two letters pinned to his

lapel. One was in memory of his uncle who died in a concentration camp,
4

he informed me, the,other was for himself. Throughout the hall there
A

was an air of barely suppressed excitement and happiness. People surged,

around, fathers carrying little sons'or daughters.

After much shouting in Yiddish and gesticuloting, two Lubavitcher

rabbis managed to shepherd everybody in'to the hall. We all sat down or

stood around gossiping, or just waiting. The women in the balcony pulled

back the curtains, and peered keenly down at the assembled men, waving to

acquaintances or relatives. It would be difficult for anything happening

in the hall that would not be noted immediately, relayed ta'athers and
="`".
discussed with animation.

We all stood as the Ark was opened by the rabbi, and all the

.Scrolla taken out to be cradled lovingly in the arms of other rabbi8. It

is traditional at a Siyum that these Scrolls aretaken out to meet the new

Scroll and accompany it back sp that it should not, feel lonely. As they

were processed through the hall, men pressed forward to kiss or touch them

reverently. Children were Lifted up to see the Scrolls, and some were held

A foryard so they too could touch-them. The excitement leveC/ increased, and

many.men moved towards the doors of the main hall, leaving their seats to
LIn

get a position in the centre aisle.

f
(7,

204
sb

A circle of dancing Lubavitchers welcomes a Sefer Torah.

;271214332"Ft-iiik'°

?05
The ne r Torah is carried towards the shut.
 180

Chassidic chantipg and the sound of a violin accompanied by

r

an accordian were lard ftom outside. Through the doorway came a group
4 ,0
clusteied closely around a maroon and_g61d canopy; under which_ moved a

rabbi cradling the new'Scroll'in his arma. Lubavitcher rabbis held

the thick, banded white and red poles supporting the pnopy. Grouped'

around the-carrier of the new Scroll were other rabbis, carrying the old,

Scrolls. Boys in school uniform, yOung Lubavitcher rabbis and Ta].mudical

students were packed in' a tight circle around those carrying the canopy

and Scrolls, each with his hands on the shoulders of the one in front.

All kept time in a fast but rhythmic jogging step to the .chanting and

mazurka-like tempo of the musical instruments. The violinist preceded

the group playing energetically. Dressed in velvet' coat and velvet

yarmeikeh he pivsented a timeless picture that might well have been taken

from life in an East European shtetZ.13

Gradually the whole group trotted the Scroll to the bimah. As

-
they proceeded, the Chassidic chanting and clapping were taken up by

.others in the hall. On reaching the bimah, the four poles were placed in

sockets so that the canopy covered the platform. Underneath, all was

great bustle.and excitement as rabbis mounted the steps to cluster around

the Scroll. By this time the bimaa was very crowded. Fathers held

children above their heads to watch,what was happening as the wrappings

a

were carefully unfastened, and rabbis bent over it to examine the *Scroll.

After a short prayer intoned from the bimah, the rabbi addressed

the audience mostly in Yiddish, but occasionally translated his comments I

13 The almost self-contained small, Jewish town which existed in

Eastern Europe priOr to ho oc

200
4

,-int6 English.14 A,tall, dominating Agure in int of the pca'okhet, he.

:Hapoke with passionate intensity, punctuating his comment with dramatic

gestures, clenched fists shaking or a finger stabbing the air at points

of emphasis. This daythe community welcomed into the shut a new Tbrah

especially written in Israel. The Talmud tellstarto 'write a Sefer

Torah' but this is not the culminating achievement. We do more than this.

The high point of whiting a Torah is that it be used to teach Jewish

r.
children, and the Torah must never be forgotten. In carrying out the

ceremony,'the community wants to see that all parents-make sure that

'their children learn the Torah as the only real way of life.

-Several years ago there was a tragedy when the old shut had

been burned down and all its Scrolls destroyed. But if we recall this,

we must also. recall that thousands of 'Torahi-are being 'destroyed' in

our homes unless their study is actively pursued. Torah pervades the

whole atmosphere of our lives, including the home. According to Talmud,

the rabbi said, every Jewis represented in the Torah by a letter, but

very few are given the chance of ever learning Torah. ''Such opportunities

as there are should not be lost by anyone. We should also recall that'

one could pTicipate in the Torah by having a letter inset-Med. This

is a great mitzvah.

The rabbi's concluding remark provoked a rush of people to fhe

bimah, with men and boys craning their heads to watch' the careful

inscription of letters by the scribe. So many small boys tried to get

onto the bimah that the rabbi had to call out in a more colloquial style'

than his speech: 'No' you kids, get back down out of it and let us have

more room'. Obviously this was badly needed if the scribe was to Write

14 Compiled from fieldnotes and a report in The Australian Jewish News.

2 ,0 7
 4,1

The scribe writes new letters to complete the newSefer Torah,

while members of the ongieption look pn.

41.

208
Alt
 183

ach-'letter without making a mistake, whic would have been a catastrophe.

Considerable ritual responsibility lay on his shoulders. He used a snowy

w ite quill pen, and inscribed each letter with meticulous care to complete

t e Sefer Torah. Rabbis stood beside him watching intently. One had a

h ndful of fresh quills available as needed.

Inscriptions went an for a considerable time. Meanwhile friends

were meeting and yarning in the hall, and children ran around everywhere.

last, with all inscriptions competed,the traditional eight circuits

ofi the hall took place with all Scrolls carried in procession. Joyful

ch anting and handclapping accompanied the procegision.

Both instrumental-religious ceremonies clearly call on many

alpects of the Great Tradition for the manipulative exhortations to those

vito participate. These include representatives, but not all,:of the

school population. A ceremony I did not witness took place in the school

h 11 prior to Pesach in 1974. A brief press report makes it clear that,

a ain, the emphasis lay on using Biblical and TaTmudidal references to

echort those present to adopt certain attitudes towards current problems

in world Jewry and their role as Jews.

The ceremony was a school assembly to mark the.break-up for

Pesach.15 A fourth Former lea the boys in a recital of Chapter Twenty of

the Book of Psalms (Tehillim) for the welfare of Soviet Jewry. He was

followed by a third Former, who delivered a speech on unity and fellowship.

A.fifth Form boy, .known for his personal piety, spoke on the self-sacrifice

of Jews which brought about their Exodus from Egypt - the historical basis

of the Pesach Festival. This, he concluded, would also bring true and

everlastirfg redemption. The rabbi commented that love of a fellow Jew

15 The Australian Jewish News, April 24, 1970.

20
 \ 1(34

(Ahavas Yitroel) was also meant in a physical sense. The boys should

remember that doing a favour for a JeW was included it the Mitzvah of

Ahavas Yisroa.

(4). Expressive- eculat ceremonies

(a) The programme

Three major expreskive-secular ceremonies occurred during the

year. In chronological order they were Zceremony at which.prefects.were'

'formally inducted and a well-respected member of staff officially fare-

kelled; a Ceremony marking a visit by Dr Nahum Goldmand, President of the

World Jewish Congress, and the school's Speech Night. The first two were

held in the dining room adjoining the main hall of the shut. The last took

place in the small recreation hall with stage facilities, attached to an

old people's home some miles from the school.

(b) Content of ceremonies

All the ceremonies were associated more with the Academic than

the Great Tradition though, as will be apparent, considerable overlap of

thd 'two occurred. Opportunities for holding this type of collective

ritual relating to school life are created yearly, as schools are places

in whiCh major discontinuities occur for pupils and staff. Examinations'

and tests mark the completion of one phase of work and transition to the

next._ Cohorts of senior pupils leave at the end of the yerir, teach

retire, or transfer to other schools. At the start of the year a fresh

'cohort of judior pupils arrives, and all Gradap move up in seniority.

Some pupils changestrus by becoming prefects; some teachers assume

added responsfbilities,'new members of staff joj the school. During the

Routine is thereby
year important persons visit schools and address pupils.

disturbed, especially if the visit is used as an occasion ,to grant a school

210
 185

' holiday.

Discontinuities are tollectively celebrated, and include, for

instance, rituals of induction (prefects), welcome (new staff), farewell

.(old staff), prowess (Speech Night). The ceremonies Ale which these take

place are important opportunities for those it authority to make ritual

expression of the, major values of the school, its attitudes towards social

and world problms, its role_in education, and the desired conduct and

norms it expects of those attending it. Such rituals are consensual and

cohesive (Bernstein et al, 1966: 160). They serve'to bind together staff

and pupils in the form of a moral community with collective identity based

on shared values. An important. component in ceremonial is reference to

the school's history and traditions as measures of what should be done in

the present, or should be done in the future. The school song, motto, and

maxims of its founders are invoked as tangible reminders of all the school'

stands for and, hopefully, will continue to foster.

(c) Form of ceremonies

After five weeks of school the first major assembly was held.

All boys in the primary and secondary Grades' were seated in class gtoups;
V

together with their teachers to maintain discipline. At a long white table

facing the boys sat the Principal, President of the School Council, a

representative of the Old Boys Association, the President of the Ladies'

Committee, ands the guest of honour - the master who had left the school at

the end of the year and who was now being formally farewelled. Thesenior

master acted as master of ceremonies.

The apparent rarity of assemblies was underlined by the senior

master, whaktopened proceedings by complimenting the,boys on their behaviour.

They were indeed worthy of the school. His brief introductory speech about,

211
 186

the function of the ceremony was lib/tally interspersed by anecdotal refer-

ences to the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Hebrew terms and Talmudic sayings on the

merits of the type of education the school exists to promulgate.

The President of Council followed, and stressed two great values

the school strives to maintain the value of secular learning for future

careers and the broad base on which it should be maintained. This was the

school's programme of Orthodox religious studies, which would equip thi

boys to go into the future as good Jews and fathers. They should never

forget their Jewish heritage. Through it they would be able to resist the

obviously decaying morality and temptations of this day and age, especially

in the wider society and at university. The President then announced the

them on
names of the new prefects and associate prefects, and complimented

being selected to maintain the standards of the school.

The Principal's speech expressed.basically similar sentiments to..

those of the President of Council. He also referred to the Jewish tradition

O

of wishing departing friends 'plenty of nachea' a term I was to hear at

similar farewell ceremonies for members of staff during the year." He

also wished the teacher long life, and stressed that his deeply religious

values bad contributed greatly to the school, and would help him attain

longevity.

,A similar blend of informality, Jewish folk style, and anecdotal

1 speeches characterized the much more important ceremonyto welcome

Dr Nahum Goldmann during the last weeks in the school year. The official

gathering took place in the dining hall, with all boys, staff, the Principal,

16 Naches (Yidd.) - used here in the sense of psychological reward or

the proud pleasure
gratification. More usually employed to refer to
or joy gained from the achievements of a child.

2.12
 r_so
_ 44"

Dr. Goldmann, guests and rabbis visit

a primary Grade J.n the girls school.

a
I
1

AIL
care

Dr. Goldmann addresses the assembled School.

213
 1118
II

and distinguished guests present. A welcoming speech from one of the fouith

Form students referred to the.school's scholastic record and function as a

centre of scholarship in Judaism, particularly at the Rabbinical College

which is unique in Australia. If. the school can produce boys Who will

bring a spark of Yiddishkeit to a world which is slowly drifting away,Ale

stated, then its founders will have been successful.17

. In his reply, Dr Goldmann said that the school was one of the
P
great miracles of Jewish existence. It was an inspiring moment for him to

see such an institution providing a full education steeped in the great

traditions of the Jewish religioh. He called upon the students to retain

their solidarity with other Jewish communities, and with the Jewish past.
Jr.
`Withoutunity with the past, he stated, there could be noAJewish future.

Following another song from the choir, the official party left

for a brief tour of the school. It visited the adjoining girls school and

the'Yeshivah (edolah where Talmudic students were hard at work.N

The final major expressive-secular-ceremony for the year took

place soon after on a Wednesday evening during the Chanukah period;

Speech Night is a traditional ending to the year in many educational

establishments, and,the school was no exception. In the previous weeks,

A

DtudentOlad been practising hard for their display items.. The char and

drama group - both innovations during the latter part of the year - had

been particularly active.

Proceedings in the hii1X took place before an audience of parents

and.boys from the school. No order was maintained in seating, and it was

noticeable how-casually yeople drifted in and out, scraped chairs nOsily,

17 Yiddiahkeit (Yidd.) .'Jewishness'; the Jewish way of life as expressed

in the practices of the traditional Jewish religion and its customs.

21,1
 189

items. Also
or carried on obtrusive gossip prior to and even during some

surprising was the number of metro wore neither a hat nor yarmeZkeh.
of
Children ran to and fro, adding to the almost continuoud undercurrent

murmur and noise throughout the whole evening.

f. Before the actual Speech 'Night ceremony began, the Principal"

called the audience to some semblance of order, and .a small boy stepped

forward to light five,of the eight candies on a small menoryh standing

on the right-hand corner of the stage. He lit the ehammae candle first,

from which he proceeded to light the others." 'AB he did so he intoned

Scattered 'Aiens' from the
tWe accompanying ritual-blessing in Hebrew.

audience echoed his recital.

Following a number of folk songs in Hebrew and dramatic ieeme,

a sixth Form student gave the first speech on

behalf of the matriculants k
using the by now familiar dramatic, oratorical. style with frequent

references to Talmud and Bible in English and Hebrew. The school is of

combined harmoniously with a

a special kind in which secular education is

thorough Jewish.edudation. Such preparation had been of considerable

the great
success in leading to Yiddishkeit; producing Jews able to counter,
"--
danger of assimilation which threatens the Jewish community.---,
N\
But what is, and how do we measure, success came the question
in
Talmudic style. In worldly terms, passing examinations, winning honours

and scholarships, entering universities and technical colleges, and

But
obtaining degrees and diplomas students had been highly successful.

'success' can also be defined in terms of students' integrity, character

18 The additional candle attached to the menorah from which are

kindled the other candles during Chanukah.

215
 190

and honesty - in short, Menchlekeit.19 Thus, apart from a first-class

secular education, the school also aims to convey to its students the

message of havt to conduct one's life in a proper Jewish manner.

To be a Jew, and lead A life compatible with the traditions of

Judaism, the speaker went on, needs a certain strength of character, a

purposeful direction, and depth of understanding of the real values of

Judaism. However-it is not sufficient to get an insight into Jewish

At -the
history, or obtain knowledge of religious laws (ainim), and Bible.

school this is combined with gaining aniappreciatioh of ,Gemara, Rashi,,

Toaaphot, Ramban and other commentariesP The aim is to arouse a yearning

knowledge with practice.
to search for future knowledge, and to combine this

The following speaker's comments also stressed the value of the

training in Torah boys had received. So great had this been that when two

holiness was with

or more boys sat down to discuss Torah, the spirit of

Torah would be taken out into the world. More

them at that time.
study in the
important, some boys would be returning for a year's higher

.Yeshivahlpdolah. This last remark drew spontaneous and warm applaUse from

the audience. A long anecdote followed in typical question, answer,

the menorah in
-question style likening Torah to the oil used to. fill

Biblical times. Each boy would take out into the world a portion of the

'oil' of the Torah. Even a little would be.43ufficient to keep them going

through life as observant Jews.

Both speeches were a mixture of secular and religious themes.'

the schoofand the.

The former, in particular, referred to the dual aims of
for trying to do the
criticism it faced from some in the Jewish community
studies. The
two things, and putting religious studies before Secular
,c>

19 Menchlekeit (Yidd.) - behaviour characteristic of an upright,

honourable, decent person.
20 Ramban - Moses ben Maimon (Msimonides).

216
Q
 191

latter had not suffered, as the students' university results spoke for

themselves.

Following another group of items, which, like the first,. reflected

both'Jewish and non-Jewish influences, the Speech Night concluded. Although

greatly different in style from those that other Independent schools organize,

it nevertheless contained all the elements of an expressive-secular ceremony:

stress on the values of the school, and their accompanying attitudes and

- goals. It had also been an occasion for the school to promote itself and

its ideol y to the public.

(5) Ins ntal-secular ceremonies

(a) The programme

Ceremonies of the type cited above comprise'relatively large-

scale, public, collective rituals with broad consensual and cohesive

functions. The two instrumental - secular ceremonies described below were

also public, but smaller in scale, and more diffuse than truly collective

in that they took place on a number of occasions and at various locations

in the school. They were the parent-teacher evenings held separately for

primary, Lower-Middle, and.senior Grades, and the school Open Day. They

took place during the middle and-end of the year respectively.

(b) Content of ceremonies

The ideological basis of instrumental-secular ceremonies is

strictly concerned with the school's pedagogical functions. Their ideal

aim is to promote good public relations betWeen parents and school staff

in the interests of both pupils and school. Meetings between parents and

teachers are premissed oir the assumption that a discussion of a boy's

problems and-possible solutions for them will improve what is being done

for his vocational training. Such meetings are also opportunities for

J
 192

teachers to explain modern teaching methods, clarify the reasons, for setting,

or omitting to set, homework, and assure parents of the effectivenebs of

educational practices used at the school.

Open Days enable parents and others to see the school 'on show'.

Work accomplished during the year 18 displayed, preference being givento

items ouch as art and craft, maps and diagrams, project folders, which can
4.0

0
be pinned up or put out to create a dramatic visual show. Parents are also

able to oit in on lessons to see classes at work, or watch demonstration

in such subjects as drama, sport, music, science.

In both types of teacher-parent interaction there are clear

manipulative elements. Either individuallyat:face-to-face meetings, or

collectively as a body, there is the tacit understanding among teachers

they
that while their work may be criticised up to a point, beyond this
i

and'
can defend their actions on the grounds of professional competence

training not possessed by the parents. Interviews are highly ritualized

to provide room for a teacher to manouevre defensively if he encounters

parental criticism. Displays of work and demonstkations are often

least
deliberately contrived, not necessarily to deceive - parents, but at
concealing the less desirable
to present'the best side of school work by

and humdrum. Artificiality and a certain hypocrisy are unacknowledged

ideological corollaries of many parent-teaCher encounters. This rarely

escapes the notice of any pupils who may be present.

(c) Form of ceremonies

The parent-teacher interviews_ in which I wag involved are

settled down
described below, and 'Reed not be elaborated here.21 Before we
a short
to meet teachers individually one of the senior masters gave
evening -
speech of welcome in which he stressed the essential aim of the
4
21 See Chapter 10 for,a detailed description.

218
 193

to discuss children's progress on an individual basis. To enable all

parents tb get an opportunity, he said, it would be appreciated if inter-

,

views could be limited to about ten minutes each. After a further

expression of pleasure and thanks on behalf of the school that BO many

parents had turned up, we started mfr. interviewing.

1 I quickly settled into the familiar pattern. of introduction and

greeting rituals, diagnostic probing to establish the parents' main concern,

prognoses and reassurance that remedial measures,would be undertaken, and

farewell rituals. After some fifteen years of such interviews in a variety

of schools, my style had become well established, almost habitual. It was

aided by the brief notes I had prepared about each boy in cases where I
/
had been told his parents would attend, a V.U.S.E.B. Handbook, and a large

diary for consultation if necessary,,and the notes I jotted dawn,as each -

interview progressed. 'These accessories were notonly functional in

helping to keepthe interview focussed on-the job in hand, and in conveying

some impression of efficiency and preparation, but also provided important

avenues for defensive and displacement activities shoullAhe parents become

too critical of myself, my colleagues or the school. However, apart,from

the few exampleSP,describeyi below, parents'were genuinely concerned about

their boy's vocational prospects. Digressions and major criticisms were

uncommon, as generally the 'rules of the game' were adhered to ono,both

a
sides, and each little ceremony proceeded relatively smoothly.

A visit by a group of parents to my fourth Form geography class

during the Open Day.was an occasion for a more conscidUs display. To-an
4.

extent; I was caught by surprise when some ten parents filed in, although

the classrood looked attractive as I had pinned up a lot of colourful

display material a few days beforeit We were in the middle of individual

219
 work with its charaCteristic quiet buzz of 'work noise' while i went

around helping boys when asked.

This type of lesson, while educationally desirable, would not be

too impressive for parents more accustomed to didactic methods I thought,

and took-advantage of a boy's question to stop the individual work and

give a general answer for the benefit of'all - parents included* Through
4,4
,

blackboard, chalk sketches and a rapid question-and-answer t pique, the

I
lesson livened up with the boys responding well At times we almost

achieved a form of secular pilpui, and several parents smiled openly as

the dialectical exchange went on.

As unexpectedly as they had entered they all filed out,

presumably having seen what they had come to see. The boys and I grinned
-
a
-at each ether. We all knew what we had been up to - playing the 'rules

of the game'.

(6) Summary

'The four kinds of ceremonies that have been discussed provide

important pees of learning experiences for the boys at the school.

The two types of religiously oriented ceremonies make virtually no con-

..

cession to secular influences - indeed any foimal duality between sacred

and secular ix Or9lodox Judaism would be disputed. Under any other cir-

cumstances many of the rituals, which have been described, would be

anachronistic in the extreme. However, within the interaction setting of

congregation,
a deeply Orthodox shut functioning as the hub of its related

they are quite appropriate and even logical. Equally important, they

provide forms of learning under emotional, affect-laddn and highly

ritualized ceremonial conditions. As Dawson has suggested (1969b: 109)

such conditions generate values and attitudes which becoMe firmly held,

220
 195

and.are most resistantll,tohange.

Religious overtones are_characteristic of many secular-

expressive ceremonies, in thert emphasis on Yiddishkeit and the religious

basis for living. Here a sacred-secular duality ig- more expressly acknow-

ledged, and the two functions of the school are seen ateclosely related,

It is im the rituals of the instrumental-expressive ceremonies that the

secular is emphasized often at expense of the sacred. But the

occasions for this type of ceremony are relatively limited, and directly

touch on'the least number of boys. We can tentatively conclude that,

while both sacred and secular learning experiences are available in

ceremonial interaction settings, those appropriate to the Great Tradition

of Judaism clearly outweigh those of the Academic tradition.

2 2.1
 196

CHAPTER 9

THE FORMAL ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Taking a commonsense view of education, one thinks of the formal

ourriculum'in a school as the major source of knowledge gained by pupils.

They act as relatively passive recipients of ready-made infortation.

communicated by the teachers. The shortcomings of such a view have been

r

demonstrated by such writers as;Jackson (1968), Keddie (1971), Postman and

Weingartner (1971), among others, and are taken up in Chapter 17 of this

thesis, in which the concept of the countervailing curriculum is developed.

For the purposes of this2chapter, however, I adhere to the commonsense

view,.and examine how knowledge relating to the two Traditions is formally

0

organized within-the school.,

(1) Types of knowledge lr

The selection of culturally valued knowledge is part of the

curriculum, which also includes other learning experiences available to

pupils. Musgrave has suggested (1973: 7) thatfthe stock of knowledge

offered by most schools can be divided into two parts. 'There is, first,

acadepic knowledge which is largely in written form and relates to learned

disciplines'. The second part is 'behavioural knowledge, which includes

knowledge of the behavioural norms of the society', -Imbavitcher.School

represents two 'societies', and it is doubtful whether a simple dichotomy

of the type Musgrave proposes adequately accounts for the stock of knowledge

it communicates to the boys. A similar reservation must be held about

comparable religious or denominational schools, and suggests that at least

one additional category is required.

Academic knowledge seems logically related to the 'secular'

function of such schools, that is, the preparation of their cliente for

222
 197

future occupations in society. Musgrave notes that 'it is preserved and

largely added to by educational institutions at the tertiary level, or

-research institutions of a similar status' (loc. cit.). This is a

characteristic which was noted about the development of the Academic

Tradition in Australia, and is an.additional justification for equating

academic knowledge with the largely secular domain of the school.

There is, however, a body of knowledge that cannot be thought of

as academic, in the sense used by Musgravli: This is the corpus of religious

littrature. Agreed, it is in written form, and is preserved.. But in the

case of Lubavitcher School, at least, the notion that it could be added to,

4 let alone modified, by a tertiary institution would be heretical. It is

transcendentally derived or divinely revealed knowledge, and is \mmutable,

in contrast to the empirical deriiration of the knowledge in the Academic

Tradition. ,Although it plays an important part in determining the behavioural

knoWledge adopted by the school, the body of religious knowledge can be con7

sidered separately, from the point of view of its derivation, as super-

.

empirical knowledge. It is'logically related to the Great Tradition and

the 'sacred' function of the school. This is the production of Orthodox

Jews.

Accordingly, three categories of knowledge are adopted for analyt-

ical purposes: academic knowledge, super-empirical knowledge, and

behavioural,knowledge. The last is concerned-with what Berger and Luckmann

refer to as 'recipe knowledge' (1971: 56-7). This is 'pragmatically

necessary knowledge', and used for 'the mastery of routine problems'. As

Musgrave notes (1973: 13), because of the situational nature of behaviour

'educational organizations need to focus their teaching upon the values

underlying the respectability they are trying tcinculcate'.

223
 198

(2) Academic knowledge

The selection of knowledge offered by the secondary school, through

the formal curriculum is narrow and non - vocational. Enrichment, non-

academic subjects. such as Music, Speech, and Drama, are-not offered. Even

Art is only offered in the first and second Forms, but is dropped thersafter.

(a) Subjects in the Lower and,Wdle School

Similar subjects are offered to first and second Forms:

Hebrdw.(3) English (6), Mathematics (6), Science (3), Art (2), History (3),

French (2), Geography (3). The figures in brackets refer to the number of
VA
forty minute periods allocated to each subject. English and Mathematics

get twice as much time as any other academic subject. Art and French get

least time, and are not considered y the boys or staff as 'real' subjects)

- but rather token bits of more eral stu/ties. The latter owes its exist-

er4e as much to the personal enthusiasm of the teacher in charge as to the

1

official policy of the school.

ThelSubjects available at third Form are basically similar to

those in the/lower Forms but show an increased academic bias. Art and

French are copped, their place being taken by Commercial Practice. Hebrew-
.

is now the only foreign language taken. The same number and distribution

of periods are allocated to subjects as in first and second Forms.

iFourth fo takes the same subjects but the amount of time

allotated to some i ipereased in line with recommendations in the

V.U.S.E.B. Handbook: brew (4), English (6), Mathematics (6), Science (4),

Geography .(4), Histo 4), Commercial Practice (4). This increases the

demand on time by four periods so that boys Work later in the afternoon

and have two science periods on Sunday mor ng.

224
 199.

(b) The Senior School curricula

The organization of knowledge in the two senior Forms of the

school shows an even greater academic bias than lower Forms."' Every

endeavour is made to provide opportunities for boys to take either science

or humanities groupings of subjects. Fifth Form-offers Hebrew, English,.,

,Mathematics 1, Mathematics 2, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Social

Studies, Geography, Modern History, Commercial PrinCiples, Accounting.

*These are significantly reduced in sixth Form, with a science bias quite

apwarent., to English Expression, Applied Mathematics, General Mathematics:

Pure Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Australian History, Economics, Social

Studies. 'All,,suhjects in fifth Form are allocated five periods, with six

periods in sixth Form.

The significant omission at the latter level is Hebrew. The

standard attained by, the.boys is so high,, due to constant contact with the
A
subject in both secular and religious studies, that they are able to take

the matriculation examinaticin if desired on the basis of their work up to

and including the fifth Form.

(3) The role of examinations in the curriculum

(a) Internal examinations and tests

Examinations at all levls are the rule rather than the exception

in the school. Time is allocated at the end of each3.erm for the first

four Forms to sit internally set and marked examinations or tests. Some

teachers augment these results by cumulative tests during thesTerm. Although

such a system can provide t&achers with opportunity to devise their own

courses, the majority at the school appear to follow those suggested by

the V.U.S.E.B. These also incorporate textbooks which, it is 'w11

recognized, have been written with such courses in mind. By teaching the

225
 200

textbook one teaches the course but inno0a4on, creativity and experimenta

tion are thereby inhibited.

My own attempts to move outside such constraints by devising

spedIfl geography courses for third and fourth Forms were received uneasily

by the boys. Compared with last year's teacher they were so different.

Besides, he only required them to get one textbook whereas at fourth Form

I wanted the boys to have three Why was this necessary? ... and so on.

(b) External examinations

Besides the examinations set within the school, in fourth Form,

boys are eligible to sit for th'C Commonwealth Secondary Scholarship

Examination (C.S.S.E.). This is set and marked on an Australia-wide basis

by, officers ofthe'Australian q2uncil for<Educatibnal Research (A.C.E.R.)

on behalf of the Commonwealth Department of Education and Science. The

.
A.C.E.R. is a Melbourne-based independent organization with test develop-.
6

ment as one of its chief activities.

The examination consists of four sections or,papers testing_,

Written Expression, Comprehension and Interpretation (Sciences),

Quantitative Thinking, Comprehension and Interpretation (Humanities). These

papers are spread over two days in late July. The examination is highly

competitive, and sets out to.test academic abilitwand skills rather than

the possession of knowledge. As the memorandui to heads of schools makes

clear, the examination is intended to be a predictor of the pupil's 'likely

success in matriculation studies two years hence'.1 Scholarships for the

next two years of education ah offered in terms of the order of merit in

Memorandum for Heads of Schools: Commonwealth Secondary Scholarships:

School Ratings for 1969 Awards - Suggested Method of Rating Pupils
(Education Department, Melbourne, 30th June 1969), p. 1.

226
 201

the examination (Fensha, 1970: 244). Success in obtaining a scholarship

-.under such competitive and searching conditions thus not only earns eeonomk

rewards in terms of support for further chooling, but also gains consider-'

able kudos for the successful Pupil and his se

At the fifth Form level all academic w rk is oriented towards the

Schopl-Leaving Certificate gxamination at the d of the year ill late

....'

Odtober and eailYT November. This is taken ex ernally, and constitutes a

terminal qualification fc;I: those leaving sc ool. More commonly, however,

it is a necessary step towards proceeding to the sixth Form year.and

Higher School Certificate (H.S.C.), formerly the Matriculation Examination.

To enter for this a 0a!4:8 in at least four subjects of the School Leaving
.
S
t

examination is required. However, most candidates prepare for five or six

Subject% as English must be passed as one of the four subjects needed to

fel enter for the Higher School Certificate Examindtion. It must also be

passed at H.S.C. level, along with three other subjects, for the candidate

to qualify for consideration for a place at university.2 a

The School Leavi examination thus assumes a much greater

importance than the kin examinations in fourth Form. It is firstly

a desirable terminal qualification for)emplioyment when a studen* leaves

school. A candidate must obtain four subjects arranged in specified

groupings before proceeding to the Higher School Certificate year; and

both certificates are needed as one of the pre-requisites for university

selection.3 It presents a formidable hurdle for boys to take.

2 Handbook pf Directions and Prescriptions for 1969 - School Leaving

Examination, Matriculation Examination (The Victorian Universities and
Schools Examinations Board, Melbourne), pp. 6-19.

3 The candidate must have passed in English, a brapch of mathematics

or of science,'a humanity subject, ibid., p, 13.

227
 t .
.
202
b A
Ilk,'
In the school yp this prenure is compounded by the difficulty
.

,,,

slime boys have wfith English; when Yiddish or another langbage is spoken

it ,home. The school also presents its candidates to the final examination,

externally at unfamiliar examination centres under the V.U.S.E.B. Grade B

system. Tt has not received Grade A accreditation to set, and award its

own internally examined Leaving Certificate. At least in the fourth Form,

examinations apart from the C.S.S.E. are set and marked internally by

staff at the school, thus partially reducing the strain.

At the fifth Form level examinations are of three types.

Internally set and marked examinations take place at the end of first

Term. There are ,no formal examinations in second Term, though progress
et

tests are set. However, very early in third Term, fifth and sixth Forms

take the optional practice examination set by independent, external

examiners under the auspices of the Incorporated Association of Registered

Teachers of Victoria (I,A.R.T.V.). This is an independent organization

concerned mainly with placing staff in non-government, registered

(Independent) schools. It maintains its own teacher training college in

Melbourne, and organizes the setting and distribution of the practice

School Leaving and H.S.C. tests held. late September to early October.

Although constpcted and pbblished by vxternal examiners, these are at

for in the schools and marked by members of school staffs. Alternatively,

schools can set their own examinations for the end of second Term.

The main School Leaving examination papers are set by panels of

examiners appointed for every subject by the Victorian Universities and

Schools Examinations Board, in collaboration with the various subject

Standing Committees of the Board. The examination is taken at special

centres throughout the State. These are in public hails, large schools

228%
 203

with facilities which have been approved bytheBoard to act'as centres,

fi
and in the case of Melbourne at the large,, Exhibition Buildings in the city

itself.

Similar administrative conditions operate for the H.S.C.,

examination, though for this both the preparation 11 supervision are

much more stringent. The chairman of each examiners panel must be from a

tertiary education organizatiOn, and not from a school which does not

present for the external examination, as may be the case for the School

Leaving. 14g examination is used for university-selection, and

high merit gradealiay qualify for the award of a Commonwealth Tertiary

Scholarship, which assists,with university fees and cost of books, and

provides towardsmaintenance of the recipient. The H.S.C. is also a

terminal qualification for the school leaver.

With such rewards at stake, competition for success in the H.S.C.

examination is intense. Pupils' usually take at least four subjects - the

P

minimum required for a pass at one sitting - while many attempt five.
.

For university selecti rposes, results in the best three are counted,

excluding English Exp ession for which grades are not awarded, the subject

being marked on'a pass/fail basis.``

In contrast to the gradually increasing severity and external

character of the assessment from fourth to sixth Forms, that in the Middle

and Lower School is far less rigorous. Whereas preparation for the

C.S.S.E., the School Leaving and H.S.C. examinations imparts direction

4
and motivation to both teaching and learning, work"at the lower levels has

only the incentive of being preparation for transition upwards to the next

4 This was the'case in 1969. In 1971 the V.U.S.E.B. introduced the

ions to
grading system for English Expression. Note - further modifi
the%*xternal examination system have occurred since this dat

229
 .204

level. There are no similar rewards Lu compete for as in the three senior

Forms. However, the dominance of the higher levels over the direction of

the curriculum is very apparent, and confirms its pronounced academic

orientation and adherence to the Academic Tradition.

(4) Super-yempirical knowled&e

(a) The basis of the curriculum contents

,Three closely related and interdependent bodies of knowledge

comprise the forAl curriculum of the Great Tradition. 'They are the'Bible

(TeNaCh), Talmud and SchutchanAruch. TeNaCh - a contraction of three

`-o

words - comprises the Torah ('Instruction', 'Law'), Nevi'im ('Prophets'),

and Ketuvim ('Writings' or 'Hagiographa'). The first is made up ef the

first five books of the Bible (Chumash or Pentateuch), the second comprises

the Early Prophets. (Nevi'im'Riahonim) and Later Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim),

the third is a collection of miscellaneous books of historical, devotional,

poetic, dramatic and narrative literature. This comprises Psalms, Proverbs;

and the Book of Job, togethewith the Five Scrolls (Megiiioth), the most
(.)

important of which is the Scroll of Esther read at Purim.

Torah is the foundation of religious and ethical instruction.

For centuries it furnished the principal curriculum of Jewish education in

which the child began his schooling, and returned to again and again.

the Orthodox Jew it is the supreme and unquestioned authority in religious

life, Together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim it furnishes the spiritual roots

of Talmud. This embraces both Mishnah and Gemara, the former being stressed

in the curriculuffi at the school. Mishnah can be thought of as a textook

rather than a code, and gives the essence of the Oral Law and ancient

5 I am indebted to the Director of Religious Instruction at the school for

the inforMation on which this section is based, though the comments and
interpretation in 4(c) are entirely mine.

230
 205

tradition as it was known to the sages during the period culminating in

the compilation of the final authorized version c. 220 C.E. (Werblowsky &

Wigoder, 1965: 373). Talmud is, in effect, a body of jurisprudence ful-

filling the injunction of the Men of the Great Assembly-to 'make a fence

around the Torah' (Avot 1.1). Not surprisingly every page of Talmud is'

filled with citations from Chumaoh.

The Sehulehan Aruch of Joseph Caro first published in 1565 is a

'convenient codification of Jewish law and practice derived from Talmud.

It is divided into four parts. Orach Chayyim deals with the rituil obliga-

tions of daily life from waking to sundown. Yoreh Deah deals mainly with

dietary and ritual laws including mourning, vows, respect to parents,

charity, etc. Even ha-Ezer deals with personal status, marriage, divorce,

etc., and Choohen gishpat embraces the entire body of Jewish civil law ac

far as it is applicable under Diaspora conditions (ibid., 358-9). Sub-

sequent writers further condensed this codificatiOn, and the Kitzur

Sehulehan Aruch is also a basis for the curriculum, especially for the boys

in junior Forms.

(b)`'-Organization of religious instruction

Boys start Talmud (Mishnah) in,Grade 5 by tradition at Baba

Aletziah (Aramaic 'The Middle GIV'), dealing with small portions of the

easier tractates concerning responsibility for property, and accepting

liability for damage. At this level, possibly no more than one or two

pages are considered during the-entire year. Study of Mishnah continues

in greater depth, and deals with more content, as a boy proceeds up the

school. He tackles sections from different tractates in higher Forms,

such as those dealing with marriage, divorce, prohibitions on Shabboo.

In senior Forms, for instance, modern technological developments' such as

 206

having to tgrn on a lighVwitch are explored in relation to the traditional

prohibition f work on Shabbon. By sixth Form, boys may be tackling some

levels of interpretav
twenty pages of Talmud during the year at much deeper

tion and sophistication. Starting at Baba Met iah Gann or eight tractatec

boys is geared to those

are dealt with in all, and the progress of the I-

tractateo studied in much greater depth at the Yeshivah Gedaah.so that

from the
theboyo can receive coaching and personal help after school

rabbinical students.

The study of Chumash with commentary by Raohi starts in Grades

1

through the subsequent .

and 2 with Genesis, and proceeds oyotenintically

been completed, and
books so that by Forms 5 and 6 all Five Books have
Some considera-
study beings afresh from the beginning but at greater depth.
Nevi'im, but is
tion is given to other sections of TeNaCh, especially

necessarily restricted due to lack of time. However, by the end of their

schooling the boys will have covered the majority of TeNaCh.

and the un-
Study of the Kitzur Schuichan Aruch in lower Grades
before each Festival.
abridged version in higher Forms takes place mainly
ceremonial
Considerable time is devoted to studying its ritual laws and
occasions
observances. However the SchuLchan Aruch is studied.-on other
devoted to it.
though, in comparison with TeNaCh and Talmud, less time is
is the gradual
A feature of the curriculum for the secondary Forms
studies Chumash.
introduction of Chassidic philosophy in conjunction with

In Forms 1 and 2 tech

,4 s might explain Chassidic interpretations of the

Instruction would be given

weekly portion of -Torah once.bt twice a week.

orally with pupils taking notes. No formal textbook of Chapsidus is used.

the main philosophy

However, by Form-5 pupils are able to start tackling
Tanya which is the basin
in some depth, and are introduced to some parts of

232
 207

of the Lubavitcher'(C7mbad) philosophy. Once again, lack of time limits what

Can be tackled.

How traditional are these elements of the curriculum? In origin

they are very 'ancient,. dating back to Biblical times and the post-Biblical

period during which the Oral Law was gradually compiled and finally

approved in its authorized form. We can gain some insight into Lubavitcher

notions of what traditional' Orthodox Jewish education should be from an

account of the controversy between Rabbi Menachem Mendel, the 'Tzemach

Tzedek' of the line, of ChabmiL-Chassidic tradition (Appendix 4.1) , and '*"'

proponents of the Haskalah movement during the five yeat period from 1845.6

In reply to the Russian Bureau of Religions' unacceptable. roposals

for the curriculum of Hebrew schools, the Tzemach Tzedek made a number of

cogent responda in a lengthy pamphlet. Among his many points were the

following, in which we can detect the essential roots of the religious

programte of the school (Schneersohn, 1962: 71 ff.):.

The words of the Torah are eternal, true,.and just.

This must be impressed upon the minds and hearts_of the
pupils aL -jhe outset. (Yoreh Deah 245, 6: 'One is

obliged to teach,his son the Written Torah in its

entirety ...').
Even the curriculum recently ipsued for Coveqment
schools for Jews explicitly states that first grade
children ate to study the first books of the Pentateuch
and the Mishnayos of the Ttactate Shabbos. In the.

second grade they are to complete the Pentateuch, Joshua,

Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalms, Proverbs,
Esther, lyishnayos Bro&los and the Orders of Festivals,

'EnLightenment'. The-movement among Jews of Eastern

Haskalah (Heb.)
'Europe in the late,18th-19th centuries to atquire modern European
culture and secular knowledge.

233
 20

Civil Law, and Sacrifice, Talmud Tractates Be'a, Bueeah,

Pesaehim, and Bhabbos, and many sections of the Bhulehan
Aruch (a's planned in 1843 by the ComMission). The
curriculum stipulates all the books of the Bible,
Mishna; and Talmud; with no mention of omissions.

In view of the types o religious tdaching.staff employed at the

school and particularly the developments which have taken place since my

study, the organization of most Chas?idid communities under the Tzemach

Tzedek's direction is also of interest. Their religious staff consisted

of 'Rabbis, shoehtim, teachers (who were alsq charged by the Rabbi with

organizing public'study group for Mishna, Talmud, halaehal agada, and

Chassidus), and a mashpi'ya. The viashpi'ya was a Chassid chosen by the

Rabbi to be responsible for Chassidic training,' especially of young men

and boys' Ubid., p. 60), viz. the director of religious studies.

(c) Some comments on"Methods of instruction

Several features,difflentiate the formal cur4culum of the Great

Tradition from that of the Academic Tradition. Firstly, a hierarchical

a'rangement of subjects Grade by Grade is absent. Progress in the study

of Chumash, Mishnah and Sehulehan Arueh is highly indivtdalistic: and

depends on the capabilities of the students and interests of the teachers.

r
Thus,it is not possible to specify exactly what is studied Grade by Grade.

There is a close parallel with East European tradition. 'The general

principle of the yeshiva is independence and self-reliance. The program

of study allows for infinite variation' (Zborowski & Iterzog, 1952: 97-98).

Secondly, tradition has had to defer to the demands of secular work and

the inroads this makes into pupils' time, energy, and capacity for sus-

tained Jewish studies. For instance, it used to be customary in the

traditional eheder ar elementary scho 1 for the study of Chumash to commence

234
 209

at Leviticus (ibid., p. 96). This is now skipped and left for older classes,

while the younger boys start with Genesis. However, even this is not an

invariable procedure and depends on the ability of pupils and the teacher's

preferences.

Thirdly, several important pedagogical techniques are employed for

all studies. Particularly in higher Forms, boys work individually at Talmud

in small groups which rarely exceed four. They also work at their own pace.

It is also clear that a form of 'spiral curriculum' operates. A boy may

tackle a part of Chumash in a junior Grade, progress to other parts as he

proceeds through the school, but in senior Forms return to the part he first

studied but tackle it at greater depth and rigour. This applies particularly

to Chumash. In Talmud, on the other hand, though some spiral tendency is

apparent, study is a matter of progressing from'topic to topic (tractate to

tractate) of increasing depth and complexity. Fourthly a great deal of

the curriculum emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge (the cognitive domain)"

and certain skills such as those necessary to sustain a discussion on a

passage from Talmud in higher Forms.

(5) Behavioural knowledge,

(a) Behavioural norms and values of the Great Tradition

Solomon's description of traditional Jewish education (1973: 174)

indicates clearly how closely the school has modelled its programme of

religion struction on traditional practice. It is also the source of

the 'ideal' behavioural norms and values that the boys'should follow.

The traditional curriculum of Jewish studies was textbook-

and subject-centred, divided into stages based on the study of the
Pentateuch, the Mighna, and the Talmud. Whereas intellectual know-
ledge-was the basis of the curriculum, the goals of education in-
cluded both cognitive and affective objectives, meaning knowledge,
behaviour, the acquisition of values, and the training of character,.
 210

The'assumption is made at the school that learning knowledge of

Torah will-lead to the adoption of the correct behaviours set oUt therein

as the 613 Precepts (Heb. taryag mitzvot), or commandments of the Law of

Moses. These are subdivided into 248 pcoitive and 365 negative precepts.

The concept of Torah connotes 'guidance' and 'direction', and implies that

knowledge of Torah provides an individual with a programme of norms and

values to guide both his most private actions and his relationships with

the community. Chassidism is, in essence, an ethical and aesthetic' inter-

pretation of the divine Ideals embodied ,in the 613 Precepts of Judaism.
4
The elements of Lubavitcher philosophy, to which the boys are exposed, thus

have the effect of reinforcing the values and norms learned in their more

formal studies of Torah.

The dominant theme of behavioural knowledge, insofar as it refers

to interpersonal relationships, is the concept of imitatio Dei, which is

.developed in the rabbinical injunction: 'As He is merciful and graciou9,,

so be you merciful and gracious. As He is righteous so be you righteous.

As He is holy, strive to be'holy' (Sifre Deut. 85a). Imitatio Dei is a

recurrent theme in the Code of Holiness (Lev. 19). However, it is not

prescriptive in the sense of compelling aperson to ethical behaviour

'without offering him freedom of choice. It is a basic affirmation of Judaism

that man is a Creature who makes free ethical choices and decisions for which,

he al6ne is resionsible; A boy at Lubavitcher Schodl may have the Preepts

held up before him as models of behaviour: ,it is up to him whether to,make

them part of his 'recipe knowledge', and the basis of forming the typifica-

tions of others, which guide his interpersonal relationships.

Behavioural knowledge gained from studying divine Precepts is

reinforced by knowledge derived from a variety of animate sand inanimate

4

236
 211

sources ILL the school. These range from homiletic injunctions given at the
eA

various types of ceremonies described in the previous chapter, through

comments of lay and religious'teaching staff during periods of religious

instruction,,to precepts contained in literature from the Lubavitcher Rebbe,

which is pinned to notice boards and doors in the shut and its, adjoining
p.

rooms. The last commonly refer to the performance of mitzvot for an

approaching Festival.. For instance, during Purim, members of the congrega-

tion are urged' to perform the 'unity mitzvot' of sending gifts to friends ''''
r
(Heb. mishloach manot) - usuallyw_two kinds of sweetmeats - and to the pooi,

in the form of food or money (Heb. mattanot Za-evyonim). The mitzvah of

charity i also stressed in the school, and a monitor comes around each

)
class once a week to collect contributions from boys.

Homiletic injunctions stress a number of themes, which relate to

the value of Yiddishkeit.7 This is made even more explicit by the distinc-
-r
tion, which speakers or writers make between 'general education knowledge'

ands Jewish knowledge. The former has only one purpose, namely to acquire

skill, but not to acquire character. The latter 'shows us how to live

properly in Jewish life'. The objective of the school is-develop

Yiddishkeit: 4teaching et aim and direction in life, through Jewish morals

and ethics which kindle children's minds. In this way it is hoped that the

school will turn out knowledgeable and responsible Jews. Through the high

standards of Yiddishkeit at the school the boys gain a deep awareness of

their religion. The school is a 'banner of Yiddishkeit': its intense

Yiddish atmosphere is bolstered by harmOny between teachers and pupils.

7 The following details are compiled frorofieldnotes and details in

The Australian Jewish News at the time of the school's annual appeal
for funds.

237
 212
CC
I,

The, study of Torah and Jewish education has always been an ideal of the

-Jewish people. It is necessary for moral living: no one can be pious

withoUt knowledge.

Yiddishkeit,is also -taught through the regular extra-curricular

activities some boys follow vath the Lubavitcher Youth group. This conducts

a variety of camps and outings during some Festivals and the long summer

vacation when the school closes. ,Members of the Lubavitcher Youth group are

also examples to others in the earnest way they carry out their religious

duties, or help organize activiAes. Many, members have a bustling, 'busy'

manners as if they are self-consciously aware of a'mission' to perform.

The Lubavitcher Youth group also conducts study groups and its own services

in the phul. The Lubavitcher 'message' is further disseminated by the amount

of literature, in the form of leaflets, pamphlets and bobks, published by

the Melbourne Branch of the parent company Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch, Inc.

of Brooklyn, New York, which is the official arm of the Lubavitcher Move-

ment. Extracts from these publications, together with Yiddish jokes and

rabbinical aphorisms even find their way into.the 'newspapers', which the

Middle,Schdol.Form produces' and duplicates. Lubavitcher Youth also conducts

a duplicating service for those who want to obtain extracts from Lubavitcher

literature, or copies of other material.

Folk or Jewish ethnic customs are also an important component of

Yiddishkeit. 'The term has a warm ring for the 'Ashkenazi Jew, denoting

the positive aspects of Jewish habits, often of folk origin' (Werblowaky &

Wigoder,'1965: 410). Atmtl the congregation associated with the school

4

originated from Eastern Europe, and their customs feature during Festivals

such as Purim, Simchas Torah and Chanukah. Some date back to medieval

times and eakier. Masquerades, fancy dress, and a carnival atmosph\e

238
 213.

with games (Yidd;Purim spiel) occupy boys' attention during 'im. Spinning

the top (Yidd. dreidi) becomes a playground game when Chanukah occurs. The

Festival of Lag Ba-Omer, which occurs between Pesach and Shavuot, is the

occasion for outdoor field games and activities in the parks close to the

school. The limited extra-curricular activities include a school choir,

which is formed in the months prior to Speech Night, and has a repertoire

of Israeli and Jewish folk songs. These are a feature of the relatively

rare school assemblies in the dining hall,

Zb) Cultic-c remonial knowledge

A further type of behavioural knowledge relating to the Great

Tradition is cultic-ceremonial knowledge concerning the meaning and correct

performance of the rituals and mitzvot. It is explicitly taught in

religious studies through studying Torah, Talmud, and Schulchan Aruch.

When each Festival approaches, some attention is given in class to rehears-

log the meaning of its associated rituals, even to the extent of demonstrat-,

ing the use of the cultic-ceremonial objects involved. Thus, at Rosh

Hashanah the use of the shophar or ram's horn is shown. At Succos,-the

Zulav and esrog feature in lessons. Boys are able to handle these objects,

and practise the correct methods of using them. 'd

In addition to these explicit, didactic teaching methods, 'the

school complex as a whole is a source of countless instances of cultic-

ceremonial knowledge being learned from the example of others. -Ritual

behaviour is involved in the frequent ablutions or washing of the hands

before meals and prayers. The boys in primary Grades are taken to wash -

troughs as a matter of course, and their ablutions are supervised by the

teacher. The'school secretary tries to ensure that boys wash their hands

irk the dining hall during lunchtime. The sayingAA the Blessing and Grace

239
 214

is similarly prescribed.

Cultic-ceremonial knowledge is also learned during the regular,

communal and individual prayers': the correct handling of the tephillin

and tallit; the ritual genuflections and movements; the melodic inflec-

tion or niggun with which ptayers are recited. The Readings of the Law

at the Morning Services are opportunities for regular public rehearsal of

Judaic norms and values. In addition, many boys perform the mitzvot of the

mezuzah and weaziag the tzitzit beneath their shirts. They also observe

the kashruth prohibitions, which are strictly adhered to in the school.

The wearing of a cap or yarmelkeh at all times is strictly insisted upon

by the school. Each boy is thus a source of visible, symbolic reinforcement

,/ of the ctiltic-tetemonial knowledge for his peers.

0
Somicultic-ceremonial knowledge,is visuallOset out in display

material from the Lubavitcher Movement, which periodically conducts

campaigns to teach the correct performance of the mitzvah of the mezuzah,

or of the,tephillin. Literature giving highly detailed instructions is

displayed on classroom notice boards, often with an accompanying diagram,

as is the case with the sheet showing the correct method of wearing the

tephillin. The instructions provide an example of the meticulous regard

for detailed and exact performance of the mitzvah according to the letter

of the Law, which is a feature of Lubavitcher Orthodoxy. They are,also note-

worthy for the injunction laid upon 'every conscientious Jew' to be an a 43ve

agent in teaching the behavioural knowledge of the tephillin to his friends.

In this case example is wedded to precept.

240
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PUTTING ON
THE TEPHILIN OF THE HEAD

10,4trl rrl:r1
.24

INC.ORRI'Cr rtOural tiVr2

c.oRRE.c.T 140241

Fig. 9.1

4 241
 '216
, .

The correct position for the laying of the Tephilin

of the head is not further forward than the hairline, above
the'forehead (Shulehan,Arueh, ch. 27: 9). Many-people eri
An this prohibition, in the m.tztaken belief that the upper
edge of the Tephilin Should be situnly as far back
as the hairline. Sind the Tephilin are thus placed on the
forehead, ch people unwittingly transgress Torah-
prohibitio s; for the entire Tephilin should be situated'
r
in such a place which,,could become bald, that is, with the ,

6%aph
front edge not further fOrward than the hairline (P444
10 of Commentary of Tits on Shulohan Arueh, ch. 27 :9). Eery
cbnscientiouc Jew should therefore warn his friends and in-
form them in order thdt they should not err, -since, further-
more, the blessing too would be said in vain, as the laying
of Tephilin not in their correct.position is of no more
avail than if they had remained in their bag (Miohnah Berirah).
Accordingly, the Tephilin strap should be secured tautly
around the.hend.

The ceremonial laws or practical observances (Heb. mitzvot maaoiyot)

basic to cultic-ceremonial knowledge are tangible.rem4nders to each boy that

he is an Orthodox Jew, and should behave as such.. They are complementary to ,

knowledge of tpe behavioural norms and values:

The emphasis upon theimportance and validity of

ceremonial laws' as outward symbols and rituals which in their
totality combine to cteate a specific way of life expressing
itself in action is a chief characteristic of traditional
,Judaism, imposing a discipline whereby fealty to God is
expressed by a series of actions apart from any specific
theological beliefs or moral code (Werblowsky & Wigoder,
1965: 83).

(b) Behavioural norms and values of the Academic Tradition

4 Fundamental to the Academic Ttsdition, as we have seen, is the

concept of educating the 'whole man': the building of moral character and

242
 217
irk

the production of leadership qualities. Aesthetic qualities are also .

learned through non-academic subjects such as Drama, Art, and Music.

Other norms and values are less clearly defined, and involve such ideals

the like.
as 'playing the game', 'good sportsmanship', 'clean living' and

Opportunities at Lubavjtcher School to develop these qualities,

by gaining the appropriate 'recipe knowledge', are more limited than those

associated with the Great Tradition. There is a rudimentary prefect and

house system, with vaguely defined powers and responsibilities. This

n't

affects a limited number of boys. Each Form in the secondary school has

provision for a Form captain and vice Form captain. But neither systeM of

delegated responsibility and fostering leadership involves more than a

_
handful of boys.8

Aesthetic pursuits are almost completely absent.. No music is

taught. Drama is not a permanent feature of th'e curriculum, although a

small group was intensively, .coached towards the end of the year in prepare-
,

tion for Speech Night. Art is limited to junio orms. By third Form it

is dropped. There are no clubs run on an afte -school basis to encourage

boys to take an interest in creative pursuits.

Sport occupies an anomalous position in the school, which reflects

the low, value placed upon it in the Great Tradition. Part of the lack of

interest must be attributed to the poor handling of sport by two part-time

sports
masters, who were replaced in the middle of the year by the full-time

master. This produced some revival of interest and greatly improved

standards of teaching and supervision especially for the more enthusiastic

junior Forms.

8 Discussed more fully in Chapter-12.

243
 218

However, the arrangement of the,campus and facilities affects the

participation of the boys. Restrictions of space and equipment curtail what

can be done. A variety of elementary gymnastics Mainly using tumbling mats

or ',Swedish drill', cricket, basketball and volley ball are the main

activities. Boys are also taken to the nearby Jewish sports centre for

swimming during the summer, and a nearby park dn occasions. Informal

0
sporting activities by the boys also include dome Australian Rules football

in winter, though usually 'only he ubiquitous high kicking from one end of

the playground to the other that can be seen in most schools during the

football season. Soccer is also played intermittently.

A marked difference-between the school and many others is the

absence of the intense inter-house competitions and inter-school matches,

that are a feature of the Independent school, scene. The school plays

infrequent soccer and cricket matches against another Jewish school. The

seniors also formed a school soccer team, which played and beat a team from

a leading independent school on its own ground. This was an'exceptional

event, which resulted in a jubilant group of boys arriving back at school

whooping and cheering late in the afternoon.

However, no official reference was ever made to the victory, as

1

would have been customary in many another school. In general, sport is

not taken seriously nor thought to be an important part of the curriculum.'

As boys get older it loses a great deal of attraction. In view of other

demands on theirtime, and irregularities in their study periods, senior

boys do not have compulsory sport or a set time for physical education.

The,* sports master tried to arrange opportunities for boys in Forms five and

six to have somesport,.but, apart ftom a few enthusiasts, attendance fell

away, especially towards the end of the year and approaching examinations.

244
 219

Lesb formal sources of behavioural knowledge are members of the

secular teaching staff. During lessons and at other times when they are

supervising boys, teachdrs place most emphasis on procedural values:

, .

punctuality, orderliness, tidiness, quiet behaviour, respect and good

manners when addressing teachers, and sikilar desiderata to ensure

effectiw teaching-learning. There is very little, if any, concern for

encouraging 'pastoral' behavioural values, as these are the province of the

rabbtp. c2

(6) Summary

Three types of knowledge are organized by the school. Academic

knowledge relates to the Academic Tradition, and is almo solely concerned

with pragmatic, exgmination-oriented, non-vocational su Jetts in the

Aesthetic subjects are not proVided. Knowledge associated

curriculum.

with. the Great Tradition is, by definition, super-empirical knowledge, that

It
is derived from a divine source that permits of no rational,, challenge.

adheres very closely to the pattern of scholarship that has been followed

for centuries. However, it has had to make very limited concessions to the

pressures placed on boys by the'demands of the Academic Tradition.

Methods of study and teaching also follow tradition in the case of

religious studies, being mainly rote-learning' and bqk-oriented pedagogy.

Discussions are pilpulistic contests, rather than attempts to achieve a

consensus on the issue at stake. These approaches can be dysfunctional for

successful academic work, where the emphasis should be placed more pn

discovery-learning methods, which are held to promote better learning. They

examina-
are also more efficient methods of preparing for the.Senior School

tions, which carry high rewards in terms of"scholarships and university

entrance qualifications.
 220

Behavioural knowledge in the Great Tradition is derived from

its super-empirical knowledge. The emphasis is placed on correct performance

of mit4vot and rituals associated with the cultic-ceremonial. The dominant

assumption is that knowledge of Torah will automatically lead to behaving

correctly and learning Yiddiahkeit. In comparison, behavioural knowledgeoof

the ACademic Tradition is limited mainly to procedural values, which try to

ensure good behaviour in 'the classroom. Aesthetic values, and the concept

of educating the 'whole man' through sport and extra-curricular activities,

are given little emphasis.

,o

246
 PART THREE

CONSTRUCTIONS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION

AND REALITY

An outloot on life is a construction ...

No man holds all he knows and feels out the

world in his conscious mind at once .... Every

account of a world view is therefore a temporary

construction, a precipitation of a crystal from

thoughts that from day to day are carried in the

flowing solution of life's doings.

Robert Redfield
e.

247
 122

CHAPTER 10

PUPILS - NEIGHBOURHOOD AND FAMILY CONTEXTS

4

At the time of the Annual School Census in June 1969, the school

. had a population.of 259 pupils. As is common in L4 small schools such a

number is sufficient only for one Grade or Form for each age range.

Appendix 4.5 indicates that the-number of pupils in each Grade (mean 20)

is relatively smaller than is common in larger State or Independent schools:.

Staff-student ratios are correspondingly lower, with concomitant intimacy

of relationships throughout_the school. Each boy is known by name personally,

and the faceless anonymity, which can be found in larger schools, is absent.

(1) The Secondary School and research sample

In most Independent schools, it is customary to refer to Forms

onli:,and two as the Lower School, and the remainder (Forms three to six) as

,the Middle and Senior School. Form three holds a transitional position,

poised as it were in the antechamber of t he Senior Schbol and all its

examinatinTr.hurdles. Its attitude towards learning can often reflect,

this, and teachers often comment of the contrast between it and the busy,

'concrete- operational activities of boys in the Lower School. Some support

_,/
in psychological terms is available for this assessment from the work of

Jean Piaget ind his associates (Ginsburg & Oppet, 1969. In this study,

Form three is more of methodological importance as the cut -off point for
fl
the sample of boys I could study intersive1y.

For the purposes of my resear I was primarily interested in

the boys from Forms three and above. Thes are all adolescents, i.e. over

thirteen years of age - the criterion ad ted by Dunphy (1969). More

important, they are thus all Bar'ni vah with putatively full access to
 223

knowledge about threligious beliefs, ritual obligations, and expected

behaviours incumbent upon an Orthodox adult Jew. From such knowledge each

. could not only make a concomitant personal construct of socio-cultural

reality, but also would develop attitudes and values towards it. My

purpose ultimately is to eatablfsh both.

Forms one and two, with whom I had relatively little contact,

include boys who are neither adolescents, as defined, nor Barmitzvah.

Ns.
Methodological di ulties also precluded detailed study,,of them. What

limited data I was able to obtain are used to supplement t se from the

more senior Forms. It was also not possible to find t details about

their home backgrounds.

My own' fourth Form holds pride of plac by virtue of the

comparatively greater amount of data I could gather from the boys. It

was also suggested to vph that they constitute a representative cross-

,

section of the community associated with the school.' They would also

seem to occupy an important, pi4otal position in the school. Not yet at

an academi level to be engaged in the maelstrom of the highly competitive

leaving and matriculationxaminations, with all their attendant secular

distractions, they can be assumed to'have constructed more coherent views

of socio-cultural reality than boys in more junior Forms. As a sub-

sample relative to all other Forms in the secondary school they might be

expected to hold the sharpest, and most articulated attitudes and values

about both secular and religious spheres of their lives.

Such views are not developed in vacuo, however. As much educe-

tional research has made clear, the''home context' (Watts, 1970: 85-109)

1 I am indebted to Dr A.M. Hasofer, now Professor of Statistics at the

University of New South Wales, for this suggestion.

%lb

L.

2 41)
 4

224

with is concomitant socio - economic, status: and familial factors plays a

0

vighl part in determining attitudes and values. It also influences

academic motivation, success and failure. For instance, pupils from

encouraging, middle-class socio-economic homes are held to have the

oe"
greatest chance of doing well at school. Those from culturally deprived

are at a distinct disadvantage.

Home backgrounds play a significant part in determining children's

attitudes towards religious beliefs and values (Greeley & Rossi, 1965;

Mal, 1971). Thus, if the boys from the fourth Form can be shown to he

similar in their backgrounds to the remainder of the Senior School, their

pivotal status could be heighten, and assumes crucial importance for

this study. The total sample could then be a cross-section of homes in

4
which religious and irreligious, academic and non-academic aspirations and

attitudes might be found. In view of their likely influence on the boys'

success in coping with the problems of constructing socio-cultural reality,

it is thus desirable to establish empiriCally something of these background,

domestic characteristics.

(2) Location of boys' homes

The school is situated in the approximate centre of three con-

(
tiguous local government areas. Together, these contain just over sixty

percent of Melbourne's total Jewish population of approximately 34,000.

This is an adjusted figure arrived at for the purposes of the Sociological

Study of the Jewish Community of Melbourne carried out in 1966-7

(Lippmann, 1973: )6). The three local government areas constitute a

catchment area for the school of some sixteen square miles, which will be

referred to hereafter as the school. neighbourhood. In many respects it meets

Gould's (1964) definition of neighbourhood as 'a small segment of a larger

250
 225

inhabited area ... that [is] more or less distinguishable on physical

and socio-economic criteria'. All but some two square miles of it falls
0
within a circle some three miles radius from the schq1.

Of the twenty boys in Form four, eighteen live within the boundary

of the school neighbourhood. Of this number, one boy's home is in a suburb

of Sydney with' high concentration of Jews, but he boards at the hostel of

the Rabbinical College located within a mile of the school. The remaining

two boys live in suburbs which are on the periphery of the school%eighbour-
*

hood.

A similar pattern is evident for Form three, though slightly more

boys live outside the neighbourhood boundary. Those living within it comr

'prise sixteen out of the nineteen in the Form. Like the case in Form four,

one of those stays at the Rabbinical College premises during Term time.

His permanent home is in Sydney. The three boys living outside the school

`,neighbourhood are located'in suburbs also with significant numbers of Jews.

One boy lives in an adjacent suburb. The remaining tworlivein an older

suburb some nine miles to the north.

In Form five, twenty one out of the twenty four boys live within

the school neighbourhood. Again, one of them lodges at the Rabbinical

College premises as his permanent home is also id Sydney. Of the three

outside the neighbourhood, one lives in a suburb on its periphery, another

in the older suburb referred to above. The remaining boy lives in a

relatively newly developed suburb, which has attracted a high Jewish

population some six miles to the north east.

Ten boys were in the sixth Form at the time of the study. All

of them lived within the neighbourhood of the school. The pattern for the

four Forms is summarized in the table below.

I
251
 226

TABLE 10.1

LOCATION OF BOYS BY FORM

In School Peripheral 'Older' 'Newer'

Total Neighbourhood Suburbs Suburbs Suburbs
Form
Boys
n % n % n % n %
/

3 19 16 84.2 1 5.3 2 10.5 - -

4 20 18 90.0 2 6,0 - - - -

5 24 21 87.5 1 4.16 1 4.16 1 4.16

6 10 10 100.0 - - _ _ -

Totals 73 65 89.0 4 5.5 3 4,2, 1 1.3

There is thus a marked cAcentration of residences within the

-s"
V

school neighbourhood. Of the seventy three boys in the Middle and Senior

school, sixty five (89 percent) live within the neighbourhood. Another

;four boys (5.5 per cent) live on its periphery. The remaining four live

some distance away. Even if the three boys whose permanent homes are in

Sydney are discounted the proportion whose.homes are located in the

neighbourhood still remains high (84.9 per cent).

The pattern of close clustering of homes from which boys come is

brought out when their location Ls mapped, as in the following distribution

diagram showing situation of boys' homes in terms of distance from the

school. From this diagram the striking concentration of boys' homes within

a radius of one mile of the school is at once apparent. The great majority

of homes are within two miles of the school.

 LOCATION OF BOYS' HOMES
IN RELATION TO SCHOOL
C.

BOUNDARY OF SCHOOL NEIGHBOURHOOD

SCHOOL

O RABBINICAL SEMINARY

BOYS HOMES

O HOME WITH TWO BOYS AT SCHOOL

N.B. CIRCLES AT RADII OF 1. 2 .3 4 MILES FROM SCHOOL ( NOT TO SCALE )

Fig. 10.1
g

228

It is tempting to s e in this pattern supporting evidence for

Jones' (1969: 23) asserts that persons tend to live in relatively close

proximity because they have similar values - in this case belief in the

school's type of,religious and secular education. A desire to be within

walking distance of the Lubavitcher synagogue to facilitate strict adher-

ence to Sabbath observance laws prohibiting driving a car or using

transport might also be a factor in the location, of homes.

At best, both views are only partially correct, however, as the

school is valued for its religious teaching by only a_proportion of Parents.

According to the Principal about fifty per cent of the homes of boys

attending the school are irreligious - used here in the sense of not

observing the Sabbath. Many of the other parents and their sons belong to

other congregations with synagogues also within the school neighbourhood.

The Lubavitcher synagogue is not a centre of worship for them, even though

the school may be esteemed for its religious teaching.

For the cases where bc.yz come from irreligious families, it is

unlikely that the school is chosen for its religious Orthodoxy, though in

a few instances this may.be so. Despite their own lack of religious

observancal such parents might insist that their eons be d to

religious experience until such age as they can make up their own minds.

The remainder, however, choose to send their boys to the school because

it is close at hand and convenient. Its .growing reputation for high

examination honours and pass rates in the all important H.S.C. examination

is also an attraction.

The other large Jewish secondary school with comparable successes

is located some seven to eight miles away from the neighbourhood by road.

Its fees are notably higher than the school, which offers a large /number of
4

254
 229

free or partially supported places. Thus economic consideratiln6 are likely

to play a major part in parents' decisions to send boys to the school.

Proximity reduces travel costs: secular examination record produces 4 high

expectancy that academic qualifications will be gained, and thus ensure

either a good job or a passport timriiiidraity and an assured career: the

fee structure of the school is attractive in comparison with its more

distant rival.

(3) The school neighbourhood as a culture island

An alternative explanation for the close clustering of boys'

homes can be found in the function of the school neighbourhood as a form

of culture island, which sustains a general Jewish population within which

the homes are situated. The term is used more in ap ecological sense to

refer to a cluster of sustenance activities and facilities functioning to

maintain a particular cultural system. In this case it is what may loosely

be termed a Jewish community, though many Jell talked to denied strenuously

that such a thing exists, while using it almost in the net breath as if it

does.

(a) Evidence from content analysis of the Jewish press

Some evidence to support its existence k! available. To establish

something of the school neighbourhood's Jewishness I analysed the content

of three issues of the Melbourne 'edition of The Australian Jewish News

(September 10, 19, 26) by means of a name and occupation count. These

issues covered the period of the Jewish New Year, and were more comprehen-

sive than normal weekly editions. 'Traditionally, they include-greetings

from members of the Jewish community, and frequently details are given from

which it is possible to identify the types of businesses owned or managed by

the well-wisherS.
 230 .

Although non-Jews also advertise in the newspaper, it was still

possible. to identify many advertisements as stemmingifrom Jews through the

wording, name, and phrasing they included. There are recognized problems

in content analysis and name counts. In consequence, such methods of

obtaining empirical data produce results, which by themselves 'tell an

incomplete story' (Madge, 1953: 116). Thus the results given in Appendix 5

are suggestive rather than exact or comprehensive. In addition, a number

of occuprtional'categories given in the table were not referred to in the

advertisements,.and only the most frequently mentioned are included. The

result is an incomplete picture of occupations followed by'some Jews in

the neighbourhood, which supplements information from other'sources.

Businesses to do with food manufacturing, selling or cooking and

catering total seventy five establishments of which Jews own forty four

(58.7 per cent). Businesses relating to clothing and textiles total

thir4y five of which Jews own or manage,twenty three (65.7 per cent). If

soft furnishings such as curtains and bedspreads are put in this category,

the figures at.e forty four businesses out of which Jews own or manage

twenty seven (61.4 per cent). Clearly, businesses involving fabrics of all

kinds are important.

Domestic services have not been included in this table due to

the difficulty of classifying them. Howeveri one activity receiving five

mentions is that of upholsterer of which two (40 per cent) could be

positively identified as Jewish. The great involvement in food and

textiles is quite apparent, and would undoubtedly be greater, as only hose

advertisements showing positive Jewish identification were counted. There

were several cases where the name of the owner or manager had a Jewish

ring about it, but these were counted as non-Jewish.

256
 231

(b) Impressionistic evidence for the culture island

Some evidence about Jewish facilities is thus available, but

there is an inherent risk in using what amounts to quasi-quantification to

present a picture of the neighbourhood' in statistical terms. Its human and

Cultural characteristics can easily be obscured by the figures used,

sociologically respectable though these may be. To supplement them, it is

necessary to employ a more impressionistic description based on firsthand

acquaintance with the neighbourhood.

The commercial centres provide probably the clearest evidence of

the day-to-day services which support a Jewish concentration in the

neighbourhood. Shops providing kosher produce are usually easy to identify

from the advertisements in windows often in both English and Hebrew.

Kosher restaurants are also easy to identify by the same means. Delica-

tessens and self-service food stores supply a large variety of mid- and. .

Eastern-European foods, many of which have Jewish folk-culture as opposed

to religious connotations. Advertisements in the JeWish press.to some

extent validate these impressions. In The Australian Jewish News for

the New Year period in 1969, eight out of twelve butchers or poultry

suppliers in the neighbourhood stated they observed the kashruth code.

Nine restaurants and takeaway food caterers.also stated they maintained

kosher premises.

At times of Jewish religious Festivals and Holy Days prominence

is given in the shops to the foods appropriate to them, and display signs

advertise their availability, much as special foods are featured during

comparable periods of the Christian calendar.2 Pesach sees the appearance

2 Examples of advertisements in The Australian Jewish News are shown

in Appendix 5.2.
 232

of packets of matzos. The time of Rosh Hashanah is associated with rounded

bread loaves in place of the regular twisted or braided whitOioaves common

at other times of the year. During the same period, newsagents and

stationer's display racks of greeting cards for,the New Year in English

and Hebrgw, and Jewish bookshops have available the special prayer book

(Mdchaor). In early December, Chanukah is associated with the greater

prominence of the Menorah or brancheetandelabra, in Jewish gift or book-

shops, together with its special candles. Occasionally a Menorah can be

seen shining in a Jewish home after dark. The analogy of the Christmas

tree comes to mind at this time of the year.

(c) Cultural activities in the culture island

The fluctuation in Jewish 'visibility' is not only confined to

commercial aspects, but is apparent in the increased ebb and flow of a

Shabbos, Holy
groups of Jews coming from or going to the synagogues on

Days, and Festivals. Families or groups of two or three men, earnestly

sight usually in
talking and in their Sabbath best dress, are a common
Occasionally bearded rabbis
the morning, and early evening before sunset.
, (
At such times the
or those from the most Orthodox groups can be seen.
culture, which
Jewisil element of the neighbourhood becomes a conspicuous

qf commercial affairs.
at other times is sub-merged is the everyday world

The neighbourhood is also well served with the organizations to

support the Jewish life style. Ithas some nine synagogues of varying

B'rith the
degrees of Orthodoxy, two major community centres, B'nai

Jewish masonic lodge, and a large sports centre. Five. Orthodox Jewish

day schools, a variety of kindergartens and part-time schools, numerous

In
social halls and meeting rooms are scattered throughout the area.
others
Medding's succinct term (1968: 30), all these organizations, and

256
 233

not apparent from the limitations of an external observer's survey, form

part of a 'communal roof body' for the Jewish population of the neighbour-

hood, and thus part of the context for the school.

(4). Boys' family backgrounds

Kramer and Leventman (1969> have referred to affluent Jewish

suburbs of American cities as 'gilded ghettos.'. The term has both secular

and status connotations. Taft and Goldlust (1969: 12) suggest that two of

the constituent suburbs in the school neighbourhood could be described as

this 'up to a point'. Using data from the 1961 Australian Census, Jones

(1969: 45-56; 121-133) found that the school neighbourhood is of broadly

middle to high socio-economic status. To what extent is this shared by

the families sending boys to the school?

(a) Fathers' occupations and socio-economic status

Fathers' occupations provide some indication of the socio-economic

status enjoyed by the families. Like the addresses of the boys, such

information is compiled at the leginning Of the school year as part of a

obliged
record of each boy in the official attendanre rolls each school is

tomaintain'under State Education Department regulations. Eewever, whereas

addresses are not liable to misinterpretation, details of occupations can

data.
be commonly vague, and consequently less than reliable as research
families,
Despite this, data are pointers to the socio-economic status of the

and can be utilized with this reservation. To classify them I have adopted

the broad categories devised by Wiseman (1970), following Radford (1962):

Radford's
Group I, Professional and Higher Managerial (consisting of

University and other Professional categories); Group II, Other Non-Manual

(Radford's Sales, Sales Supervisory, and Clerical); Group III, Skilled

Manual and Skilled Supervisory; Group IV, Semi- and Unskilled Manual

-259
 234

(similar to Radford's). The f011owing table analyses the occupations of

fathers of the boys in the four Middle School and Senior Rims according

to these groups. The complete list of occupations is given in Appendix 4.6.

TABLE 10.2

OCCUPATIONS OF BOYS' FATHERS BY CLASS GROUPS AND FORM

Forms

Groups 4 5 6 Totals
3
(v.19),(7120) (r/g2)* (7110) (m=71)
.

Group I hr
Ae.
(Professional 11Fd Higher 8 12 9 4

Managerial)

Group II
+
8 5 9 3 23
.
(Other Non-Manual)

Group III 1 1 4 2 8
(Skilled Manual)

Group IV 2 2 4
(Semi- and Unskilled Manual)

Unplaced 1 1
.

+Discrepancies in total due to counting father's orrIlpatirtr once hcre

brothers are in different Forms. *Two sets of brothers in Form 5.

The summary conceals an interesting point obvious in the raw

data, namely, that three Forms have at least one father who is a rabbi.

In this respect Form 4 is atypical; When seen in relation to the

Orthodox nature of the school, however, the relatively high number of

rabbis among the fathers of Middle and Senior boys is 9ot surprising.

The concentration of father's occupations in the top two class

Groups is immediately apparent. A total of fifty five fathers (80.8 per

cent) is in the Professional, Higher Managerial and Other Non-Manual

2W)
 235

Groups. In contrast, Groups III and IV account for only twelve fathers

(16.9 per cent), One occupation could not be placed in the Groups.

These findings lend further support to the suggestion that boys in these.

four Forms come from middle and upper-middle class homes typical of the

general social status of the school's neighhpurhood.

Using-what limited data were obtainable from attendance rolls,

Form.4 ckn be compared with other Forma in respect of the location of

boys'homes and occupations of fathers. In the former, thgiWorm shows

little variation from- the others in the broad class patterns established.'

These indicate that the great majority of boys fillp Form 3 ilistbove come'
is 77
from homes located in the school's neighbourhood and within 'two miles of

the school. The predominantly middle and upper7middle class character of

the suburbS comprising the neighbourhood on Jones' (1969) class ranking

suggests that mostboya' homes will haVe a similar class ranking.

Tclis finding is reinforced by the analysis of fathers' occupations.

Here the great majority of.boys come from homes where the male salary and

wage earners are ion he top. two occupational classes. Due to the limita-
,

tions initially placed ty the Principal on using more formal questionnaire

methods, such findings are based on data which are-to,some extent inadequate,

particularly in respect of fathers' occupations. The broad picture from

this sample surgests an overall middle and upper-middle class Occupational

and resrdential'background to the school and the boys,attending it, which

differs only in-minor respects from the general demographic character of

the Jewish neighbourhood as a whole in this part of Melbourne.

(b) family attitudes towards education

Little empirical data Ore available from which to establish the

degree of Orthodoxy in the boys' homes, or parental interest in the religious

261
 Q,

236

education of their sons. However, some indication of what this mightbe

-seems implied in the statement of Solomon (1973: 179) that 'for the

majority of Melbourne Jewish adults Jewish education is the education of

children. Thus, adults want for children an education whose continuation

they reject for themselves'.

In respect of secular education, it ca be hypothesized that,

because of their generally high socioeconomic status, parents' aspira

likely to be
tions and encouragement for their sons' academic success are

substantial. This would accord with wider findings of numerous studies

have established
in the United States, Great Britain and Australia which
and middle class parental
a signifidant positive relationship between upper
Such studies have pointed
status and their child's academic achievement.
books,
inter alia to facilities assisting study at home, availability of

parents' own educational attainments and, above all, direct parental

encouragement as fostering this relationship.

'The
Citing a number of workers, Swift (1971: 181) comments:
highly
evidence of research shows fairly conclusively that the more

paAhts value education, the more likely they will support theit child's
In this
educational endeavours, and the more likely he is to succeed'.

As Strodtbeck
respect, Jewish children are at a distinct advantage.

(1958: 150) notes: 'Jews have traditionally placed a very high value

... The legitimation of

upon education and intellectual attainmerit .

intellectual
education is further bound up with prestige associated with

"brainwork", and the corresponding Lack of prestige associated with

physical accomplishments. This pattern of evaluation starts early in the,

child's career'. Strodtbeck's findings in an empirical study of Jewish

families inAmerica bore out this high valuation of education.

C 262
 237

In Melbourne, Lippmann found comparable data among Jews in the

Commenting on this, Medding notes (1973: 263): 'Perhaps

1967 Survey.

most striking of all was their high valuation of formal education and

their remarkable level of educational aspiration and achievement, compared

with the general population....' As the school neighbourhood contains

over sixty per cent of Melbourne Jewry, it can be assumed with some con-

fidence that a majority of the boys in my sample come from homes where

parents place an equally high value on formal education and educational

A

aspiration and achievement.

(5) Attitudes of parents at parent-teacher evenings

(a) The pattern of attendance

Opportunities to meet a number of the parents of-6857s taking my

In
subjects provided corroborative evidence of this over-riding concern.

mid-July, the school organizes a number of parent-teacher evenings, at

which parents can come to school and discuss their son's progress
with

the teachers concerned. I was involved with two such evenings; and
4

obtained valuable insights into parental and domestic backgrounds that

helped explain some of the learning problems and behavioural idiosyncracies

of boys. As many school teachers can testify about similar occasions,

attendance of parents can be small, and one does not always get to meet
On the other
parents he needs to meet in view of their child's problems.

hand, those whose child is doing well tend to take up a disproportionate

public and teacher
amount of time, as if seeking the official stamp of

approval on their child's success.

In this instance© however, the reverse was the case. Not only did

of boys ith
a relatively large number of parents attend, but parents

learning or other problems tended to predominate, with their proportion

g
263
 238

increasing the closer the boy was to the external examinations. Another

noteworthy feature is the high number of mothers mho represented the

nuclear family unit. In some cases this was inevitable, as the father

the
is dead or had deserted the family. 'Despite these few instances,

proportion of mothers remains high and tends.to -Support the traditional,

relationship in
but by now stereotypical, picture of the close mother-son
evenings
Jewish families. ,The attendance figures for the two parent-teacher

are shown below, in relation to the numbers of boys I actually taught.

TABLE 10.3

PROPORTION OF PARENTS ATTENDING INTERVIEWS

BY SEX, CLASS LEVEL AND LEARNING PROBLEMS

Mothers &
Total Boys No. of Boys No. with Mothers Fathers Fathers
Level in ClaSs Discussed Problems* Only Only
Together

4 6 - 3
Form 3 19 9 (47.3%)

7 3 4
Form 4 20 14 (70%) 5

8 7 1
Form 5 15 9 (60%)

4 2 (50%) 2 2 -
Form 6
/

19 22 4 8
Totals 58 34 (58.6%)

* Note: Problems defined as those leading to average or below average

performance in examinations; or giving rise to either

obstreperous or obviously withdrawn, passive behaviour in

class.

264
 \ 239

(b) Characteristics of discussions parents

°Although the term 'discussed'Vis used in the table, in a few

cases the '.discussion' consisted of little more than a brief introduction

andAilick reassurance oM me that a bright boy was doing very well indeed.

This occurred most frequently with boys in my own Form. SeLal parents

said they had come mainly to meet me and 'see what I looked like', but had

no worries about their boy's progress.

The majority of interviews took a lot longer, and, as has been my

habit far'many years in various schools, I took brief notes of what parents
- H
told me and what I advised. Other Ekri les were remindls to myself to

take some follow-up action. Unlike p t experience, however, the atmosphere

of the interviews with parents was very diffliwt. Full privacy was

virtually impossible. Some parents hung around in close proximity while

a discussion was going on, and it was obvious that they were taking a keen

interest in proceedings. It probably helped them to relieve the tedium of

waiting for their turn, but did not assist myiwork.

The wait obviously irritated one father, who had gradually edged

his way to the front of those waiting (after coming late) and, after
r.
keeping up a sustained angry mutter, finally burst out: 'Why do you eaVe

so long with everybody and talk so much? I have been waiting for a long

time. Why are you taking down so many notes about us? I'm not going to

hang around here any longer': He left in a huff, leaving me to reflect

wryly that a great deal of his son's behaviour was now quite explicable.

The rest of the parents took it very calmly, and, once the hubbub had sub-

sided, resumed their attentive waiting.

265
 ,0*

240

(c) Types of parental concern

Deep concern and interest in their eon's education was at once

apparent as soon as each interview started. Two major issues quickly

emerged as more important than anything.else. Both concerned academic

work. Nearly a quarter of the parents stated emphdtically that their sons

were not working hard enough either at home or school. In several cases,

the school was blamed for being soft on discipline or not setting enough.,

homework. Parents asked me to set more work and not hesitate to drive the

boy hard. In this category were three parents who realized that their

sons were not academically bright, but should work hatder. If necessary

they could be helped by special coaching, which they would pay for no

matter how expensive.

Parents in the other category felt that their sons were working

too hard at home. The most extreme cases were the boys who went to bed

late but got up early, usually to attend the school's early service at

7.20 a.m. As some of them did not get home from school until after 6 p.m.

they were consequently always bordering on exhaustion but still insisted

on starting homework as soon as they had finished dinner. One boy regularly

got up at 4 a.m. to work.

A depressingly,large number of cases gave evidence that some of

the causes of a boy's troubles at school might stem from the familial

background. Invidious comparisons with brighter brothers or sisters doing

well at school or university; lack of fathers either through death, deser-

tion or work that kept them away from home until late at night; apparent

signs of psychological stress such as stammering or chronic nail-biting;

were among the many details volunteered by parents. The last bore out the

independe qualified psychiatric opinions I had been given earlier about

26f
 241

the high incidence of stress among Jewish adolescents, particularly those

from Orthodox backgrounds.3

Other parents blamed excessive religious activities fora boy's

tiredness or poor academic performance. These were due to Cie demands on a

boy's time made by the school, it was said, by the boy's vdluntary, over-

zealous performance of religious duties, or by the pressure put on him by

elderly relatives to carry them out punctiliously.

Both,evenings devoted to interviews with parents supported

Medding's observation about the high value Melbourne Jews place on formal

education, future aspirations and educational achievement. The same value

was seen to be shared by a proportion of the boys concerned, though how

-----
typical these a e of the ge al school pdONlation is still questionable.

It is a major is ue taken up la in Part e . A-

(6) Summary

The gre t majority of boys, selected for detailed study come from

socio-economic backgrounds and homet"hat can be expected to be most

The
supportive of the value placed on learning in the Academic Tradition.

Jewish emphasis on formal education, educational aspiration and achievement

the same
is borne out by research findings from a sample of Jews living in

neighbourhood as the boys.

Parent-teacher interviews confirm the concern cif boys' parents

with academic work. Although some ambivalence exists lout the school's

much
role - it either does not drive the boys hard enough, or demands too

timNor religious stukies - there seems little doubt about parental concern

for academic success. It is dominated by the meritocratic bias of the

3 Discussions with field officers of the Jewish Welfare Society and a

Melbourne psychiatrist.

267
 242

Academic Tradition.

Less interest is expressed in religious matters, and few firm

I
conclusions can be drawn about parental support for the amount of time

the school devotes to activities relating to the Great Tradition. However,

those boys who wish to be observant are supported in their efforts by the

facilities available'in the culture island within which the school is

situated. They also live within wa ing distance of the school in the

great majority of cases, and this acilitates Sabbath attendance at the

Lubavitcher shut.

268
 243

CHAPTER

THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGES IN THE SCHOOL

The school complex is the locus for countless interpersonal

exchanges during the course of any one day. They are constructed and

negotiated by the boys vis-a-vis other boys, and vis-a-vis members of the

teaching, administrative and pgra-administrative staff., The problematic

nature of,interpersonal exchanges has been discussed inter alia by Mead

(1938), Goffnian (1959), Cicourel (1973: 26 ff.). The latter cites Turner's

( 1962 ti 22-23) clear statement of the basic' reason for both the problematic

nature of exchanges and the fact that acting towards an other entails both

role-taking and role-making:

The actor is not the occupant of a position for which

there is a neat set of rules - a culture or set of norms -
but a person who must act in the perspective supplied in
A
part by his relationship to others whose actions reflect
roleo that he must identify. Since the role of alter can
only be inferred rather, than directly known by ego, testing
,,

inferences about the role of alter is a continuing element

in interaction. Hence the tentative character of the

individual's own rol. definition and performance is never

wholly suspended.

The concern of this chapter is to establish as far as posAible what

meanings boydassign to others in the Interaction situation, and what defini-

tions of their own roles and attendant norms govern interpersonal exchanges,

i.e. something of their 'logic-in-use' (Kaplan, 1964: 8). As data I use

'commonsense' observations of b-dirs' interpersonal exchanges in the classrooms

and school, based on a form of micro-ethnographic technique involving both

 244

full and partial participant observation. There are recognized weaknesses

in the observer's external stance (hFker, 1970; Becker & Geer, 1970;

Cicourel, 1973: 25), which result in theorizing based on 'reconstructed

logic' (Kaplan, op. cit., p. 8; Cicourel, loc. cit.). Thus, where possible,

data are supported by statements of boys themselves, and by comments of

other members of staff.

(1) Interpersonal exchanges with teaching staff

cv
Interpersonal exchanges between boys and teaching staff show a

marked contrast according to the situation in which they occur within the

school complex. Although there are times when overlap occurs, it is con-

venient to divide them into informal (non-teaching) situations, and formal

(teaching - learning) situations.

(a) Infdrmal situations

Exchanges outside the teaching-learning situation are usually,

though not invariably, characterized by almost precocious friendliness,

curiosity and eagerness to ask both personal and impersonal questions.

The boy's behaviour shows a willing readiness to strike up a conversation

on every and any topic, undeterred by the difference in 'status' between

him and the adult he engages in conversation. A confident, man-to-man,

adult manner is adopted. Although a deference title ('sir', 'mister')

is used, it is clear that the boy regards himself as close to, if not

actually on, equal footing with the adult. Even first Formers show

basically similar attitudes. An intimate style of verbal exchange is

reinforced by paralinguistic means of communication: gesticulations, close

proximity and small spatial distance between interlocutors, occasionally

reaching actual body contact, such as touches on the arm to gain and hold

attention.

27t)
 245
/
When an exciting incident such as an accident in the school is

the subject of the exchange, it can take on an air of quiet hysteria.

Details are avidly discussed, magnified and almost shouted at one in the

excitement. Verbal exchange is accompanied by vigorous gesticulation.

Gross body-displacement actions such as swaying, shoulder and head tics,

rocking onto alternate feet, all convey a high degree of tension.

The style of 'normal' interpersonal exchanges may owe more to

V
the general influence of Jewish ethnic behavioural style rather than the

Great Tradition. However, it has been suggested that from quite an early

age boys, accompany their fathers to the ohuZ, where they note, and can

take part in the discussions and gossip that are a feature of its

behavioural dynamics.1 As soon as he is Barmitzvah the boy is technically

an adult, and entitled to full status in religious matters,.even though

chronologically he is still an adolescent. Should the boy be scholarly

and well-versed in Talmud, he will traditionally be accorded respect and

a hearing in religious matters. The'obvious esteem in which the young

scholar from Sydney was held at the Torah Evening described above is a

classical example of the deference paid to those highly gifted, at whatever

age '(7bbrowski & Herzog, 1952: 92-121 passim). As a result of such

tural influences, boys may develop precocious ability to relate to

adults, which takes little account of their 'status', but is based more

on personal qualities such as knowledge, scholarship, and the ability to

impart it. These may well be the norms on which-boys, in this school at

least, base interpersonal exchanges.

(b) Formal, teaching-learning situations

The character of interpersonal exchanges in the formal teaching-

1 From several discussions with adult Jewish informants.

27i
 v

246
V .

learning situation of the classroom is less easy to assess. Most class-

room behaviour takes place behind closed doors in settings where the

teacher is his or her own arbiter of the norms that will prevail. Dis-

cussion is accordingly confined to my own experience in a Variety of

classrooms, or to those few interpersonal exchanges between others that

could be witnessed unobtrusively. Indepeildent comments from colleagues

validate these observations.

Boys clearly see classroom exchanges as opportunities. for

manipulating the teacher to their awn advantage wherever possible. They

claim to assess teachers or 'work them out' very quickly, and from then

on try to control a lot of what occurs. According to a parent of one of

the boys in my Form, even after a fortnight they had not yet 'worked out'

what I was really up to. Usually, he said, they had a new teacher

'worked out' in a matter of days, but apparently I had them baffled.2

The conviction that they control things is occasionally

articulated by boys. After a period when my own Form, Whicbhas usually

fairly well behaved, had been fractious, I issued a general warning that

I would not tolerate, further misbehaviour. One boy piped up cockily: 'We

only behave if we want to. We could easily get rid of you if we wanted to -

we only have to tell the rabbi ...' What, about was not specified, but the

inference was clear: I would be labelled as an anti-Semite aid asked to

leaye the school, which had been the fate of my predecessor., This is the

ultimate sanction the boys can use against-the non-Jewish teacher, and

they make no bones about it. The sixth Form started a deliberate campaign

against one staff member, who had long experience in Independent schools,

and possessed an innate, friendly and good-natured manner. The boys openly

2 From personal discussion.

272
 247

boasted that they would force him to leave the school. One went further.

Mr was an obvious anti-Semite and a raciste stated. He (the

student) would get him out of the school on these (albeit spurious) grounds.

The boys respect knowledge and authoritarian pedagogy to an

extent that makes them suspicious and intolerant of more pupil-centred

learning methods. Parente and the Principal share the boys' attitudes.

Assignments using printed instruction sheets, or attempts to organize

discussions using boys' choice'of topics, seem to arouse insecurity and

produce bad behaviour. A 'good' class is one where traditional chalk-and-

talk lessons are being conducted, or pupils are engaged on book work in

silence. Anything' radically different is construed as 'bad' teaching, and

4

might evep attract the attention of the Principal during his regular pere-

grinations around the school. He would poke his head in the door to see

if all waswell, even though industrious, pupil-oriented activity was in

progress. It often seemed better to keep teaching in the traditional

style: this was 'real' teaching and caused no worry.

Radical departures from such a teaching style could generate

behavioural problems among boys. On one occasion I had to deputise for

the senior English master, and attempted to lead an impromptu discussion

with the fourth Form. The attempt broke down into silliness and complete

disruption. The boys seemed unable or unwilling to choose a topic, apd

the lesson became a competition to see how far they could go before I

stopped them. Some dozen topics were suggested (Appendix 6.3), and the

boys would have gone on to put forward more if I had not stopped them.

It was clear virtually from the outset that they had no serious intention

of agreeing on a topic and conducting a sensible discussion. The lesson

was turned into a'contest, in which I was being manipulated.

2 7;i
 .248

The boys' reactions must be analysed with some caution. The name

breakdown into silly behaviour could have occurred in any class more used

to authoritarian teaching, and suddenly confronted with a democratic

approach. I had encountered similar reactions in other schools when

deputising for a teener. Howeverthe contest would rarely be pushed to

the same length. Many boys would be apathetic, and the task of discussing

In the
one of two or three suggested topics would be left to the keenest.

Jewish school however, there wis obviously no intention of agreeing on

anything. Yet many of the topics the boys did suggest were educationally

worthwhile. They reflected an interest in world affairs, which was

relatively greater than I had experienced among boys in comparable State

high or Independent boys schools. This was all the more marked as they

did not take social studies. In the Leaving course all such topics are

incldded.

Some suggestions are quite comparable to what would be proposed

in.such schools - matters relating to sport, teachers' right to strike -

while others reflect cultural specificity. In this category come haircuts

and beards. The latter became a small issue during the year among some of

strict
the sixth Formers, who began,tofrgrow the beginnings of beards in
'corners'
accordance with the prescriptions of Halachah against shaving the

of the beard, despite the Principal's disapproval.3

An interesting omission is any reference to sex, boy-girl dating,

in a
T.V. programmes and the like, which would have cropped up very quickly

As the Principal
list of non-Jewish suggestions, even if only as a try-on.
rabbis, being
had earlier informed me, the former are the province of the

treated, explicitly and in detail with senior boys Auring lessons

based on

3 Kitzur Schulchan Aruch, 4: 170;. Lev. 19: 27.

274
 249

r the Schgchan Aruch. Their omission could reflect the fact that sex and

boy-girl relationships are non - issues through being covered in such a

thorough and explicit manner during religious.lespons.

..The fourth 'Form experience had arisen due to my substituting

for another teacher. Such occurrences can generatetntra-clapa tensions

and sill behaviour in any school, as pupils' role expectations of the

Aubstitute teacher cane often differ from those they normally bold of

' their regular teacher. In a subject which is supposedly unfamiliar to.

hiM, the substitute becomes fair game. Iis lack of knowledge and

expertise.can be tested out and exioPoited. Obvious differences in teaching

style can be interpreted ,as weakness, with consequent misbehaviour and

.lack of co-operation.

In the discussion I attempted to create, all of these factors

could have operated to exacerbate the silliness and distort the pattern

of behaviour that might usually obtain with the regular teacher. I was
.
.
G'
very much part of the dynamics of the crass at the time. ,The boys quickly

spotted that I was not going to use an authoritarian approach, and probably

sensed that I had an ulterior motive for not clamping down on them. In

effect they, played up for my benefist'add fed "on the behaviour-I injected

into the gestaZt.

Negotiating and bargaining with the teacher are at their strongest

hen examination results are involved. The post - examination period.sbecomes

ense and suspicious until full satisfactionip terms of marks gaine4 is

achieved. When examination papers are returned, boys rush fever1shly to

one another,"and compare marks subjecting each question to meticulous ,

.
scrutiny.. Ultimately the majority come agitatedly out to the table to ask
l
,

why they have not been awarded half a mark like'so-and-do. As the

a
 250

following example indicates, arguments can be lengthy, subtle, and Qften

backed by recourse to Written authority, in much the same style as die-

/

cussions and arguments are conducted in religious classes.

'You" haven't given me anything for saying semi-tropical forests

are in the Canter"-bury Plain'.

.\ 'I know.. They do not occur in the Plain'.

'Yes? But look here (pointing to a text book), it Says

they are found in parts of the North Island of New Zealand'.

'That's right, but not in the South Island'.

'Not the South Island?'

'No (emphatically), not the South Island'.

4

'Ali: But you gave L half a mark for saying that

semi-tropical forests are found in New Zealand'.

'Did I?' .

'Yes, and I have put Canterbury Plains, New-Zealand,

(pointing triumphantly). That deserves half a mark too'.

One gives up the battle here a awards half mark. Honour has been

maintained and apparent justice gained.

The incident was typical of many involving examination papers.

After my first experience of the fhtensity of bargaining for'the extra

mark far greater than in any of my previous schools - I had adopted the

practice of masking the school's papers at least twice, even three times.
ir
This still did not prevent some trivial.points-being missed, but did reduce

the number of battles I had to face. They are conducted ruthlessly, with

pressure being implacably applied at every step. Manners are forgotten

if
in the heat of gle arguthent, and no point is left unvcamined. Even usually

polite and quiet boys can become worked up and imVassioned about marks.

2? G
R.
 251

This attitude is not only confined to the rebults.of examinations

held at the school. The external C.S.S.E. results were subjected to end-
_

t,
less scrutiny. On one occasion the PrinCalfdrew me into his office, some

weeks after they were publishmi. 'You know', he said sorrowfully) 'if so-

and-so had been given an extra mark in mathematics, he might have got's.

scholarship.

Despite their apparent self-assurance and claims to manipulate the

teacher, many boys display amarked dependence and need for reassurance.

These traits feature more in Lower and Middle School Forms than insenior.

tasks.
Boys show considerable inability to settle down quickly to learning

Trivial routine activity is worried about, a questions about what to do

are virtually endless at the start of a lesson. Boys bring their books up

make
to have the task explained for them, to check instructions, or to

certain that they hdve got the correct page. Self reliance is low.

re. Another phenomenon is an apparent need, for recognition from both

individual
4 he teacher and peers. _During the course of a lesson in which
praised or
work is being done, boys constantly'came out .fa have work

approved. One boy's-success in gaining the teacher's approbation provokes

a chain reaction. The boy's peers gfab their books with anxious, tense

expressions, and come out.' 'Is mine allright too? What do you think of

Look, sir, look ... that's good, isn't it?' The apparent need to
vine?

be recognizedljeads them to jostle one another in their anxiety, and to

teacher in close physical proximity.

crowd around the teacher
tight
The same phenomenon occurs during a discussion unless a
If an
eontrol is maintained, and exchanges are conducted form lly.

informal discussion starts up between the teacher and a ew boys-in one

0
4
They crowd around to
part of the room, others will rush out to Jo n -In.

2'7
 252

get heard, jostle each other and the teacher indiscriminately. Verbal

exchanges are heated and passionate; with a high level of accompanying

gesticulation. The dynamics of the interpersonal exchanges are highly

barged, and almost instinctively the teacher b4Olcs away from the encounter,

or persuades the boys back into their seats, where they sit like so many

barely-repressed volcanoes ready to burst out again. To prevent this,

authoritarian methods have to be used.

This type of behaviour has roots in the tradition of scholarship

in the yeshivot of Eastern Europe, as Zborowski and Herzog (1952: 99) comment:

Even in a formal classroom, however, the students often

jump up on the benches in their excitement, or leave their
seats in order to crowd around the teacher. Their great
reverence for him is no deterrent to the vehemence of the
arguments" they hurl against each other and against him.
A good teacher presides over the verbal battles with
dignity and strength, preferring the active students to
the ones who are passive and silent.
S
(c) Expressed reactions of teaching staff

The kind of constantly reiterated comments from members of the

full-time teaching staff validate.the impressionistic data on boys' behaviours.

They are 'very different from boys at other schools'. They are 'very

difficult and demanding ... get up to many things; you have to keep on your

toes all the time'. The boyi are 'very likeable, once you get to know them,

but very demanding'. An almost invariable fider would accompany any

comment: 'They are so different; it's difficiat to put your finger on the

reason, but it's definitely there. I don't know what it is. They can

be so"likeable'.

2 78
 253

A more comprehensive explanation is offered by a non-Jewish,

part-time to cher with considerable experience in State schools. 'They

are very dl
ifficultipoys, nervous and very demanding. Each boy thinks

everything has to be done for him. If you telr one bcy sometning, all
%
the rest will want to be told the same thing individually. If you ask me,

I put it down to genetic causes - racial characteristics'.

Coming from a part-time teacher, such a comment is surprising,

as the part-time teachers had a number of sanctions working for them

which would militate against bad behalhoui from the boys. Firstly, many

are highly qualified as they are 'borrowed' from Advanced Colleges of

Education with which the school has developed contacts. Other part-time

'senior teachers come from Independent schools, where they hold.positions

of subject responsibility. Respect for their expertise is particularly'

marked among the fifth and sixth Formers, who depend on the part-time

staff'fortheir success in the end of the year examinations. Any qualifi-

cation that enhances the expertise is enthusiastically noted. A replace-

ment senior story teacher had to be found in the middle of the year.
Jc)

At the time he was a member of the examining panel for the V.U.S.E.B.

The boys steadfastly held the opinion that he had inside information about

the examination papers, and would not be persuaded otherwise. My own

responsibility as a member of the examining panel for Leaving geography

produced similar reactions, no matter how often I pointed out that I had

no inside knowledge.

The possession of knowledge and expertise helps a part-time

teacher maintain discipline for another reason. The second powerful

sanction at his disposal is his power to withdraw the knowledge by leaving

A
the job. The boys know this. The position is not his main source of

27I
 254

income but a sideline. He has febyalties to.the school, and thus no

compunction about leaving. Boys articulate their fears that good teachers

will leave, jibisl as they vent their hostility against poor teachers, i.e.

those who lack knowledge and abillay to impart it by authoritarian means.

During the second year of the research, my position it the school became

that of part-time matriculation so ial studies teacher. On several

occasions, members of the class w uld order others to stop fooling about

or else I would, leave. The part-time teacher is thus able to make his

scarcity in the labour market work for him in controlling a class4. It

will not save a grossly incompetent teacher, however, as the boys have a

highly developed sense of getting value for their fees. They play up in

class and force the teacher to leave, or approach the Principal and

demand that he be sacked and replaced by someone more competent.

In many respects, boys' behaviour takes on a transactional charac-

'Good' behaviour is traded for 'good' teaching. If

ter in senior Forms.

the latter is not forthcoming 'bad' behaviour results until either good

teaching is obtained or the offending teacher leaves, to be replaced hope-.

fully by a better teacher. The demands of the Academic Tradition's

'examinamania' clearly operate to determine how the boys construct the

meaning of 'good' behaviour and 'good' teaching in strictly utilitarian

terms. It is immaterial to them that it may not be good education.

4
(d) Theireactions of religious teaching taff

Interpersonal exchanges between boys and religious teaching staff

in the classroom sil,ation could not be witnessed through direct participant

observation, but incidents could be heard and seen indirectly, and their

results noted. Although religious lessons are usua ly orderly and controlled,

there are many exceptions when the tolerance of,the religious teacher is

28t)
 255

i tried beyond endurance. Tempers are lost explosively; boys are slapped

or cuffed hard, usually about the head or face; and on occasions the

teacher bursts out of the classroom almost apoplectic with fury, leaving.

behind a hubbub of noise, laughter and some jeering. Junior rabbis appear

to have most trouble, especially from the two junior Forms. They can be

seen in the doorway expostulating heatedly with the boys, and demanding

quiet and good behaviour if the religious lesson is to continue. Often

_this would not occur, and the Principal would have to be called in.

Two boys wera expelled during the year, on both occasions for

disobedience and insolenCe to a teaching rabbi. The more serious of the

cases provoked anxious comings and goings of rabbis and other religious

teaching staff, culminating in long heated meetings in the Principal's

office. When the boy was finally expelled, the parents visited the school

to express their concern that he was being debarred fr m an important

geography examination. 'The boy was not reinstated for everal weeks.

In direct contrast, no boy was expelled for insolence and disobedience

I
to secular staff, although such incidents were not infrequent. The onus

of proof lies squarely on the secular teacher, with every credence being

placed in the boy, should the matter ever reach the Principal. Few

secular staff invoke the'ultimate sanction of expulsion, even though they

may send a boy to the Principal for disciplining. The boys are clearly

aware of the ambivalence.

It is not clear how boys, construct the norms that should prevail

during religious lessons. Knowledge and expertise do not suffice,

apparently, as they do in the Academic Tradition. On more than one

occasion, the shochet, whose qualifications entitled him to the approbation

of the community as scholar and scribe, was tried to the limit of his

281'
4
 256

patience by the fifth Form. His discussions with me on such occasions

allowed him to articulate his frustration over the boys/. lack of co-operation

and disruptiVe behaviour. They challenge everything he says; often do not

believe even what is written in the Scripture, and seem intent on crew ng

disorder in the class by frequent questions and irrelevant comments. Yet

one of the senior teaching rabbis apparently had little difficulty with

the more difficult third Form, or with the class for mishnayis during the

afternoon. His erudition, dignified presence and apparently imperturbable

manner seemed to make indiscipline and silliness out of the question. The

mishnayis class Te constantly expressing their concern about being late

for the lesson: they would get into 'trouble', as the rabbi does not like

lateness.

When religious'staff discuss challenges to their authority, it

is in terms which lay the blame on the boys and their home backgrounds.1

The young teaching rabbi, so sorely tried by the first Form commented:

'They are very brash and ill-mannered. A lot of it is due to being spoilt

at home. They are indulged in every way'. 'To another religious teacher,

the boys are badly behaved because of the school itself. 'There are many

wild boys in that class. They need more discipline in the school. There
k

is no real discipline at all ... a general slack attitude about the place.

It makes it d ?fficult to hold the boys. Having a woman in chary of Form

two is a mistake. I can't exactly say what it is, but there is a generally

poor to e about the place'.

(2) In erpersonal exchanges with administrative staff

In contrast with relationships with'teaching staff, those between

boys and the administrative and para-administrative staff tend to be casual,

informal, and relaxed. None of this group of stiff is involved with the

28')
 257

direct transmission of either Tradition. The school secretary assists with

supervision of boys' lunch time. She admonishes those who do not wash their

hands properly, and generally tries to ensure that boys carry out their

ritual obligations as punctiliously as possible. The boys` accept her fussing

with good humour. When boys come to her office for administrative matters,

interpersonal exchanges are relaxed and informal. The secretary knows all

the boys personally by name, and assumes a firm 'motherly' approach to

them. The boys invariably respond well. It seems that tense interpersonal

exchanges are confined mostly to the classrooms.

The caretaker similarly experiences few difficulties, although the

demanas the boys place on him to mend equipment or provide sports gear are

at times excessive. He handles boys firmly if they loiter behind in a

classroom which he is trying to clean up after the school day. He has few

discipline problems as he is attached to the school in'general, rather than

7
the Form structure and organization. He too has nothing to do with the

formal transmission of the Traditions.

We might assume that the secretary and caretaker experience few

difficulties because they are basically unrelated to the organization which

is concerned with the boys' actual learning. By assisting boys to leave at

the end of a day, they are, in fact helping them to escape it. As Shipman

has pointed out (1968: 56) the secretary and caretaker 'can become key
norms'
figures in a school because their status is not defined by the same

that bind staff and pupils'. This is implicit in their relationships with

boys who adopt correspondingly relaxed 'styles of interpersonal/exchanges.

(3) Interpersonal exchanges with peers

As with exchanges between boys and staff, it is convenient to

distinguish those that occur in informal situations, such as the playground

283
 258

or excursions (though the latter are also intended to assist learning),

and in formal situations ouch as the classroom.'

(a) Informal situations

Interpersonal exchanges in the playground and Adjoining areas

range from the relaxed air of 4 group of senior boys'deep in discussion

with some of the Rabbinical Cnllege students, to the exhuberance and noise

of those of all ages playing/games or a sport. Smalleroboys play chary all

over the campus, not excluding the shul, through which they are apt to

career in apparent disregard of the reverence that one might expect to

prevail there.

The close spatial confines of the playground bring boys of all

ages together. One result is a high degree of supportive and nurturant

behaviour shown by come senior boys towards those much younger. Should

assisted back
one of the primary Grades get hurt in a tumble, he will bd
self-
onto his feet and comforted by a senior boy nearby, with no sign of

Considerable patience ancP.gentieness are displayed. Often

consciousness.

the small child will be picked up and briefly cuddled before being put

down again, to run off, his injury forgotten., Some senior boys seem to be

the sight of
more in demand as protectors and comforters than others, and
frOm the kindergarten
a tall sixth Former holding the hand of a toddler

or primary school is quite commonplace.

It would be easy but an oversimplification to see in this close,

supportive behaviour proof of the values placed on love and tolerance in

the man- community value orientation. A more likely explanation is related

where
to the close kinship relationships in a small school-community

brother& or cousins can be found in all Grades. Traditionally, Jews place

high value on members of a family caring for each other.

284
 259,4

Despita the excitement, and occasional quarrels generated by the

games going on simultaneously in all parts of the limited playground area,

it is rare for actual fighting to eru4,01Arguments are far more frequent

but seldom, if ever, lead to physical aggression. Their nature and

intensity depend on the.games being played. In .summer, for instance,

three small cricket pitches are marked out on the walls of the main,

teaching block, and there is fierce competition among junior boys to claim

one of the, pitches during lunch time or after school. During genies boys

from one pitch get in the way of those from other pitches, balls stray

into others' 'territories' and are occasionally pirated( As a result,

tempers run hot with'high-pitched arguments, and scuffles over posseision

of the ball.

A further ball game, colloquially termed 'downball', is played

against,the walls, and seem to be more favoured in winter and autumn than

summer. In essence it is a modified type of fives played by paits or

small teams. The object is to hit the ball down onto the ground with the

hand so that it rebounds from the wall out of reach of an opponent. Boys

of all ages play the game, and it is a particular favourite of, rabbinical

students, some of whom show considerable speed and skill in what can be

fast and exciting matches.

They can also be noisy, and, like all the sports that are played,

they also present the incongruOus picture of participants wearing yarmelkehs

or hats engaging in energetic sports. Shirts orjackets can be disarrayed -

occasionally they are torn in vigorous basketball games - and the tzitait

work loose to flap from the waist.

Some boys show athleticism and physical co-ordination of a very

high order. These attack the games with dash} vigour and concentrated
 An interlude during an informal
basketball game. ,The fringes
(tzitsitloof the tallit katan
are clearlyavisible at boys'
waists.

rc

Unsupervised volleyball involving pupils from several Grades.

4.
 261

intensity. In consequence, injuries can be common. but are treated lightly

and even become class jokes. During the year, a number of boys in my Form

were injured in ways that merited'professional medical treatment and,

possibly, enforced rest. Neglected, crushed toes and infected blisters,

bruised insteps and multiple lacerations from football stops, grossly in-

growing toenails, severe contusions to thighs and legs all came to my

attention, and on several occasions had to be bathed and treated on the

spot. No other treatment had been sought, because the boys dismissed

the injuries as of little importance.

My previous experience as a sports master in boys' schoolb came

in useful on these occasions, providing some knowledge to treat the

a
Injuries, and memories of those others I had treated elsewhere with which

to cotapare their severity. In my mind there was no question that the boys'

attitudes were different, almost as if through over- compensating by vigour

during the game, and by stoicism when injured, they-proved they were the.

equal of goyim.

-Indifference to injuries.seemed to extend'to some Jewish staff.

On one occasion, a primary schobl child cut his knee badly in the play-

ground. I came upon'thegroup of arguing boys crowding around him as I

passed through the yard on my way to the staffroom. Several adults stood

by seemingly indifferent to the fuss, and may not have appreciated what

had happened. 'Nobody seemed willing to do anything.

After f had carried the child into the lunch room and sat him on

a table-to clean.up the cut, I sentja boy for the school's first-aid'kit

.normally kept in the secretary's office. The request for it apparently

caused same surprise - why bother, it was only a cut. The kit also proved
1

to be inadequate: a few adhesive plasters, some old cotton wool, and'a

287
 262

small bottle of Dettol comprised its contents. Eventually the deep cut was

duly cleaned up, plastered, and the boy taken to his Grade mistress. During

proceedings the Principal came in, evincing only cursory interestjn the

boy, but appearing to be fascinated, judging from his close scrutiny, by

the way T. metieuloubly washed,- re-washed and finally dried my hands at the

sink. 'My subsequent errand to thenearest chemist shop, to purchase the

number of items I felt should be in the kit, was accepted as a matter of

course and passed off diacknowledged.

Vigour and'energy aie not confined to body-contact sports. 'Even

cricket, not noted for producing excitable behaviour, can erupt into

intense, animated activity and fierce, vituperative arguments., Boys dash

compulsively up to the master-in-charge to question whether so-and-so is

out, or whether a run should be scored from a dubious hit. Hot words are .

shouted from one end of the pitch.to the other, gesticulations and

impassioned movements indicative of disgust at a decision occur frequently.

Cricket too can be a noisy game for participants.

P For a.si2ealile proportion of boys, however, it and other sports

can present surprising problems. These are due to a higher incidence of

postural defects and poor psychomotor co-ordination and dexterity than is

encountered in non-Jewish schools. Lordosis ,(sway back), flat feet; obesity

and lack of stamina are also evident, inhibiting full participatiOn in

games, The phenomena of boys repeatedly fumbling a simple catch, running

.13

in an awkward splay-foot manner, and otherwise displaying inefficient.

control over their physical co-ordination are commonplace.

Some of the injuries I had seen may well have been calised by this

very Aict, exacerbated by the energy with which games are played. Fit, co-

ordinated bodies get injured less frequently. my own observations were

 263

corroborated'by the sports master who knew of my previous experience. Ik

too had been surprised at the high incidence of defeats, which made his

work correspondingly more difficult. 'Not only were some boys reluctant

to / perform many exercises, or did so very clumsily when coerced, but a

proportion literally were unable to, and had to be taught the psychomotor

skills sports masters can take for granted elsewhere.. 4

Poor condition and disinclination for physical activity are not

confinedto the playground. During the latter part of the year, I took

the fourth and fifth'Forms on geography field-trips to areas in the hills

near the city. We went in particular to -a spot I,had used/on many past

occasions for visits by.boys and girls f2rom 'previous schools.'

After the lengthy bus journey on the occasion of the fifth Form

trip, we got out, and assembled to discues"the land use of the immediate

locality. From that point I was actustamed to take classes up a moderately

steep fire-track to a vantage point on a hillside some six hundred yards

away, from which to survey the agricultural use in the surrounding conntry-

side. Our progress on this occasion was painfully slow, and for some

boys, obviously a great effort. One boy did not get to the vantage point:

we found him on the way back sitting puffed out beside the track. For

others, even the short climb we achieved produced laboured breathing and
I
hea6.ng chests.

The descent down the track, which was in unusually dry condition

for the time of year, posed almost/as many problems for some boys as going

up. Slips and falls were freqUent. One boy resorted to coming down

backwards in places on his hanOs and feet. tit this was a track,'which:

the previous year'had'been wet and deep iB mud. But it was tackled then

with more ease by a group of fifth Form girls, from a leading public school,
4

285 ti
 264

when took them over the same excursion.

In the abovecomments on boys' sporting activities and general

.
lack of good physique, compared with boys at any Independent school, there

is clear evidence to support the low value placed on sport in the Great

Tradition and, possibly, the community associated with the school. We can

also note how boys' behaviours are inappropriate constructions of what

games such as cricket require. Again, this points to lack of familiarity

with ehe norms and rules under which they are conducted.

(b) Formal situations

Interpersonal exchanges in classrooms vary greatly according to

the authority of the teacher taking the lesson, the subject being'studied,

and other variables .such AS time and type of day - whether windy and

rainy,,,or fine and sunny - and the period of the year -- just prior to an

.
examination or religious Festival. Classrooms can be quiet, studious
D

places where industrious work is going on individually, or, more frequently,

vihere'didactic teaching compels attention. On very many occasions, however,

classrooms are places where interpersonal exchanges between boys are tense,

anxious, and prone to erupt into physical or verbal aggression. The

verbatim acc &unts given in Appendices 6.1-6.2 are not atypical of thy

behaviour that can occur in junior Forms even with a teacher present.

When a teacher is late for class, violence can break.out among

the boys, or be direCteet-Igainst the-classroom furniture. Boys rush

around frenetically, systematically bank desk lids up and down, kick

furniture, push each other over desks, punch, wrestle and shout. The

pandemonium gives every impression of mindless violence and uncontrolled

aggression.1 A survey of ,the room by a 'physical erosion check'' of the

Some
type suggested by WebbCt al (1966: 35) prov.ides supporting evidence.

'0
 265

desks lack backs, or they fall off if leant against., Some desk lids are

ctacked'right across and are only held together by the wooden cross-piece

' screwed on the back, and'even this is loose. Hinges are loose or misting/

entirely. Some bottoms of desks have been punched in, add the seats site

loosbly on the bars to which they are normally screwed:

Like other rooms in the teaching block, the room in which

violence of thistype occurs shows other signs of neglect. The hessian

backing on the displaY boards along the rear wall hangs in shreds in one

or two places. Old tbrn roller blinds flap in the draught coming through

the damaged sash of one window, which cannot be properly closed. Even new

blinds provided later in the year fail to operate after a few days due to

broken springs. They also flap in the draught. The boys joke about It:

'Nothing lasts long in this room, we're a rough lot. In any case, see

what quality you get from a Jewish supplier'., There_ 14 no attempt.to help

repair the damage.

The comment of the boys about their own behavioUr was echoed by

other boys during the year. They clearly see themselves as excitable and

tense. 'We are'an excitable race, don't worry about-St!, said one

matricul#tion boy during.a lesson, when I expressed concern about the noise

and bad behaviour obviously going on in the shut below us. On another 1/4

occasion, a similar disruption to our work occurred, and one of the boys

went downstairs to control the junior class clamouring in the shut. 'Don't

be too violent with them' called out one of his friendi as he left the room.

When I expressed surprise that Jews condoned violence, and in the sag of

all places, -I was informed again that excitement and occasional violence

arp not uncommon among Jews. 'They are just part of the way we behave'.

29i
4
 266

When violence is directed against them, 'however, especially as

verbal aggression when a teacher completely loses his tempera wary

masked look can descend over the boys' faces. They wait, tense, and

curiously passive until the onslaught stops. It is as if they expect to

be castigated in this way. The same wary, defetrceless behaviour character-

ized adult Jews during an incident in the year, when the owner of a house

adjdlning the school stormillghnto the office to cdmplain about boys

cheeking him from the balcbny of the teaching block. Not one of the Jews

(' tried to counter the tirade of abuse: all adopted the passive manner.
.

Even when classroom behaviour does,not degenerate into outright

violence on the scale described above, classrooms commonly convey the

impression of movement, activity and bustle. They are very 'busy' places.

Especially in junior Forms there are constant consultations betweenlboys,

who leave their seats and. go to see what others are doing, or to show them

their own work. The harmony is easily broken. Books are snatched, only.

to be snatched back again. Blows, recriminations and insults are freely

. exchanged. Even in a senior Form,lit is not uncommon for a boy to leap

violently out of his seat, dash dol:in the aisle, and punch another boy, all

while a lesson is supposed to be going on. Verbal aggression - taunts,

threats, sneering remarks flung around the'class - is far more common.

Unless a lesson is tightly controlled by didactic teaching, which

4-

the
tile teacher is virtually forced into, or by constantly patrolling

classroom during individual work to squash incipient 'silly behaviour, the

of any period.
class is seldom doing relaxed, quiet work.for more than half,
perpetual tension.
Even at its most relaxed a class seems to be in a state of

books are closed with a snap; desk

Bow' movements are sharp and jerky;

lids are flung back rather than lifted. Everything is done vigorously.

292
 267
c4le.
Even when seemingly absorbed in a task, a boy's motor activity is still
4.

apparent: he/Fscks backwards and forwards monotonously in the manner

associated with religious study or prayer; or fidgets around in his seat.

0
It seems difficult to keep still for very long, or to hold concentration.

Heads lift inquisitively at'the slightest incident in cl ss. Even if it

involves only one boy, others want to chip in with gratu :'tous comments.

They offer advice, make denigrating remarks, tell the offen e'r to 'shut

up', anything except get quietly on with their own work.

Although such classes present an impression of hyperactivity and

gross taste f time, most boys manage to accomplish the majority of the
- .

get work. Some'are rapid workers, but seem unable to settle down to

other tasks if they are set. When finished they go around bothering others.

They can also use the opportunity to generate petty incidents: blowing

noses ostentatiously, throwing paper or missiles of one sort or another,,

getting up to look out cif the window. Many incidents give the impression

of calculated challenges to the authority of the teacher. They are all

performed with a wary eye on his or her location and degree of surveillance.

If reprimanded, the offender affects an air of injured innocence, and plays

to the gallery for support of his pders. Even here, there is implied con-

flict and tension, phis time with an authority figure.

(4) Summary

Interpersonal exchanges between boys and staff show a Marked

qualitative difference according to the situation in which they occur.

Outside the form'al teaching-learning situation,-exchanges are relatively

relaxed, friendly and informal. Inside them, the boys construe the act of

interpersonal exchange as anxiety-producing, needing negotiation, bargain-

ing and repeated challenges to the secular teacher's authority and,

293
 268

pedagogical competence i Their degree is lessened if the teacher has clear

competence, and authoritarian didaCtic style, and obvious knowledge of his

subject matter which will all lead to success in the examinations that

, dominate the Academic Tradition. Similar challenges are levelled at the

religious teach'er, but their degree may be related more to his pedagogical
P
competence a ?d authority, rather than level of knowledge. In the majority

of cases this can be assumed to be greater than that possessed by most boys.

However, it does not prevent them from challenging the authenticity of the

knowledge itself.

In contrast, interpersonal exchanges with non-'teaching staff show

few, if any, of the conflict-tension which chaliacterizes the formal teaching-

learning situations. We can tentatively hypothesize that it isthe direct

involvement with the transmission of the Traditions and their related bbdies

of knowledge that leads, to-their teachers encountering the types of

behaviour discussed above.

A
Some support for the contrast is available from the interpersonal

exchanges between the boys themselves. Those in informal situations may be

excitable and noisy, but lark the deliberate aggression, conflict and

violence against person and property that characterize exchanges in the

formal teaching-learning situation. It may be that their dynamics generate

the boW,behavioural styles.

When analysing the data on boys' behaviours assembled over the

f

year, there is a danger that the observer refuses to recognize the

obviously bizarre elements and even pathological conditions present in his

subjects. Spindler's comment on the anthropologist's weakness has force

here: 'He fails to see complications and looks for integrating features,

consistencies, and values where th'ere are none' (1963: 259). The more the

294
 269 .

observer beComes immersed in his subject matter, the greater becomes the

reluctance to admit anything unusual about behavioural styles. To be as

6,

objective as possible in this case, comments of boys themselves on their

own bollaviour, and comments'of other staff have been given to corroborate

what was observed. The evidence is quite clear and unequivocal that many

interpersonal exchanges, which take place in teaching-learning situations

associated with the transmission of either Tradition, are tense, anxious,

aggressive and often conflict-prone. In contrast, those outside such

situations show far fewer symptoms of this nature, but are much more

friendly, informal and relaxed.

I
p

29t
 270

CHAPTER 12

CONSTRUCTIONS OF ESTEEM CRITERIA IN; THE 731 GROUP

Classrooms are micro-cosms which can mirror the school as a whole.

In them can be found attitudes towards those in authority Amilar to'those

that are. exhibited throughout`the school in general. More informal per

group networks can also reveal the griteria on which interpersonal exchanges

are based. The way boys choose their leaders, behave towards each other in

task-oriented groups, form cliques with some boys and reject others, can all
2

be useful indicators of what they value as the basfs of the typifications

that guide their interpersonal relationships.- An attempt to establish such

criteria of esteem at the school and Form levelais Mide.in this chapter.

(1) Formal status arrangements in the school - prefects and houses

(a) Prefect system

Following the pattern of the traditional Independent school,. 41i;

Lubavitcher School has a prefect system and a house system. The former was

introduced some years before the study by the senior master, in a bid to

improve the ,status and image of the school in the dyes of the Jewish

community by giving it something of the 'public school' character. The

latter had been formed, also some years,ealier, by a non-Jewish dhster who

had had experience of the house system in his previous Independent school.

The prefect system constitutes fihre prefects fio sixth Form

and five probationer prefects from the fifth Form. is distribution was

an experiment for the.year of the study. There is no clear cut body of

rules to guide the duties of these officiala, but .only a vague notion of

what 'everybody knows' prefects do in public schtols. The prefects were

.given power toact on their own initiative to keep boys in order, maintain

the tone of the school, and generally assist Staff in the performance of

29
 271

supervisory duties at school functions. At their inauguration cereany, they

were cautioned to use their newly-granted authority equitably, and to bear in

ti

mind the dictum that 'power corrupts'.. In his speech of thanks to the school

assembly and the senior master, who gave the advice, one of the prefects

solemnly affirmed its apPropriategess, and promised on behalf of the prefects

to uphold the tone of the school.

Despite this auspicious beginning, the prefe.ct system failed to

function properly. The probationary prefects had a few definite tasks to

perform, such as checking classrooms during the lunchtime, but they amounted

to little of substance. In consequence the system languished. The boys

regarded it as a bit of a joke, and even the prefects' 'themselves were #

sceptical of their usefulless. The system was abandoned in the following

year, and all members of the sixth Form wereve-constituted into a Students'

Council, in which each of them had some definite-participation.

(b) House system

Originally the house system constituted two houses, Zion and

Jerusalem, which operate purely as a vehicle for arranging sport and games

competition within the school. House points are awarded towards the

champion house, which is traditionally announced at the end of the year on

o.
Speech Night. When the' system started, all boys belonged to one or the other

house, but so much apathy developed during the year that the Grade level up

to which boys participated in house activities was progressively reduced, on

the assumption that boys in the seniorioart of the school were finding it

difficult to participate due to pressure from academic work.. At the time of

this study, the house system Was confined to members of Forms 1 and 2,, together

with the Grades of the primary school'. It was thought, that these levels Would

retain enthusiasm for\their house and work hard coMpetitivelyoto amass points

through participation in sports and games. However, even here the system

flourished spasmodically, and interest-waned during the year.

 272

(2) Some reasons for the decline of the formal status arrangements

Thus, two systems which might have suppleMented the general

authority system failed to function satisfactorily, and we might put forward

a number of reasons to explain this. The personal inadequacies of many of

the senior boys can account for something:of the (failure, though cannot

explain why the house system failed to flourish in.lower Grades. At the

first staff.meeting for 1969 the selection 'of prefects was discussed with

'much shaking of heads and bemoaning the fact that,2in general, the senior

boys were a weak lot. The 'prefect System was seen then as a way of inCullt-:

ing 'desirable backbone and community consciousness into boys, who lackeli the

gumption to develop such virtues independently.

There was also a virtual lack of any explicitly codified body of

. -

rules and sanctions for the prefects to operate. The diffuse nature of the

schOol, arising out of its,small, intimate size and relaxed staff-pupil

relationships, made such abcode unnecessary. It might even be questioned

.whether.the formal institution of prefect is necessary in a school where all

boys are known personally by their teachers, and the intense factionalism

and rivalry ,a house System can lead to Cis largely mitigated by the warmth

and close relationships generated by kinship ties and the religious sub-
Ar
community.

House systems also occasionally operatd as pastoral care units in

1

which the house male* or house mistress knows each member 'of the house, and

exercises considerable control over those in it. This control is not only

directed to striving for success in'inter-house

.
sports, but extends to con-

siderations such as personal Tounselli , vbcationa/ guidance and even to

spiritual., advice in sorting out emotional problems. However, such

responsibilities belong to the rabbis and the Principal; the secular staff

28
 273

are not involved.

Some members of the staff took an interest in running after-schoo

and.lunchtime activities, including games such as table tennis, which counted

towards house points. Prefects and 'probationers were used to assist the staff

where posaille, but it quickly became obvious that when all was said. and

done, they had little to do, and these activities gradually declined.

We might also advance two explanaWns along cultural lines for the

failure of the two systems. Firstly, the introduction of prefects and houses

represents a cultural transplant from one Tradition into another (the Great
A

Tradition) where an ethos exists, which almost inevitably -ensures its rejec-
A
tion. Jewish egalitarianism,,lack of emphasis on competitive sports, and

the existence of b supportive climate in the scho61 make such systems

unnecessary and even antipathic to the ethos.. Secondly, such systems depend

on the support of the pupils. The Jewish boys may not have seen the systems

as contributing to the 'real' purpose of the school as they construed it,

i.e. learning and study, which are"emphasieed by both Traditions. 4 upport

for the latter explanation can be found in the way status arrangements are

regarded at the Form level. Here it is clearer what criteria merit esteem

and boW support.

(3) Status recognition at the Form level

A Form captain and vice Form captaih are the main status positions

commonly differentiated at 'the Form level in'Independent Schools. Particularly

lb
in the lower Grades of a school, though less so in the senior Grades, election

of boys tq such positions by their peers is a measure of the esteem in which

they are held, and also of the boys' willingness to accept their instructions

(Shipman, 1968: 85). Such Form institutions are lower order replicas of more

senior positions within the school's student- authority and prefect system.

2
 '"'274

In this there is the status of :school captain or senior prefect, who leads

a body of prefects with certain traditionally or explicitly defined powers .

over the rest of the student body, As well as the school captain or senior

prefect, there is often a vice school captain or joint senor prefect to

share in and assist with the responsibility.

(a) Ferm structures in the Middle and.$enior .School

In eachAof the school's four Middle School and Senior School Forms

there is provision for the election of a Form captain and vice Fom captain..

Such elections take place by tradition rather than an explicit school,rule

at the beginning of each Term. The voting methods vary, but usually some

type of preferential voting is used to give an air of pseudo-democracy to

proceedings. During th year in Form four, the captaincy was held by two

boys, elected by a pre rential voting system in which boys were asked to

nominate three choices in order of preference. The ballot was secret.

Voting was not conducted very seriously.by the boys, and a great

deal of joking took place, with pointed remarks to the effect:that they would

elect someone 'they could run'. One boy in particular, who turned out to be

the ultimate choice, came'in for many,comments of this nature~ They would

elect him they said, because he wouldn't be able to keep control. A fjature

of voting was the very large number of candidates proposed over three

quarters of.the class - and the closeness of the final decision.

The boy elected as captain in Term 1 was indeed-weak as a leader,

and had little, if any, ability to control the others 4.n the absence of a
A
teacher. From the silliness that took place it was obvious that he was

looked upon.as one of the Form comics, an easir-going discieoliverian, and:by"

implication, not the type of Form captain I was looking for. A similar

pattern was seen in Fort three where the captain chosen was its well-known

clown with neither academic nor.leadership potentral,but with a natural

300
 275

ability in dport.

-:In Farm fives the boy chosen was similarly weak in academic ability

' and deficient in leadership, drive. Again, his election seemed to give the
/

other "boys a great deal of amusement. As .one of theM, a known bully and
,
standover persecutor, said fo me sneeringly ,half,in earnest, half in joke:

'We elected him ,because he'll do as we tell him, othertalise he'll get 'a

bashing'.

In oontrast to this attitude some improvement was noted in Form_

four. in the second and third Teims. By this time some esprit de corps had c

begun,, to develop, partly atke'result of several sessions of vigorous 'ticking

off' from the Form master. The hoy""elected in Term two..was of a different
1- d'
calibre altogether at first sight. Among the top three or four in academic

ability and with an apparerit sense of .serious responsibility, it seemed that

he could be relied on to exert authority and leadership. He was re-elected

by a narrower margin in Term three.

However, few occasions were noted when he carried out any of the
0

uties associated with the status. Usually he did so at the express orders

of. a-teacher, or in circumstances when such was the rowdinec; in the class,
a
that someone had to take some action to avert absolute -chaos. Even then

he acted only when he noticed he was being watched by a teacher.

On several occasions he was seen taking an active part in the

rowdy indiscipline that usually plagued one particular teacher, and made no

effort to back up his attempts to control the class. By his election the

due process of school rules tlad been carried out, but the matter ended there:

The boy's construction of the behaviours appropriate to the status-role of

captain did not match the commonly accepted notions more usual in the Academic

Tradition. In this respect Form four was basically similar to the other two

Forms.,

1
 44.

e".
276
A-

(b) Weaknesses in the formal' structures

Explanations likt those Used fOrthe diffuse and ineffect ve student

.
authority structure of-the school as a whole might also be applied tai the

basically similar phenadenan'at the Form level. Egalitarianism, 14ck pf a

parallel school 'ca Mains and strong prefect system' as examples, small size of

the Forms, and lack of organized sporting or competitive activities calling

for leadership, all militate against developing a viable institution of Form

*
captain along lines of other schools.

,Jewish cultural life style may also be reflected in the-lack

respect for the office, andlanwillingness to follow the directions or

recommendations of its incumbent. A traditional Jewish joke has it that

where there are two Jews there are three opinions. Any opinion emanating

from the ilolder of such an office as Form captain in a Jewish school might

be expected to face more than the usual opposition Form captains can

-experience in non-Jewish establishments. In Form four alone, for instance,

instead of two, there were twenty Jewsl

There is very little consensus of opinion regardingthe functions

of the role incumbents in the status positions that are provided for in the
b
school. This may reflect the religious nature of the School,.the frequent
,

changes of staff, and the many part-time staff with little interest in the

school as a corporate body. All of these may have precluded the evolution

of a stable student authority system with a clear code of norms to guide

behaviours. Equally lacking is a clear guiding ideology,from a healimaster.

ti
Instead there is a diffuse system, in which the duties of student

officials are very vaguely defined. For instance, there does not appear to

be even a tradition, let all.eme-*$:714-cl..truling, that a Form captain or his

deputy should exercise anything other than mere token authority when the

fl

302
 277

teacher is absent from the class There ar few specific tasks that to
regularly zerformed. In the fifth and sixth Forms the attendance rolls were
44.-
marked by the Form captains. This was not the case in Form four as the job

was done so,poorly,bymy, standards, that I did it myself.

Lacking any formalised interForm competition in sport, there is

little occasion for the Form captain to exercise a morale and team building

function. About the only formal task performed by my Form captain was to

draw up a roster of monitors with delegated duties to tidy up the class, put
A

religious books away, clean the blackboard, and attend to similar minor

chores. However the responsibility ended thete. During the whole year, fewt

instances were noted where the Form captain overtly Ocercised authority to

make sure that such delegated tasks were in fact performed, and frequently .

they were neglected. c>

In such a religious school it might be thought that the Form'

captain leads religious activities such as prayer sessions when conducted.'

on a Form basis. This was not the case, at least in Form four. On both

occasions when the Form was observed praying together, boys other than the

Form or vice captain led prayers. One of them was encouraged to)do so

because his style of praying differed from the remainder, and it appeared
I
that the other boys wanted to test his ability to lead the session. On the

other occasion a quiet but nonetheless respected boy led the,prayers because

of his acknowledged skill and knowledge. As the year progressed a body of

14
prayer leaders frbm senior Forms was constituted to conduct the Afinghah
hot
prayer at lunchtime in the various locations where it is held. Again, Form

captains did not 56ture among them.

30
1
 7

(4) Informal relatiOnships and'criteria of4esteem at the Form level

In contrast to its formal structure, a class can have an informal

structure (Shipman, 1968: 136), which contains small cliques with their own4

norms and structures. The expectations and behaviours of members in such

cliques.a.reoften at variance with those of the school authority figures

(Gordon, 1968). There is a difference of opinion on the influences which

affect the structure of such informal groups. Ford has suggested (1969: 76)
*or

that informal relations are shaped by children's social class of origin and,
v

their class of aspiration. Eyans (1962: 40 ff.),on'the other 'hand, has cited

a number of studies which appear to show that children make the friendship

choiCes they do because of personal qualities rather than on a basis of socidth.

economic or Other extraneous factors. Qualities such as skills, abilities,

achievements and personality traits have been isolated as important.

(a) Criteria of esteem in third and fourth Forms

Boys in MidOle and Senior School come from broadly similar middle-

class socio-economic b 1ckgroundst,as has been shown in Chapter 10 above. We

can thus discount their influence on the way boys construct criteria for

peer group esteem in the classroom. Class of aspiration is also likely to

have little influence, as the 'boys are already members of a class to which

others generally aspire. We can thus look for criteria, which are intrinsic

to the peer groups, rather than extrinsic. Opportunities to do so arose

naturally during the year under circumstances outlined in Appendix 1, when

abciametric surveys could be employed without undue fear that they would be
0
seen as abnormal by the boys, with consequent.contamination of the data they

provided.

Limitations of this type of analysis have been pointed out by several

wdrkers (Moreno, 1953, 1960; Madge, 1953: 35; Sprott, 1958: 44;

-304
04,
 I
41.

279

Oppenheim, 1966:' 240; Morrison & McInt re, 069: 114), who caution against

placing too much reliance on results* However, they do provide corroborative

I

data to support other evidence, and 4 be used with some confidence here.
a

,In the following discussion, the term nologyused broadly follows Evans

(1962). A star is a boy who receives a large number of choices frOm his

peerb, including at least one choice prom a boy outside his immediate clique.

A neglectee is a boy who is chosen by'nobody but makes choices himself.

There are also isolates: boys callo do not make choices, but who may not be

explicitly rejected by others. A rejectee is explicitly rejected by many.

The sociograms to form 'research' groups to tour the annual

agricultural show establish the existence of an isolate in third Form, who

makes a cross- boundary choice of an isolate from fourth Form as his companion.

Form three has a more fragmented preference structure than Form four, where

there are two large groups which absorb fifty percent of those attending the

shoW (Appendix7.1).

The sociograms drawn up to establish groups to work on the major

project in fourth Form throw some light on the preference structures for the

show (Appendices 7.2-7.4). Two types of sociograms were used: two asked

boys to state choices for work groups; the third asked boys to state those

with whom they did not wish to work. Two patterns emerged. The first is

the large number of stars of varying degrees of strength. The second is the

group of four boys who are clear rejectees together with one boy who is'an

isolate through his marked rejection of others. The preference structure in

fourth Form for the show is now seen as including a dyad composed of two.

rejectees and the boy who is an isolate, and makes a cross-boundary choice

possibly because he is rejected by his peers. The structures for the project

also indicate that some boys have re-aligned themselves with stars.

305
 280

A possible explanation for the consistent preferences of the un-

t

changed clique, the re-alignments, and the rejection pattern lies'in thd

types off tasks set. For the agricultural shaw,.theftboys.were asked to cam-
/

plete a very minor assignment carrying few marks: Consequently thej knew

that/the exercise was more or less a formality, and would not need much

effort or ability to complete. On the other hand, the project was a demand-

ing exercise, and carried the remaining 75% of the cumulatiVe marks for

1. Term 3. For this it was clearly advantageon0 to seek alliance with the

'brains' in the class, rather than with congenial companions more suitable

for touring around the show. There is some supporting evidence for this.

As part of the C.S.S.E. assessment at the fourth Form level the

headmaster's ratings of pupils are taken into account. It was my respons-,'

ibility to work these out using Term 1 examination results. The scores in

all school subjects were standardized, and those for the best five subjects

summed. Using these totals an academic rank order of the Form was obtained.
.4%

With the one exception noted, this is shown below together with each boy's

-status in the project sociogram.

Some relationship between 'brains' and high sociogram ranking is

obvious, as well as low ranking with lesser ability. However, it should be

noted that boys' perceptions of 'brains' may be the basis for ranking rather

than any one boy's innate ability. For instance, when the final results of

the C.S.S.. were made available, number 20, who ranked fifteenth in ability

in school/subjects, was found to be of almost scholarship standard when the

A.C.E.R. stanines were ranked and compared. There are other anomalies, for
(
which impressionistig explpations must be iivanced. Numbers 9, 7 and 12 do

not receive star status, despite their obvious ability. Two of them, i.e.

0-1 numbers 7 and 12 are extremely religious, the latter militantly so. Number 9

306
 281

TABLE 12.1

ACADEMIC RANKING IN BEST FIVE SUBJECTS AND SOCIOMETRIC

STATUS OF FORM POUR BOYS IN THE PROJECT SOCIOGRAMS,

Rank order in best Sociogram identification' Sociogram

five subjects number status

1 4 Star t

2 k 12

.3 10 Star

.3 11 Star

5 9
p
6 7

7 2 I Star

8 Star
/5
9 6 Star

10 14

*11 c 8 Star

=12 3 Star

=12 1 Star

14 18 Rejectee

15 20 Rejectee

16 17 Rejectee

17 19 Neglectee

18 15

19 13

20 , 16 Rejectee

*Assessment based on comparison of rank order of Term 3 examination

results, as this boy was assessed for C.S.S.E. purposes at another
school.

MY;
 282

has a suspicious, 'prickly' natur( The lower academic ability of numbers 15

and 13 does not result in them becoming rejectees. Neither is a neglectee

similar to number 19. The former was not noted for beihg very religious.'

On the other hand, the latter took an active part in Lubavitcher Ycith work.

Despite all the effort put into the sociogram to find compatible

groups to work on the project, the arrangements very quickly broke down iii

practice. The boys couldn't work in groups, they complained, and spent a

1
great' part of their time arguing. As a result they asked to work in pairs

or on their own. The resultant re-alignment again shows interesting-lelation-

ships, which are summarized in the following table.

a
There are few shifts in alliances. The majority of pairs gave
e
reciprocated preferences on the sociogram. One pair is made up of a rejectee

and another boy for whom he expressed a preference, which was not reciprocated. .

Two pairs are fresh alliances, probably made when the boys in them saw that

their sociogram preferences had made other alliances with more favoured

partners, Two boys confirm their rejectee status by choosing to work on their

own. Of interest is the fact that in only one case (numbers 1 and 3) are boys
a

of equal or near-equal ability paired together. It seems that the more able

.
are chosen by the less able, or choose to work with and assist the less able

on the project.

The evidence is far from conclusive to be able to state with con-

fidence that 'brains' play the major part in determining sociometric status,

although there seems little doubt that they rank high as a component in a

boy's attraction for others. Only impressionistic data are available to

support the hypot44sis that'a boy's religiosity may also be an attraction,

but here it seems that the quality of religiosity is more important rather

than .mere religious behaviour itself. For instance, numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 are

306
 283

TABLE 12.2

WORKING GROUP RE- ARRANGEMENTS, FOR FORM FOUR PROJECT

Academic rank order and

Re-arrangement
sociogram status

*1 and 3 Equal 12th, both Stars

.*2 and 4 ,8th (Star) and. 1st (Star)

*5 and 8 6th (Star) and 11th (Star)

*6 and 7 10th (Star) and 5th

*9 and 10 7th and 3rd (8tar)

**11 and 16 3rd (Star) and 20th (Rejectee)

**12 and 19 2nd and 17th (Neglectee)

+ 14 and 15 ° llth and 18th

17 16th (Rejectee)

20 15th (Rejectee)

a
Notes

*Reciprocated preference on sociogram.

* *No preferences expressed on sociogram.

+ One way preference

CZ

35
 284

all quietly pious boys, Their preferences for each other are unchanged since

-being empirically established for the show. visit. On the other hand, what

might be termed 'busy religiosity' of an obvious, militant type does not

6
attract preferences or alliances. This may underlie the pairing of

numbers 12 and 19, and numbers 13 and 18, yet even boys ,in these pairs'are

not immune to the apparent tensions which 'busy religiosity' may generate.

After a number of comments about religious duties from number 12 during a

geography lesson, number 19 yellpd in annoyance across the classroom 'why

don't you shut up, for a change, yeshivah bocher'.1

In the sociometric preference, structures there may also be a clue.

4

noted
to the lack of a strong authority hierarchy in the Form, which was

earlier about the election of Form captain. With so many stars in the

number
Form, no boy stands out as being.the obvious leader, hence the large
In
of names proposed for the Form captain and the closeness of the voting.
ranking, was
Term 1, the boy chosen was ranked low on the best five subjects
with many others.
not a star, and could not be termed religious in Comparison
pious
In Terms 2 and 3, the boy dhosen was a star, belonged to the quietly

religious group, and ra ked well up in the test five subjects ranking. He

school yard, but'did

was an active participant in the ball games held in the

not obviously shine at these like some of the4otiters, although he took an

active part/ Yet there was still an apparent lack of those leadership

qualities one traditionally. Jooks for in a Form captain.

(b) Criteria of esteem in fifth Form

In contrast, the sociogram of the preference structure of Form 5

shows a more fragmented pattern (Appendix7.5). No firm groupings emerge

1 Yeshivah bother (Yidd.) 'Yeshivah student'. The term traditionally

applied to students of the classical yeshivot of Eastern Europe prior
to their collapse under Nazi and earlier persecutions.

310,
 t4

' 285

either in aversions or,preferences, even though boys.were asked to choose

two others for a field work trip and toindicate any aversions. There are
0

no exclusive triads -.the maNimum sized group that could form in, this cass

'A number of minor stars are apparent, though these have to be identified on

the grounds of receiving three or more prefetences. Numbers 2, 7, 9 and 10

have star status on these criteria. Numbers 7 and 9 are clearly centres of

attraction. Thefe are no outright rejecteess Numbers45, 11 and 14.appear

to be neglectees: their choicep. are not reciprocated, but neither are they

explicitly rejected. Number 11 is an interesting parallel to number 1,9 in

the fourth Form sociograms, as he is a neglectee possibly due to his rejec-

tion of others. Together with the self-chosen isolate, there are four

neglectees out of a total of fifteen boys in the group.

To What extent is the fourth Form pattern followed with the staffs

there are coinciding with academic ability? In this-case, scores i

or best

five subjects were not available,'and it is only possible to rank those boys

I took for geography on the basis of this subject.only. In the Table below

the geography scores for the first and second Term examinations have been

summed, and these totals used as the basis on which to rank eh ;bey".

Two stars stand out above the others, holding first and se ond

places on academic order of ranking in the subject. Another star holds

filth position on this order. Two neglectees and the seff=selected isolate,

whose frequent absences from lessons.were notorious,, hold the bottom three

academic, positions.

Once again, however, there are apparent anomalies, for which

'imprepsionistic explanations must be used. Although relatively low in

ability, number 10 earns star status' by his capacity for hart work and easy-

going, friendly nature. In contrast the completely different temperament. of

311
 TABLE 12.3

ACADEMIC RANKING IN GEOGRAPHY EXAMINATIONS

AND SOCIOMETRIC STATUS - FORM FIVE

Rank order in Sociogram identificati, Sociogram

geography number status

1 2 Star

2 9 Star .

5 7 StAr

6 12

=7 5 Rejectee

=7 6

9 4

10 10 Star

11 , 13

12 3

13 11 Rejectee

=14© 14 Rejectee

=14 Abs. in sociagTam Self-chosen

isolate

312
 287

number 7 does not earn him rejection. Despite his wild nature and annoying

habit of compulsively interrupting lessons to ask questions, or make stupid,

attention-bidding comments he is clearly a star. 'Brains' seem to have

sow attraction here.

As in Form four, the sociometric preferenw bear little relation

to the apparent authority structure of the Form. Its captain is in the

geography group but is neither academic nor a start ,Those ranked highest

in academic ability as stars are of contrasting leadership ability. One

took the leading role in the Lubavitcher Youth business transaction6 described*

beloi. The other was the obvious academic leader in the group, and froMthe

many comments of his peers was clearly regarded as a, 'brain'. But he did

not exercise any obvious authority, and preferred to remain,quiet and.with-

drawn on the many occasions when something might have been said or done to

curb others' unruly behaviour.

Remaining neutral in this way still did not save him from the

attention of number 12, who frequently appeared to resent his knowledge and

ability. Hostility was verbal and derisive. On one occasion, strikingly

similar to the incident in Form four, it took the form of an explicit

reference to the star's religious affiliation. A discUssion on a geographical

problem had been in progress and number 9 had made a particularly pertinent

comment. This earned number 12's immediate attack, shouted across the

classroom: 'You're pretty good, niagyar, now shut up'.2'

An obvidus explanation for lack of clear leaders may be that my

geography class was only part of the fifth Form as a whole. Had it been

possible to have access to all of it, I might have been able to establish a

2 Magyar - an oblique reference to the Hungarian origin of the ultra-

Orthodox congregation to which number 12 belonged.

313
 288

clearer picture of its preference structure, which would haye incorporated

0 "

U
boys in the geography class. Despite this,. there is an app rent relation-
!,

ship between star ranking and 'brains', while the position;Of the isolates

and neglectees can be interpreted on the basis of laCk pf brains'.

There is also some evidence to suggest that persnality factors

and other non-academic skill' play a part in establishing a boy's pOsition

in the preference structure. For instance, as Clausen has suggested

(1968: 168): 'The overly aggressive boy maybe accepted an a leader in

many activities, but not chosen ap a friend'. Number 12, the most aggressive

boy in the class, receives some preferences, but they are insufficient to
ability. He
make him gas tar, despite his above average ranking on acaddMic
C
is explicitly rejected by one boy, who had some authority as a prbbationer

prefect, but was made the butt of'Much of his physical and verbagggression.

Another violent, boy in this Form is a star, yet is almost Comparabin

academic ability. HOwever, ,the other stars are more even tempered and non-

aggressive.

Clausen's notion finds less support in Form four. Probably the

in academie
most aggressive boy ranks close to the bottom of the Form

ability, and is an isolate. Another quite aggressive boy is also low in

academic ranking, and is a rejectee. No boy with a, markedly aggressive

disposition receives star preference.

(5) Constructions of the 'good' student ('Paul')

Sociometric analysis is necessarily limited to clearly defined

teaching-learning situations. What may be seen as desirable qualitieb co

wish to see in their '-

cope with them may not be the same qualities boys would
4,1

As,partbf the fourth

peers under more general circumstances in _the school.
including
Formers' practice' sessions for the C,S.S.E. I 8-et a number of eatay#,

314
 289
0

boy,
a sentence completion test (Appendix 2.2).' This relates to a fictional

Paul, and how he is regarded by his peers, authority figures in his school,

and by his parents. All boys in Form four completed the exercise. Their

answers are compared with those of a fourth Form of comparable academic

\''
ability in a neighbouring Church of England boys school. These boys were
.
j ,.-

also preparing for the C.S.S.E., and provide an excellent control sample,
I

being matched with the Jewish boys in socio-economic status and the neighbour-
\
hood .catchment area from which they come.

Despite this, considerable care must be exercised in interpreting

data. Some contaminating variables could not be eliminated from the situa-

tion under which the test was administered to the'control sample. In the

placed on answers, as
case of the Jewish fourith`Form, more reliance can be

the test was given as one of a series of exercises for the C.S.S.E., and was

accepted by the boys in this light. AnsWers to projective technique

discussed in
instruments have questionable reliability - a problem which is

Appendix 1 - but in this case do show quite significant differences between

the two samples, in relation to the way boys construct the qualities that

gain, friendship from Paul'S peers, and in other aspects of his school life.
the
No significant pattern1 emerged in the answers relating to parents and

subsequent' reflections of Paul after he had gone to bed. In the main, the

theme of the
answers to these sections of the test tended to follow the

discussion between the two teachers.

(a) Characteristics leading to friendship

The first question asked, in effect, why Paul made friends quickly.

The following table summarizes the reasons given by beth samples of boys,

using categories devised from content analysis of the answers.

315
 290
TABLE 12.4

QUALITIES SEEN AS GAINING FRIENDSHIP

FOR THE FICTIONAL CHARACTER, PAUL
Church of England
Paul's qualities Jewish boys boys
(n = 21)' (n = 26)
A. Innate Qualities
2 3
1. Sensible, down to earth
1 1
2.. Sincerity
3'" 2
3. Sense of humour, wit, cheerfulness
0 9 a.
4. *Good character traits (Decency,
honesty, goodness, likeability,
good natured, quiet, manner, nice)

B. Performance-Oriented Qualities"
10 3
1. Intellectual ability and application .
(47.6%) (11.5%)
to study .

3 2
2. Physical and sporting prowess 0

CI Other-Directed Qualities
1, Friendliness, open and extrovert 6 14
Ilehaviour, easy to get on with, (28.6%) (53.6%)
popular
2 8
2. Good mannered, respectful, kind (30.7%)
and Considerate of others (9.5%)
1 1
Common interest with peers, gets
.

3.
on with them
n
3 4
4. Wil ngness to.help peers
kik
2 2
5. Leship qualities
1 4
6. Ability to make, use of opportunities
(4.8%) (15.2%)
and friendship .

1
7. Ability at flattery

D. Institutidh-Oriented Qualities
1 3
1. ConfOrmity with school regulations; .

(4,8%) (11.4%)
advances interests of school
4 1
2. Ability to carry out deviant acts
(19.0%) (3.8%)
against school and teachers

E. Environmental Factors, etc.

1
1. Father very rich
2 2
2. Knew similar boys from neighbourhood,
or boys like him

31
 291
O

CI interkst are the descriptors of Paul used by the boys from the

Church of England school whicfi are not used by the Jewish boys, and do not

fall easily into the common categories. These are indicated by an asterisk

in Category A4.

(b) Analysisof answers and comparisons with(Control sample

Despite the, phrasing of the question, which stressed that Paul made

friends quickly, there is a clear difference between the two samples regard-

ing the qualities gaining friendship. Four times as many answers from the

Jewish boys stress intellectual ability compared with the control sample.

Boys from the Church of England school place much more emphasis on innate

and other-directed qualities, that logically would make for gaining friends.,

When the percentages in the latter category are totalled, three times as

many answers from the control group stress other-directed qualities than the

Jewish group. In the institution-oriented categoty, there is a consistent

pattern. Twice as many answers from the Church of England sample place value

the Jewish
on conformity with school regulations compared with answers from

boys. On ate otherAhand, five times as many of the Jewish answers see

friendship in terms of ability to carry out deviant acts against the school

and teachers as the control sample.

Answers within the other-directed and institution-directed

categories support the impressionistic and sociometric data relating to

boys' attitudes to staff and peers, which have been established in this and
4
the previous chapter. Good manners, respect for, and consideration of

others do not rank as highly in the Jewish answers as in those from the

control sample. Here there would appear to be some confirmation of the

the class-
nature of interperson6,1 relations with peers and teachers within

room. The same devaluation of the personal qualities of friendliness, open

. 31
 292

and extrovert behaviour, ease of getting on with others, and popularity

suggest that the Jewish boys do not construct friendship in these terms,

compared with the control group.

The value placed by the Jewish boys on deviant acts and leck of

conformity with school regulations is also consistent-with what was estab-

lished about their interpersonal relations 'with teachers and others in

authority. From the original answer sheeta it is clear what character traits

the Jewish boys value. Paul has success in gaining friendship because of

mischievous pranks played on teachers; ability to pick on teachers' weak

points and point them out to the teachers; standing up for his rights

against teachers, and playing up in class. In this category, the quality

gaining friendship most often stated by boys in the control sample is

ability to 'stir' masters.

A surprising Kature of the answers from the Church of England

school's
school is the low value placed on sPrting prowess, despite the

high reputation in all the sports organized by the group of Associated

Public Schools isk Melbourne. Froi firsthand acquaintance with the school,

I expected this to be an admired quality. Supporting evidence of school

esprit de corps is to be pound, however, in the collectivity-oriented

attitudes of the Church of England answers in category D, although the

number of answers is still not high.

(c)- Types of people commenting about Paul

The second question in the same test asked boys to imagine a con-

versation between two unidentified members of staff about the fictional

character, Paul. Of some interest here are the persons the boys chose to

them. The follow-

fill the roles, and the tenor of the conversation between

ing table summarizes the choice of persons.

318
 293

TABLE 12.5

TYPES OF PERSONS. COMMENTING ABOUT PAUL

Church of England
Jewish boys boys
On . 21) . 26)

A. School staff

2 5
Headmaster
2
Deputy Headmaster/Principal

MO 4 4
Mathematics Master
7
Science Master

Geography Master 3

1 7
English Master

5 1
History Master

Commercitd Subjects Teacher 1

Religious Studies Teacher 5

49 9
Teacher (subject unspetified) 3

1
F.,male Teacher

1
Hebrew 'Teacher

1
Rabbi of community

3 1
Form Master

2
Sports Master

Housemaster ,,

B. Miscellaneous 'fantasy' or fictional'

characters
6 6
School 'characters'
2
People unconnected with school

319
 0

294
41

(d) Analysis of answers and comparisons with control sample

Perhaps the most significant feature of the choices in broth schools

associated
is the concentration on masters who teach the types of subjects
non-academic
with the Academic Tradition rather than those teaching such
Church of
subjects as art, music, and drama which are all available in the d.

,England school in one form or other A surprising omission in this school

conversation
is reference to the sports master, and sport as a major topic of

about Paul. Some differences in figures reflect the structural differences

between the two schools: no deputy headmaster in the Jewish school, but a

Hebrew teacher and community rabbi not found in the other school.

(e) Types of comments made about Paul by school personnel

The fictional characte (3' had a grejt deal to say about Paul, most

imaginay context of the exercise. School

of it quite logical within t
out of
staff who commented on him made only five comments which were

These tiave been put in.a 'fantasy comment' category.

All such
character.
Comments of people outside
remarks were in the Church of England sample.
in the
the school, or what were termed 'fantasy' or fictional characters
This table makes a
previous sable, have not been included in what follows.
number of
basic,Aivision betWeen favourable and unfavourable comments in a
has a
categories 4 ,Where relevant; each category in the favourable section

icounterpart in th other section.

: )

32()
 295

TABLE 12.6

TYPES OF COMMENTS MADE ABOUT PAUL BY SCHOOL PERSONNEL

Number of comments
Types of comments Jewish school Church of England school

A. Favourable comments
19 25
Academic erformance - has
(59.4%) (53.2%)
merit, ability, good attitude,
etc.
2 1
Responsibility potential - will
make a leader, contributes well
to school in sport or by
example
Relatipns with staff - '3

popularity with staff stated (9.4%) (21.3%)

or implied, mannerly, co-
operative, helpful
4 8
Relations with peers - popular
with peers, makes friends (12.5%) (17.0%)
easily, relates well, helps and
influences others constructively
4 3
Excuses for condact - exonera-
tibns of deviant acts by.Paul,,
support expressed for him
32 47
TOTALS (74.6%
(65.3%)

B. Unfavourable comments
4 1
Academic performance - work well
below standard, low ability
7 11
Relations with staff - poor
(41.2%) (68.7%)
class behaviour, critical of
teacher, 'stirring', distract-
ing, cheeky, fooling and
joking, etc.
Relations with peers - unpopular 5 4

due to deviant acts against them

or pandering to teacher
Reasons for conduct -,unstable 1
17 16
TOTALS (25.4%)
(34.7%)
5
C. 'Fantasy' comments by teachers

321.
 296

(f) Analysis of answers and comptaisons with control sample

From the total figures it is quite clear that Paul is seen more

in favourable terms than unfavourable by boys from both schools: 65.3 percent

of4he total comments from the Jewish school and 74.6 percent from the Church
of England school are favourable. The fantasy Comments from the latter have

'been excluded. The Jewish boys see Paul in a less favourable light,'

although they give Paul more favourable comments about his academic per-

formance than do boys irr the control sample. The Jewish boys' concern with

academic performance is alto apparent when favourable and unfavourable

comments in this category are added, and are seen as percentages of the

total comments made in each school. ,Jewish boys have heir characters

making 46.9 percent of their comments about academic performance, while

the other sample makes 41.3 percent. Once again there is the greater con-
:1'

cern with academic matters that we have noted consisten ly in both impression-

istic and'other data.

Also consistent with previous data, Jewish boys place less value

on popularity with teachers and peers. In the case of the former, 21.3

percent of comments from the Church of England sample-in comparison with

9.4 percent of comments from the Jewish boys relate to favourable opinions
\
about Paul's good relations with ambers of sta4X.( The same pattern is

evident regarding relationships, with peers. `Fewer of the Jewish boys

answers (12.5 percent) compared with the 'control sample (17.0 percent)

relate to the popularity of Paul with his peers. More of the Jewish

answers refer to his unpopularity, although the difference between the two

samples is small. On the other hand, more Of the control sample answers

comparison
relate to Paul's unpopularity with teachers (68.7 percent) in

with the Jewish sample 441.2 percent).

322
 297

(6) Summary

In this chapter a number of sociometric, impressionistic and

projective measures have identified the way the sample of boys in the

Jewish school construct the criteria of esteem accorded to their pears

and authority figures in school. Esteem is accorded to peers on the

grounds of academic ability:, sociometric star ranking correlates well

with 'brains'. Religious abilities are also seen to be important, but

rank below 'brains'. ',Aggression does not seem to be a criArion for

gaining esteem, although the evidence in this respect is less conclusi.

The result of projective measures confirms the concern of the Jewish

boys with academic success and learning ability. The hypothetical student,

Paul, is successful in making friends by virtue of his intellectual

capacity rather than any other factor. Teachers' comments about Paul also

tend to stress his intellectual capacity and other academic matters.

bate are also consistent about the pattern already established

regarding interpersonal relationships between the Jewish boys and their

peers and teachers. There is some support for sociometric data, which

indicates the lack of clear leaders to undertake positions of responsibility

at the Form level. Respect for authority, conformity to school rules, and

the maintenance of friendly relationships with peers are also under-

valued in comparison with intellectual achievement. In contrast, a con-

trol sample from the Church of England school places more value on these

aspects.

32'6
 298
,JK

( AV CHAPTER 13

/ CONSTRUCTIONS OF. THE SELF AND FUTURE ASPIRATIONS

In the,,preceding chapter something of the boys' criteria of estemz,

for conducting interpersonal-relationships has been established. Despite

-their recognized imperfections, the research procedures used have enabled

the subjects to speak for themselves to some extent. The picture that has

emerged thus lietStmewhere on a continuum between the ',external logic' of

the observer and the 'inner logic' of the observed. This chapter moves

further towards reducing the influence of the external obeerver, so-that

>
the boys reveal more of their selves (Cicourel, 1973: 25).

ft can be ,.hypothesized that the behavioural patterns we have-noted

are compounded of both otter- directed sand self-directed interactions. In

focussing now on the latter, the assumption is made that toys' behaviour

will be governed by their constructions of the self, both in relation.to,

present reality and a postulated future. 'The human being can designate

things to himself.- his wants, his pains, his goals, objects around him,

the presence of others, their actions, their expected actions, or whatnot'

(Blumer, 1971: 16).

(1) The self - what it means to be a Jew

The majority of boys in fourth Form were asked what it means to,be

a Jew. This diredt question was put at the end of the year, when I had

developed maximum rapport with the group. Apart from correcting spelling

errors that might lead to faulty interpretation, I reproduce all answers

verbatim, as any attempt at paraphrasing them would be to impose my own

constructions of'what they mean. The only 'external' influence is the'three

categories used to group answers: religious orientation, nationalistic or

ethnic orientation, and uncommitted.

3R4
 -299

(a) The religious orientation towards being a Jew '

The fact that I am a Jew does not mean Anything to me but

the fact that I am a i.e. an observant Jew, makes me

feel above any other nation or religion, in the world.1

The people who are, unfortunately, in our days laxin their
2
observances constitute to me as empty shels, but those who keep
to the tradition of our elders are righteou. They do not cheat

their elders who died in the 2nd War for the same thihg their.
sons are forsaking. They are traitors.
But still, even if somebody was born a Jew,.he has a
different quality in him. He As more refined, more co-operative
th% the common 'mob' in whose midst we dwell in. Of course

there ate exceptions.

To sum this up, I, being an observant Jew, feel Satisfied
when doing the work and observing G-d's own law. To me being a

Jew is something that is my highest asset.

* *

To me to be Jewish does not mean to have a Jewish mother

or to have a 'Yiddishe hertz' (lit, a 'Jewish heart). It means

to be willing to sacrifice oneself completely to the Torah,

i.e. to observe the Laws as well as to learn the and

. It means that I should go to school or work every day

and deal fairly with my fellow men, not as the image of a Jew
is today. It also means to go to shul not twice a year on
and but to go every ,day 3 times a day even if

it is inconvenient for me. It also means that a Jew should

raise children (living in Torah).

* *

Since I was born Jewish I have often thought about being

a gentile but I can't imagine myself any other way but Jewish.
To me, it means being a member of what I consider to be the
4

true religion. I feel that being Jewish has made me slightly

P more respectful to other people than the average boy in the

street is. I can see a meaning in life and the goal of great

1 Words in Hebrew script are indicated by dashes .

325
 300

knowledge is something for me to strive for. I think that

because of this meaning in life, the crime rate among Jewish
people is so low. I feel that learning the Talmud and
religious studies helps sharpen my brain to enable me to
understand 'secular studies better.

Jewishness is denoted by one thing only, the Jewish

religion, i.e. the very fact which has made,Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob Jews, was their belief in monotheism and the
'piousneo/with which they approached daily life. So too,

this religion and tradition has been passed down till this
day. So to be Jewish in this age, I believe that the same
requirements are necessary as were in the days of Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob - the Jewish religion and tradition. I -'

maintain that when a Jew keeps his religion, that his

religion keeps him.
* * *

If yon'want I could talk in length about the greatness

about the Jew spiritually and physically and explain how
great the Jewish morals and ideals and intellect is, that is
Kabbalae Oil i.e. accepting the Yoke of G-d without under-
standing everything. One doesn't have to understand what
the use of being a use and what it means (sic). What is

important is simply accepting everything what you have been

taught by someone older, wiser and more knowledgeable than
you and when this is accepted then one can start delving
into spiritual things but with this sydir the intention is
not to believe in G-d but to get a stronger clinging to Him.
* * *

To me it is a great honour to be born a Jew because I

am endowed with a responsibility which in return for my
observance I receive a safeguard against the bad things of
this world.
It means that if I keep all the Mitzvot as many do
there is less chance of corruption and sickness in my life.
When I walk around with a skull cap I know that I must act

326
 301

according to the Torah to keep up my honour as a Jew.

I find great enjoyment in being a Jew because we have
a Shabboe which only Jews can appreciate, there are times
when we feel things we can not feel other times.

It means having a steady religion which does'not change

periodically as other religions do. It gives 'me something

to.believe in which is pretty reliable. It gives me hopes

for certain things in the future. Although some people

swear at us in the street I think these things can
I
be forgotten.

To believe in G-d the holy one blessed be he.

* * *

On Saturday I have something to look fOrward to instead

of just mucking around. When I say my prayers I say it with
feeling. During school we are taught things that men of
previous times taught to their disciples what to do what
not. On Saturday we can't do any manner of work, not even
drive an automatic car because you still cause work by
turning the engine on.
* *

It means to live a life governed by the Law and Spirit

of the TORAH. It means sticking to a certain method of
approaching anything. This is not just holding on to some

laws but a complete ethical code. It means being one of the

Jewish people. Yet a person can be Jewish even if he does

not keep the religion. If he preserves his national back-
ground and culture he is still Jewish. But I believe that

you can not lump this under categories. A person is Jewish

if he believes he is.

All I can say is that it is the greatest thing ever to

be a Jewish boy. You can always walk around knowing that you
are different from others in that you have sets of laws that
distinguish you from an animal and a man. You have laws for
t
327
eating, sleeping, wearing of clothes and any other thing
you can think of. I myself am not the most orthodox but
I k'eep's few basic laws. I consider being Jewish as the
.greatest privilege of my life.

(b) The nationalistic orientation towards being a Jew

I feel proud of our,tradition and history, in over..
coming greater odds and apposition.' A society only exists
when there are restrictions, and we with our added restric-
tions feel some unexriainable feeling of success.
I feel proud to be a Jew when one of my fellow
religionists name appears in a paper. We all feel united.

*
To me it is a big honour knowing and believing that the
Jewish people are different from all other peoples. The
closeness of our people, as was shown in the 1967 emergency.
I think honestly that every person in our nation at one time
or another has a feeling for religion. If Anyone can nam2 a

people that has oppressed no much over the centuries (sic)

and yet has been,able to survive and flourish I will then
admit that our nation is a nornal one. Let's take a festival

such as we are celebrating at the moment Chanuka. When an

oppressed people rose up and defeated/the enemies who out-

numbered us. It means to me a sincere believe in G-d.
To built up a state after being oppressed not less than
3 to 4 years early shows our sincere hope not to be broken up.
* * *

To me it means a lot of things to be Jewish and I am by

no means impartial to the fact. What I do all do, how I
think is basruilly governed by my Jewishness. This doesn't

mean every mitlute of the day - I am affected, in some ways

greatly, by my environment and by things not Jewish. But

after reading about the massacres and sufferings JeYs under-

went under the Egyptians, the Syrians I feel that I am here
to keep the tradition alive and to carry on in doing my tiny
part in keeping the Jewish nation living.

32b
 303

After. all the hardships we've .gone through I Would go

round with a guilty conscious all my life if I would forsake
my religion. I don't take it as a joke nor do I take

Jewish customs as a joke. If my grandparents are always

looking to save money it's not so funny as ,t may seem.
Another, possibly more tangible way to preserve us is
to go to Israel and support it, learn Hebrew. Such an

effort as the Jews.made there must not go to waste. Anyway

it is the Land of my Fathers.

(c) Uncommitted
To me being a Jew is a way of life and Ican not see myself
living in any other way. This is6because I was brought up as a
Jew in a Jewish atmosphere and I am used to it.
* *

(2) Some comments on the boys' views

Quantitatively, there is a high proportion of boys (73.3 percent),

who see the meaning of being Jewish mostly in religious terms. Three boys

(20.0 percent) see it more in nationalistic terms, but also refer.to

religion. The remaining boy has no pronounced orientation either way.

el

Qualitatively, boys attach a variety of meanings to their

Jewishness. It is most valued as a of ethical rules promoting good

individual conduct and harmonious relations with others. Juit over half of

the boys in the sample indicate this. Feelings of honour, pride,,and

,e
privilege at being a Jew are clearly expressed in a third of the ahswers.

Being different from other peoples or, cultures is also valued, although

there are two senses in which the term is used. In one, there is no sense

of being different and"superior. In the other, the superiority of the

Jewish way of life, cir aspects of it, is explicitly stated or implied. Also

valued about being a Jew is the feeling of being united with a people (folk)

and a tradition, which has enabled them to resist hardships and become,

329
 304,

sucpessful. The importance of Jewish learning, knowledge and teaching is

mentioned by four boys. Explicit recognition is given to tradition.

Among those who emphasize non-religious meanings of being a Jew,

as much weight is attached to honour, pride and privilege as to the sense

of being united and keeping tradition. Least mentioned>is being superior

to others. However, among those emphasizing religious meanings of being a

Jew, feelings of superiority are most mentioned. From both field observa-

tions and this evidence it is legitimate to suggest that, for some boys,

adherence to'religious beliefs is not untinged with a certain arrogance or,

at least, assurance that Judaism is superior to, other faiths.

The percentage of boys who appear to progpss religious'beliefs is

higher than might be expected. At the time'of Dr Nall= Goldmann's visit,

the Principal had made no secret of the fact that, according to his

estimate, some fifty percent of boys in the school came, from non - observant

homes. On this basis a score of 73.3 percent gives grounds for optimism.

On the other hand, the possibility should not be discounted that

when they were asked to do this exercise, some boys decided to present a more

favourable picture of themielves than was actually tile\case. I had not

asked them to give their names (although some still did), and went to great
r
trouble to play down the importance of the data. Despite this there was a

quite perceptible undercurrent of anxiety in the class. One boy in particular

was visibly worried. He asked twice why he had to do it, then went over to

another boy and tried to read his answer. His final statement inevitably

' stood out.. It is the briefest of those given. There is the possibility in'

this case, and maybe in others, that a form of 'pluralistic ignorance'

existed at the time (Allport, 1933). Some boys might have felt obliged to

state they were more religious than they actually 'iere, believing that others

would do t'h same.

330
 305

(3) Views of the future

(a) Boys' stated aspirations

Towards the end of second Term, I asked the boys to give me

with an indica
details of their subject choices for fifth Form, together

tion of their intended careers. The latter are helpful for advising boys

At the time these

about the appropriateness of their subject choices.
results, thus
details were obtained, the boys did not know their C.S.S.E.
they would be getting
their aspirations are not coloured by knowing whether
As I have already
financial assistance to help with their senior studies.
of university
indicated, C.S.S.E. awards provide a fairly reliable measure
scholarship might have
potential, and knowledge that he had not obtained a
university. Five boys
made a'boy think twiAe about deciding to aim for
stated the tertiary training
were uncertain about their careers,,but still

they aspird towards. Only one boy was completely uncertain about both.
choice of career
As the following summary makes clear all but one
Managerial category (Wiseman
fall into Wiseman's Professional and Higher

1970: 224). Commercial, scientific and medical careers predominate.

of the boys' aspirations
Compared with their fathers' occupations, a majority
falling into the same socio economic
are upwardly socially mobile, even when
undertaking
category. Success is seen as gaining a place at university, or

It is obvious that the boys are

a comparable form of tertiary training.
that intellectual
markedly achievementoriented and ambitious, and consider

capacity is the key to the future.

33i
 306

TABLE 13.1

SUMMARY OF FOURTH FORM BOYS' ASPIRATIONS

IN RELATION TO FATHERS' OCCUPATIONS

S.E. Category Father's occupation

Aspirations of aspiration

Accountancy College course; 1 Market stall holder

qualified accountant
University science course; 1 Research Scientiit
'scientific' career
University or College Accountancy 1 Milkbar owner
course; qualified accountant
University or College Accountancy 1 Owner - belt making
course; qualified' accountant factory

University science course; Caretaker

career uncertain
University natural history course;- 1 Research Fellow
Career in C.S.I.R.O. as zoologist
Talmudical Seminary for one year then Delicatessen proprietor
Y university science course; career
uncertain
University science course; science 1 or 2 Unstated
laboratory work in Israel
Medical course at university; doctor 1 Hotel proprietor
in medical research.
Veterinary science course at 1 Pet shop retailer
University; veterinarian
University science & engineering 1 Butcher
course; aeronautical space engineer
University science course; career Coat manufacturer
uncertain
Medical coweie at university; doctor 1 Storeman in factory

University science course; career Manager of knitting

uncertain - factory

Uncertain Manufacturer & retailer

of fabric

Pharmaceutical training course; Builder and

pharmacist contractor

Veterinary science course at 1 Quilt manufacturer

university; veterinarian
Accountancy course (unspecified); 1 Manager of weaving
business accountant factory

Technical course aimed at factory trainee 3 Sock manufacturer

in motor mechanics

Note: n 19; one student absent.

332
 307

CO) Thematic apperception evidence of boys' achievement orientation

Supporting evidence of the importance boys place on aademic

achievement is provided bydata from a pictorial thematic apperception

exercise they were asked to do as part of the practice lessons I arranged

,prior to.t4e C.S.S.E. period.' Previous test papers for this -examination
r.

had employed a form of thematic apperception technique, in*which candidates

had been asked to write a composition on a picture or photograph incor-

porated in the examination paper for the Written Expression section. It

was thus quite in order forme to replicate a similar exercise as part of

the boys' practice. The sketch shown in Appendix 2.1 was given to Form four.

The boys were asked* to write a composition in the form of a retiniscence,

about either an imaginary past event, or a reiel life situation they had

experienced. The same exercise was given to the Church of England control

group of boys at'the fourth Form level who were also preparing for the

C.S.S.E., under conditions summarized in Appendix 1.

The compositions written by both groups of boys were analysed and

compared. In both samples there are similar types of 'fantasy' answers:

of
heroes being welcomed by important dignitaries, such a-the President

tlards of medals to returned scAiers; a welcome to

the UnitediStates;

the first astronauts to land on the moon (the current scientific achievement,

in the news media); important personages being either welcomed into

Australia, or being farewelled on their departure on various political

missions.

However, two significant differences emerged between the two

samples. The first relates to achievement orientation. -Seven Of the

0
Jewish boys (36.8 percent) wrote about receiving some form of academic

honour such as a university degree, a C.S.S.E. or Commonwealth Tertiary

333
 308
0')

Scholarship, and even the Nobel Prize for Literature. Of the control group,

only one boy (3.8 percent) mentioned a comparable situation. This was

graduation from Medical School.

On the other hand, the control group stressed situations which

were not considered by any"of the Jewish ',nye. Five of the compositions

related to normal'school events, Such as old boys being farewelled, or new

staff and boys being welcomed. -The control group also referred to incidents

relating to war heroes being farewelled when conscripted into the army, or

being honopred on retirements No Jewish boy referred to such themes. Their

comparatively greater incidence in the control group may reflect the fact

that the Church of England school maintains a thriving army cadet corps.

The Jewish boys failed to refer to any themes which might support

their religious convictions and views of the self. Although the sketch used

may not have contained sufficient stimulus cues to prompt a religious

response, I had predicted that some boys would associate it with their

None of the Jewish boys used this theme. Their stated aspire-
Bar Mitavah.

,,tions for the future may account for such an omission. Quite clearly, the

boys mai hold to a religious orientation, but are also markedly achievement-

oriented in the secular domain. Only one boy states that he will undergo one

year of Talmudic study at the Rabbinical College prior to going on to

university.

(4) Summary

The sample of Jewish boys from the fourth Form was considered in

Although
Chapter 10 to be re?reseltative of boys in the school as a whole.

it would be fallacious to generalize too far from the sample, it seems

legitimate to assume that the views the boys have of themselves and future

aspiratiohs may be typical of many others in the Middle and Senio School.

334,
.1
 309
4

Jewishness is seen predominately in religious terms. Judaism provides a

charter of ethical rules governing conduct and daily life. Living in

adherence to it is both intrinsically rewarding, and instrumentally is a

form of, protection against the moral and even physical ills of the world.

The boys also see themselves as different from and, in some cases, superior

to non-Jews. The future is seen almost exclusively in non-religious terms.

Boys are markedly achievement-oriented, and aspire to high socio-economic

status occupations and tertiary training needed to attain them.

Paradoxically, in previous chapters, the same sample of boys was

seen to place a low value on respect for authority both explicitly in the

sentence completion test, and implicitly through unruly behaviour and dis-

respect in teaching-learning situations. There is thus a contradiction

f

between boys'actual norms, and their stated claims that adherence to their

faith makes them better behaved or 'more respectful to other people than the

average boy in the street is'. This latter pronouncement would not find

support among the adult members of the school, whose comments on boys'

behaviour are given in Chapter 11. The apparent reverence for their

religion does not find expression in some boys' behaviour in religious

situations. Impressionistic data about the ritual and ceremonial lifeaof

the school in Chapter 8 contain several examples of the contrast between

acts of extreme devotion being carried out in a surrounding atmosphere that

is noisy and, to the external observer, the very antithesis of what might

be expected in the Houseof God.

A closer examination of the place of religion in the boys' lives

is taken up in the following chapters. The first deals with their con-

structions of the habitat and networks with which the school is involved.

The second analyses boys' allocations of time to activities, and how they

react to the' dialectical interplay between the two calendars'of the Traditions.

33
 310

CHAPTER 14

CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE HABITAT AND WORLDS OF OBJECTS .

Each boy at the school lives in a wider rvironment of meaningful

objects around which his activities are focussed. If called upon to do so,
\

he can represent this 'cognitive map' in a variety of ways.' In such

representations might be included those objects which have most relevance

and meaning for him, and those which are of lesser importance. From an

examination of the pictorial and other data symbolizing these constructions'

of reality it is possible to establish something of his world of objects.

This will include not only tangible items, but also such social constructs

as:the functions of public institutions and people. Their meaning or

relevance for him at any moment of time qualify thelmfor inclusion in his

cognitive map. r-
A group of boys from a similar cultural background might be expected

to have broadly similar cognitive maps. Although idiosyncratic components

will be present, there will also be enough commonalities to construct some-

.
thing of a group's cognitive map. In part, this will consist of its

ethnogeography,i.e. the shared perceptions and values placed on the environ-

ment and its man-made or tangible aspects. There will also be shared con-

structions ofcertain institutions such as the school with which all are

closely connected. Individual and group worlds of objects are thus co*.

ceptually possible and those of my fourth Form are discussed in this

chapter.

(1) Components of the boys' shared world of objects

As might be expected, the boys' shared world of objects is a very

1
Developed, more fully in Appendix 3.1: 'Micro-area Research: An Inter-
disciplinary Approach to Local Social and Environmental Studies'.
Geography Teacher, 10 (August 1970), pp. 73 -82.

336
 311

Jewish one. For many it is spatially restricted; objects in the near

vicinity receiving most mention and those farther afield being ignored or

given lesser importance. Some aspects are clearly fundamental and highly

,valued. In Appendix,8.1 the boys' choices on a four-point scale are shown,

based on the results of the star diagram each boy was required to complete.2

Table 14.1 following summarizes the main', tegories.

Places of worship, the school III

and the Rabbinical College are

obviously Been as most impprtant. Many boys mentioned more than one

synagogue they attended, and in the maps showing the local environment
6,
eight diff rent synagogues are identified by the group. Public libraries
,

rank very or fairly high for a number of boys,.and receive a total of

thirteen mentions. They are not only places from which reference and reading

material is borrowed but also places where homework is done. It is quite

common to see groups of Jewish boys and girls, identifiable from their

school uniforms, occupying tables in.the reference sections of local

libraries. They are also important places for social contacts between the

sexes to judge from the flirting and gossip that also occur.

If the home is discounted, of r relatives and friends are very .

or fairly important atid appear to be valued above personal friends. Grand-

parents, aunts and cousins are obviously preferred relatives. The close

family links implied by this category may support what was suggested in an

earlier chapter about the nurturant and supportive behaviour shown towards

little boys by older ones. Grandparents also received a small number of

mentions in a question on Yiddish speakers in the boys' homes, which I

asked towards the end of the year. Although numer ally only twenty percent

of the sample they nevertheless rank high in th boys world of objects.

2 Sociological Studies in Geography ata. The prb e t is reproduced in

ti Appendix 3.2. A

33';
 312

TABLE 14.1

SUMMARY OF THE CATEGORIES OF'OBJECTS

IN 'THE WORLD OF FOURTH FORM BOYS

Degree of importance
by number of mentions
Category of objects
Least Fairly ery Most

Places of worship 1 4 10 12

The school 1 19

Rabbinical College 1 , 2 8

Mikveh 2

3 5 7 2
Libraries

Father's place of work 2 2 4

1 6 11 10
Relatives

5 7 2 3
Friends and neighbours -,

Recreation facilities 28 21 7 1

15 15 . 13 7
Servirr

338
 313
C.+

Personal friends receive frequent mention but mostly as least or

fairly important,-supporting the other patterns we have noted regarding peer

group esteem and criteria of friendship. Neighbours are obviously not

important, and may point to a closed group attitude on the part of these

boys and their families. They prefer to keep themselves to themselves,

seeking support and friendship from relatives and personal, i.e. Jewish,

friends. This finds support from Madding's analysis of data from the

Conference on Sociological Studies of Jews in Australia (Madding, 1973:

49-50). Orthodox Jews generally have a lower degree of social relations

with non-Jews in comparisbn with Liberal and Secular Jews. Goldlustis

survey of the impact of Jewish education on adolescents (ibid., p. 188), using

results from the school, shows that boys from it are significantly more

ethnically isolated from non-Jews. One hundred percent of the small sample

chose four close friends among Jews and none from non-Jews, 58.8 percent

never attended social functions at which non-Jews a e present and 41.2

percent rarely or sometimes attended such f nctions.

Such corroborative data highlight the clear preference of the boys

for the main Jewish sports centre, youth groups and their 'youth houses', in

comparison with all other forms of recreation activity. In these they mix

only with Jews. Parks and gardens are also clearly favoured. Here it is

possible to engage in recreational pursuits, but again with no need to mix

with non-Jews. Four boys specifically mentioned the range of hills east of

Melbourne, one of them identifying the kosher, Jewish-owned restaurant in

that locality. Elsewhere in Chapter 7 I referred to these hills as popular

recreation area for Jews, and such specific reference to them from the boys

is interesting corroboration of more casual, participant observations mainly

arising from having my home in the ranges.

3 3 ";)
 314

Although Victoria is a notorious hot-bed of enthusiastic football',

followers during the winter, the support for teams (whch can run close to

one hundred percent of a class in some State schools) is comparatively low.

Cinemas and the Jewish theatre (Kadimah) are ranked low, as are all other

recreation facilities. One boy in the Form had never been allowed to attend

a cinema in his life so he informed me at the party held to farewell one of

the Form. We had hired a projector to show films on Israel, which I had

borrowed from the Zionist Federation, and the operation of the projector

clearly intrigued the boy. His naive questions indicated complete ignorance

of its basic mechanism. Like many of the very Orthodox group from which he

comes, he had seen television very rarely. His parents banned a set in the

( me , as did the majority in the group.

Although the boys use a wide variety of recreation facilities,

overall they rank consistently below religious, school, and intellectual

facilities on a scale of values. This would seem to support what has been

established in the previous chapter regarding the boys' academic aspirations

and view of themselves in religious terms.

The miscellaneous services show only one category which ranks high

as valued objects. This includes doctors, dentists, chemists and other

medical facilities. These are obviously seen as important components in

boys' cognitive maps. Several used qualifying terms like 'family', 'Jewish',

'personal' in reference to doctors and dentists indicating, possibly, that

they are regarded in the same way as in-group friends rather than as purely

neutral professional practitioners.

'(2) The functions of the school complex in the world of objects

For the purposes of the Sociological Studies in Geography exercise,

from which the data are taken, the school complex is regarded as a node or

3 (1
 315

central place providing both goods and services for a wide area or hinter-

land.3 Boys' answers to this question show a variety of perceptions of the

4 functions of the school complex, and indicate clearly why it is ranked as

most important in their star diagrams. Appendix 8.2 indicates the types of

.
functions perceived by the boys and the number of times each was mentioned.

The most obvious aspect of the boys' perceptions of the nodal'

functions of the school complex is the large number associated with the
4 c!2

Great Tradition (211 mentions) in comparison with the Academic Tradition

(42 mentions). This is similar to the emphasis placed on religious and

related activities noted above. However, the marked d fference is surprising

in view of the secular activities that might well hav/ been mentioned but
L.
were ignored. School excursions to the Royal Melbourne SiOw, field trips

for such subjects as geography, the visit to the film This Day in Israel,

the sale of textbooks in the school, and sporting fixtures with other schools,

all have their equivalents 1n the Great Tradition but were apparently not

considered as important aspects of the students' worlds of objects.

!

There is considerable diversity of nodal functions associated with

the Great Tradition. The school complex i4-not only a place providing

facilities for worship, but also for religious study of various types. The

value of learning in Judaism has been demonstrated in previous chapters, and

the evidence available here amply supports the importance it is given in the

boys' perceptions of the school complex. It almost equals secular education

in the number of mentions it receives. The type of religious education is

significant. Of the total mentions in the category, fifty percent refer to

tertiary or higher education available at_the Yeshivah Gedolah, or through

Talmudical discourses (shiurim) and studies in Chassidus.

3 Appendix 3.2, pp. 479-481 below.

34i
 316

The large number of goods and services provided for major

Festivals is indicative of what was noted in Chapter 8 regarding the

strong ritual and symbolic element in ceremonies and traditions. It would

seem to indicate that these tangible aspects have an impact on boys' per-

ceptions to such an extent that they now form a major element in the

worlds of objects related to the school complex. Many boys handle symbolic

objects such as the shophar (ram's horn) during Rosh Havhanah, Zulav

holders during Succor, and phylacteries on weekdays. They also help with

the mobile succah during Succor which has an associated glamour appeal and

provides an escape sanctioned by the rabbi from the demands of secular work.

It is not surprising that this object receives nineteen mentions. The con-

struction and materials for the communal succah also receive. many mentions,

as does thefbaking and supply of shmurah matzah.

All the elements of matzah baking and supply might be expected to

have a marked impact on boys' perceptions, heightened by the colourful and

moving Seder do the home, at which they are eaten and feature in traditional

rituals, such as the hiding of the afikoman.4 There is also an element of

fun, excitement and sense of personal participation which is not found in

some services provided by the school comElex. Consequently these receive

fewer mentions.

Much the same might be said of the custom of visiting other shule

to liven up proceedings on such Festivals as Simchas Torah. I was told

that 'livening up' not only meant helping to jolly things along by joining

in the dancing, but also might involve mild ragging which could include

4 Half of the middle of the three matzos used in the Seder which is
ritually brOken off, wrapped in a cloth and hidden for_use later as
a dessert. Young children are encouraged to search for it; the
finder claiming a 'reward'.

342
 1.
317

making off With the Scrolls belonging to the visited shut. The element of

fun, bravado and euphoria describecPin Chapter 15 is an underlying attrac-

tion.

The high number of-mentions relating to youth group activitier

T
provided by the school complex is due partly to the same reason. It also

provides confirmation of what was noted above regarding the preference of

the boys for Jewish youth clubs. In this case, however, it is the
cL

Ldbavitcher Youth (Tzach) that features in their perceptions, and this fact

emphasizes the influence of some of the young Lubavitcher rabbis who act as

leaders pnacamps, youth services during Shabbos, and Festival activities

Their influence is
such as the mummery and gaols (Purim Spiel) at Purim.
(Appendix 5.3).
also apparent in the tefillin campaign which teceiyes mentions
A
This was advertised in the local Jewish press, and notices formed part of

board displays in several classrooms. We can also trace the Lubavitchet

influence in' the sizeable proportion of references to participiting in

Talmudical discussions (shiriim) and tertiary Jewish studies with rabbinical-

students and members of the Yeshivah Gedolah. It would appear that thtough

such 'outreach activities' the Lubavitcher representatives from the United

States are having a pronounced influence on the boys' perceptions.

Jewish concern with charity is apparent in the number of mentions

the opportunity shop on campus receives. Like the mataah bakery, the

building where goods'are sorted and stored is a highly visible object in

the school campus, and the middle-aged Jew in charge can usually be seen

working amid piles of assorted articles. 'Over the year I found him a most

sincere and philosophical person, and in several long conversations came

and the need
to value his homespun wisdom about the meaning of Jewish life,
The boys
for true tolerance and understanding between the various faiths.

343
 318

wer4 regularly asked to contribute money to charity every week, when a

aortor came to each class and collected donations.

(3) The network of objects associated with the school complex

The boys were asked to list in order of importance those plac

with which the school complex is connected in the normal course of its

activities. Seventeen out of twenty boys completed this section. Their

answers are summarized in the following Table. For brevity only those

objects receiving five pr more mentions are included. The full list of

forty nine objects is given in Appendix 8.3.

The large list illustrates the wide range and diversity of objects

perceived by the boys as logically related to the school complex. Although

several objects are unusual and not what one might expect from boys, they

are quite consistent with the fuActions Of the school. Such items as

'security company guarding premises', 'duplicating material suppliers',

'Commonwealth Grants Authority', 'benefactors donating money to school' show

a keen awareness of the inner workinpo of the school complex on the part of

the few boys mentioning them. Uncommon religious objects also receive a few

mentions -'the mikveh, the farm supplying schmurah matzoh wheat, the kosher

butcher supplying meat tothe school.

The list is an interesting reflection of the boys' perceptive

awareness of most of what goes on around the school. So efficient was its

grapevine that even supposedly confidential information soon became common

property, and a hint of this is apparent in some of the objects boys have

listed. The smaller list of those objects receiving five or more mentions

(a purely arbitrary figure) provides a more balanCed picture. Nevertheless,

the remainder should be kept in mind. They also comprise parts of some

344 ,
 319

TABLE 14.2

SOCIAL OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SCHOOL COMPLEX 4'

(Five mentions or over ranked in order of importance

on mean rank score)

Rank Number of Range of Mean

Social Object Ranking Rank
Order Mentions

1 Students' homes 16 1-5 1.9

2 Schoo4. admiN,etrative 6 1-4 2.3

staff \

3 Teachers homes 17 . -6 2.9

4 Lubavitcher Movement and 5 1-6 3.4

Headquarters

5 State Education Department 12 1-12 3.8

6 Homes of congregants 9 2-7 3.9

12 Yeshivah' Gedblah 5 4-7 5.2

14 Local Commonwealth Bank 6 3-9 5.8

15 State Electricity Commission 6 2-10 6.2

-16 Bus Company 11 5-10 7.0

21 iraxi Company 11 4-11 7.1

23 General Post d!tice 8 4-12 7.9

29 Other synagogues 9 5-14 9.1

=31 Gas & Fuel Corporation 5 6 -12 10.0

34 City Book Suppliers 12 4-16 10.3

36 Local Jewish book shops 7 ,

6-16 11.0

37 School insurance 5 5-18 11.4

O

38 Jewish Sports Centre 10 5-18 11.9

41 Milk suppliers to school 6 10-15 12.8

345
 320
C

b48' cognitive maps. Their wide diversity is a necessary reminder that

the school complex is not as self-contained and isolated as the shorter

list may suggest.

With only two exceptions - homes of congregants, and other

00-
synagogues - the network in the shorter list comprises objects which enagie

the school complex to carry out it's educative functions in both Traditions.

Thus, home, adminibtrative staff, teachers' homes, the Lubavitcher

Movement's Headquarters occupy the first four places according to mean

ranking, with the Yeshivah Gedolah ranked twelfth. Once again the low mean

ranking (38th) given to the Jewish Sports Centre, even though by a relatively

large number of boys, indicate the lack of emphasis on sport. It is also

significant that although the adjacent girls' school receives two mentions

in the larger list no other school is referred to, despite an appreciable

number of inter-school sports fixtures during the year of the study.

The distinction made between students' homes and homes of

congregants would seem to bear out the established fact that not all parents

sending boys to the school are members of its associated congregation. Yet

other synagogues, mentioned by nine boys, have a relatively' low rank order.

There was no way of establishingewhich boys referred to this category of

objects, i.e. whether they were members of the Lubavitcher congregation or

of their own congregations. If the former, it would support what was implied

many times dpring discussions with boys that the Lubavitcher shul tended to

have a low opinion of the Orthodoxy of some other synagogues.

Shops supplying books and stationery to the school complex rdceive

many mentions, and are of two types. The city book suppliers handle bulk

orders of textbooks and educational materials such as exercise books, drawing

346
 321

equipment and the like. The Jewish shops are both located in the nearby,

predominantly continental and Jewish shopping centres which are part of

the culture island supporting the school neighbourhood. They, supply

religious literature, prayer books, and religious artifacts for the various
17.

Festivals. References to Jewish bread shops and the kosher butcher in the

local area strengthen the evidence for the existence of a culture island.

A wide range of mundane but essential services is mentioned in

both lists - bank facilities, electricity and gas supplies, posh office.

Two transport services receive a large number of mentions stressing the

reliance the school places on privately contracted transport to ensure that

small children especially get home safely. Many older boys ride bicycles as

their homes are in the vicinity: Although a tram route runs almost directly

past the school, it only receives one mention on the larger list.

What might be concluded from the range of social objects associated

with the school complex'? Firstly it is seen more in secular than religious

terms. This may have been clue to the wording of the questionnaire, but is

not inconsistent with what the boys are like - keenly perceptive and aware

of the wider commercial world in which they live. This received perhaps

its most dramatic expression in a mining share boom which occurred during

the year. Many senior boys entered the stock market with remarkable aplomb,

speaking casually of their dealings in thbusands of shares and the consider-

able profits they were making. The same aplomb was evidepeduring their

activities supplying srach, willows, and lulav covers during Succos.5

Secondly the school complex is seen in this case as an establish-

ment for learning and teaching - the instrumental culture rather 'than the

expressive culture. Most objects have a practical relevance, although con-

5
Smch - material used to cover the Succah; described fully in the
following Chaptejr.

347
 322

cern for aspects of Yiddishkeit is apparent from such mentions in the larger

list as Jewish Welfare Societies, the rabbi's library; Jewish and Zionist

organizations, and Israel. Most objects that receive higher mentions are

neutral: they serve the school, beyond that the need for involvement 0

minimal and not reciprocal.

Finally there is evidence that as far as the school's functions are

concerned boys rank objects associated with the Academic Tradition over those

of the Great Tradition. The large number of mentions received by the State

Education Department is an interesting anomaly. In fact, this Government

organization has relatively little to do with the school. Census data

relating to the school population, attendance records and the like are

virtually the only times when the Department impinges on school activities.

The school is inspected trienially by an independent boPy-r. The courses of

study and examinations, particullrly for the Higher School Certificate, are

controlled by the V.U.S.E.B. It ts possible that the boys confused these

bodies, which do impinge directly on their lives, with the State Education

Department, hence the large number of mentions it receives.

(4) Summary

The worlds of objects constructed tiy the boys are predominantly

Jewish'in character, and emphasize the in-group social network of links

with relations rather than friends, religious and study facilities rather

than those providing recreation. Those sporting facilities that receive

mention are also Jewish, stressing the slight importance the boys place on

interactions outside the Jewish in-group. The values evident in the boys'

choices in their worlds of objects clearly support previously established

data which show that religious, scholarly and intellectual pursuits are

preferred to others.
0P

346
 . 323

The school complex itself is seen as serving the Great Tradition

more than the Acaaemic, and providing a considerable variety of facilities

related to the ceremonial life of Judaism. Prominent among them are the

activities associated with the various branches of the Lubavitcher Movemlnt,

which point to the strong influence it has on boys' construction of reality.

In marked contrast are the objects the boys associate with the

normal work of the school: they are associated more with business, commercial

and educational activities than religious. It is clear that the boys are not

isolated from the wider community and have acute, sometimes over-perceptive

knowledge about the wider ramifications of the school and its network of

contacts. They are seen to be supporting the functions of the school as a

place for learning and teaching the knowledge relating to the Academic

Tradition in strictly utilitarian terms. Other aspects of this tradition,

such as sport, are devalued.

3 ,1
 324

CHAPTER 15

BOYS' INVOLVEMENT IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

The boys' worlds of objects and constructions of the self indicate

something of the value they place on religious activities and the social

networks associated with them. From the results of the project) we can also

establish how boys allocate their time, i.e. construct their temporal, as

opposed to spatial, worlds. Their daily, weekly, and monthly timetables

are themselves objects in each boy's cognitive map.

Despite evidence which gives the quantitative element in devoting

time to religious and secular activities, there is still a lack of evidence

to indicate what boys feel towards these aspects of their lives, i.e. the

affective component in activity. We can establish something of the boys'

emotional involvement with their various activities through subjective,

impressionistic data relating to the way they react to the cathectic

dynamics and dialectical interplay of the two calendars over the year,

described in Chapter 7 above.

(1) Contrasts between the daily timetables of two ideal type boys

X Two representative daily timetables are compared in Figure 15.1.

Without exception all boys include basically similar activities in their

daily routine; only the order in which some occur and the time devoted to

each vary from boy to boy. Sleep, prayers, meals, religious studies,

secular studies, homework, recreation, and incidentals such as washing,

dressing, and travelling to school comprise a brr's weekday. What marks the

Jewish boy off from others is the time set aside for prayers and religious

studies. It is quite considerable, and to accommodate his religious life

the more mundane activities of sleeping, eating and wcreation are adjusted

3 150
 325

accordingly. For several boys in the sample it is necessary to'get up at

5.45 a.m. though most others rise later, but all before 7 a.m. Going to bed

for the majority Occurs between 9.30 and 10.30 p.m.

If it is legitimate to speak of an ideal type of fourth Form

'average Orthodox boy' from the data, wa-find the following allocation of

time to activities. Prayers and religious duties receive one and a half hours

per day. Religious studies receive three hours. Secular work (including

homework) is allocated seven and a half to eight and a half hours. Together

with an average of eight hours sleep, these activities total between twenty

and twenty one hours. The remaining a.me is given to meals, washing and

dressing, domestic chores, and recreation. It is hardly necessary to comment

that there is little time -for a boy with such a 'routine to participate in

organized, after-school sport of the type that can consume two hours per

evening in many a non-Jewish Independent a ol of the Academic Tradition.

A more Orthodox boy's time is even more restricted. The 'young

Chassid' - an ideal type coistructed from several boys an Form four, but

..relating to no one boy in particular .--has the following allocation of time.

Prayers take some two hours; religious studies take five hours. The latter

include an hour or more of private Talmud study in the evening before Mdariv

and dinner. A further hour of religious study might be taken later in the

evening before going to bed. Secular work at school takes about five hours,

the same time as the average Orthodox boy, but homework is reduced to about

an hour in the evening. Recreation time is also reduced. During the day it

consists of the ten minutes break before eleven o'clock in the morning, the

forty minutes or so at lunch time, ten minutes at four o'clock in the after-

noon and perhaps half an hour in the evening - a total of one and a half

hours a day. Sleep might be reduced to seven or seven and a half hours.

351
 A DIAGRAMMATIC COMPARISON OF THE
WEEKDAY ROUTINE OF THE YOUNG
CHASSID AND AVERAGE ORTHODOX ROY

THE YOUNG CHASSID THE NERAGE ORTHODOX BOY

MID 12 01 12 MID.

2 2

3 3

r4
S r 5

S I{
7 7

sliPt /4-
I

11

NOON 12

2 2

maw ATION
S

7 7

S S

I I

IS

MID. 12 12 Ina

KEY

riEATING ineHOMEWORK

11111[ SECULAR STUDIES Ell RECREATION

RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCE

RELIGIOUS STUDIES

N.B. PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES (WASHING. DRESSING ETC.) OMITTED.

rig. M. 1

352
 327

Eating might even be curtailed to the morning and evening meals, as in the

case of one of the most Orthodox boys who does not eat lunch.

(2) Contrasts between the weekend routines

Weekends, the Sabbath and Sunday, show the most striking contrast

between the young Chassid and the average Orthodox boy in routine.

Secular work stops entirely for the duration of the Sabbath for both, of

course. This lasts from sunset on the Friday evening until 'sunset on the

Saturday. During this period, prayers and religious services take up some

six to seven hours for all. For the young Chassid, religious study takes up

of
the majority of Saturday afternoon between the two main services, and part

the evening after Maariv. Sunday activities can include some four hours or

more of religious study: L period between Shacharia and Minchah, two

lengthy periods in the afternoon and one after Maariv in the evening. In

addition to these studies on Sunday, a limited time might be allocated for

secular homework in the morning before religious study. More recreation time

religious study in
would be available, 'however, between the two periods of

the afternoon. The only recreation on the Sabbath might have come just

before bed which could occur later than on weekdays.

In contrast, the average Orthodox boy might put in two to three

hours religious study between the two Sabbath services or after'Mdariv in

the evening. Some six boys do not study at all on Saturday according to

their weekly timetables. They have lengthy recreation periods instead.

but
Not all boys attend the school for Sunday morning religious classes,

those who do spend about an hour at religious study. A considerable part of

Sunday is devoted to recreation.

(3) Contrasts between the worlds of objects

The contrast in the amount of time devoted to the activities of

353
 328

the two ideal types we have used for descriptive purposes is reflected in
1)

their respective worlds of objects. The social network of the young Chassid

is restricted, with most value being placed on those links that further

reli ious observance and religious study. The following Table is a cam-
.

P
% one drawn'up from star diagram data supplied by the boys used to

devise this ideal type. It describes the hierarchy of links ranked in order

from most important to least important. The absence of any reference to

sporting and recreational facilities other than the range of hills east of

the city, shopping centres other than the local milkbar, and'even the local

Jewish sporting centre stress the narrow world which the young Chassid
__
in-

habits. He and his family have little use for many of the local council

services which are available to others. The types of things most mentioned

are parks and gardens, young people's section in the council library,

library reference section, the teenage club library.

As we have seen from Table 14.1 above, the pattern of valued links

for the fourth Form shows a different social network hierarchy. The range

of links is much wider, and less emphasis is placed on facilities(for

religious worship and study. Many more recreation facilities are mentioned,

although they are given low priority. Much greater use is made of local

council facilities, local shopping centres and 1061 parks and gardens.

(4) The use of time during the month of Tishrei

For all boys, the month-of Tishrei is the acme of their religious

life, encompassing as it does Rosh Hashanah,Yom Kippur, Succor, the inter-

mediate period Chol Ha-moed, Hoshana Rabbah, Shemini Atzeret and Simchas

Torah. For the young Chassid the whole month is one of strict devotion,

fasting, euphoric participation in ceremonial, with what little time is left

over given to secular work. For the average Orthodox boy the month is

3 54
 329

TABLE 15.1

THE SOCIAL NETWORK HIERARCHY OF THE YOUNG CHASSID

Most important links

School complex, the shut, Lubavitcher Youth Centre

Lubavitcher rabbis from the Yeshivah Gedoiah

Ex-Lubavitcher rabbis now in U.S.A. and Lubavitcher Headquarters

Parent's home and place of business

Very important links

Director of the Rabbinical College

Principal, of the School

Yeshivah Gedalah

Local I;Lhodox shut

Fairly important links

Cousin's home

Very Orthodox Ong and mikveh

Local shop and milkbar

Least important links

Friend's house

Range of hills to east of Melbourne

 330

quantitatively little different, as he participates in the same ceremonies.

Only the intensity of participation, and ritual observances such as fasting

and abstinence from work vary. There is a basically similar pattern of

periods of secular school work broken by the Sabbath or the Festivals in

this month. Religious study continues unabated, however, but varies in

length because time is taken up by extra religious ceremonial. Recreation

is foregone entirely when the High Holy Days occur. Secular homework is also

abandoned on these occasions and over the Sabbath.

The allocation of time during Tishrei is illustrated by the follow-

. 41

ing diagram figure 15.2), and it is at once apparent that there is a subtle,

dialectical interplay between the component activities. The month starts

with the two days of Rosh flas42nah. No recreation nor secular work of any

description are undertaken, nearly all waking time being given to religious

observances and religious studies. On Tishrei 3 secular work recommences,

but coincides with the Fast of Gedaliah. Religious observances and religious

study assume their weekday pattern, and secular homework takes up a sizeable

proportion of time. Recreation time is minimal in this period.

The Sabbath and weekend follow an Tishrei 8, marked by a cessation

of secular work and increase in religious observances; religious study and

time available for recreation. Yom Kippur stands out on Tishrei 10. All

day is taken up with religious observances and religious study. Secular

work and recreation are both folbidden, as are eating during the 24 hour

fast. The previous day (2 itthrei 9) sees a marked increase in time given to

eating, as it is mandatory and a mitzvah to eat a good meal on the eve df

Kol Nidrei, the first of five Services on Yom Kippur.'

1 Kitzur Schuichan Aruah,131: 3.

3 56
ERGOGRA1PH SHOWING AN ORTHO-DOX BO 'S
ALLOCATION OF TIME DURING Tishr I

EATING MEIHOMEWORK

SECULAR STUDIES
ri RECREATION

OM RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCE SLEEP

RELIGIOUS STUDIES

Fig. 15.2
O

351
105

332

Secular work starts again after this High Holy Day, and'religious

activities resume their familiar pattern.0 Four days are available for

secular studies before the next peak of religious activity starts with the

onset of Succos, marked by a complete cessation of secular work of all

types. Recreation etme is increased as this Festival lacks,the stringent

prohibitions evident on Rosh Hashanah and Yam Kippur. The ergograph does

not indicate that the type of work done during the subsequent days of

Succos (Choi Ha -moed) at school:nay not be of the normal type for some

strictly observant boys.

On the seventh day of Succos, Hoshana Rabbah occurs. This is a

weekday, and, for some, involves the all night vigil in the shut, with

special Liturgy and religious studies. The increase in the latter is

evident in the diagram. Immediately following Hoshana Rabbah is Shemini

Atzeret coinciding with the Sabbath, with an obvious increase in religious

activity reaching a climax on Simchas Torah, The Rejoicing o£, the Law. The

euphoric observances and small amount of study take up all the time, so that

even recreation is diminished, although its place is taken by the celebra-

q

eons and festivities that accompany this Festival. It is protracted well

into the night, with an apparent increase in eating and reduction in sleep -

the amount available being the least for the whole of Tishrei.

After this peak of religious observance, both religious and-secular

work resume an even tenor for the remafhder of the month. The customary

break for the Sabbath occurs, and secular school and homework cease, but

are resumed on the Sunday. In this case, special classes are arranged to

make up on the lost time due to the amount of religious activity in the

preceding weeks. Religious studies still take place, and there is an

increase In the time given to recreation. Tishrei gives place to the

(7
353
 333

following month of Cheshvan. Although the dialectical interplay between the

components of a boy's life continues, it is never as pronounced as during

Tishrei, for which something of the meaning of being an Orthodox Jew has

been reconstructed by the boys themselves.

(5) The emotional impact of Tighrei

Tishrei is the month when the cathectic quality of Orthodox life

is at its most dynamic. Boys' reactions can be gauged from their behaviours,

passing remarks, looks, and what information they divulge during secular
A

lessons or at other times of the day. As a part of the total field situa-

tion, the observer is also affected by the cathectic quality of events, and

must constantly monitor his reactions to maintain what objectivity is

possible in the highly charged betting of the school complex (discussed in

Appendix 1). One way of preserving objectivity is to both record events

descriptively, and allow boys to speak for themselves. The blend of

ethnography and anecdote conveys a picture that is humanistic and the

closest one can get to the boys' 'logic-in-use'.

(a) The cathectic build up for Rosh Hashanah

During the two or three weeks before Rosil Hashanah, there is a

gradual development of excitement and tension among the boys. One notes an

increase in swaying and crooning while boys are at work. The young Chassid

is nervy and highly tuned. His peers are less affected, but all display an

air of expectancy and, as the days pass, mounting euphoria which are dys-
9

functional for secular work.

Tangible reminders of t e approaching Festival occur when boys are

able to practise on an ©availablefshophar, which is blown at services

during the whole period of the High Holy Days. It is heard in the shut

during Shacharis on all days prior to Rosh Hashanah, with the exception of

35
 334

the Sabbath and the day immediately Pefore Rosh Hashanah itself. The three

types of sounds and blasts - shevarim, terua) tekiah - are a challenge to

boys, who try theshophar,or blow on bits of grass held between their hands.

The complex rhythms of the sounds provoke heated arguments, and groups of

boys congregate to draw diagrams on the blackboard in a form of morse code

to illustrate,the staccato blasts ofshevarim, the sobbing note of teruah,

and the single drawn out note of tekiah.2

Boys' comments and remarks frequently turn to the approaching days,

and i(ormation comes unsolicited. The rabbi is resting his throat and only

speaks in whispers as he will be doing most praying in the shul. He will

need all his voice. Many will come just to hear him pray. Seats in the

shut would be very difficult to get. They had indeed sold out weeks before,

as I discovered when I inquired about the possibility of obtaining one. Like

scores of others I stood in the Press of worshippers at the back of the Aut

on both Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.

On the day before' Rosh Hashanah work is clearly impossible. In

any case, lessons finish at 1 p.m. Fleeting encounters with boys one knows

lead to handshakes, and the exchange of greetings and beet wishes that are

almost obligatory among Ashkenazim: Hag Sameah (Heb.) 'joyful Festival';

Gut Yamtov (Yidd.) 'happy holiday'. One boy formally asks me to forgive

him for anything he might have done to harm me throughout the year. He

explains that it is important to obtain my forgivenesd and to forgive others'

bad ways at Rosh Hashanah.

For the sixth Form, work is also impossible, and they say so firmly.

All four boys rock backwards and forwards monotonously, and there is a feeling

of barely suppressed tension in the group. R , a young Chassid, is

almost electrically charged. At one point he Iran contain himself no longer,

2 Kitzur Schulchan Aruch, 129: 13.

360
 335

jumps to his feet, and pa u4ckly to and fro gesticulating and talking
4
vehemently. I should not mind their behaviour and state, it was after all

Rosh Hashanah, he said. Did I know that during the afternoon devout men and

Agarmitzvah boys would be going to the mikveh in the nei hbourhood as was

their custom before important Festivals. :' students go to the

The rabbinicaf3

mikveh regularly, often once each week just before Shabbos. It is a great

mitzvah. Wherever there are Jew there should be three things: a shut, a

mikveh, and a Jewish school. Of these'three the mikveh is the most sacred

and important. The rabbis even held that it was permissible to sell a

synagogue to build a mikveh. Not for the first time get the feeling of .4

being transported back in time to the East European shtetZ, where the

mitzvah of the weekly visit to the mikveh was almost obligatory (Zborow!ilki &

Herzog, 1952: 41).

The 4mature way the information was imparted to me was in direct

contrast to previous references to the mikveh I had heard during the year.

On these occasions it seemed almost a mat4er for joking. Lakes on geography

maps would be called mikvehs fourth Form boys, a dam passed by bus during

a geography excursion provokes quick comment from some boys to look at the

mikveh. Heavy rain that causes the playground to flood badly prompts one

junior boy's quip that if it continued the school would soon have its own

mikveh. Such ambivalence might suggest that the mikveh and, for adolescent

boys, its potentially embarrassing association with the intimacies of female

menstrual hygiene produce a defensive reaction through the tension releasing

mechanism of a joke.

However, many other aspects'of religious life that oRe might expect
4"
to be treated deferentially provoke similar joking references. The sound of

a boy energetically blowing his nose some weeks prior to Rosh Hashanah draws

36i
 336

Hashanah, you know'.

the barbed comment in second Form 'It's not yet Rosh
tamid and its symbolic
Boys chase noisily through the shut despite the ner

reference to God's presence. The chatter and gossip during Sabbath services

One might have

contrast with the devotion one might expect in the shut.
statistical norms
here only further examples of the familiar believed-in and

dichotomy referred to by Nadel (1951: 116). Alternatively it might well

reflect the ethos of the'school complex. As Wouk has commented (1965: 107):

'Religion for the Jews is intimate and colloquial, or it is nothing'.

day
Intimacy certainly extended to our interpersonal relationships on that

before Rosh Hashanah. Work clfarly was impossible, and the Class disbanded

On his way
early. We all shook hands ,and wished each other Gut Yomtov.

through the shut each of the boys-shook hands with the rabbi supervising a

group of boys 3n the fo)f and with the Principal, and gave similar greetings.

crackle through the

As we left, excitement and bustle continued to
of
shut, which echoed with comings and goings, greetings and exclamations

They were putting new electric

the group of boys assisting the rabbi.
This commemor-
light bulbs in an elaborate, glass=covered panel in the foyer.
Australia and Europe.
ates the deaths of members of the congregation in

namds switched on for the anniversary

Normally the little light opposite a
all the lights are
of the death (Yidd. Yuhrzeit). During the High Holy Days

switched on. The number of dates falling between 1936.and 1945 is a sombre
reached out to
reminder of the holocaust that befell European Jewry and

touch this shut as it did all others. History is never far away, whether .it

be Biblical or-more recent.

(b) Tension release after Rosh Hashanah

psychological and
The few days after Rosh Hashanah are marked by a
(-
airing the
physiological 34..tdown, compounded on the first day by fasting
 337

Fast of Gedaliah (Tishrei 3). Boys are lethargic, but can still raise

enough energy to boast about the length of time they have been able to hold'

out. Everybody knows who is fasting and who is not. Those who manage to

last the distance make dexitive comments at others who have given up.

It is a matter of pride among the young Lubavitchers from the

Yeshivah Gedolah to be more ascetic than anybody else, but this inevitably

takes its toll. By 4.15 p.m. most boys are still fasting in Form five, but

one young Chassid is obviously very tired, and has great difficulty concen-

trating. Periodically he falls asleep sitting upright with his head on his

hand. Finally'he gives up the battle, pillows his head in his arms and goes

right off to sleep. Although some boys admit they have given up fasting
Q,

they still lo k jaded. Th aftermath of h Hashanah leaves them stunned

into inactivit . Other boys i the s x 1 rm are faring similarly.

holdout; othes give in and get some food.

In fo rth Form, all boysare fasting except C who is

embarrassed at the others' jokes. Many-are obvidUaly tired and languid.

U looks'very pallid, but assures me that he is allright and will hold

out as he has done it before. The young Chassid chips in from across the

room with his customary assurance: 'It's not hard to fast if you put your

mind to it. It's all a matter of willpower'. He has a steely, determined

glitter in his eyes - if anybody cracks it will not be him. His comment and

manner are virtually identical to the young Chassid inififth Form, although

he has succumbed to sleep. The rubbish bin in the fourth Form classroom is
4
completely empty: on other days it is half full with scraps and lunch

wrappings.

Other fasts during the year hack produced a similar variation in

boys' reactions. Tisha B'Av is the most severe as it lasts for twenty four
q

363
 338

hours, and the effects are clearly apparent J.n the lethargy and pallid looks

of the boys. For the strictly observant, the fast is compounded by sheer

weariness from staying awake all night in the shul. Any demanding work is

out of the question as it is manifestly ineffectual. A siviilar effect

results for those many senior boys who stay up all night for Hoshana Rabbah,

but are still faced with major examinations on the following day.

The generdl effect of fasting, apart from its obvious physiological

consequences, is to produce a kind of corporate solidarity among those who

manage to hold out. This becomes a tradition on Yam Kippur, during which

it is customary to find out who is holding and who has given up. Generally

the boys refer to ,4e need to fast with phlegmatic acceptance, even though
al/
it is clearly dysfunctional for secular work. Fasting is probably the most

dramatic example of the dialectical interplay between the two calendars.

For this reason it should be kept in proportion and not given undue prominence,

as the occasions when the boys are required to fast are relatively infrequent.

Far more common are those days during periods of Chol Ha -moed when

full work is forbidden, and boys conform to the religious prohibition

genuinely, or use it as an excuse to avoid work. It is not easy to detect

the latter. Junior and middle school Forms were quick to try me out during

the intermediate days of Succos, but were easily deterred from pressing the

issue when I asked them to confirm the restriction they claimed should be

put on work by going to the rabbi. Some senior boys treat Chol Ha -moed

more seriously, and are quite prepared to go to the rabbi for a ruling.

The reason they do so is not necessarily to dodge work, but to keep the day

in accordance with Halachah. There is often ambivalence over what can and

cannot be done. On the seventh day of Succor, for instance, boys in my Form

were asked to write down the names of two others with whom they wanted to

364
 339

work on the geography project. Three boys and the young Chassid could not

write such a thing due to C'hoZ Ha-moed, they said,, and dictated t4eir answers

to friends, who wrote for them.

(c) The cathectic build up for Sucdos and Sitihao Torah

Following the short break for Yam Kippur, which again leaves boys

tired and lethargic, the build up of cathectic tension starts for Succos and

its culmination in Simchas Torah. Succor involves boys in a practical way,

which paralltls their involvement with the symbolism of the ahophar prior to

Rosh Hashanah. Immediately after Yom Kippur they start building the communal

succah in the kindergarten patio from large quantities of palm fronds and

cypress branches delivered the previous weekend. These are laid over a

trellis of timber and-wooden battens already erected by the caretaker, who

is assisted by students from the Rabbinical College and some of the fifth and

sixth Form boys. Some fourth Form boys are able to obtain the Principal's

permission to spend the majority of their secular class time working on the

succah. During the lunchtime and other recesses they are watched by

interested boys offering gratuitous advice and comments.3 The work con-

tinues during the week assisted by teams of Middle School and some junior

boys, who climb over the thickening thatch like squirrels busily adding

extra material or spreadi4 it around to ensure an even covering.

Obtaining palm branches is a complicated business if one sticks to

the strict letter of the HaZachah, as a Jew should not cut the boughs for

the succah himself but should purchase them from a non-Jew.4 Lubavitcher

Youth sets up a service during this period to obtain palms from Local

3 The detailed laws governing construction are given in the Kitsur

Schulchan Aruch,134.

4 Ibid., 134': 10.

35
 1111.;-.f

A fourth Former cuts cypress branches and other

material (srach) for the succah.

7
nag

The roof of the succah (foregrOund), with the

main teaching block in the background.

36k
 341

Government Councils. The palms are sold to members off the congregation or

other Orthodox Jews for thirty five cents a branch. Orders are telephoned

The enterprise is handled

through the Yeshivah Gedolah or the school office.
Foam, who is a member of
with aplomb and business skill by a boy from fifth'

the Lubavitcher Youth. He copes with shortage of branches, misplaced

only once
deliveries, and late orders with calm assurance which collapses
'Tomorrow
on Erev Succos when some customers ring up with the complaint:

is yomtov and still no palms, what shall I do?' Even these crises are

him are absent

solved somehow, but meanwhile the boy and others helping

from secular classes.

Other boys are engaged in commercial transactions involving

religious artifacts. Two members of the Lubavitcher Youth in fourth Form

which keep
spend lesson time industriously weaving little palm leaf holders,
'waved' during services
together the ends of the bunches of willow and myrtle
and
of Succos. After a week of use the original willows are bedraggled

Hoshana Rabbah, the seventh

members of the congregation need new ones for

day of Succas. Lubavitcher Youth swings into operation again to get more

and net more

willow and myrtle for sale to members of the congregation,

money for their enterprise.

daytime
Usually boys are not allowed to leave the school during the

However, during this period, a roster

unless they have special permission.
is towed around
of senior boys is formed to man the mobile succah, which
that Jewish children can
schools approved by the Jewish Education BOard so
in the succah,
experience the fun and symbolism of eating a simple meal
This enterprise is manned
waving the four species, and praying together.
rabbis. When not in
by Rabbinical College students and young Lubavitcher
the school, or kept at the
use, the mobile auccah is either parked outside

u
 ....GINW--:114141C1.32

1.4-111PVITtlik!:W

'1

filly W"
M

r
Ira

Several sdnior students prepare to take the

mobile succah to an outer suburban school,
during the Festival of Succor.
 343

Rabbinical College hostel.

Junior boys not directly involved in the preparations for Succor

are indirectly affected. For instance, third Form boys covertly draw maps

Maps are
showing their own homes and the location of their own succahs.
P

custom
exchanged so that friends can visit each other as is the traditional
the rabbi's personal
to see how well the succah is built and decorated.

succah comes in for considerable comment, as it is apparently one of the

Following Scripture, the rabbi would
most magnificent in the congregation.

sleep, study and take meals in it during Succos.5 After the Evening Service

farbrengen to which those who come

on Erev Succor he would be holding a

bring food and drink.6 I am asked hy one cheeky boy whether I have my own

succah. My negative reply and expressed hope to get an invitation to one

brings barely concealed grins. Glances shoot from boy to boy with the

scarcely veiled, unspoken comment: 'Oi veh, that he should be so lucky'.

As with Purim early in the year, Succor and its culmination in

Simchas Torah are associated in the boys minds with fun, feasting and

rejoicing. Days leading up to the latter are alive with gossip about the

Food and drink are

ritual celebrations and merry-making which take place.

provided in the dining hall next to the shut. The Service involves Readings

have a drink
of'the Law and following hakkaphot, and, after it, all go to

And snack in the dining hall. Joyful dancing, especially the euphoric

celebrations go
Chassidic round dance, takes place later in the shut, and

on virtually all night. Some boys follow the traditional custom of walking

'liven things up a bit'.

to other shuts to join in their celebrations and

5 'In booths ye shall dwell seven days'. See also Kitzur

Levy/23: 42;
Scgulchan Aruch,135: 1-22.
here.
The continuity of Chassidic tradition is particularly evident
 344

The night can also involve an-element of risk during the walks

from assault by goyim youths and nonobservant young Jews out looking fir

trouble. Boys from the school keep together in groups on their intershul

travels, but are not averse to 'mixing it' with those who come to provoke

trouble, as indeed occurred at one shut near the school. Boys express their

feelings about the events of 3imohan Torah, as they do for Purim. Both are

rare opportunities for licensed catharsis and 'letting off steam'.

(d) Tension release after ."imchan Torah

The day following n'imchaa Torah sees a very jaded, but still

jubilant, group of boys. Escapades are recounted with pride. The first

minyan had gone on in the shut until past midnight, followed by more round

.dancing and a special minyan for Lubavitcher Youth which had lasted until

3 a.m. All the fifth Form boys look exhausted. The young Chassid cannot

speak so hoarse is-he from singing. He also limps badly as he is footsore

Trim dancing and walking an estimated fifteen miles from nhut to shut. His

thighs ache from doing the traditional Cossacktype squatting dance in ,the

I meet the rabbi later in the day. He too looks jaded, but is

nevertheless quietly elated: it had been a good :'imps Torah. Another

of the rabbis looks less than his normal bustling self, and walks rather

more slowly. At ten o'clock the previous evening, I had seen him doing the

Cossack dance iu the foyer of the rhu7, surrounded by an admiring group of

men clapning in time to the rhythm.

Boys spend most of their lesson time, discussing escapades, and

secular work is very difficult to maintain. 'My own visits to shu7s,

dancing in the circle, and meal in the auccah of the parents of one of my

boys all come in for comment, as the grapevine ensures that nothing is kept

quiet for long. In consequence, I am subjected to good natured banter

37U
 .345
especially atikT am also obviously jaded. 'How did you like the sucoah? What

do you thiqk of Israeli brandy, good, eh?. Now vodka, thats a drink. We

have it .a lot. Many of our parents come from Russia and Poland, you know,

We know how to handle i t'. All this is said boastfully, and with evident

glee V.Iat my relatively Modest participation in Simehas Torah has left me

under the weathed. The inflection given to the 'we' is unmistakably one of

superiority.

f6) The emotional impact of the final examinations

/v
The month of Tishrei i4dysfunctional for secular work, but,

despite the many religious activities taking place, study does continue,

and in the weeks following Suedos the pressure on fifth and sixth Form boys

mounts as the main examinations get closer. Something of their tension is

evident in the near hysterical reaction to the organizational breakdown of

the October Tests on one afternoon. There is a. marked increase in swaying

and craning when boys are studying-ipdividually, or rei/iSing for eXamina-

tions due in a few days time. Even during the examinations held at the

'school, rocking backwards and foiwards while reading through the examination

paper is pronounced. There is also, an increase in the use of.the Hebrew

0
abbreviation for Barukh Ha-Shem in the top right hand corner of written work,

and some boys write it on examination papers. God is also invoked by at

least one boy, who informs me that he is praying particularly Ward in order

to do well in the matriculation examination. .

As 'the climax of the academic year approaches, there is an obvious

-4)

increase in tension. Boys are edgy, walking and talking more jerkily.than

at. any time during the rear._ Control snaps easily, and both verbal and,

physiCal aggression are frequent. Boys display marked, anxiety About their

chances in the, examinations,' and badger masters incessantly for tips' about
.

371
 346

likely questions on examinat).on papers. They even discuss the advantages

of putting Barukh Ha -Sheen at he top of the external papers in the hope of

From anxiety
influencing any Jewish-examiner who might get them to correct.
into class
and depression-they swing quickly to euphoria, and come bouncing
from one master
in high fettle because they imagine they have just learned
through the grapevine.
the Cibestions he is setting, or have heard something

(a) Effects on religious commitment,

During the period leading up to the final examinations boys'

religious commitment is tested to the full. There is some alight dropping

voluntary
off in attendance atathe compulsory Mornihg Services) and even

&ences from the period of-religious study that follows it. .This decision
A

and the Principal

is not one to be taken lightly, as such absepces are noted

inforied. One senior boy, noted for his religious beliefs,, put'the matter.

in a nutshell. He could be a religious Jew for the rest of his life, but

had only one chance to pass the matriculation examination.

The clash with religious activities provoked the sixth Form

deputation
students into taking what was an unprggedented step, by sending a

examinations. They asked that

to the Principal two months before the final
remainder of the year to
their religious studies should be reduced for the
The boyi3 suggested_ that
enable them to devote more time to secular work.
and a half hours
two hours, per week tmuld'be sufficient, in place of the two
Hebrew'. The
per day. No request was made to reduce the time devoted to
of the visiting
deputation was only received by the Principal when one
apparently been talked
teaching rabbis supported it in principle, having

the boys' point-of view by hig son. Other boys were less successful..
round
Over all the points in
My social studies: class spent all one lesson going
number around to
their case, trying without success to persuade-one of their
/
,AV
 347

their point of view. However, he remained implacably opposed to any change

in tradition. The same attitude was adopted by the Principal, and no con-
*
.cessions were gained.

(b) Tension release and the period after examinations

The aftermath of examinations held at the school is a tense period

until all marks are given to the boys, and minutely dissected to squeeze

the last mark or two out of the'papers. The academic battle may be over,

but the war has not been won until negotiations over marks are completed.

Then the boys-relax. Some occupy time making candles for the approaching

Chanukah. For this they are allowed into the culture island to obtain

supplies of specially purified beeswax, wir they melt and shape in one of

the laboratories. Many read and idolently pretend to study. There is very

little tension, and conflict, aggression and anxiety are all at their lowest.

Some boys are busy preparing items for Speech Night under the direction of a

*ces master. A small group of junior boys is engaged in drawing pictures of the

menorah, which they pin up on the display boards in the classroom.

Another unprecedented event occurred when the matriculation students

returned from their last examination and erupted in a studenl rag. They ran

screaming .through classrooms, thoriughly wrecking the first Form room, and

went about the rest of the campus overturning furniture, kicking in doors,

and generally creating mayhem. One of the boys, who had expressed his

doubts about his religious commitment in a discuss on with me during Rosh

Hashanah was altost berserk, and had to be forcibly restrained by some of

his friends. The rabbinical students were attracted out of the Yeshivah .

Gedolah by the row, and crowded around the kindergarten watching the rumpus,

partly amused and partly scandalized, to judge from their expressions. In

some fifteen years uf public school rags, I had not seen anything like the

37,-s
 348
,

intensity of this demonstration. It was finally quelled with some difficulty

by concerted action by all the senior masters.

After this abrupt tension release, Speech Night'was virtually an

anticlimax: Came the last day of school, and I still had not given the

young Chassid his ieport. Unlike the other boys, he had not bothered to

I fouhd him eventually in the Yeshivah Gedolah, with a number

c,
collect it.

of rabbinical students and senior boys from my classes. Earnest discussion

groups were located all-round the room. Heads barely lifted when I entered,

and even boys I knew well failed to greet me as used to be customary. I

handed over the report, but was not thanked for it, and left quickly. There

was no doubt that I was unwelcome. Heads bent to study once more: for
,

these the dialectical interplay of the year had ended: a clear choice had

been made.

(7) Summary

There is obvious danger in using the above data to establish boys'

degrees of religiosity andcommitmyt to religion. Two ideal type boys have

been used to point to some of the more striking contrasts between the mil

itantly Orthodox boy, the young Chassid, and his less militant but still

Orthodox peer. The former's Tife means deep commitment tb the ceremonial

routine, the minutiae of ritual, and the obligation of study inherent in

Orthodox Judaism. It is commitment to literalism total obedience to the

'Yoke of the Torah'. Religion comes first; academic work is clearly placed

second. However; the 'yoke' does not always press heavily, and it is

apparent that the young Chassid"throws himself wholeheartedly ihto the

licensed horseplay and merrymaking that feature in some ceremonies. But even

here literalism prevails as he is only strictly observing the various

Biblical injunctions, which validatesuch lighter moments.

 349

The average Orthodox boy's commitment is not so total, and he can

make compromises with his religious beliefs and observance when the demands

of academi work are greatest. However, he seems more anxious than the

young Chassid as the pressure builds up prior to examinations. Whether by

greater natural ability, or the constant discipline of study l the latter

shows less anxiety. A certain arrogance evident in his attitude and

commitment to religious observances may be carried over into the domain of

secular examinations, and increases his confidence. His peers occasionally

.)
. ,`"\
resent this and vocalize their attitudbs to such extreme, Orthodoxy.

The meaning of religion for both types of boy is reinforced by the

all-pervasive symbolism in which they participate on major Festivals. As

.Geertz has noted (1966: 4): 'Religious symbols formulate a basic congruence

between a particular style of life and a specific (if, most often, implicit)
0

metaphysic, and in so doing sustain each with the borrowed authority of the

other'. Commitment to religion is totally supported by the school, which

takes an uncompromising attitude to clashes between religious and secular

work. Religkkus observances receive absolute priority. Some boys' frustra-

tion over such a situation is apparent in the deputation to the Principal,

and in the general air of dissatisfaction that prevails during the two

months leading up to the main examinations. The student rag can be inter-

preted as either collective catharsis or even revenge on the school system,

for the intense and unremitting pressur.e it imposes on the senior boys. In

the religious sphere at least, it is pressure that admits of no Compromise,

and it is noteworthy that the'most violent boy it the rag was vacillating

in his commitment to Orthodox Judaism.

For the young Chassid, on the other hand, such an outburst seems

unnecessary, and is a purely ephemeral affair. As soon as secular work is

375
 350

;1aminations may be important, but he is

over he returns to the Talmud.
well in them. Now they are
secure in the knowledge that he has done very
Torah' more firmly on his shoulders,
over, and he settles the 'yoke of the

from Which it had neve.. really departed.

/

4
 351

CHAPTER 16

ETHOS AND EIDOS OF THE SCHOOL COMPLEX - A MOLAR VIEW

Whether one approaches the schooling of the boys through an

ethnographical description of the social organization of tradition, or

through the boys' own constructions of reality, a.number of paradoxical.

features require further consideration. This chapter draws together the

threads of analysis through a molar view of the school as a socio-cultural

system with a distinapive ethos and eidos. Following Bateson (1958: 118)

the former is themculturally standardized system of organization' of the

instincts and emotions of the individuals' in the school. The latter is

the 'standardization of the cognitive aspects of the personality of the

individuals' (ibid., p. 220).

(1) The ethos of the school complex

At the heart of the school complex is the s a and its associated

rooms where a variety of social exchanges take place, setting the tone of
4
the ethos of those parts of the school not directly concerned with the

schooling of the boys. The foyer of the shuZ is the focus of almost constant

activity. Groups of bearded men in long, dark overcoats and black homburg

hats use it as a venue for gossiping animatedly in Yiddish. The Principal's

door seldom remains closed for long: visitors pop their Lads in without

ceremony, to be gestured to a chair or asked to wait. The 'phone does not

remain silent for long. Consultations are in a rapid polyglot of Yiddish,

Hebrew and English, punctuated with dramatic gestures. Boys bustle noisily

to and from the office of the school secretary. Rabbinical students `stride

quickly to wash their hands ritually in the alcove washbowls, then enter the

synagogue where men and adolescent boys pace backwards and forwards deep in

Ter, or stand in one spot but still rock backwards and forwards

4
 352

automatically. The general impression is of intensity and almost perpetual

motion. It is male-dominated activity. Apart from the school secretary

the sight of a woman in this area of the school complex rare. Those

few that do enter the foyer appear to do sc diffidently and hesitantly

with none of the forceful purpose of the men.

In the adjoining Yeshivah Gedolah there is an atmosphere of almost

supercharged learning. The room is dimly lit, lined with books, and fur-

nished with large tables cluttered with heavy tomes of Talmud. Students

study individually, rocking backwards and forwards in their seats, with

lips moving ask in rote'learning. Others argue passionately in small

groups, emphasizing their points with sharp pointing fingers or an emphatic

slap of the hand on the table. One student, bearded, coatless, wearing a

yarmelkeh and with tzitzit swinging at his waist, reads aloud in Hebrew

with Vigorous intensity from a large folio on a stand. He punctuates each

phrase with an emphatic forward sway and stamp of the foot, as if pounding

the information into his mind with a rhythm that matches the cadence of

what he is readifig.
yy
All these activities go on simultaneously 4n what appears to the

external observer to be bedlam, but amid it all a white-bearded rabbi strplls

unconcernedly from group to group,elucidatiing a point here, discussing a

question there. He smokes a cigarette most of the time, and is obviously

quite at home and relaxed in the highly charged atmosphere, and despite

1kthe b rning intensity of his students. This is the accepted style A Talmudic

study. The whole scene is almost medieval, and immediately brings to mind

what one has re0 of the great yeshivot of Eastern Europe (e.g. Ginzberg,

1958; Steinberg, 1959; Zborowski & Herzog, 1952). As Steinberg has

commented: 'As an institution of learning, the Yeshivah was a masterpiece

376
 353

of disorganization' (1959: 101).

Endless discussion and argument are a feature of the activities

of rabbinical and senior school students in other places around the campUs,

as not all take part in the games and sport during recesses. Those that do

approach them with the samefire and dedicated intensity that they apply to

their studies. The combined effect is to impart a highly charged cathectic

quality into social exchanges, which mirror those of the boys themselves

when in similar places within the school complex.

In marked contrast is the behaviour of boys in teaching-learning

situations such as classrooms and the library. Here one senses the tension,

aggression, disruptive noise and hyperactivity produced by boys' inter-

personal exchanges. In counter-reaction, teaching rabbis and lay, religious

teachers can display frustration, anger, even fury and physical aggression

towards the boys. These are quit unexpected reactions in view of their

religious calling, the value placed on loving relationships in Chassidism,

and the Golden Rule which is central to the Great Tradition. This heightens

the unusual nature and magnitude of the boys' behaviour.

Apart from the physical aggression and even this probably

c

occurred but was not witnessed - similar counter-reactive behaviour can

be shown by secular teaching staff. Impressionistic evidence for this is

suppored by 'hard' data from micro-ethnographic observations of classroom

behaviours, comments of staff, and unsolicited reactions of visitors to

the school, including one educationist with considerable experience in a

wide range of schools in the State. All observations point 6) the

'difficulty' and 'difference' o,f the boys' behaviour, and suggest that

one's own impressions, backed by nearly eighteen years teaching experience,

are not idiosyncratic. Data from a variety of sources are mutually

37o
 354
\

supportive, and cross-validate one's own.

Unruly behaviour does not seem to be a feature of learnieg

activities that take place out of school on excursions or educational

visits. The teacher, who is the target of obstreperoug behaviour in clags,

is thanked politely by all boys as they troop off the bus that takes them

to the Show. Geography excursions lag badly due to the sheer physical

inability of some boys to master terrain that does not deter girls. Yet

put the same boys in the playground in basketball games and their energy

bursts out, but rarely reaches the pitch of violence and aggression that

can occur in the classroom. On many occasions I. gave boys,lifts home in

my car, and was surprised at the different quality of their behaviour, in

minutes
contrast to the rowdiness and difficulties I had experienced five

earlier during a lesson with the same boys. As other staff comment, the

boys can be likeable outside the classroom. In the playground, the

informality and warmth of their social exchanges with staff is a notable

11

feature of the ethos 2f the school. Friendly, almost indulgent help was

frequently offered to me on the several occasions when I took part in

worship in the shuZ, and lost my way in the prayer book, or could not under-
,'

stand the ritual.

Not all behaviours are of the conflict-prone, agg'ressive style

discussed so far. It is obvious from data that an appreciable number of

social exchanges in teaching-learning situations are anxious and tense.

Boys need constant reassurance and supportive-reinforcement during

individual work. Any-unfamiliar work, or a variation in routine or style

of teaching heighten the anxiety. My own Form clearly showed their

apprehension on occasions when I departed from chalk-and-talk lessons to

set cyclostyled projects or assignments. The Sociological Studies in

38u
 Its
mat

Geography Project generated a barrage of questions, complaints and peevish

comments some fifty or sixty in number. I took notes about as many as

possible until their sheer quantity defeated me. The great majority

related to anxiety over task, performance and methods of procedure rather

than the difficulty of the questions. Other complaints indicated resistance

to adopting such a method of learning and teaching.

The petty nature of the anxiety is an indication of its source.

My very first lesson with Form four generated a barrage of questionsabout

the method of ruling up note books. The teacher I replaced had insisted

that certain types of headings should be underlined in red, others in blue,

mainder in black. What did I want? My failure to

some in green, and the
the
lay down similar procedural rules produced endless questions about what

boys AY
should do, and pointed comments auggesting that perhaps I did not know

my subject. Only after some four lessons did they get the idea that such

matters were unimport9t. Similarly, the idea that one might use a number

of related books instead of slavishly following one textbook took a great

deal of accepting by all the classes I taught. The fifth Form was as anxious

as the third Form.

Yet, paradoxically, some boys from the former were the most con-

fident in handling the advertising, collection and other business dealings

concerning the sale of srach for Succor. One of the most anxious over

schoolwork was completely at home in the share market dealings during the

Some third Formers also dabbled in shares. The third Form

' mining boom.

'newspaper' was of high calibre and showed considerable ingenuity in design

producing and duplicating it was tackled with confidence. A

and layout:
service on
group of boys from fourth and fifth Forms ran a duplicating
a

behalf of Lubavitcher Youth. Its availability was advertised in the foyer

381
 356

of the shut and in The Australian Jewish News. Yet the same boys could be

anxious and querulous when faced with novel learning situations, even though

my expectations were far from unusual.

On occasions the aggres on and anxiety generate behaviour against

the teacher in class that can on termed retaliatory or vindictive. The

systematic persecution of one teacher resulted in his resfgnation at the end

of the year. The turnover oV staff was high. Such behaviour was not con-

fined solely to secular staff, though opportunities to 'get, at,' them on

anti-Semitic grounds were greater than religious teachers. One Lubavitcher

rabbi who left the school during the year confided in me that he felt he

had been the target of the boys' malicious behaviour. Like several others,

he put it down to the spoiling they had received at home.\ We haVe seen how

frequently the 'spoiling syndrome' is invoked as an explanation for bad

behaviour.

But equally clearly from my interviews with parents, the reverse

appeared to be the case. Boys weee expected to work hard at secular studies

and I was asked to ensure that they did. The school'§ demands in the

religious sphere were the real reason for bad behaviour so it was implied.

However, whatever its cause, there is no doubting. that ruthless persecution

could be directed against a teacher, often with disastrous results. Less

damaging could be the sotto voce comments between boys, often in Yiddish,

obviously about the teacher and his competence.

Even if outright aggression does not feature in a lesson, it is

and
clear that the teacher is being manipulated; through boys' negotiations
4
bargaining in social exchanges that have to do with the learning process.

There is a transactional element presents On occasions it can work in

favour of productive results, as when senior boys decide to co-operate with

382
 J.57

a-good teacher who might otherwise resin and deprive them of his knowledge

and expertise. At other times bargaining is used as a weapon to avoid work.

This mostly occurs in the junior Forms, who are not under such pressure to

prepare for the external examinations. One of my colleague/regularly

allowed the first Formers out to unscheduled sport rather than risk a con-

frontation, and this precedent was eagerly cited when 'I took the Form, but

did not allow them the same privilege. Not only do boys employ manipulation,

but they are also aware that they do, and articulate this awareness.

The ethos of the school,Complex also includes a distinctive style'

of worship and social exchanges on ceremonial occasions. There is a marked

informality in which folk and religi66 components are blended., Speeches

are liberally sprinkled -with rabbinical and Talmudic" aphorisms, delivered

in a declamatory style. One &wens - with all the coTinotations already

noted - rather than prays. Worshippers in the shut have a swagger, even an

arrogance. Ceremonies are carried out with exhuberance and fervour, as in

the hakkaphot on Simchas Torah. Informality even extends to most solemn

occasions such as the Morning Service on Yom Kippur. In rontrast there is

also a deep devotion and reverence that transcend the mundane, and elevate

worship to great heights of religious- experience.

(2) The eidos of the school comp ],ex

The outstanding aspect of the eidos of the school complex is the

way its culture stimulates boys, rabbinical students and rabbi's to

intellectual activity. Great emphasis is placed on accumulating vast stores

of knowledge, feafs,Of memory and the ability to argue or reason dialectically

(Feb. pilpul) by drawing on the Biblical and Talmudic2litore. One of the

teaching rabbis was reputed to know the entire Pentateuch off by heart. The

examples cited in Part Two of boys reciting long passages of Scripture or

38,5
 t° 358

Talmud from memory are not uncommon.

The method of dialectical argument and reasoning derives from

East, European rabbinic scholarship; and illustrates the influence of

tradition in the'eidos of the school. However, it. can lead to extremes

of casuistic hairsplitting, which are condemned by the rabbis, but often

occur in secular lessons, On such occasions one can be entrapped in

virtually endless argument. Each of one's points is met by a counter

argument, often prefaced by 'ies but'. The pilpulistic approach is most

developed in the YciMivah Ge'dolah, and, as, the Torah Evening demonstrates,

is still appreciated by members of the congregation. Their close involve-

ment accords with traditional Orhctice. As Zborowski and Herzog comment

(1952: 121):

The attitudes and thought habits characteristic of the

learning tradition are as evident in the street and market
place as in the yeshiva. The popular picture of the Jew in
Eastern Europe ... is true to the talmudic tradition. The

picture includes the tendency to examine, analyze and re-

analyze, to seek for meanings behind meanings, and for
implications and secondary consequences. It includes also
a dependence on deductive logic as a basis for practical
conclusions and actions.

Debating qtyleii>.--1,Lrceful, noisy and often disorderly. As many

as possible want to put their points as quickly as possible. Verbal

'attack' is emphasized by the kinesthetic technique of 'holding' a debating

point between the finger and thumb, and proffering it to the listener. Other

points are emphasized by a downward jab of the finger, or an upward motion

of the clenched fist. If a book comes into the argument, a page will be

4
 V

359

opened dramatibally, and thrust under one's'nose.

Learning is alto highly physical. In strict rabbinical tradition,

learning new knowledge is achieved by vocalizing aloud. 'A person should

5
take care to pronounce with his lips and make audible to his ears, whatever

he studies, and he should concentrate his mind upon it, for it is written

(Joshua 1: 8): "This Torah shall not depart fr'om thy maut and thou shalt
.

meditate upon it4" etc.'1 The strong kinesthetic component in learning is

evident in the ubiquitous body swaying that accompanies reading, whether

Aloud or silently. Even if a person reads silently,'his lips move, and he

sways in itime with the rhythm of the words.

The similarity to the East European tradition of learning In the

yeshivah, and the shtetl is 4riking (Zorowski & Herzog, 1952: 92I-93) .

Swaying as one reads, and chanting the words in a fixed

melody, nigh, are considered necessary for successful study ...
The swaying And the chanting become automatic. Later, the
students will acquire also the avpropriate gestures with
C1:1
the index finger and the thumb, sweeping the thumb 4hrough
an upward arc ofinquiry and nailing down the point of the
answer with a thrust of the index fiAger. Study is not
passive but active, involving constant motor and vocal
activity.
Ps
Erudition and Biblidal, Talmudic scholarship are revered. The

PrinciPal introduced. the shochet tote as scribe and a'scholar', with .

in inflection on the 'and' which clearly indicated the esteem in which he

is held in the community. During thee/year One of the fourth Form boys won

second prize in a local Biblical,knowledge competition organized by B'nai

,
i'rith, thereby gaining the chanOe of competing in the national finals.

'1(itzur Schulchan Aruch, 27: 5.

r-

38b
 360

This was an event of some note, and brought credit both on the boy and the

lochool. The Principal made a special point of visiting the classroom and

publicly announcing the honbur to the rest, f the boYs. 'They were visibly

impressed, despite the inevitable 'ribbing' they handed our to the young

scholar after the Principal had left the room. For weeks thereafter the
.

boy was the focus of both spoken and non-verbalized admiration from his

peers. His knowledge of Torah almost became proverbial. We have noted

above similar esteem given to the specially selected class of primary

school children, whose knowledge of Talmud .7as also discussed respectfully

by far older boys.,

A clear distinction is made between knowledge that is uncertaip,

and knowledge that is'eternal truth, in the ideology of the Lubaviicher

Movement. Thefollowing emphadizes the distinction and thelogic behind

it:

THE ABSOLUTE TRUTH 9

./
Sedia Nitzoviw-Vayeilech

... In the 19th Century it was the prevailing view of

scientists that human reason was infallible in scientific
deductions, and sciences like.physics, chemistry and
mathematics were absolute truths - not merely tested
.

theories, but absolute facts.

A new idolatry arose, not of wood and stone, but the'
-...-. .
worship of science. to the 20th Century, however, and
especially recent decades,. the whole complexion-of
.
science haChanged. %

N.
The - assumed immutability of the scientific laws, the
concept of absolutism inscience generally, have been
modified.
The contrary view, knOwn as the "principle o
indeterminism" 0 now accepted. Nothing is certain any
a

386
 361

more in science, only relative or probable. Scientific

findings are now presented with considerable reservation,
with limited and temporary validity, in the expectation
that they are likely to be replaced any day by a more
advdnced theory,.
Living as we do in this clima e of scientific'un-
certainty there is no reason to attempt to reconcile the'
uncertainties of scientific findings (which science 1.;elf
'declares as only "probable':) with the eternal truth of the
2
Torah which cannot be diluted or compromised.

We can thus make the distinction that,alihough the culture of the school '-
/

emphasizes knowledge, it places greater stress on the knOwledge of the

w n
Great Tradition, the Torah-true knowledge, than that of the Academic

Tradition, despite the necessity to learn the latte, for success n the
-._
examinations and the economic benefits that flow therefrom. Acad mic

knowledge is pragmatically necessary as a means to an end. Torah knowledge

is the end in itself. As will be apparefit in Chapter 17 below, the contrast

II

is often brought out in lessons, particularly by the Lubavither students

but also .by others, when MO interpretations of natural,phenotena.are in

confrontation.

Knowledge and intellectual activity are controlled and stimulated

by specialists in both Traditics, but Torah kndOiedge is in the keeping ef

those 016also have most to do with the ceremonial life of the school coin- ,

plex, i.e./the rabbis and rabbinical students. They are thus reinforced

y the impact of high affect ceremonial occasions, which ere lacking in the

Academic.Traditiontat the school. At infrequent school gatherings it,is

their voices that are heard, drawing- on the stores/6f Biblical and Talmudic

2
An adaptation by Y..M. Kagan of excerpts of a letter to an individual
froni the Lubavitcher'lltebbe. In 'Thought for the Week', The Australian
Jewish News; Melbourne, September 5, 1969, p. 11.
\.

3 8:,'
 362

knowledge for the apt quotation or aphorism to point the moral' of the'pro.:

ceedings. The culture is to a very large extent in the hands of custodians

. trained in erudition and dialectical skills, who constantly set forward its

basic ideas (for the instruction of' the majority.

(3) Some paradoxes in the ethos and eidos of the school

When ethos and eidos are considered holistically one major in-

consiexency ls at once appar This is tie behaviour of the boys in both

religious and secular teaching-learning situations. In contrast to the

14ntense, often emotional and-passionate behavioural style of the school

complex outside these situations, boys are fractious, aggressive, anxious,

pinne to violence, and occasionally persecute a teacher with a thoroUghness

that can only be descr'bed Ls sadistic. In other-respects their behaviours

are consistent with the ethos and eidos of the school culture.

It is difficult to understand the motivation behind such atypical

behaviour. When it occurs in the classroom, it is clearly dysfunctional

for learning on which so much emphasis is placed, whether in the religious

or secular sphere. Paradoxically, tIle boys themselves indicate through

their constructions of reality that they value learning, academic achieve-

ment, and intellectual activity. But all these are clearly hampered iii

some classrooms: not only does disruptive behaviour frustrate the efforts

of the teacher, but it also interferes with those boys who are trying to
.

learn, Very rarely, however, does one hear strong protests from them, or

see collective pressure exerted on the offenders.

Disrespect for teachers in the classroom contrasts with the

informality of relationships and friendliness that can prevail outside.

Disrespect is also the very opposite of the value of respect for the man of

learning enshrined in rabbinical and East European traditions, which much

386
 4 363

of the.ethon of theschocl complex reflects. 'Although some parents see the

4
stress the school placssNon religiqup education as leading to strain for

their boys, it is 'cleaemhat, they support the school's efforts inI teaching

secular knoWledge:. .

(4) General,conclugions

n Fart ree,I have examined'some of, the boys; constructions of

cultural reality, using what data could be obtained by a variety of direct

and unobtrusive meapures. Despite the recognized weaknesses of some of them,

a consistent pattern is evident in the way a small group of boys perceive,

themselves, their relations, with others, their world views and aspirations

for the future. Least problematical in their constructions are views .of

,themselves as Jews in which it, is clear that religion plays a major, if not

a dominant role. Also non-problematical are their views of the future and

the means to achieve it. The great majority see it in achievement-oriented

There is
terms of a tertiary course followed by a professional career.

both an implicit and, at times, recognized duality in their lives.

If Intellectual ability and attainment rank high in theirscale of

values it appears to be at the expense of inter-personal relations with

their peers and others with whom they come into contact. These are not

seen as so important\ neither are sport and other forms of.recreation.

of boys
In these, respects they are markedly different from a control group
ednAted at an
from very similar socio-economic environments, who are being

independent Christian school where a fundamentalist orientation to the

faith is apparent. However, there is abundant ethnographic evidence to

boys find the task

suggest that, in teaching- learning situations especially,

of constructing the appropriate'typifications to guide interpersonal

behaviour far more problematical than in 'other areas of their experience

e
 364
, .

in the school. There is a marked paradox in their attempts to construct

reality: part of the task appears to coped with easily, and without

undue strain; other parts pose seve ii

e problems. Part Four, w h follows,

,advances some tentative explan4tions for the paradox, in terms of a theory

of enculturatioedissonance.

<2

. 3
 365

PART FOUR

TOWARDS A GROUNDED THEORY OF ENCULTURATION DISSONANCE

The communication of the nature of a

culture, a community, or a work of art, is
part of the business and joy of hulan.living,
and needs to be carried on whether or not
there is a strictly behavioural science.
So, if the Characterization of a community
stops at some place between imaginative
portraiture on the one hand, and a statement
of a proved hypothesis as.to part relations
on the other, it may serve, although perhaps
only a little, several of these needs and
purposes.

Robert Redfield

39t
 366

.CHAPTER 17

ENCULTURATION INTERFERENCE IN THE SCHOOL COMPLEX

The social organization of the two Traditions in the school complex

has the inevitable consequence of exacerbating the probiemaLcal'natuie-of

the pupils' attempts to construct reality. What can be a stressfu]. process

0

of searching for identity normally during adolescence (Bios, 1962: na ff.) is

heightened by the dialectical confrontations between the two Traditions.

Each presses its claims for the boy's allegiance and commitment, and each

impinges on the other to produce a form of enculturation interference.

The purpose of this chapter is to isolate sources 'Of this

phenomenon within the school complex. The pathology o et ess among Jews,

and an explanation of its likely effects on the boys within the school are

taken up in the following chapter.

(1) Enculturation matrix dualism and its effects in the school complex

One of.the most striking features of the ethnographic data is

the fundamental dualism it reveals in most aspects of the school complex.

For purposes of this analysis the heuristic model developed in Chapter 2

6

is'adopted.to focus on a child-centred view of the enculturation process.

From the point of view of a boy at the school, two.enculturation murices

are concerned with his formal enculturation.. On the slface, at least,

there is very little overlap between the two, as considerable compart-

mentalization of activities takes plaCp. For convenience of analysis we

can refer to the secular matrix of the Academic Tradition and the sacred

matrix of the Great Tradition, but must acknowledge the dangers inherent in

the use ,of the terms sacred and secular in the context of the school. Each
o

of the matrices has its awn structure, organization and timetable. Each is

validated by its own ideology which confronts the boy with ideological

392
 4%367

dualism'. Each puts forward its own formal construction of knowledge through

a curriculum so that the boy is confronted by what can be termed epistemolog-

ical dualism.

In these three broad areas of dialectical confrontation there are

potential sources of stress. During the day, the boy moves from one matrix

to the other through a form of Janus-type, enculturation interface.

Influenced now by one matrix, now by the other he is in a situation where

enculturation interference can occur due to the dissonance or lack of 'fit'

between the experiences he gains, which only he can resolve in the task of

constructing reality, and making sense of his life world. The various

agents he encounters in the matrix provide varying degrees of assistaice,

but the task of reality construction is basically his.

It

(a) Consequences of structural-organizational dualism

The boy's task is frustratingly difficult because the sacred matrix

admits of little compromise. Its corps of enculturation agents - teaching

rabbis, fay religious teachers, young Lubavitcher rabbis - demonstrates its

beliefs, norms and values with missionarylervour, in4the outreach tradition.

Stress is placed on the strict observance of the minutiae of daily individual

and collective religious rituals and ceremonies. Exact times and rules are

prescribed for their performknce, and derive from a historical source that

cannot be challenged. Torah is God-given and must be believed absolutely.

0

The Great Tradition is not malleable. I consequence, the sacred matrix iso

markedly 'legalistic or objectivistic', i.e. 'rule and symbol' oriented, to

adopt the terminology .Clark has applied to the fundamentalist Old'Order

0
Amish communities of North America (1949:4147).

In contrast, the secular ,rix has a different'set of encultura-

tion agents,'comprising full time and part-time employees. The majority are

393
A
 368

goyim, and are very different from those of the sacred matrix. There is not

so great a stress placed on clearly defined rules and meticulous performance

of rituals, Those commonly observed are diffuse and imprecise, i.e. 'what

everybody knows' pea on in schools. As the agents have no commitment to

an outreach ideology, there is no question of competing for the boys'

allegiance. Indeed, to accommodate the man-activity and man-time value

orientations of the Gre it Tradition, teaching activities in the secular

matrix are organized around the scheduled daily, weekly, and yearly times

for prayers and ceremonies. However, where dominant values of the secular

matrix are involved, the boys are vitally concerned to obtain from Staff

the proper performance of teaching duties, classroom discipline and, more

important, the final examinations which are the acme of the year's academic

endeavours. Any breakdown in the organization of the examinations is likely

to produce marked reactions. For instance, the period of the I.A.R.T.V.

test examination in October was one of marked tension for the leaving and

matriculation boys, wha regarded their performance as a predictor of success

at the external examinations to take place in a matter, of weeks. On, one

afternoon all boys had to sit for the English examination, but this was held

up for nearly an hour due to the non-arrival of the senior English master,

who had the responsibility for distributing the papers. He was delayed by

religious devotions in the shut, praying Minchah.

The fiasco bat quickly developed among the boys had all the

behavioural characteristics indicative of stress. Boys dashed hysterically

around the school complex looking for the master concerned. They bailed

her
l!tp oth senior masters, and, aliost sh ting in anger, demanded that they
61
find the papers and get the examination under way. This proved impossible

as the senior master had them with him. Only by very iiltron disciplinary

\,... .

394
 369

measures and'straight talking to all the senior boys was order restored.
m
The examinations had to be held on a subsequent day.

The senior master would often.be late for class in the normal

course of events due to his religious devotions. My own Form,treated this

as a bit of a joke until examination and test results became involved.

When the master failed to mark papers quickly, or did not provide results,

comments became outspoken and annoyed.

(b) Consequences of ideological and epistemological dualism

Each matrix offers its body of knowledge to the boy. Althoughlit

-
can be held that each matrix thereby caters adequately for the boys'

aspirations, i.e. to become an observant Jew on the one hand, and a success-
r,

ful contender for a place in a tertiary institution on the other, it is

doubtful whether either body of knowledge prOvides the wherewithal for a boy

to produce himself in action (prgxis) in the way identified by Edgar

a
(1974: 670).

The secular matrix is unrelated to 'reality' in respect the

knowledge it offers. The curriculum is reified and 'out there' it Keddie's

view (1973: 15), merely to be mastered for the express purpose of passing

examinations. It is not 'raw material' for Onxis. 'Rarely does it

signify po sibility for [the boy] as an existing person, mainly concerned

with making s.nse of his own life-world. Rarely does it promise occasions

for ordering th materials of that world, for imposing "configurations" by

means of experiences and perspectives made available for personally con-

\
ducted cognitive 4t ' (Greene, 1971: 253).

Additionally, as we have seen, the nature of the 'scientific'

knowledge in much of the secular curriculum isheld to be subject to the

'principle orindeterminism' according to the Lubavitcher ideology. In

t,

)
 37O

contrast, the curriculum of the Sacred matrix is Torah-true. The' logic° of.
.
the two curricula arethus different. Even though the academic knowledge

might be malleable to a limited extent, .rici it io deriVed from humanistic,

scientific advances in knowledge, which are open to rational examination

o

and discourse, its very foundation is attarkd by Lubavitrler ideology.

But to accept thi's; and the Torah-true knowledge on which it Jo -batted,

involves a lqap-of faith and total acceptance which tranocends scientifiZ

rationalism. Epistemological dualism of this kind places the boy in a

double bind situation. There-is the implication that the knowledgel,

offered by the secular matrix.is uncertain, and provided shifting, sands on

which to base reality construction. The Torah-true knowledge is the firm

'foundation,.but is beyond the reach of scientific examination, and thus

-/ -

gives the boy no real choice in constructing his own reality anywaT. All

is given to him: praxis is denied.

Epistemological dualism has a dysfunctional effect on the formation

of norms and typifications to guide interpersonal relationships. Both

Traditions stress the accumulation of cognitive knowledge, without the

corollary that it shall find expression in guiding behaviours. Solomon has

commented on adult attitudes to'Jewish 'education in Melbourne (1973: 175-76):

The ideal curriculum did not include suggestions for 0-

.
subjects which might specifically foster objectives of per-
sonality-development, practical obserifance, or active partici-
,

pation in community life. The general emphaSis W'ao on 'what a

Jew should know' rather than on 'what a Jew should be' or

'how a Jew should live' -. Even among Orthodox adults; there

A was an unconscious assumption that being a Jew\and living as

a Jew followed automatically from acquiring intellectual,
knowledge.
set,

139(.1
 371
,

Solovion further points to the lack of4ntegration between the

Australian and the JewishImpects of the Jewish child's formal education,

which reflectsz-a compartmentalization of the Australian and Jewish areas

of life (ibid., p.176)". Although she notes that preparation for life-as a,

Jew-in Australia is left to secular sub5ects, the paucity of phe secular

curriculum at the schak, with its future-oriented instrumental goals,

provides little guidance for, the boy, as all Subjects a e hosen for

* Even thoseelementa in the

pragmatic, examination-oriented reasons.

Academic Tradition held to educate the 'whole man' are filtered out as ,

inappropriate.

The connection with the 'real' social world is further attenuated

"n
.

fiy the liteate cUlture af the Academic: Tradition. Goody and Watt-have

argued (1962) that the peculiarchamentistics of suchkCtulture are 'an

abstraction which disregards an individual's social experienA ... and a

compartmentalization of knowledge which restricts the kind of connections

social
which the individual can establish and ratify with the natural and

world': Literate cultures stress reading and writing, which are necessarily

.solitary activities. As Goody and Watt suggest this producera pronounced

individualization, which is seen in its"most dramatic form in the-ritual

of the examination. In the Great Tradition there is also pronounced

individualization stemming from emphasis on literate skills. What discussions

do,take place, as over Talmud, are essentially contests in which'15'oys arcs

encouraged to demons ate their pilpulistic ability rather than contribute

to consensual opinion
of
The social construction of knowledge in the school, aaaing out
cause of the
the way -it has organized the Traditions, may thus be a basic
complex.
low value boys'place on interpersonal relationships within the school
 372

The classroom is a place. for Imdividualizedactivity, even a forth o

competition in Aich boy is pitted against boy. The forth Formers a parent.

1
inability-to sustain a discussion, or work in groups on the major prof et
.

. . .

during the year can be seen in 4his light.

(2) Encullturation interference through Cutle countervailing curriculum'

'The preference of boys, parents, and the school Principal for 4

chalk-and-talk, teacher-directed.learning implies that the communication

of the two Traditions to the boys is a relaavely-stiaightforward, un-

iiroblematic process. Subjects in the curriculum are the major sources of

6
meaning, and are mediated by encultuation agents during teaching-learning

transactions. The model further implies.that knowledge flows in one direc-

tion with relatively little interference. Both,Traditions stress-the .

0
importance tf leartlingliie boys show by their constructions of reality

that intellectual achievement and learning are highly waned. It all

seems quite unproblematical.

N m
However, as a number of workers, including the writer, have

suggested (e.g. Jackson, 1968; Keddie,1 1971q Postman & Weingartner; 1971;

Bullivant, 1973a, 1973b, 1974a) not only is the formation of the curriculum
eli
problematical, but its dissemination in the classroom is subject to a number

of constraints. In iackson's terms a 'hidden curriculum' operates, which

significantly affects what is.thought to be a relatively uni-directional

and straightforward flow of meaning to the pupils. A

Use of the enculturation matrix, however, reminds us that a school

is.a far more complex source of meanings and experiences from inanimate and

animate stimuli in addition to the teacher. More important, these meanings

may not be what he intends jstQrceive. They may be totally unrelated

to the formal curriculum. There are meanings from stimuli in the pupil's

396
a

373
4
. ,

environments which run counter 8 it.I From sucJ a countervailing currichtlum

pupils can either construct a reality other than that intended by their

mentors, or find the task.futher complicated by contradictory stimuli.

(a) Components-ard types of interactions within environments

The environments of a school can be conceptually sub-divided Lito a

number of interaction setting comparable' to 'recurrent social situations'

(Spradley & McCurdy, 1972:.,24). These are 'made up of bltavior and artifacts

that can be obserVed by the outsider'. Examples within the Jewish school

are the classroom, 'playground, dining hall, shuZ, and adjacent spaces around

the buildings.

Such a definition and alternative term avoids confusion with the

more familiar definition of the social situation suggested by Coffman,

(1971: 75I 'as an environment of mutual monitoring Ifossibilitiea, anywhere

withinawhich an individual will find himself accessible to the naked senses .

of all, others who are "present", and similarly find them accessible to him'.

According to this definition, as Coffman points out, 'a social situation

arises whenever two or more individuals find themselves in tine another's

immediate presence, and it lasts until the next-to-last person leaves'.

But this precludes the possibility ofja social situation existing

where only one individual is present within an interaction setting,

exhibiting unobtrusively observable behaviours such as talking to the self,

or musing aloud. More importantly for this study, it also precludes conv.

sideration of those social situations in which onolOcone actor is present,

AA* Such would be
but is obviously behaving in a culturally patterned manner.

the case in the shul, for example, when a rabbi is'alone and reading aloud

from Chumash, or a member of the congregation is praying alone. In both

I got.rever, in the
cases, clearly no other person is physically present.

393
 374

latter, An Other is, LLI colamunicative behaviour is taking place in relation

accessible' to the actor.

to some One 'accessible'

The adoption of the term interaction setting also enables one to

conceptuelize by extension what occurs within it. These are interaction i

incident i.e. observable behaViourbetween an actor and other components

within an interaction setting. This use is a departure from those suggested

ri

by Flandets (1960) and Adams (1970), whose multi-variate models and complex,

technical monitoring equipment were inapplicable to thetypes of interaction w."

settings in which I did my Work.s, My own .method was to rely on hand-written

notes, occasional photograph's, and memory of incidents later written up in

privacy.

We can. conceive of four basic types of interaction incidents. The

first and most common are those between a plurality of actors Present in the

interaction setting. All the linguistic, paralinguistic, and extra-

linguistic means of nication in interpersonal behaviour will be present

Laver.E, Hutcheson (1972: 11-14). Emotions will be-generated and can be

.

observed.

The second type is self-interaction. Here an actor's behaviours

abusing or
are directed to tis 'self' - communing aloud, expostulating,

denigrating. Such behaviour is both meaningful fqr the actor and forms

16).
part of the dynamic of the-interaction setting (Blumer, 1971:

The third type we have noted is that between an actor and an

The communicative behaviours and emotions this generates

1

invisible Other.

can also be observed.

The fourth type is between/an actor and inanimate components or

stimuli such as artifacts present in the interaction setting. They will

them - but. may

\ have meaning for him - otherwise he would not interact with

4 op
4:*
 41,

375
U

not.,have for others that'are present. Al o interacts with his desk, for

Instance, opens the lid, roots around insid , takes out the book he tp

seeking. While doing so he may interact wi h his self, grumbling that he

cannot find 'that' °book. His behaviour can flow over and affect others'

behaviours - the desk lid which, when flung open, bangs the head of the
3,

boy in front, for example.

We ahould thus expand Ooffman's notion, if a comprehensive picture

of any recurrent social situation cis to be obtained, by taking account not

only of the. four typed of interaction seen individually, but also the ways
-
they overflow into, or4e99rate a dynamic with, each other. In summary,

interaction incidents occur either independently or.inter-dependently

between an actor and other actors, between-an actor and self,'between an

actor and ari Other not physically present, between an actor.and an artifact
cr

or inanimate component of the setting.

Encompassing all components in any interaction setting are more

diffusemacrq-environmental influences that should not be ignored. These

often provoke actors' reactions, suchas the boy who turns on the lights

when it gets dark; the enervating humidity and temperature in the room on

a typical pre-cools-changT period of a summer's day, which make everybody

fractious and irritable. Again we have a contribution to the dynamiC of

the interaction setting,.which makes for full observation and explanation

of it.

_Although the majority of interactions are confined to the school

campus, its spatial extension into external interaction settings should not

be negleCted. These become important when school excursions take place, or

when activities such as farewell parties are held in boys' homes to which
-1/
whole class groups and staff are invited. Such occasions provide

401
 376

opportUllties to compare their interaction dynamics with,those typical of,

interaction settings iithin the school itself.

During his school life a pupil encounters a great variety of

ft .

meanings mediated by ,symbolic and extra-symbolic elements in the various

ttings. he encounters. From them he attempts to form a ct.t-

interaction

struction of cultural reality and concomitan t evaluative, attitudinal and

emotional behaViOurs. Within the school, two major sources of meanings

Traditions, it is true,
r are theformal curricula of the Academic and Great
curriculum:
but on many occasions each becomes for the other a countervailing

When experiences relating to the Academic Tradition are being provided,

influences from the Great Tradition can obtrude, providing other experiences
A reverse
which are often dysfunctional for the success of those intended.

situation also occurs when experiences more appropriate to the Academic

Tradition influence those of the Great TraditiOn. It is contended that

countervailing curriculum
pupils 'learn' from both, and that the force of the
their constructions of reality.
may be quite apparent in its effects on

Formal lessons are, not the only interaction settings in which the
1

phenomenon occurs. Wherever the boys interact, it is possible to see

examples'of the interplay between one or other of the two traditions and

The logic of the situation deter-

its respective countervailing curriculum.

mines which emphasis it takes. In most of the interaction settings observed,

however, elements of the Great Tradition made up the countervailing

derived from the
curriculum at times when the experiences were meant to be

Academic Tradition.

© (3)° The overt operation of the countervailing curriculum

The basic-avert effect of the countervailing curriculum is to

pupil. Reality
./challenge the certainty of the experiences available to the

a
 377

Construction becomes, in consequence, a probleMatichl enterprise as in-some

areas certainty is shaken when at least two solutions are offered. This can

.
be diamatic,.affecting issues of major consequence, or 'trivial over matters

61 seeming small importance, as the following examplqp illustrate. It can

influence all components of reality construction, knowleoga, beliefs,

customary behaviour, attitudes, and values.

Although separating out components of learning in this way is now

dated, such simple distinctions are made here for the purposes of the

examples that follow.

(a). Challenges to established knowledge and beliefs

Perhaps the most clear-cut example of the (countervailing curriculum

is challenges twestablished knowledge and beliefs. These can occur during

lessons, which concern aspects of reality for which differing explanations

e

religious
are available frOM scientific thought (theAcademic Tradition) and

-0 thought (the Great Tradition).

The creation of the world i one such aspect. Orthodox Judaism'

dates its calendar from the moment 2

f creation, i.e. 3760 B.C.E. On

several occasions with the fifth Form, my geography lessons touched

elementary stratigraphy and geomorphology. 'The Silurian rocka in this area

Several of the
were laid down some 400 million years ago', I would affirm.

'That cannot be; in the

most Orthodox boys would challenge my statement.

Bible it says that the world was created 5829 yearsago'. For T

it became something of an obsession to correct me throughout the year.

'We know the truth', he would state emphatically, 'because Moishe (Moses)

has given it to us. Your's is only a theory and, like all theories,_can

easily be, roved wrong. We have the truth'. Form, five was not exceptional

in challenging geological knowledge. Periodically during the year,.similar

403
 378

occasions would arise with other Formal and my statements would be greeted

with scepticism and even outright rejection by boys in Forms three and four

whenetier what I taught ran counter to Biblical teaching.

The strength of such conviction is well illustrated by the -

following-incident with my sixth Form social studies group. During dis-

cussion about aspects of'Chinese civilisation, I mentioned Toybee's concept

of historical cycles, and asked the boys whether it could be applied to

: events in Jewish history by way of illustration. Five thousand seven

hundred and twenty nine years have elapsed since Moses Z was told; the

Messiah would come by the year six thousand or earlier. The Lubavitcher

Rebbe had once prophesied that.4he millenium was imminent; and had con-
,

irmed his prophesy on several subsequent occasions. I risked a few

z'
questions. -
'Doesn't it worry you when I put forward different ideas

such as these historical cycles?'

'No, those are only theories. We know. We don't even have

to worry about it'.

O

'But doesn't it get Upset?'

'Why should it? We are' quite certain. It's something we do

A

of us'.
not even-worry about; it's not a qyestionof belief but part

'But farse prophets have arisen before - look at Shabbetai

when he
Tzevi, the seventeenth century pseudo- messiah, and what followed

renounced Judaism'.

'Yes, we know, we know. There will always be false messiahs;

this we accept, butghen the true one comes we will know'.

Such conviction is all the more surprising in view of the many

developments of the twentieth century, one of which was imminent at the

404
 379

This was man's first landing on the moon, but even it

coul&be coped
time:

with. After oGmellesitation and much consultation with staff, .the Principal

permitted a large television set to be set up' in the assembly hall." Classes

were grudgingly allowed to -cote in for short periods to watch the-moon rand-,

ing preparations sand final landing. The time for Wnchan came and boy, were
\ One of
being called to prayer,,yet stiff a group 1 gered,around the set.

the rabbis bustled in obviously annoyed. 'Come, daven Agnehah, it's time.

Leave that, it is not important. Minchah is more important, come'. There

4,
could be no compromise with-'6rthodoxy.

Challenges to scientific knowledge could occur over such apparently

trivial matters as getting Sabin oral vaccines against poliomyelitis. Teams

of doctors travel round the schools in the State, administering the

vaccine almost as eroutine measure. The day is known beforehand,, parents

despite
sign a form giving their consent, ,classes assemble en masse and,

interruption to classwork, the whole business is over and done with

relatively quickly.

Not so for some boys in my own Form. Just prior to trooping over

sincerity
to the hall to get their doses, two boys protested in all apparent

that the vaccine was tref, and c ld not be taken without breaking the

Would I give an opinion,please? My hesitant reply did not

kasruth Jaws)

satisfy, the boys, who promptly went to seek the rabbi's advice, before

going to get their vaccine.

Kasruth prohibitions cropped up several times during the. yeai.

shop to get a
The most obvious occurred during a stop at a small country
The available
snack -on an extended geography excursion with my own Form.
length, and,
food was inspected carefully, it's kosher quality discussed at
By extension
1 Tref (Heb.) - lit. 'torn'. 'Meat unfit for consumption.
applied to any ritual impure food. Its opposite is kosher.

40 5
 380

then rejected in favour of soft drinks and potato_crisps. Several boys

appeared to go'hungry rather than risk buying somethirig they were uncertain

about.

(b) Challenges to customary behaviour

Challenges to customary behaviour occurred. A number relatin3,

to.daYs of Choi Ha7moed and making religious artifacts have already been

'discussed;:and are examples of the countervailing curriculum operating

against secular work. However, I was surprised to see beliefs about proper,

and fit behavilux extend into sports perAPAP.

One incident occurred. when members of my own Form were required

a
,
to play a kind of team race, in which they had to lie prone with the

heads between the legs of other boys in a line. The young Chassid Came'

into the classroom, his face red with righteous indignation. 'It's Immoral.

We should not be expected to play that game. I think it's indecent and

should be banped in the school'. There could be 'no doubting br one

moment thate and a number of others were genuinelyodpset at being

ordered totake part in what, to them, was an indecent game. Whether they

took the matter, further by,sewing the rabbi, I do not know, but the game

was never played again.

Religious ritual behaviour is challenged whenever boys goon an

0

excursion. One of the first questions they ask concerns the availability
.0
of water to wash their hands before a 'meal, and a place in which they can,/

praPAgnchah. The latter is not-always vital if the group can get back to

school, and pray, in the shut before the time for this prayer expires.

However, washing the hands'and,saying the Blessing and Grace are of vital

importance for the,more Orthodox boys.

406
 381

Their solution is to take with them an aluminium pitcher to pour

the water, a towel to dry the hands,.aard mall prayer books for as many as

want them. The visit of third and fourth Forms to the Royal Melbourne Show

saw one of .the most Orthodox boys getting off the bus with a pile of prayer

books, and a pitcher wrapped up 'in the towel. ,Apparently he knew of a tap

in an unfrequented cornerof the Showgrounds. One of my geography excur-

stone had to be so .planned that the lunch stop would occv at' a place where

the boys could wash their hands. This some fifty percent did, at a tap op

the reserve, before taking over one of tie picnic rotundas in which to eat

/their lunch. As usual this was accompanied by Blessings and Grace.

In mid-year, the visit, to a neighbouring high school by my own

Form to it for the C.S.S.E. posed fewer problems. A classroom had been

set aside in which the boys could eat lunch, after washing their hands in

the cloakrooms. I brought food, and we at lunch together. Afterwards the

boys'said the Minchah prayer, one of them leading the rest. He stood

facing a wall and recited most of the prayers Off by heart. Another boy

stood at his elbow tod act as prompter when he faltered. As. he told me

afterwards the Lubavitcher order of prayer differs Irom that used in Nhis

own shut, and he found it difficult to follow.

N e

All the boys took part hough with varying degrees of,observance,

swaying automatically in time with the cadence of prayer. One was dilatory

in getting to his feet' and had to be sharply spoken to by the young Chassid

before joining the rest. I had noticed some reluctance slightly-earlier,

when Z wanted a group to say Grace with him. He was reduced to

pounding on the table crying 'benschen mit mir' before getting the requisite

numbers together.2

'2 Benschen mit mir (Yidd.) 'say Grace with me'.

 382

After Minchah the boys went to the playground, where the majority
A

played basketball, keeping'themselves segregated in one court. Here they

were quite xonspicuous and obviously different from the other, more

casually dressed students, by virtue of their yarmelkehs, caps, and school

My hat completed our group ideutification. Devezpi jeers came from

suits.

other students, and on two occasions a stone was lobbed in our direction.

This was not uncommon, several of my boys informed me. More

often than not, most provocation and even physical assault comes from '

non-observant Jewish boys rather than from goyim. In the Previous year,

the boys had been disturbed and attacked during their lunch and prayers by

others, and a fracas had developed. From firsthand experience I was able

to share in the feeling of'being persecuted and the apprehension of both

my boys and the Principal, which had resulted in his request that I should

stay with the boys during their lunch time.,

In this instance, the effects of the countervailing curriculum

were mostly indirect results of the requirements of the Great Tradition

obtruding into what was essentially'a keystone iwthe Academic Tradition, i.e.

its examination system. Similar tensions were generated for boys from

fifth and, sixth Forms, when they sat for their final SChol Leaving and

Matriculation Exathinations held at the Exhibition Buildings in the city:

The problems of prayers, lunch, washing, hands were all present at a timc

when maximum concentration was needed on academic matters.

(c) Influences on attitudes and values

Although something of the boys' attitudes can be inferred from

their behaviours - the objection of form Four boys to the 'immoral game'
0

is indicative of their attitudes towards the sports master's requirements,

boys'
for instance - there were incidents when the Great Tradition coloured
A

opinions and expressed attitudes to both school life and world events.
 383

Here we see not only Judaism operating in the narrow Dense of the body of.

religious beliefs and prac.tices, but the wider totality of Jewishness to

which it is central. This is 'the sum total of the many varied ways in

which people called Jews wish to identify-as such. Prominent among them is

a strong sense of peoplehood and national unity' Thedding, 1968: 13).

This totality found its most overt expression on the occasion

when,secular lessons were abandoned for the afternoon to enable all the sec-

ondary school, except for the sixth Form boys, to go into the city to see

the fil This Day in Israel. The occasion was also marked by a visit to
. .

the sce'ool from the new Israeli consul to see the boys at work -in several

classrooms. Like comparable events, the visit to the film generated con-

siderable anticipatory excitement on the preceding days. In consequence,

discussions during normal lessons frequently veered onto the subject of

Israel, and Zionism) The boys in my Form expressed their support militantly,

fists clenched and faces tight with fierce determination. They carefully

explained that the Lubavitcher Movement supports Zionism, although some

ultra-Orthodox groups do not, as they feel that the fulfilment of Biblical

prophecies should be achieved by peaceful means and not by force.

Once the boys had found out where my own sympathies lie over the

Israel question, they needed little encouragement during lessons to express

other opinions about their Jewishness. Seemingly unrelated incidents in

class would prompt their comments. A casual mention of law courts in the

neighbourhood, during a geography lesson, brought's swift remark from one

fourth Former: 'We have a very good system there re Stare laws and

religious laws'. As udual this provoked a flurry of comments from othersf

among'whom-the Lubavitchers were clearly the keenest to provide information

3 The povement to secure the return of Jews to Israel.

et-
403
 384

both for me and their peers.

The hold exerted over some boys' imagination and oyalty by the

Lubavitcher Movement is very obvious,. It came out in class discussion,

N in requests to help the youth group activities, ad r casual interaction

settings. Once I was standing in the playground watching a basketball game

at the end of the year. A young Chassid came dashing up In great e*cite-

merit with a picture from Time Magazine, which showed the Lubavitcher Rebbe

being visited by the Mayor of New York.47 'There', he said triumphantly,

'that shows haw important the Lubavitcher Rebbe is. The Mayor won because

he got the support of Jews who make up thirty percent of the vote. What

do.you think of that?'

The heavy demands of the matriculation course did not prevent

similar interruptions from the countervailing curriculum. The topic of

nationalism in the social studies course almost invariably provoked comments

'about Israel, even though the matriculation boys as a group had opted not

to Gee the film. Their secular studies were more important they had claimed.

Once again the Lubavitcher Rebbe was referred to, during one leospn, as a

supporter of Israel. Although the boys were equally as militant about

Zionism as the fourth Formerp, their comments had religious overtones lack-

ing in the more junior Form. Israel was founded on religious grounds.

Jerusalem would be retained and not handed back to the Arabs - the current

bone of contention at the time - as this is the fulfilment of Biblical

prophesy, even though the fpundineof the Third Templd had yet toy take place.

It would be merely a matter of time, as it had been prophesied by the

Lubavitcher Rebbe.

This last pronouncement, coming from D , Was most surprising

as I had not thought of him as a Lubavitcher supporter. He went on to stress

410
 385

that the MOVement was unique in Judaism by virtue of its proselytising

activities and militant faith. Like all boys, who talked about their

faith, he spoke quite naturally and unselfconscioUsly.,'with obvious interest

and lively concern.' I could not help making mental comparisons with other

such matters would have

religious sNlOols At which I had taught, where

ptovoked embarrassed amusement among boys, if they were discussed at all.

Such matter -of -fact attitudes towards Jewishness also extended

into non-religious topics provoked by something or other in an academic

lesson. On occasions this gave inights into boys "backgrounds that could

be:disturbing for. me, even though treated with apparent casualness by them.

One incideht arose out of a lesson on kinship networks and lineages, which

formed part of the fourth/F6rm geography oourse. After I had drawn the

classical genealogical diagram on'the board y way of illustration, I

His'sketch turned out to be a lineage

noticed one boy industriously drawing.

diagram of his own family. A large number of the symbols had been blacked

in to signify deaths. Dates were indicated against them, all ominously

within a narrow time span. 'Most of my relatives.came from Eastern Europe,

face
and died in concentration caaps': the boy explained quietly, his

expressionless,and any feelings concealed by the masked- look I had seen in

others, when 'sensitive topics were being discussed. Several of his

neighbdurs were listehing, and nodded: it appeared they too had suffered

similar losses. To me, this was the quintessence of the overt counter-
.
veiling curriculum and a stark insight into one facet of the "totality of

Jewishness''.

(4) The covert operation of the countervailing curriculum

4 Whereas the overt effects of the countervailing curriculum are

settings,
manifest in the verbal interactions of those within interaction

411
 386

its covert effects are less easy to reconstruct. They arise from othen cam-

ponents in the total 'environment of objects' to which each individual will

attach meanings. Thus we should talc.e intt ccount such aspects as spatial
4t,

arrangements, artifacts, inanimate symbolic communication - signs, notices,

display material J. together with the 'inarticulate experience' derived

from the actions of others. Their meanings for individualp4in interaction

settings can be assumed to complement those already-explicat d through the.

overt countervailing curriculum.

(a) Artifacts in the environment

The classroom contains a medley of artifacts relating to both

traditions. Boys' phylacteries in their bright, velvet bags can be seen

0

in deskg,- do cupboard tops, even on a window sill if it is conveniently

situated neat a boy's place in class. Religious books imay'be'neatly

.arranged in cupboards, though quite often, especially following a period

of religidus instruction, they are left in apparent disorder on top of the

A mezuzah is attached to the jamb of the doorway. Those

teacher's table.

artifacts one customarily associates with classrus are also littered

around, kept neatly in,their appointed places according to the tidiness

of the teacher and boys. These are blackboard dusters, chalk, rulers,

,board compasses and other geometrical equipment, models used for demonstrat-
A A.duality is at
ing scientific princi,:ples, textbooks of all descriptions.

once apparent in the two types of artifacts, as there is- in virtually every

component in the school.

The meanings artifacts have for some boys can be inferred from

their behaviours towards them. It is quite apparent that a diversity of

For
meanings is in operation at one and the same time in any classroom.

instance, the mezuzah means something to those boys who touch it consistently

412
 387

when passithvough the door, another thing to those who are inconsistent,,

and something else to boys who do not touch it at,all. From the latter, we

cannot infer that the mezuzah meas nothing. Possibly, even for these, it
,v

has some meaning, but not suffiCient nor of the kind to generate observable

behaviours. For boys such as these the mezuzah might itill'stand as ar

omnipresent reminder of what they should observe as-6rthodox Jews. The

picture is further complicated by the great variations in the frequency of

touching.the mezuzah. On rare occasions a whole class could troop out, not

one boy touching it. On other occasions, fifty percent of the same class'

would observe this mitzvah.

ve
Meanings attached to religious books could also be inferred from

behaviours.' Some boys treated them disrespectfully, while others accorded

them obvious respect. What was an apparently mAaninglese disorder to the

outside observer concealed an order meaningful to the Jewish boy. A pile

of religious books on my table,'for instance, was so arranged that unknown

to me no other book lay on top f Chumash, although it may lie on top of

books of lower 'rank' such as Books of the Prophets.4 Thi is a sign of

respect for Aumash.

My unwitting transgression early in the year when I went to place

of the
one of my secular books on top of Chumash brought an explanation

action's meaning from one of my Form. Later in the year, the same absent-

minded action produced a warning hiss 'Chumash' from T and a mild

reproof. From this it was quite clear that, having once bees told the

meaning of the action, I should now know and behave appropriately, i.e.

as an Orthodox Jew should.

4 The rules (meanings) pf the way books must be treated are itemised in
a
detail - Kitzar Schuthan Aruch, 28, 3-10.

413
 388

Meaning) were seldom made so explicit. Luring a current affair's

discussion in fourth Form, talk veered to the wearing of the yarmakeh.

This was Prompted by a photograph we had all seen in that morning's paper 31.

of the Australian Prime Minister, a non-Jew, wearing one at an official

The
Jewish dinner attended by prominent members of Melbourne s Jewry.

boys were contemptuously amused and caustic in their comments about what

to them' as a pretentious act. 'He doesn't know how to behave', they said,

i.e. that's not the meaning of wearing the yarmakeh. 'But what about me

wearing one or my hat?' I ventured to ask. 'That'S different, you know

what it means', came the reply. Recalling the occasions in some fifth Form

boys' homes during codaing sessions, When I had worn either a hat or a

yarmakeh only to sense the action was incorrect, I coly-not be entirely

convinced by my Form's assurance. I also remembered the time'early on in

home,
research, when I had not wort a hat during a visit to my informant's

and had been kindly told of my error As an anthrdpologist I should have

known what to do, my informant

We,can see from 40 .above not only that the countervailing

these,
curriculum involves the cultural constructions of meanings, but that
which, the actions and
..3try according to. the logic of the situation in
the opera-
artifacts are concerned. -Moreover, like incidents described in
that
tion of the overt countervailing curriculum, it seems apparent
The logic
dif \[ erent systems of logic are being used to construct meanings.

metaphysical logic.
of scientific knowledge, for instance, is not similar to
Chumash,
The diversion into a discussifn about placing books on top of
component of
prompted by its mere presence on the table as an inanimate
logic -
the interaction setting, was Initially generated by two systems of

the Orthodox boys' and mine. Our logics coincided when I knew what they

414
 315-9

knew and behaved accordingly, i.e. accepted for the time being their system

of, logic. My assumed knowledge of when and where to keep on my hat or

wear a yarmakeh might.be interpreted in a similar way, I knew, according

to my boys, because I had accepted the logic behind dressing this way. The

PiiTe Minister maypnot have, and thus did not know.

During lessons where incidents such as the above occur, it is

quite apparent that the boys are influenced by the countervailing curriculum.

Not only are they learning knowledge that is potentially at odds with, and

dysfunctional for, the academic curriculum, but its very logic is also

being challenged. During the time when the div.ersion into Jewish matters

obtains, the boys are learning in a context within which the Great Tradition

is dominant. As Keddie has observed (1973: 17) 'the learning of any "logic"

is a highly situated activity which cannot be treated as though it were.

context-free if it is to become part of the life-world of the learner and

to be understood by him-at all'.

(b) Symbolic media of cammunioation in the environment

Most interaction settings within the school complex have material

on display which relates Aboth Traditions. In the fifth Form room, a

large char ccupied part of the pin-board on the rear wall., Published by

the Lubavitcher Movement, it lists in Hebrew and English the thirty nine

labours forbidden on,Shabbos. At the beginning of the Jewish year the

Lubavitcher students drew up a chart in Hebrew showing the exact dates, and

times for daily prayers, the lighting of qhabbos candles and putting on

tephillin, and-added this to the board display. A diagram and detailed

instructions showing the correct way, to attach phylacteries also appeared.

This was part of a tephiiiin campaign which was advertised in The Australian

Jewish News, and supported by a 'pastoral' letter from the Lubavitcher Rebbe
 e,

390

displayed piominently on a notice board in the foyer of the shut. Both

pieces of advertising leave no doubt as to the directness of the message

and the logic to which it adheres(Appendix' 5.3).

My own Form room had religious fosters on the display board.

Form three had none. Forms one and two had neatly printed cards in Hebrew

and English, written by the boys, proclaiming -,maAms fro Talmud such as

'Respect comes before learning'. Form .tmo'

'Speak little, Do a lot';

also had,on display large charts depicting the founding of the Tahernacle

by the Children of Israel in ,the wilderness, andin diagrammatic form, the

i4brary of the books of the Law and divisions of TaiMud. Display material

also tended to change according to the approaching Festival. Pesach saw

drawings of the Seder plate in Fo one. The menorah was drawn at Chanukah.

In stark contrast these display materials, are those relating

t6 the Academic Tradition and curriculum. They vary accordingto the lesson

material
04' topic, but in due season are pinned up on the display hoard next to

of the Greatc.Tradition. Tangible evidence of two logics and meanings are

thus juxtapoSed for all who care to look at it.

Certainly,
Ifiat meanings boys attach to such displays is uncertain.

mostly in the more

for those Aoys who draw religious display material -
ON,
junior Forms and primary Grad t it has a meaning or else they would not

labour so industric sly at they task. As most academic material is either

Ai

coynercially produ or dev oped by the teacher, similar work in this

ited. et striking contrasts can still be seen. At

sphere for boys is

the height of the ei tement er.the moon landings, some boys in Form one

both
took advantage of lessons meant for examination revision tb draw

religious and secular picturea. Sketchi" of space ships proliferated,

denizens
accompanied by earnest discussi ns about what Martians or Other
 391

of outer space might lotiklike. Amidst this hubbub a couple of boys

serenely blocked in the Hebrew symbols of another saying from Talmud, /e,

circa third Century b.E.

At the same time of th year Form two, the board contained a

number of cards with sayings from the ToPah and Talmud, written in English

and Hebrew:

THE MORE TORAH STUDY, THE MORE LIFEP

THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGHBOUR AS THYSELF.

WHERE THERE IS NO TORAH, THERE IS NO BREAD.

WHERE, THERE IS NO BREAD, THERE IS NO TORAH.

THE BASHFUL CANNOT LEARN.

WHO IS RICH? HE WHO IS CONTENT WITH HIS LOT.

Charts were also on display showing various Biblical scenes including the

marshalling of the Tribes of Israel around the Ark in the desert wilderness.

In close proximity As a boy's drawing of the moon landing, and a large

newspaper photograph of the same event depicting man's greatest scientific

achievement in a lunar wilderness.

Materials displayed elsewhere in the school campus usually refer

specifically to the Great Tradition: They are 'pastoral' letters from the

Lubavitcher Rebbe in English, Hebrew and Yiddish (Appendix 4.11), shul

Where they are in
notices, Lubavitcher Youth advertisementg and the like.

English and even Hebrew, boys can make sense out of them and derive meanings.
in
Those in 'Yiddish - commonly in a form of compressed code as in Talmud,
have
which one phrase stands for a whole_passage - are much less likely to

meaning for boys. Other' communications, such as letters from the Chief Rabbi

likely to be
in Israel, or news items accompanied by photographs, are more

meaningful.

4 lei
 392'1

Staticdisplay materialhe- type discussed Is aUgMented by at

least two other types of printed matter accessible to boys in interaction

settings. One is the monthly religious paqpfilet Talky and Tabs published,

me for the
by,-Ker koe L'Inyonei Chinuch in New York, the.official outlet

Lubavitcher Movement. Many boys subscribe to it and, as One said when he

saw me reading a copy, 'Are you interested in those? There are hundreds

around the place'. The publication contains such aspects as commentaries

from the Midrash, notes on religious rituals, moralibtic stories,

biographies of great figureR in Judaism, and'sthings to remember' relating

to the current Febtivals.

The other type of publication is the Form papers run off on a

spirit duplicator. These contain topical skits, cartoons, short religious

homilies, Yiddish jokes, and examples-of schoolboy humour often commenting

on some happening in the school. Both English and Hebrew feature in

articles. )Several editions were produced by the third Form during the

year, and went the rounds of other ForTs, where they might be read surrepti-

tiously during some religious and secular lessons. he third Formers were-'

inordinately proud of what they had produced,- and would noisily advertise

the newspaper's availa4ility during classwork.

(c) Dualism of languages insymbolictmedia40.

An important feature of the great majority of religious material

is the two languages in which the whole dr parts are printed. English and
$

'Hebrew commonly appear on the same sheet. In the case of the LubaVItcher

Rebbe's letters English, Heb#ew and Yiddish versions are available.

Such juxtaposition of languages emphasizes in a quite fundamental way the

418
 1

'393

duality of the learning experiences available to the boys. The development

ol,of logics and thought are determined by i'anguage, i.e. by the linguistic

tools of thought, and by the symbolically-mediated socio-cultural experi-

ence of the child. Language is crucial in the construction of knowledge

as Berger and Luckmann note (1971:

Language objectivates the, shared experiences and

makes them available to all within the linguistic
community, thus becoming both the basis and the instru-
ment of the nollectiVe stock of knowledge. Furthermore,
language provides the means for objectifying new
experiences, allcving their incorporation into-the
already existing stock of knowledge, and it is the
most important means by which the objectivated and
objectified sedimentations are transmitted in'the
tradition of the collectivity in question.

We need only extend this view, by considering the plural languages present

in interaction settings at the school, to appreciate that two sets of

experiences are being objectivated, two stocks of knowledge augmented, and

#'sedimentations' transmitted in two traditions. Indeed, twa,cultur s are

being mediated to the boys. As Landes has suggestO (1967: 306), language

is a syllabus cf a culture: here we have two languages.

The influence of Hebrew as a countervailing curriculum can only

V

be hypothesized. Suffice to say that it could be more than would occur if

a child were learning English and another foreign language such as French.

The connotations of Hebrew are many and varied (Werblowsky & Wigoder,

It is the Holy Tongue in which the Bible is written: 'the

1965: 179-180).

language spoken by the angels', as the rabbis say (Hag. ilia). It-is the
- .

language of prayer and the official language of the State of Israel. At a

more mundane level, it is the language used in the school during a great

proportion of the tim6 when the formal curriculum of the Great Tradition

415
 394

is being studied. In compartapjNith English, its alphabet, phonetic system,

vocabulary, grammar, sentence, and word formation are all strikingly

/

different. Even de mechanical tasks of writing and ,reading Hebrew are

,different - from'Xight to left across the page, and from the 'back' of the

book to the 'fxont'.

One effect of these mechanical differences is at once apparent

when boys write in English. Their letter formation, general neatness,,and

legibility often compare unfavourably with the writing oesame-age pupils

in State and Independent schools. Switching from one language style to

another, in the short spacerOf time allowed the boys at the school, may

also involve a major adjustment in logical processes and the acquisition

et
of meanings.

It is often possible to watch this switch occur during lessons

when junior boys are doing free work; Books innglish are put away and

Hebrew readers are taken out. Painstaking transcription of phrases and

sentences into exercise books begins, slowly at first but speeding up as

the boy gets into the cadence of the Hebrew. He reads through what.he has
o.
written with evident pride, putting a finishing touch here and there in

the script. Unconsciously he mil begin to rock backwards and frwards,

his lips moving as words are sounded sotto voce. Th6work is finished.

If the bookis Chumash, the boy cln9e9 it carefully, kisses it reverently

and puts it away. His whole-manner changes subtly as he takes out a

secular book, and 'returns' to the logic and behaviour of the English work,

which he had put aside to enter the language-culture of,the Hebrew.

(d) Inarticulate experience as a countervailing influence

For those of his peers watching, such a boy is a countervailing

influence by the very meanings his actions convey. ',There are many such in
sk

42o
 395

the achool. Each provides role models through the' inarticulate experience

available to others in interaction settings.' We calk identify those whose

behaviour style is obviously influential to judge from .the observable

reactions of others.

A Lubavitcher student is a focus of others' expectations: When

an apparent secular stimulus is Present, such as my statements about the

creation of the world; boys.look across to him with the obvious unspoken

question I' what will he say or do? He may, in tact, do or say'noihing,

but by hiss very presence thoughts are-obviously turned from the secular

work in train to the potential countervailing influence of Lubavitcher

ideology. It may have been purely coincidental that a Lubavitcher student

was placed in each of Forms three to six, and was invariably a role model

to which other boys tended to look on such occasions. No better way of

inculcating Lubavitcher ideology by indirect means could have been devised.

(5) ummary

As the first step in explaining why boys might be exposed to

of
stress in forming constructions of reality in the school, a number

elements have been identified through the application of the enculturation

matrix paradigm. A pronounced dualism has been shown to prevail in the

school in a number of areas associated with its teaching-learning situations.

The result of the dualism is to present boys with two different

bodies of knowledge and their respective logics, neither of which is adequate

material for pramis,'nor guidelines for social behaviours and interpersonal

4 relationships. In the interaction settings where teaching-learning occurs,

firm con-
a form of countervailing curriculum operates, which inhibits a
e

struction of reality in one of the traditions because it is constantly under

Enculturation interference occurs both

subtle challenge from the other.
Nk if
42.1
 \\::) I ,396

overtly and covertly, and is assumed to exacerbate the problematical nature

of reality construction.

4 22
 397

CHAPTER 18

TOWARDS A THEORY OF ENCULTURATION DISSONANCE

The g neral' orientation of this study was that if a school

c
representing a socio-cultural group with a firmly. articulated world view

educates its pupils in a situation where they are also exposed to elermnts

of a rival world view from the macro-society, then they*may show evidence

of strain or dissonance in constructing reality. Parts Two and Three have

. .

shown significantly high levels of anxiety, aggression, conflict- tension,

and periodic harassment of both religious and secular teaching iaff. Boys

also see themselves'as prone to violence. The purpose of this ha ter is to

advance an explana\ tion of the connection between these ihenemena and the

types of enculturation interference discussed in the previous chapter.

Following Bateson (1958: 280-281), I take explanation to mean

fitting data together in a way which seems to make most sense, and leaves

.least data unaccounted for. It is not intended to 'prove' a hypothesis, as

none was formally proposed initially. The success of the explanation, in

terms of a grounded theory of enculturation dissonance developed in this

chapter, may be judged by the degree to which it commands the reader's

assent (Redfield, 1956: 70 ff.).

(1) .Types and sources of stress am g Jews

t. (a) The evidence for neurotiCkreactions to stress

To what extent can the behaviour of the boys be considered

'normal' or indicative of stress? There is firstly the very considerable

difficulty of specifying 'Jewish' behavioural characteristics, which would

enable us to establish by comparison whether the boys' behaviour is indic-

ative of stress or merely 'typically Jewish'.1 However, there is some

0 1 I am indebted for this advice to correspondence with Professor John Cawte

of the School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales.

zin
 398'

evidence to suggest that Jews react to °tress in ways that are different

from other religious groups, and very similar to the behaviour of boys at

the schOol.

An early study in 1950 reported by Myers and Roberts (1958:

551-559) surveyed the'urban population of Newhaven on the east coast of

the United States to determine the distribution of psychiatric illness.

Iwao found fhatcompared with Catholics and Protestant°, Jews had a

'much higher rate of neurosis'. In addition, a 'significantly higher

occurrence of poychoneuroolo' was found among native-born ao oppooed to

foreign-born Jewo. One accepts oucti-4findinga with caution as the authors

point out (ibid., p. 555) that the survey was not a true prevalence study of

psychiatric Illneso, but -was olimited to those people under treatment by a

psychiatrist. The findings do suggest, however, that if maladjustment

occurs among Jews it may take pcychoneurotic rather than other forms.

Supporting evidence in the case of Melbourne Jews is given

2
by Krupinski and others (1973), and Stoller and Krupinski (1973: 267).

In a survey of psychiatric illness in Melbourne, Jewish refugees in.the

sample had the highest rate of severe neurojicsymptoms, Whichvas

associated significantly With their war experiences, More ignificantly,

.
over a quarter of fh Jewish refugees reported psychological problems in

their children. Sharpe (1973: 34) has pointed out, for Melbourne Jewry in

vneral, that '40 percent of the caseload [of the Jewish Welfare Society]

had current or recOitcontact with a psychiatric clinic or private

psychiatrist'.

Kurt Lewin (1948: 170) suggested that 'typical signs of Jewish

maladjustment [are] oven-tension, loudness, over-aggressiveness, excessively

2 Also from a brief, personal discussion with Dr Stoller.

42 4
 399

hard work'. ,-All these' behaviours are evident among many boys at the school,

and may point, if not to maladjustment, aCleast to stress in their lives.

For some,' the former is more likely. Social welfare workers of the Jewish

Welfare Society have commented that a significant number of boys at the

school are known to have severe maladjustment probl.ps, with symptoms that

include stuttering, facial tics, enuresis, and allied pathological stress

syndrome.3 Three cases of mental breakdown or severe mental -disturbance

among the boys were known to the writer at the time of the study.

(b) ,Factors contributing to stress among boys at Lubavitcher School

There seems little doubt that the boys' behaviours at the school

are indicative of psychological maladjustment in some cases, and pf stress

in others. The causes of stress and maladjustment cannot be identJified with

precision, but one must look at the home backgrounds, general ethnic minority

status, and school expeiiences as potential contributing factors.

There is first the Possibility that the behaviour of-some boys is

an outcome of parental pressures to do well in their studies. Evidence from

teacher - parent interviews described in Part Two supports extreme.Tarental

concern over work in general, and about success in the yeaily examinations.

Stress may also result where parents are over- protective and smothering,

spoiling,the boy as if to compensate for what they themselves could not

enjoy due to their own disrupted lives in Europe.

A further source of stress, can lie in parents! own disturbed and

pathological states. eCanadian study (Trossman, 1968)-showed'that Jewish

adolescents with-parents, whO had had severe concentration camp experiences,

exhibited pathological sypptomi which ran the gamut from stuttering to

examination anxiety. .Both are prevalent among boys at the school.

From personal consultations with social welfare workers at. the time of
fieldwork for this study.

42
 400

Additionally, sometimes the only solution open to a boy with such parents,

and who was conflicted in seeing the irrationality of their bit rness

whilst knowing its cause, was to become as mistrustful and parandid as them.

As ethnographic data have shown, some boyg doiculate real or

fancied connections between persecutions experienced by JeWs and their pre-

disposition to react to stress by violence and aggression. It is known that

z significant proportion of parents of boys in the Middle and Senior School

suffered in concentration camps or war-time Europe. Evidence of how boys

can generate comments or incidents in class, that give an insight into these
.

aspects of their parents' backgrounds, has'been given above.

The influence of parental backgrounds may also provide an explana-

tion for boys', systematic and vindictive harassment of some staff, and their

boasts about engineering a secular teacher's dismissal. Both may be a form

of collective revenge for either actual or imagined persecution, and may

even constitute a form of par,noia. A Melbourne psychiatrist, with whom

the boys' behaviours were discussed, gave a clinical view based on his

knowledge of the large proportion of Jewish adolescents in his case load.4

Many boys could be said to be suffering from a form ofrandiose Paranoia

when they articulate such boasts and harass staff. In effect, they are

----working out a'lot of the frustrations arising from their upbringing by tak-
-------
ing revenge on shd-ths--y--taff,videntif_y az authority figures responsible for

the frustrations. ,However, most staff are not authoritarian by nature, nor

are they responsible for the boys' frustrations, but are being deluded into

thinking they are. When they thenact in an authoritarian manner, teachers

set up a vicious circle which confirms the boys' paranoid suspicions, and

4 To preserve the customary professional confidentiality, the psychiatrist

concerned has asked not to be identified by name.
 401

aggravates the social exchanges. Authoritarian teaching also fulfils the

expectations of the parents and the school, but, when adopted, also sets up

the vicious circle.

The status of Jews as a minority group within the wider Australian

society may produce the types of behaviour, which Allport. (1954) and-Yarrow

(1958) suggest are various defenmechanisms against_Mcrimination and

hostility. These include neuroticism, self-hatred and aggression towards

one's own group, and feelings of insecurity, which show themselves in alert-

ness and sensitiveness, sometimes developing into high levels of hypersensi-

tiveness. In the case of boys at Lubavitcher School, it is clear that some

discrimination against them comes from other, not so Orthodox, Jews in the

wider Jewish community. However, it is also clear from boys' constructions

of their worlds of objects that their lives are very largely carried on

within the Jewish culture island of tht neighbourhood, which might be ex-

pected to provO.de a form of protective ecological cluster. Data also in-

dicate that boys' social networks are broadly confined to a Jewish 'ethclass',

(Gordon 1964), which would provide further support.and reinforcement.

Despite their plausibility, such psychological explanations must

be accepted with caution. At most they indicate the likely forms boys'

reactions to stress might take, and also alert us to the established fact

that a significant proportion of boys at'the school are stress-prone to

the degree'of being maladjusted. They do not isolate with certainity the

Isources of Stress within the school. Sufficient evi ence suggests that

internal factors are at work. It is difficult otherwise`, to explain the

situational and cyclical nature of the boys' behaviour. Tension, anxiety

and euphoria reach their peaks before secular-examinations and religious'

celebrations, but decline during the intervening periods, although they are
 402

always a persistent feature 'of the school complex. Given that Jews have a

predisposition to react to stress in ways that psychiatrists have identified,

a further question must be asked in relation to the situation Of the4school

itself: what stimulated stress behaviours that are markedly situational

and cyclical?

(2) Social needs and matrix constraints at Lubavitcher School .

The concepe:of the enculturation imperative postulated in

Chapter 2 assumes that, for the child, the process of enculturation is

categorical, that is, it brooks no denial. Provided that he has opportunities

4
for interaction with 4nimate and inanimate componentrhe the enculturation

matrices that he encounters, the developing child 'must perforce construct

a view of the self and reality. But this can,only,he achieved by incorp-

orating meanings a knowledge from matrix components into the self. Some

of the needs he social group to which the child belongs thus become

hjs needs, augmenting those other physiological needs with which he was

genetically endowed, and the more diffuse drives of his individual biography.

'That is, the individual is a construct produced and shared in conjunction

with others. They are not "out there", compared with me "in here", but

they produce "me" and I produce'"them". As a social being, I am in fact

always "wetclgar, 1974: 670). S.

At the early, informal stage of enculturation; the developing child

is probably unaware of his social needs, as the mental set in which they are

incorporated has had insufficient time to-crystallize. By the time he has

reached the stage of formal enculturation, more and more crystallization

will have occurred, sv that the child is conscious of a growing proportion

of his needs, and can articulate them. He is also aware when they are not

being satisfied, and may also be perceptive enough to recognize why they

428
 403

are not being satisfied. That is, he can identify the constraints and

limitations which are external to him in a given situation. Bylthe

adolescent stage of formal enculturation, more of his self is available

to introspection; and lean be stated with confidence. This is the 'present-

self', the'self that is at the moment. However, the child also may have an

intuition of the 'future-self', the self that is to be, but gan only be

achielied by interaction and negotiation with the constraints of the encul-

turation matrices through which self is actualized.

The child is thusy,confronted with a situation where his attempts

to produce his (future) self in action are dependent on the kind and

strength of constraints in his enculturation matrices.5 Where his self-

actualizing needs are not impeded, the constraints may be said to match

needs in a congruent relationship, which produces a sense of satisfaction

in the child. He has a sense of direction, and knows more or less where he

He is being allowed to produce his self in action. On the other

is going.

hand, where needs are not matched by constraints, i.e. where constraints

have the negative sense of limitations, a dissonance relationship ensues,

which produces in the child feelings of dissatisfaction and tension. These

which
are the twotpolar positions of a congruence - dissorce continuum,,

determines the behavioUral reactions of the child as he strives for praxis.

(a) The needs of boys

We have seen from Part Three that boys have constructions of reality

and of their selves, from which it is possible to infer,kheir major,

conscious needs. These are to learn to be Orthodox Jews, and to participate

5 This section draws on the fundamental ideas of need-press theory

(Murray, 1938; Murray & Kluckhohn, f953; Stern, 1962a, 1962b, 1967) and
dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957, 1964; 'Festinger & Carlsmith, 1958;
Festinger & Aronson, 1968).
 404
k7C
in learning and intellectual activity with a view to academic achievement,

and future careers that are upwardly socially mobile in comparison with

those of their fathers. From the results of the thematic apperception and

sentence completion questionnaires,,there is sufficient evidence to indicate

that boys have a high degrge'of unconscious achievement motivation (nAch).,

Although these more formal research instruments were not intended to

duplicate those of McClelland and his associates (1953), they nonetheless

produced results indicating that many fourth Form boys possess' 'latent

disposition[s] to at..rive towaids a standard of excellence [which] Should not

4

be confused with any broad notion of trying to\better oneself and get on in

life' (Jahoda, 1970: 35). We can thus assume that boys are unconsciously

motivated to achieve their perceived needs, whether they be in the religious

or secular domains.

Moreover% as Jews, they are placed in the highly favourable

situation where both home and Wultural influences are supportive of a high

degree of nAch. Standards of excellence-are imposed on. a developing child

by enculturation agents, of which the most important for early formation of

in
high achigvement motivation are parents. They impart to the child their

expectations that he is to perform well in relation to the standards of

excellence valued by the culture. In time he internalizes such expectations,

so that he comes to have them of himself. 'Learning to respond to such

standards and expectations of high performancp can be conceived of as learn-

,

ing a cognitive map of the world in which these standards and expectations

are, so to speak, a relelant part of the terrain' (Rosen & D'Andrade, 1969:

781..

The role -of parents in developing high achievemenemotivation in

their children has been examined by the same authors. Fathers of high

430
 405

n.Achievement boys tend to contribute more to their independence training

than do the mothers. They, on the other hand,Ptend to stress achievement

training, rather than independence training. As Rosen and D'Andrade note

(ibid., p. 83): 'Observers report that the mothers of high n Achievement

boys tend to be striving, competent persons. Apparently they expect their'

sons to be the same'.

Rosen has taken the concept of n Achievement further in an examina-

tion of differences between the upward mobility rates of a number of ethnic

groups, including Jews (Rosen, 1959). It constitutes one component of 'the

individual's psychological and cultural orientation towards achievement ...

The second and third components are cultural factors, one consisting of

certain value orientations which implement achievement-motivated behavior,

the other of culturally- influenced educational- vocational aspiration levels.

... This motive-value-aspiration complex has been called the Achievement

Syndrome'. Jews were found to stress achievement motivations, and are more

likely to possess achievement values and higher educational and vocational

aspirations than the Italians and French-Canadians in the sample used.

The reality constructions of the boys. at Lubavitcher School are

obviously compatible with these and similar findings from other studies
,a

(e.g. Strodtbeck, 1958). They also support the role of the Jewish mothers

in placing stress on their sons' achievement training, and provide a partial

explanation for the predominance of mothers at the teacher - parent interviews

we have noted above. Both through their own internalized high n Achievement,

and by the continuing pressures of their mothers, who were partly responsible

for it in the first place, boys bring to the school their needs to attain

high achievement, and high educational and vocational aspirations. Many

also want to learn how to be Orthodox Jews.

43i
 406

(b) Constraints in the school complex

Constraints have been identified through the 'reconstructed logic'

of the external observer, but it is important to nate that boys will be

influenced by then perceptions of the constraints. Stern (1962a: 29) has

drawn attention'to this factor and the issue of idiosyncratic versus con-

sensual perceptions, in the closely analogous need-press theory:

In the ultimate sense of the term, preSs refers to the

phenomenological world of the individual, the unique and
inevitably private view which each person has of the
events in which he takes part ... [but] there is a point
at which this private world merges with that of others ... -"°

Both the private and the mutually shared press are of

interest in their own right, but, in the final analysis,
the inferences we make as observers about the events in
which others participate.are the ultimate source of a
taxonomy of situational variables.

The dominant factor in the need of boys attending the school is

effective learning. For the young Chassid and average Orthodox boys it is

the pathway to Judaism, the sine qua non of Orthodoxy, enshrined in tradition,

enjoined in lAblical commandments, and constantly reiterated in rabbinical

writings.. For all boys, whether religious or less religious, learning is

the means to educational-vocational aspirations. The high n Achievement

le#el df boys can thus apply in both religious and secular domains. As

Strizower has suggested (1964: 150): 'Jews belong simultaneously to tl)

esteem systems, that of their own society and that of the host society'.

Success, i.e. gaining esteem in either one or the other, or both, is heavily

dependent on learning. It can be assumed with some confidence that boys

will assess the constraints at the school in terms of their success in

facilitating learning. Anything that frustrates it might be expected to

432
 11,

407

cause dissonance. If this cannot be reduced, frustration a'd stress are

likely to result.

(c) Strategies for reducing perceived dissonance

The school has been shown to consist of two enculturation matrices.

Each has its own constraints, some of which are sources of dissonance. By

interacting one with the other, the matrices can also set up a dissonance

situation. But, as long as it is conscioufly perceived, any dissonance

that the constraints generate within a matrix seems to be reducible by

various strategies open to the boys. In the secular matrix, we have seen

that they are adept at engineering reduction of dissonance by various forms

of negotiation and bargaining. At examination times, foil. instance, this

results in boys trying to attain what they perceived as clear gains in a few

extra marks. Their success goes some way towards satisfying their needs,

thus reducing dissonance and heightening satisfaction. Constraints relating

to the amount of'work from enculturation agents in the secular matrix are

manipulated, often to the boys' advantage, and again satisfy their needs.

Due to the small, intimate size of the school and relaxed nature

of staff-student relationships outside the classroom, in which the presence

of older Lubavitcher students and young ;71670*,4tom the Yeshivah Gedolah

plays some part, affiliati!:/e needs are also being met. Constraints due to

the decision-making processes among those in authority can often cause

dissonance, where boys are kept in ignorance of decisions that might affect

their futures. However, the efficient graPevine'in the school ensures that

little relevant information remains confidential for long, and there is

always an obvious air of satisfaction amon boys when s leaks out. It

is also apparent from their constructions the tworks, which link the

school to other educational organizations, that many boys know a great deal

43o
 408

about the inner workings and ramifications of the school. Such knowledge

might also he a source of satisfaction.

Constraints in the sacred enculturation matrix are likely to

s,

satisfy the needs of the.yOung Chassid and average Orthodox boy, but not

those of a"less Orthodox boy. For him there is a source of dissatisfaction

in the uncompromising stand of the rabbis on matters of belief, attendance

at collective worship, and adherence to Biblical knowledge. Dissonance is

/-
unlikely to be redUced unless the less Orthodox boy opts out of he sacred

matrix altogether. Some take this step by not attending the Morning Service

or some religious instruction classes. The same method of reducing disson-

ance is open to boys in the secular matrix. At lealt one fifth Form boy

regularly failed to turn up for classes, preferring instead to de4tote most

of his time to activities connected with the sacred matrix.

Where strain is experienced in performing religious duties,

dissonance can'be reduced by transferring the problem to a higher authority.

We have seen how the need of the Orthodox boys to maintain kasruth was a

problem, i.e. a source of dissonance, at the time of the Sah.l.n vaccine

injections, but was quickly reduced by seeking the opinion of the rabbi.

Dissonance c ( used by having to pray during excursions or at other schools,

as during the C.S.S.E. period; is reduced by commonsense strategies, such

as taking the necessary ritual equipment, or obtaining a special room in

. which to pray. Although some anxiety is apparent initially, it is quickly

dissipated by advice from the rabbi to take such measures, and dissonance

is consequently reduced.

(3) Dissonance from enculturation interference

As the dominant need of the boys is to learn knowledge to assist

reality construction, dissonance is most likely to occur in situations where

434
 409
41.

the availability and reliability of knowledge are problematical. At the

first level of analysis, we can see this occurring where enculturation

interference takes place. Here, the sacred matrix is obdurately opposed

to the secular matrix in the case of epistemological dualism, or more

subtly in the countervailing curriculum. At a higher level of analysis,

however, we can conceptualize a form of interference in what Bateson

termed 'deutero-learning' or 'met-learning', i.e. learning how to learn

(Bateson, 1958: 285-86). To say that enculturation interference at either

level 'causes' the behavioural patterns, which have been identified as a

source of stress in Jews, is tO force explanation beyond what may only be

correlation. However, it is likely that enculturation interference will

set up dissonance amdng some boys, but Only if this cannot be resolved are

their reactions likely to become pathological.

The fundamental reason has been suggested by Lewin (1967: 40).

The enculturation matrices can be conceptualized as two force fields. In

a situation where there is overlapping of two fob fields, conflict and

frustration are generated where equally stro g but opposite forces result

This results in a dissonance s on. We can

at some part of the field.

extend this analysis by hypothesizing that boys' perceptions of sources of

stress and dissonance in matrix constraints may enable them to reduce

dissonance. This is more likely to occur at the conscious level of

learning, but even here some undetected sources of dissonance may remain.

There is greater likelihood of more and unresolvable dissonance at the uncon-

scious level of deutero-learning, with the consequent conflict and frustra-

tion Lewin has conceptualized in overlapping force field situations.

(a) Dissonance at the conscious level of learning

A clear example of irreducible dissonance occurred when the sixth

 410

Form boys perceived theiencroachmentsof the sacred matrix on the time

demanded for study by the secular matrix. Their deputation to the Principal

... demanded a reduction, but this was refused, and dissonance remained.

However, their dissatisfaction with one senior master was passed on to the

Principal, and led to his replacement by arteacher whom the boys perceived

as more competent. In he first example, the students' demands were

frustrated, with some h ghtening of tension at the sixth Form level. In

the second case there was a lowering of tension. Ironically, however,

in the second instance the boys were able to gain better teaching as they

caw 1t, but only at the expense of studying late in the evening and attend

ing classes which often Vent on until 10 p.m., to accommodate the new

teacher's times.' Yet the net effect was a reduction in tension; the gain

in better teaching clearly outweighing the inconvenience and loss of time

during the evening.

Both incidents are examples of the congruencedissonance dimension

that-is conceptually at the heart of interactions between boys' needs and

situational constraints. In broad terms, two enculturation matrices were

involved in providing the constraints. In the attempt to reduce the sacred

matrix's demands on time, no compromise was obtained from the Principalkto

meet the needs of the boys, and dissonance was not reduced. Some relief

from tension was obtained, however, by altering the constraints of the

secular matrix, through appointing a better teacher. The net effect noted
A
was a reduction in dissonance, but not at.the expense of the sacred matrix.

'Indeed, for the boy who was against loss of time for religious activities,

any reduction in time devoted to the sacred matrix might well have increased

his perceived dissonance.

ti

43t
 411

From the ethnographic data it is apparent that no comprdmises were

made throughout the year in the constraints of the sacred matrix in any
this to
Form. In view of its strictly Orthodox character, we might expect

have been the case in the school. Those boys, who place their religious

need above their educational-vocational need, are clearly not disadvantaged.

However, their parents express some dissatisfaction at the encroachment the

sacred matrix makes into the secular domain, and have commented on the strain

it produces in their boys. They also hint that some confl#t in the home

occurs when boys are more religious than their parents.

Reduction of dissonance due to epistemological dualism is possible

ing for the other.

by filtering out the cognitions of one world view and
h the strategy of
It is clear that the Lubavitcher adherents do this thr
Torah-
seeing scientific knowledge as indeterminate and theoretical, and

true knowledge as,completely valid. Less Orthodox boys might experience

continued dissonance if they cannot accept such an interpretation, and

resentment against the Lubavitcher rabbis and young Chassidic supporters,

hostility)
who promote such a view, might be sufficient to cause conflict and
Chassid,
We have seen it flare up occasionally in class against the young
teachers
and some of the hostility shown to teaching rabbis and lay religious

Certainly, there is no way that the less

can be attributed to this cause.
discussed by
Orthodox boy can reduce dissonance by one of the strategies
Orthodox
Festinger and Aronson (1968: 133), namely, by persuading the more
does. As
Lubavitcher adherents and teachers that they'should believe as he
practised at the school
we have seen, adherents of the Great Tradition as

are totally uncompromising.

The reverse' situation applies to4the young Lubavitcher adherents.

their peers
Although they might experience dissonance over having some of

437
 412

uncommitted tp their Lubavitcher ideology; there is evidence to suggest

that they manageto win over a number of boys during the year, such is

its charismatic attraction and outreach effectiveness. Any residual

dissonance remaining for the Lubavitcher adherents can be resolved by

another reduction strategy suggested by Fectinger and Aronson .(ibid., loc.

cit.), namely, by obtaining the, support of other believers in the Movement.

It is unlikely that the attitudes and beliefs of the Lubavitchet

students and Orthodox boys would change to accommodate dissonance exptiti-4

enced from the secular matrix. As Jahoda has suggested, citing Lombard

(1962: 43-56), religious values are most resistant to change. However,

it should not be assumed that some attitudinal conflict might not still be

present. In two studies of the effects of Western secular values on

traditional value systems, Dawson (1969a, 1969b) had found that untesolved

attitudinal donflict is 'highest for traditional, high-affect attitudinal

objects such at magic and religion, rather than for non-sectarian objects.

Unrecognized dissonancei.n this dimension'may underlie the militancy and

arrogance of 4e young Chassid, which are forms of compensatory behaviour

for attitudinal conflict.

A further form of compensatory behaviour migbe exhibited by

those boys who are neither Orthodox nor aademically able. Unable to

compete effectively in the activities that gain esteem in either matrix,

As
they occupy a status analogous to that of 'stabilized accommodation'.

a minority group in the Form - and such a group has been shown to exist by

sociometric measures - their appropriate responses are defined by the

dominants (Harden & Meyer, 1968: 35).

438
 O

413

The psychological costs of this system are high. For

the minority person it may effect his perception of reality ....

A stabilized subordinate position may create difficulty for a
member of the subordinate group in handling repressed hostility
and inevitable resentment. A variety of devices often develop'
to help him ease his psychic burden: clowning, intragrdup
aggression, fantasy, as well as psychological disorder of
greater or lesser severity.

It can be hypothesized,in the case of several'boys that the demands of having

to cope with the constraints of both matrices, instead of being able to,
rti

coneentrate all their energies on one, and possibly succeed and gain esteem,

may have been the soot cause of their very obvious, pathological behaviour

in class. 0,

Other boys may haveamore success in coping with both matrices.

Research and theory suggest (e.g. Gluckman, 1940; Firth, 1954; Barnes, 1962;

Mitchell, 1966; Witkin, 1971) that matrix switching or situational selection

may be possible without a great degree of strain. Boys can opt for the

Values, knowledge, and behaviour expected in one matrix, and the. 'enter'

the other matrix (as they do several times daily) and adopt its values,

knowledge, and behaviour. Switching from Hebrew to English, and back again,

might be achieved with the same degree of efisP, Successful matrix switching

is more likely to be accomplished by boys who are academically able, and

thus confident performers in either mat.X

(b) Dissonance at the unconscious level of deutero-learning

Enculturation interference resulting from the operation of the

countervailing curriculum has the potential to produce varying degrees of

dissonance. But it is apparent that they are pot of the type which might

result in the total opposition of forces in overlapping force fields, that

are seen by Lewin as necessary to produce frustration and conflict. Avenues ,.

. 43
 414

are.available for dissonance reduction, where it is perceiVed by the boys,

-bat at,the unconscious level of deutero-learning this may not be the case. .

-0-1.1ch stress is placed on learning in the Jewish culture as a

whole,vahOor the boys at the school in particular, that one must speculate

whether a higher level of learning, i.e. that 11earning how to learn, may

form part of a'boy's character structure. As it is an unrecognized cm-

.

ponent,in nAch, boys may not be ablc to reconcile the causes of felt

dissonancei and may thus experience frustration and conflict.

Deutero-learning in the sense used here is an abstract or higher.

order of learning, in which a person improves his ability to deal with con-

straints in learning situations or contexts.6 The person comes to act more

and more as if contexts of this type are expectable in !cis universe.

Deutero-learning will presumablybe a process of character formation, whereby

. \

the individual is enabled to live as if in a universe where the methods of

learning are expectable. What the individual learns; or fails to learn, from

the formal constraints in the contexts of learning can be the clue /to his-
,

present habits, character, and the manner of'participating in the interaction

<7,

between himself and others. An individual in a relationship with another

involving learning will tend, perhaps unconsciously, to form the habit of

acting as if he is expectirlg constraints facilitating learning in further

encounters with that other, and perhaps even more widely in further

encounters with other individuals and components of interaction settings.

An enculturation matrix' for formal learning is a form of self-

multi-directional feedback or synectic system. A member of it

directing

.6 The following argument draws heavily on the ideas of Bateson (1958:

285 ff.), but introduces supplementary concepts' particularly that of
the synectic system ,(Gordon, 1961). Basic concepts from cybernetic
theory are also involved (Wiener, 1954)

440
 415

learns learning patterns, and comes to expect a similar typd of behaviour

4

from others in the system. He acts in such a way that they will also experi-

ence those contexts within which they too will learn learning behaviour.

The synectic quality of the system derives from the inputs into it from

one member, which affect the environments of others inqg way that will cause

a similar generation of inputs from them. Some of these will be positive,

de

and will reinforce the progressive dtvelopment of leaLiling more and better,

learning behavior:L ONer inputS may be negative, and will inhibit develop-

ment. However, what ver the type of inputs that ensue from ther members

of the system; they will act back upon the initial individual to produce.

further change in him in a like direction.

/7
The analogy, that such a system conjures up, is that of a fast-
'

breeder nuclear reactor, which may go some way towards explaining the

feeling one has in the school of super-charged, intensity of learning.

However, a synectic system requires either internal or external checks

unless it is to reach a runaway state. The regular vacations are one form

of rhPek, as they disband the system. Examinations are another regulator,

evaluation
as these suspend the learning activity in favour of summative

and asse*sment of the amount and quality of the learning that has taken

place in the system. In the case of the religious Festivals at the school!,

boys
these also suspend the system for a period, and it is significant that

xefer to some Festivalssuch as Purim, Succor and Simchas Torah as oppor-

tunities.for 'letting off steam'.

The constraints of `such a deutero-learning ,Rystem in Lubavitther

School are intense, as the boys.h.ave to cope with what might be termed
it,
information overload, and learning td learn, i.e. learning to cope with

hs the strength of a categorical imperative. The high level of nAch, that

441
 416

we have suggested applies in theccase of most if not all the boys, further -

motivates their endeavours. It ialittle wonder, therefate, that,one of

lb
the n3ost apparent phenomena in the class is anxiety over task performance.

From ethnographic data we have seen how boys constantly need reassurance

th%p.they are doing something correctly, not, it should be stressed, that

what they are learning is correct. The tension and insecurity Venerated
a
by teachers setting work in an unfamiliar way has also been noted in data.

Frustration and conflict can be generated at the deutero-level

by a number of enculturation interference mechanisms.' As deutero-learning

depends on boys receiving the 'signals' of those putting inputs into the .

synectic system, anything that distracts them, or provides other signals,

which are dysfunctional for detkero-learning, constitute a form of 'noise'.

Possible sources of 'noise' have been identified in the-covert operation of

the countervailing curriculum.

A quite fundamental source of interference is the dualism that has

been shown to exist at the epistemological level. The knowledge and logic

of the Great Tradition constitute a 'closed system', i.e. one in which the

knowables are fixed (Postman & Weingartner, 1971: 115 ff.). Answers in

such a system re right or wrong, unequivocal, and without any other

Pos ibility. Apart from mathematips and other physical sciences in the
---
Academic Tradition, which are also closed systems to a large extent, other

disciplines are more or less 'open' systems in which there are degrees of

rightness. The term system in this context, according to Postman and

Weingartner, 'refere to situations in which we are trying to know something,

in which we are trying to assign meanings'.

Answers to problems in teaching-learning situations can be derived

from both systems, but it is becoming evident in education that those from

442
 417

closed systems are of less and less relevance, either to the accumulation

of knowledge or the constructiotoof reality. As Postman and Weingartner

comment (ibid) p, 118): 'Closed problems simply leave out too much to

produce a viable answer to any question except one that is so abstract,

that the answer doesn't make any difference to human,beings as they go

about the business of trying to cope with an ever-changing environment'.

It is thus possible that some of the conflict tension that develops in

reli4ious instruction classes may be due to boys seeking to apply open

0
system answers to closed system problems, and meeting the uncompromising

stance of the rabbis.

In secular classes on the other hand, closed system answers may

potential
be applied to open system problems with similar frustration and

conflict. In subjects such ha history, economics, geography, social

learning
studies, and English literature, there is a move away from rote
-\
towards the
of masses of facts to be regurgitated at an examination,
knowledge to novel
development of reasoning ability and the application of

problem situations. Such methods of assessment are used in the C.S.S.E.

and V.U.S.E.B. examination papers. It was quiteiepparent when boys were

strategies,
preparing for these that they were attempting to apply learning
with
particularly rote memory, more appropriate to the Great Tradition,

consequent frustration and tension. Much'of their querulous hostility in

class, during the lessons practising with external examination'papers,

to be learned
arose from my insistence that there are no 'correct' answers
apply basic
for them, but only the ability to reason out problems and

principles.

There is thus the distinct possibility that a considerable part

generated by
of the frustration, conflict and tension in the classroom is

I
413
4
 418

dissonance at the deutero-learning level. For this reason it is situational,

as the boys do not construct out-of-class activities as 'real' learning.

Boys' hostility to staff in the classroom may be due to their inability to

promote learning as the boys construct it. The boys are unab1e to reduce

dissonance at the deutero-learning level because it is part of their

character stmuctures, andC, in the final analysis, is a product of their

culture. Thus the dynamics of the'classroom are generated by both unknown

psychological forces as well as the boys' perceptions of the social"

exchanges appropriate in teaching-learning situatiops.

(4) Towards a theory of enculturation dissonance 1'

L+1 Reality construction and the process.of enculturation comprise one

of the cultural imperatives of any socio-cultural group, and thus must be

considered universal. The form it takes, however, is culture-specific,

tradition and formal

and one socio-cultural group's social organization of

enculturation has been described and analysed above. The concept of

enculturation inte)rfereARe has been used to explain why reality construction

behavioural
in, the case of a number of boys at Lubavitcher School produces

indices of anxiety, frustration and conflict. It has.been postulated that

levels
they may be due to boys' inability to resolve the dissonance at two

of learning. Of these, the higher-order level of deutero-learning-may be

Being unrecognized, the

the domain in which unrecognized dissonance occurs.
P

associates may
dissonance reduction strategies suggested by Festinger and

not apply. The boys are thus caught in a synectic system, in Which conflict

The dynamics
and frustration are generated by'multi-directional feedback.
cut-off control so that the anxiety,
of the system have a self-regulatory

frustration, and conflict are periodically checked or discharged through

forms of catharsis.
e
44,i
 419

If,we adopt the viewpoint that learning and deutero-learning are

components in the total enculturation process, then it follows that they

are culturally constructed, in exactly the same way as the enculturation

process itself is culturally constructed. Learning, i.e. constructing

reality, will have as its corol)cy deutero-construction of reality. Both

are problematical, but it may be that interference to the latter produces

a different degree and kind of uncertainty, in that it is part of the

person's character structure and accessible only through personal intro-

spection, either unaided or with the assistance of (appropriate psychiatric

measures.

Enculturation interference will be likely to occur wherever the

child is presented with competing traditions and world views. These may

be highly formalized.as in a great tradition, or relatively diffuse and

informal - the 'little tradition' of which Redfield (19,56: 41) and Singer

(1960) write. Numerous examples maybe cited throughout the world of

traditions and world views in opposition and even competition. In such

situations lie the seeds of enculturation dissonance. We can think of

ethnic minorities, migrant groups, peasant communities, and pre-literate

cultures within wider macro-systems as being potentially vulnerable to the

phenomenon.

The child-centred view of education adopted throughout thiEk

analysis has employed an enculturation matrix model as the heuristic device

to focus on salient aspects of the formal education in one school. It is a

model that may be universally applicable, however, and may provide the con-

ceptual basis for a theory of enculturation dissonance.

A child constructs a view of the self and reality through recip-

rocated interaction with components of successive enculturation matrices

445
 420

from the moment of birth. He also deutero-learns how to construct reality,

an \ this process is internalized to become part of his character structure.

As a result of interactions with components of the matrices the child,

accumulates a variety of percepts, building towards his tacit theory of

the world. Although the process is problematical to some extent, there

is basic congruence at both the existential and deutero7levelsof reality

construction, if the enculturation matrices are validated by common tradi-

tions and values.

For the purposes of this general theory, the possibility milcit be

raised that inormal'Odeutero-learning will be inhibited if any components

in an encultUfation matrix accessible to the child are pathological in

terms, of his socio-cultural group's definitions of normality and pathology.

' For instance, a child's parents may be mentally defective, and present

ws of reality that are distortions of the 'objective' reality, that

ht otherwise be presented to the child. Under such circumstances the

child may experience enculturation dissonance of pathological origins.

In cases where the child is exposed to two enculturation matrices

validated by differing traditions and values, either wholly or in part,

enculturAion dissonance is likely to occur at both levels of reality con-

e
struction. Where discrepant percepts are recognized, the child will adopt

various dissonance reduction strategies to ameliorate felt stress. His

degree of success or failure will depend on the malleability of the percepts,

and willingness on the part of agents in the enculturation matrix to let

him work in his own way to reconcile the recognized discrepancies. Addition-

ally, success will also depend on the congruence of the two types of deutero-

learning embodied in the two matrices. Where these are not unduly discrepant,

dentero-learned ways of constructing reality can be applied to the novel

Mp

44 t;
 421

Ar. situation and new percepts. Wbere there is lack of congruence at the

result.
deutero-level, enculturation dissonance of varying degrees must

The child is then in the overlapping force-field situation

He will
hypothesized by Lewin, with consequent conflict and frustration.

socio-cultural group. In
react with behaviour that is app,. priate to his
for% of
the Jewish school, for instance, we have seen that this takes the

aggression, anxiety, tension and hyperactivity. In other cultures, apathy,

respolises.
withdrawal, and passivity might be the more culturally-appropriate

Failure to recognize the source of frustration and conflict

behaviour, and may
prevents the child from adopting the appropriate coping
innocent members of the enculturation
lead to aggression-displacement onto
objects and
matrix - the scapegoating syndrome - or destructively against
Such failure is more
property in the spatial environment of the matrix.
0
enculturation,
likely to result from dissonance at the deutero-level of

where the cause is buried in the character o e child himself.

111/1

(5) Conclusion

This thesis has explored the paradigm case of a school in a

tkieValues and beliefs of two trad-
Western industralized society in which

itions compete for boys' commitment. Their opportunities for praxis have

been shown to be severely curtailed. Although little should be generalized

beyond the scope of the present study, one is justified in hypothesizing

generated may
that the grounded theory of enculturation dissonance it has

have wider application particularly in multi-cultural societies.

\
The past decade or more in education in Australia, Gieat Britain

and the United States - to name only threettountries - has seen an increas-

ing degree of student unrest amounting almost to alienation and anomie in

4 ,
 422

many schools : Coinciding with these phenomena has been an increase in

the cultural diversity of the schools' student populations due to the

influx of migrant and ethnic minority pupils from a variety of origins.

In consequence, schools have become places where hetero-cultural en-

counters axe commonplace, and w..Tre the values and beliefs of. great as

well as little traditions are in confrontation, if not conflict. Con-

ceptually, this is the situation in which enculturation dissonance is a

possible outcome. The value of the theory proposed here may be measured

by the extent to which it helps to explain'and predict the phenomena we

vi=

'are now witnessing in'Western education systems.

448
 APPENDIX 1

HFIELDWORK TECHNOLOGY, META-METHOD AND

PROBLEMATICS OF RESEARCH

None of us can truly say that his way of work is

necessarily the best way or that it eitheeshould or will
prevail over all others. All advance in knowledge is a

dialectic, a-conversation. To hear the relative truth

of what one is one's self saying one must listen to what
the other worker says about what one's self has described
otherwise.

Robert Redfield

449
 '424

APPENDIX 1
A

FIELDWORK TECHNOLOGY, META-METHOD AND -II

PROBLEMATICS OF RESEARCH

C The rationale of a research project and the fieldwork techniques

O
it employs, together with the logic underlying its methodology, are often

implicit, rather than explicit, in the resultant publication. In many cases,

detailed consideration of such matts may be superfluous. For instance,

the commonly used quantitative, hypothetico-deductive approach as summarized

by Oppenheim (1966: 1-2) may have an inherent methodological logic that,

makes any explicit statement about the research which employed it unnecessary.

However, where a project departs significantly from this model, some outline

of the methodology used seems desirable.

Depres has suggested (1968: 6 & f.n.) that 'methodology is funda-

mentally a matter of communications ... part art, part logic, and part

technology'. This Appendix firstly gives a descriptive summary of the

:chronological order of the research and the kinds of data-gathering

'technology' used. Some of them raise theoretical issues concernirtg the

logic of doing research the way it was carried out, and the fieldwork

'prti.blematics' it involved. Following Strodtbeck (1969: 19-28) I attempt

to make explicit these 'considerations of meta-method' that informed this

research.

(1) Fieldwork - chronology and ganization

Fieldwork within the school was carried out over nearly fourteen

months from mid-January 1969 to mid-March 1970, when I had to resign due

to ill-health caused by the of work from other commitments. This

period comprised an entire academic year, including holidays, acid some six

450
 425

weeks of the following academic year. It covered more than the twelve

months recommended as a minimal period for ethnographic fieldwork

(Valentine, 1968: 183), and enabled me to study the functioning of the

school through its complete religious and academic cycles. The extra six

weeks or so provided a'limited opportunity to check data obtained early in

the previous year when I was still finding my feet, and missed some-

episodes in both cycles.

During the first year I managed to maintain formal teaching con-

tact with school classes for an average total of twenty forty-minute

periods per week during Term time. Contact of various kinds, and for

different purposes and duration, was possible with all Forms in the

secondary school. I supervised Forms 1 and 2 for one period a week each,

while they got on with work set by another teacher. I taught geography

to Forms 3 and 4 as complete groups for a number of periods per week.

The latter was the most important, as I also had administrative respon-

sibility for it as a Form master. I metonly aproportion of the fifth and

six Forms; teaching geography to the former and social studies to the

latter. As their work was oriented towards public examinations at the end

of the year, opportunities to gather information were correspondingly

limited.

Although relieved of playground supervision, I was required to

attend other educational functions at the school: infrequent staff meetings,

school assemblies and special gatherings, parents' meetings during the

evening, and the final Speech Night. Whenever other commitments permitted,

I came to the school at off-duty times, which,,gave opportunities to observe

its activities without the restriction of being in class teaching. On one

or two days a week, the arrangement of my time table allowed for spare

451
 426

However, as
periods, which were used initially to prepare or correct work.
intensity of
the year progressed, with the concomitant need to increase the

Participant observation,, this kind of schoolwork was done at home during

the evenings, and the time gained during the day,given to research.

In the second year, foxuial teaching had to be curtailed to six

students
periods a week after normal school hours, with one large group of
Teaching
taking Higher School Certificate (Matriculation) social studies.

this group extended into the late afternoon and evening. By that time the

senior boys
rest of the school had gone home, with the exception of other

compelled to stadeAte for evening classes. Thus opportunities for

Nor
research were almost non-existent. However, I could still drop into the

it as a
school at other times by virtue of my continuing association with

teacher. On these occasions it was possible to meet pupils from my previous

classes on a more informal basis, though data gained were limited.

School vacations and weekends were major gaps in contact, as

opportunities to come to school as if in the normal course of teaching

111

duties were difficult to arrange. On one or two occasions I came in to see

the activities on a Sunday morning, but the curiosity and excited reaction
the ordinary
of the boys appeared to indicate that my presence was so out of

that the practice was discontinued for fear of making my research work too

obvious and thus jeopardizing normal work. Other opportunities for more

informal interaction with boys arose `during geography excursions, a farewell

party at a boy'sjIpme for one of my Form going on aliyah,1 and the visit to

the neighbouring high school for the C.S.S.E. Howevef, these were seen as

normal by the boys, and no comments occured.

AZiyah (Heb.) 'ascent', 'going up'. Used here in the sense of making
a visit to Israel.

452
 421

Outreach contacts 1th some'boys were also compatiblle with my

role of schoolmaster. I was able to visit several homes to give boys

special coaching, or to discuss theiF.progress with their parents. In

one of these cases, my visits for these purposes.shaded off into lengthy

discussions about Judaism in general, and the function of the school In

promoting the Lubavitcher ideology. The parents of the boys'cOncerned

knew of my general research interests, and later in the year were instru-

mental in enabling me to attend two important ceremonies: a Bar Mitzvah

and its following communal meal, and a meal in the succah, which the

family shared with others.in a block of.,Q..ats. Both opportunities to

-share in these occasions were deeply appreciates. The lat er was parti-
A

cularly important'as it gave considerable insight into the continuity of

ritual life that takes place outside the shut, and how,important the

family is in Judaism.

(Research opportunities outside my role as a teacher involved

wholly religious activities. Unless prevented by illness or unavoidable

'commitments, I wasp able to attend worship at the synagogue for most major

religious Festivals, coughout the ye ar. My participation in the services

was unavoidably limited as the Liturgy is in Hebrew, and announcement's to

the congregation are in,Yiddish. On several occasions I was indebted to

the boys I ipght, who came over to me to peAnt out the place in the

Hebrew-English edition of the prayer book I had obtained. However, this

was not always successful; as worship,followed the LUbavitcher liturgical

order, which differs in many respects from that in the prayer book I used.

Thropgh the kind agency of Jewish friOUs, I was abld to take part in the

Sabbath midday meal following attendance at Morning Service; and also the

Seder or home ceremony on Erev Pesach. During the weekend prior to this

453
 428

I was able to watch the elaborate, ritual preparations and the baking of

shmurah matzah at the schoOl. As well as these special occasions, contact

with indi4idual and group worship was a frequent occurrence in the course

of my normal duties during the day..

(2) Fieldwork tethno10y

A number of factors militated against using conventional,

structured questionnaires during fieldwork. The Principal had asked me,

not to question the boys very early on in the period, although I had not

been doing so until then. There was alsoconsiderable sensitivity, on the

of a
part of the boys themselves about tackling anything that smacked

sociological questionnaire. A survey conducted two years earlier had

made-some of them suspicious of such methods of data gathering, so much so,

they informed me with some triumph, that many of the answers they gave on

that particular occasion had been faked.2 Even_the well-concealed,

unobtrusive measures that I had to resort to did not escape comment from

boys, parents and the Principal.

In consequence I employed a battery of data-gathering techniques,

by Becker
allied to regular participant observation of the type described
1:i'iticipates in
and Geer (1970: 133) as 'that method in which the observer
the role of
the daily life of the people under study, either openly in
that happen,
researcher or covertly in some disguised role, observing things
of
listening to what is 6aid, and questioning people, over some length

time'. As I could not do the latter by the 'classical' method of inter-

1966), and more
viewing informantS, ad hoc unobtrusive measures (Webb et aZ,
I accumulated a mass of
systematic projective instruments were employed.

Study
2 One of the surveys conducted for the 1966-67 Jewish Community
in Melbourne.

454
 429
fl

'physical trace' and 'archive' material, and also noted 'accretions', i.e.

examples of behaviour traces which are laid down 'naturally' without the

intervention of the observer (ibid., p. 39). At the end of the first year

it was possible to take a number of photographs of boys and the campus

using a 35 mm. camera. Official photographs of the boys and some major

religious events are available from commercial photographers or the weekly

Jewish press, and also added to my material. The net result of my

'ethnographic vacuum cleaner' activities (Silverman, 1972: 206) is a

synchronic picture of the schoole, which conveys meaning not only through

its factual content, butIalso by the very media or form in which it is

recorded. Pace McLuhan (1967), the medium is the message, and adds weight

to the data by reminding me in a subtle way of the time, occasion and,

more importantly, the 'atmosphere' of the events I witnessed.

Direct observation of events is usually contaminated by the

presence of the observer himself, but uncontaminated observation was

occasionally possible at the school by using the women's balcony as a

point frord which to watch events in the shuZ belot;/ during the day. Micro-

ethnographic observations which attempted to reduce observer contamination

were far less successful in classrooms, on the occasions when I was only

supp d to supervise work set by another teacher, as the boys were alert

to anything I did. It was never possible to use the types of sophisticated

ceding inventories, time sampling, behavioural grids, and other data-

gathering devices employed by such workers as Flanders (1960), Adams (1970),

Biddle (1967), Stith (1967), Jackson (1968), Smith and Geoffrey (1968).

Instead I had to rely on a simplified coding technique to record behaviours,

V

by noting the time a transaction occurred, whether it was self,i0her, or

object directed, who were initiators, and who were targets of the transactions,

11r-
t) i)
r.
 430

and who were involved as an interested audience. It was usually possible

to mask what Iwas doing at the teacher's desk by pretending to correct

work. However, I was never an uninvolved observer, as my supervisory role

necessitated keeping order, answering,questions, or otherwise interfering

ca
ti

in the stream of behaviour I was hoping to observe. What I recorded was

thus no doubt heavily contaminated by the observer effect, but still gives,

both quantitative and qualitative evidence of boys' behaviour in class.

is
Examples of two junior Forms are given in Appendix 6. To assist the des-

criptions each boy is identified in a schematic location grid by a randomly

allocated letter (Figures A6.1 & A6.2).

In contrast to measures which centre on the observer himself, I

used a variety of instruments in which the boys were able to provide data

that were minimally contaminated. The instruments served both teaching and

research ends. For ethical and pedagogical reasons they were not used in

the fifth or sixth Forms, both of which faced external examinations at the

end of the year. With one exception, these were disguised measures although

ostensibly they formed part of on-going classwork. The exception was the

occasion when my research interest in Judaism was stated. This occurred

right at the end of my first year when I felt able to reveal it to my own

Form. Following the work of Radke described by Yarrow (1958), I asked the

boys to write down on a piece of paper their.answers to a projective

question - what it meant to them to be a Jew, and also to note whether

Yiddish was spoken in to home.3 By that, time a. small number of boys had

left the Form to go home or on vacation .before the official school break-up,

so my data in this instance are incomplete but very valuable.

My other sources of data were sociograms, and various projective

techniques. I used a form of pictorial attitude test modelled on the

3
A similar question was used in the Melbourne survey (Medding, 1973: 276)

45 t
 431

`) Thematic Apperception Test AT) technique, a sentence completion

questionnaire, and a geography-based project Sociological Studies in

Geography (Appendices 2 & 3). Each was administered at a time during

the academic year when the need to do so arose naturally and

I/
spontaneously as part of on-going classwork. Although theguse of

disguised measures raises a number of ethical issues, my instruments

thus performed important educational functions in addition to gathering

data.

Sociometry was used in Forms 3, 4 and 5 to establish work groups

of compatible students to undertake specific tasks such as projects,

fieldwork excursions, or educational visits. The resu)ant sociograms

thus reflect one of the important desiderata of this technique, namely,

to be relevant to a conceivable task, ratheft.Oban to a fictitious enterprise

(Appendix 7).

The technique of sociometry, originally developed by Moreno

(1953, 1960), has been subsequently refined to become a major method of

investigating the 'preference structure' in a small group. This is the

'network of likes, dislikes, and indifferenes which links its members to

one another' (Sprott, 1958: 44). Essentially it consists of asking each

individual within the group to name those with whom he would most like to

work, in any given activity. After noting replies and preferences,

analysis can take the form of a sociomatrix, sociometric scale, or visually

as a sociogram. To Madge (1953:35), the latter has been notably successful

as an aid to understanding and bridging the 'conceptual gap between the

human group and the human individual'.

However, despite this somewhat optimistic claim, the *hnique

has to be used with caution. Moreno himself pointed out that the criteria

ri
 412

of selection used in sociometric testing should'be relevant to the situation,

or 'real' in thesense that they refer to a specific taaleO-f importance and

relevance to the group rather than to a hypothetical or Imaginary situation.

Interpretation of the data obtained from sociometry must also be

carried out with care. Although it is often claimed loosely that it reveals

the group's 'social structure', it is doubtful whether statuses can be

validly inferred from data which refer more to likes, dislikes, aversions,

cliques, rejects and similar aspects. Neither can leaders be identified with'

certainty, as Dunphy (1969: 79) has shown: questions explicitly asking

members of h group to state who led them usually resulted in answers that

indicated that very few adolescers recognize leaders. Connell and others

(1957: 62), in a study of Sydney adolescents, reported that 'seventy percent

ti

of all the adolescents claime& that there was no recognized-leader in their

group'. To infer even from a task-oriented sociometric questionnaire of the

type used at the school that the data obtained indicate the task leaders of

the groups is questionable. There could well be overlap or transfer of the

qualities toys saw as desirable in the socio-centres of the groups - the

most liked persons - and those they saw as desirable in the instrumental

leader the most ryspected person. As Dunphy has commented about this

important distinction: 'In all groups these:IL basic role types appear

necessary, and are often assumed by different persons' (1969: 37).

Morrison and McIntyre (1969: 114) have pointed out that 'sociometry
o

.is by itself a lilted technique, which cannot reveal such things as the

relative status of different sub-groups, the causes of their formation, or

their norms. It is therefore best used together with other techniques'.

Madge (1953: 233) has added a similar caution that sociometric devices 'are

integral with the active and mature theory of interpersonal relations developed

456
 433

by Moreno'. He warns that 'some investigators are tempted to use them out

of character, merely as additional means of assembling empirical material'.

With due attention to these cautions, sociometry provides a

valuable adjunct to other methods in school-based research as Evans (1962),

Hargreaves (1967), and King (1969) have demonstrated. The results of my

own use of this technique discussed in Chapter 12 shoulA be`seen6in the

same light.

Opportunities to use the projective techniques arose when boys

in my Form were preparing for their Commonwealth Secondary ScholaPhip

Examination. Past papers available for practice included both verbal,

photographic and pictorial (diagrammatic) projective stimuli as the bases

of questions in the Written Expression, and Comprehension and Interpretation

sections of t e fout-part smination. A is normal in many schools, I took

the boys over umerous 'dry usi,....bac papers, as well as the e4

tests I constr ted, or the assumption that similar methods would be used

in the papers f r which they were preparing. My choice of tests was vindicated

when the 1969 exaifiination papers were finally available, and were seen to

include questions constructed in a manner similar to my own.

However, besides giving considerable practice at the skills evaluated,

the boys' answers to the various instruments provided valuable data about their

attitudes and constructions of social reality. The pictorial attitude test

and sentence completion questionnaire were also administered to a control

cz.

group of boys at the same Grade level in a neighbouring Church of England,

Independent boys school. Their Form Master, a personal friend of mine,

administered them under conditions which as far as possible replicated those

operating when my own Form attempted the same exercises. The resultant data

are invaluable as a basis from which to draw tentative conclusions about,

455
 434

attitudes revealed in the salliple from my own Form.

The use of projective techniques raises a number of problems of

I

interpretation and validity. More criticisms appear to be levelled at them

when used in such clinical fields as psychoanalysis, psychotherapy and

personality measurement rather Can in social research. The arguments,

such as those put forwardfby Eysenck (1957: 218-30),are necessary

reminders of the many dangers over-reliance on the projective technique can

lead to.

However, despite his trenchant criticisms of its use in clinical

areas., the same writer concedes that the ThematiCApperception Test has been

shown to have a high degree of success in eliciting subjects' political

attitudes (ibid., p. 219-20). It is in the field of measuring attitudes

that projective techniques appear to find most, if still, qualified, support.

The arguments for and against, put by such workers as Campbell (1950),
o
Selltiz et al (1959),Oppenheim (1966), among others, are sufficiently well

known as not to need repetition here. As Selltiz et al note ,(1959: 314):

'In summary: Much more investigation of the validity of indirect tests is

needed . ., before they can make their full contribution to social research'.

However, their attractIon for my purposes was at least threefold.

Because I had been denied opportunities to carry out overt research into

attitudes, using Scaled questionnaires, the obvious substitute was the .

Projective technique,'despite its known imperfections. My use of it was

perfectly consistent with the needs of the boys at the time and the instru-

ments I adopted matched those in past examination papers, and fairly accurately

predicted the type of questions the boys ultimately answered. Thus my

instruments served clear educational ends, which were obvious to the boys

and reduced the likelihood that they would be seen as related to research

4o
 435

interests, even if these were suspected. The boys',answers are thus

likely to be more genuine, and related to their real attitudes, than might

otherwise be the case. My interest was in the attitudes and social *

in any clinical
constructions of reality the tests revealed, rather than,/in

psychological conditions that mijht be present. Interpreting these would,

in any case, have been far outside my sphere of competence. Perhaps a final

argument in their favour 'is the instruments' known imperfections. As

F
Webb at aZ note (1966: 3), the essence of the triangulation of measurement

process is the scope it offers for using imperfect measures. 'If a proposition

can survive the onslaught of a series of imperfect measures, with all their

irrelevant error, confidence should be placed in it'.

The long geography project (Sociological Studies in Geography) is

a'major departure from the traditions of social research. As far as I am

aware it is an innovation among the techniques labelled by Selltiz et al as

'structured disguised instruments'. The rationale behind its development has

been discussed elsewhere (Bullivant, 1970), and is included as a preface to

Appendix 3.

The project was first and foremost an educational exercise,

evaluating'several months of work in a geography course during which all the

requisite academic skills, lc,

owledge and concepts had been taught, as part
ti

and parcel of many others in the syllabus prepared for the Form. It was only

secondarily a structured, disguised research instrument; its potential in

this respect having become obvious whedlit was being prepared' and some parts

evaluated in junior Forms. At the stage of the year for which it was designed,

participant observation had begun to yield diminishing returns, particularly

in the area of boys' extra-ctfLcular and out-of-school backgrounds, and their

constructions of reality.

7'

O
 436

However, even this instrument did not 'Pass without comment from

boys' parents, and the whole quest on raises the very great difficulty of

using virtually any instrument in a field situation where a high degree of

inherent suspicion exists Along all subjects about being 'investigated'.

One can only make one's research measures as eclectic and multi-operational

as possible, so that data can be regularly validated by 'data triangulation'.

In this way, results that receive repeated confirmation can be taken with a

fair degree of confidence. The degree to which gaps exist in data may even

be of positive worth as indicative of how closely the subjects manage to

guard their lives from outsiders. As Poll has noted in his study of a

Chassidic community in Wilflamsburg (1962), even for a fellow Jew such

dpfensive reactions are maintained. My success as a goy can be viewed in

this light.

(3) Meta-methodology and fieldwork problematics

(a) Considerations of meta-method

Implicit in the technology described above is a logic of fieldwork'

P
that rejects the hypothetico-deductive research paradigm, which has been

challenged as the sine qua non of social research by such writers as

Hanson (1958a, 1958b), Popper (1959, 1963), and Strodtbeck (1964).

Instead, it foiows Filstead's injunction that sociologists should choose

research means that are appropriate to the area of investigation and ends in

view (1970: vii). 'It is'inexcusable to force the research problem into an

a priori scheme of technical paraphernalia rather than observing it in the

context of the empirical world being investigated'. His observation has

particular force for''much educational researc hitherto, which, in Gordon's

view (1970: 12) has been 'dominated by concern with hypothesis testing or

4(32
 437

verification to the neglect of investigation based on careful and

systematic observation'.

An alternative to the hypothetico-deductive paradigm may be a

dialectical approach to fieldwork. As Murphy suggests (1972: 89-90):

The total impact of a dialectic is destructive of

neat systems and ordered structures, and compatible with
the notion of a social universe that has neither fixity
nor solid bounds es. It is the mood and style of
dialectics more than set dogma that can inform .social
anthropologists.

Dialectical research involves the constant resolution of dilemmas

and problems in an -going, fluid, field situation. Operational hypotheses

have to be forme o accommodate unexpected contingencies. As operational

avenues are sealed off, others open up and give direction and impetus where

progress seems moribund. However, despite.delaying conceptual closure as

long as possible inthe tradition of grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967),

one's options become, progre*ssively more restricted, until ultimately the

domain is exhausted as far as it is ever likely to be, given the inherent

limitations of the external observer's stance.

The dialectical approach to fieldwork is virtually obligatory in

research, such as that which generated thi above study, where data-gathering

had to be often unsystematic and untidy. Although loosely termed 'participant

observation', it is apparent that what the observer does in the fieldwork

situation is 'fundamental to the social act (in the Meadean sense)' (Bruyn,

1970h: 308). As such, it must of necessity be idiosyncratic and self-

,interactive, as Blumer makes clear (1971: 17).

4o
 438

Action is built up in coping with the world instead

of merely being released from a pre-existing psychological
structure by factors plaYing on that structure. By making
indications to himself and by interpreting what he indicates,
the human being has to forge or piece together a line of
action. In order to act the individual has to identify what
he wants, establish an objective or gOlal, map out a
prospective line of behavior, note and interpret the actions
of others, size up his situation, check himself at this or
that point, figure out what to do at other points, and
frequently spur himself on in the face of dragging dispositions
or diseong settings.
Participant observation under these circumstances is phenomenological
( The
rather than traditionally empirical, as Biuyn emphasizes (1970a: 284).

'rule of openness' prevails so that the observer endeavours to obtain an

intuitive grasp of his subject and its surroundings, rather than start with

hypotheses that can either circumscribe the field, or interfere with the

accuracy of findings. Rather than defining variables and the causal order

in which they are expected, the participant. observer/phenomenologist 'tend[s]

to let the variables define themselves in the context of the research ....

The emphasis is upon following those procedures which best allow the

subjects to speak for themselves in contrast to the traditional empiricist

who emphasizes procedures which help explain the subjects from an independent

standpoint'. 411,

(b) Problematics

The phenomenological emphasis in'research involves a number of

problematical issues in methodology, which may not be the case for the

traditional empiricist. Many of them were generated by the type of field sit-

uation in which I was working. Although the notion has a romantic attraction,

411
 439

I would be naive to imagine that the research was carried out in the

classical anthropological tradition as if the school-community were

isolated from the wider world. Instead, the exigencies I experienfred and

my solutions to the problems are comparable to those described by

Margaret Mead (1972:. 120-132) ac typical of research in a 'high culture'.

This is a culture very like one's own: in Mead's case, as an °

American studying England and the English culture. Behavioural styles,

language, customs and beliefs were supbrficially similar, as were many

technological elements. Thus, social interaction to a high degree was

possible on the basis of the 'typificatory schemes' or typifications Mead

shared with her English friends (Berger & Luckmann, 1971: 45 ff.). The one

great gap she notes was the impossAility of transforming them into

anthropological informants. To discuss their culture with them 'would have

been to take intolerable liberties'.

In the case of my own research, the great gap was an imposed one-

and not of my own choosing. With oneor two exceptions, I had no informants

in the traditional sense, Interaction with the boys and other staff, both

lay and religious, at the school was possible because we all shared certain

knowledge based on sets of typifications appropriate to school life. In

essence, the school is a form of social interaction arena in which actors

take a number of,roles. These are partly traditional - the 'pupil role',

the 'teacher role' - and partly localised in one or two schools,,e.g. in

the case of a religious school, the 'religious teacher role'.

The situation at the school was somewhat' more complicated than that

discussed by Mead, as4actors in the arena are drawn from three cultures. The

first is the Western, industrial, technological culture, based on the vague,

Judaeo-Christian ethic. The major set of typifications appropriate to it is

41
 440

bound up with the academic curriculum of the school, which is oriented to

preparing for and passing highly competitive examinations at the eleventh

and twelfth Grades. Boys must achieve these levels ithey aspire to gain

socio-economic status in the materialistic sphere of their lives. Ac al°

teacher, I derive the majority oe my typifications from this culture, and

my essential role is to pass on to the boys the requisite body of knowledge

for success in the examinations.

However, my interaction with the boys is facilitated by another

set of typifications, which is drawn from what I know about the general

Jewish culture shared by the wider Jewiiith community in Melbourne. This

includes many of the technological aspects of the Western culture, some of

its behavioural aspects, and even some of its superficial beliefs and attitudes.

It also contains elements derived from common folk or ethnic backgrounds; group

consciousness and loyalty. This Jewishness, the 'sum total of the many varied

ways in which people called Jews wish to identify as such' (Medding, 1968: 13),

provides a focus of self - identification and communal identity: Yet for

research purposes it is still sufficient of a 'high culture' to pose a con-

comitant set of research problems.

But for boys at the school there seems yet another: this is

predominantly an ideational culture (gorokin, 1937). /Theodorson and Theodorson

(1970% 194) see this as a type of culture 'in which the highest values are

nonmaterial, transcendental, and supernatural. Ultimate'reality is spiritual

4>

and nonutilitarian'. Possessing its own unique symbol and language systems,

this culture is distinct from those common elements of the 'high culture' I

shared with the boys, and greatly added to the complexity of my research act.

'My field situation, or social interaction arena, contained repre-

sentatives from each of the three cultures I have suggested above. As actor,

41, 4f d
r

441

my task was to adopt the appropriate roles for successful negotiations

as teacher, as someone
with these sigrikficant others on anumber of levels:

with a self-confessed interest in Judaism, and as an undeclared-research

typifications,
worker. To guide me in each role I had the appropriate sets of
,
7

knoWledge of the
of varying usefulness which depenied on the degree of my,

cultures from which the significant others came, jitking the research worker

role was fraught with numerous complications. As Berger and Luckmann have

contacts with others,

pointed oW(1971: 45'ff.), in face-to-face situations or

typificatory schemes are 'reciprocal. The success of negotiations depends on

the others apprehending one in a typified way.

'My research dilemma on manOD Y occasions rested on the absence o

reciprocal typification.' I had typificationsoof others, but they could not

'forma adequate typifications of me._ To expand this dilemma I will make th#

and
distinction betWeen expected contacts with others in the school-community

unexpected contacts. Theormer were those validated by typifications, held

My activities and contacts

by others about me in the status-role of a teacher.

with-them were thus 'normal' as I could be seen in a 'helping role' (Mead,

1972: 122) justifying what I was doing.

Unexpected contacts refer to research activities that did riot match

y However, they Would have been
the, role expectations held of me qua teacher.
0
.
tr

Towards
' quite consistent with role expectations.Of me qua research worker.

the end 'of my firSt year, someystaff and boys apparently suspected that I

as abrking iA a dual status-role. ,By then they had some'evidence..to adjust

worker, and '
their role expectations of me to those aPpropOate to a research

-here -more personally secure in knowing that I did not constitute a threat to

the s7hool. In consequence, lily work was facilitated even when I operated
4
purely as a research worker, whereas early in the year overt research
would

have been hampered.

1,

4
 442
with the
We thus'should think of research activities and contacts
the type I have proposed
subjects of research not so much as a dichotomy of
unexpected contacts are
but as a continuum, in which expected contacts and

the polar positions. One's success in research depends on how closely he

with the subjects' typifications °,

can match his research activities and contacts

and expectations at that time. Failureoto adjust, by dialectical shifts and

degrees
balanAs, to others' expectations of one's self can result in varying
for gathering
of lack of co-operation, rapport, and'the communication essential

.data.
(1962:
I was in a situation, of the type described by KaiErikSon
By being
307-314),.which is matiked by contradictory'rules and rabiguity.

c4tyul to observe one set of demands impoied on me, I ran the risk of
A

violating some other demands or rules. In the eyes of those in one or other

deviant. Yet,
of the three cultures I have referred to,I could be seen as
control over their reactions,
as Erikson points. out (ibid., p. 308) I had little
rather than the actor
as deviance is determined by the audience of the actor

himself. -Paradoxically, I could also have been in the position of maintaining

of 'boundary
the group members' notions of deviancy,by being a form
deviant)
patroller'.- Transactions between me'(the potential if not outright
cpntrolling behaviour on the
on one side of the boundary and those 'Agents
It may be that I was
other side served to define where the boundary was.
but for, my 'boundary patrolling
more tolerated than eight have been the case

4
k
It was obvious at the beginning ofmy research that my attendance

they were unexpected contacts,

at religious ceremonies puzzled the boys:
I answered their
which did not match their-expectations of me as teacher.
interest
questions as co'why I attended by saying in effect that I took an

4G8
 443

in comparative religion and was particularly interested in Judaism. When

I continued to go to services a senior boy asked le if I intended to

convert td Judaism, and came to worship for that purpose. His question

was based on the precedent of another non-Jew who regularly attended the

ohul, as part of his formal instruction in the faith as.a preliminary

to conversion. On one or two-oc.casions it seemed that my attendance at a

ceremony was completely out of character in the eyes of some boys and adults.

To judge from their almost hostile reactions the occasions were unexpected

contacts and deviant. In consequence little data were obtained, and in any

into
case had to be carefully scrutinized for possible bias I might inject

them, by over-reacting to my perceptions ofthudience:reactions to my presence.

I had to try at all times to maintain balance on the continuum.

If I merely carried out my role as teacher, little research data of value

were obtained. Yet, if I strayed too far towards the unexpected contact end

of the continuum I obtained more data, but there was always the possibility
A
that they could be contaminated by my subjective feelings, which were induced

by audience reactions to what was seen as deviant behaviour.

As an Operational tool foi participant observation in my type of

, field situation, the continuum'suggested here suffers from the obvious'

weakness that what constitutes an expected or unexpected contact rests on

the perceptions of the observer, Initially all he )aa to go on are culturally

appropriate `signals' from members of his audience, i.e. their reactions to

the contacts he has made with them. From such data, an ex post judgement

must be made to decide where similar contacts would lie on the continuum at

some future date. Thus, some time must elapse during fieldwork before the

observer is able to establish the parameters of the.continuum whigh he will

use as. the basis for fbture participant observation.

4i 5
 444

Faulty interpretation of the,signals sent out by the audience

results in a continuum that can hamper future wolik on a number of grounds.

Through being unduly sensitive to-imagined rebuffs the participant

observer can construct a continuum that is unduly restricting. Conversely,

by being insensitive to obvious sign,,ls from the audience that contact

in n certain socia area is unwelcome, such an elastic continuum is

constructed that future fieldwork is endangered.

A dilemma occurs when no signals of ( nwelcome contact are given.

This point was brought home to me on at least two occasions. The first

occurred during one of several discussions about Judaism at the home of one

of the boys in my Form. I had asked how I would know if I was putting my

foot wrong, either while teaching the boys or during research. I would no

be told in so many words, came the reply. I would be allowed to go on

putting mj, foot wrong until it either dawned on me, or the whole enterprise

collapsed. Then I would know. Meanwhile, nothing would be said or done to

lwarn me of the likely outcome of the course I was taking. I would thus

have to be very careful, in everything I did.

Lest it be thought that this applies only to non-Jews in4contact

4
with : the community, I should refer to the second occasion when a'similar

comment was made, but about a Jewish woman attending .a service in the

synagogue. I had observed something about her which seemed out of place

for such an occasion, and had asked the Principal during.one of our

discussions on religious observances whether someone would advise the woman.

'No', came the reply.. 'You are correct in what you saw, but it is our

ri

4
Poll has commented on comparable difficulties he experienced when trying
to establish contact with a Hasidic community in Williamsburg, New York;
moreover, Poll is a Jew (Poll, 1962: Appendix).

lk
AN-

4 (1
 445

going wrong. We hope

policy not to tell people like that where they are

they T.T1 learn eventually of their own accord'.

is obviously
Participant observation under such circumstances

accounts of 'old masters' such

a different enterprise from the classic
Radcliffe-Brown (1922), Redfield (1930),
as Malinowski (1922, 1926, 1935),
One of the key components in
Firth (1936), and Evans-Pritchard (1937).
lY

with its 'collegiality:

their field situations was the informant relationship,
sophisticated comment of the
[in which) the field work depends on the
In my field situation,
informant at every step of the way'. (read, 1972: 121).

such a relationship was lacking. Had it been available I might have been able
5
A
to reduce the risk of misinterpreting my subjects' cultural signals.
beeil able to,reduce my constant,
sympathetic informant would also iiave
the uneected contact
nagging worry that I might be straying too far into
By being too diffident
area of the continuum, and was becoming deviant.
when opportunity
about attending some ceremonies, or asking questions even
invaluable.
offered, I undoubtedly missed much that would have been
informant
lhis seems inevitable when explicit guidance from an
04
one's subjects deliberately
is lacking,, and is obviously exacerbated if
The unpredictability
conceal their signals of disapproval or even approval.
strains for the observer,
of the field,situation generates intra-personal
of anything he experieves.
as he can never be sure about the reliability
would give vague general-
--In a low culture, it is possible that' informants
However, if they do give
izations if they want to avoid forbidden areas.
should ncit-be
information freely, there seems to be no reason why they
do not lie,
believed. As they have no positive gain in lying, and 13otiably

5, discuss the question

I am grateful to have had a brief opportunity to
the Conference
of cultural signals with Professor A.L. Epstein during
Melbourne, August 1969.
on Sociological Studies of Jews in'Australia,

471
 446

what they do disclose is possib e 'truth.

In the classic research situation, the observer is urged to use

his 'personal_equation' (Nadel, 1951: 48) to adjust his subjective

In a high
reactions to sense impressions, in an effort to minimise bias.

culture, this technique seems to have several limitations. The personal

equation cannot be a constant form of adjustment factor, as seems to be

implied, where the dynamics of the field situation are never the same

twice running. The interactions betweeppbserver and observed are in a

state of constant flux. In addition, the observer is part of the field

situation, and affects it by his presence and actions, even by his emotions.

All these alter over time. As Young has observed (1965: 13):

The observer brings to his work the predispositions

gained from all the social relationships he has ever had,
whether or not they are relevant to the particular problem
of the research, and in the light of these predispositions
he is bound to notice (and not notice) things different from
those seen by other investigators. At the same time the

observer alters the observed merely by observing them. The

observer is not able to describe his subjects as they 'are',
only the way in which they interact with him (my italics).

It is questionable whether Young's final comment applies to

of'subjects
unobtrusive social research, in which covert observations are made
In such
who are unaware of the research worker's presence or motives.

circumstances, they can hardly interact with him, yet he can still describe

objectively in behavioural terms how they are interacting with each other.

To this extent the research worker does not constitute a contaminating

variable in the field situation.

I
 447

However, in face-to-face contacts, the observer must take into

account at least two dimensions. One is the interaction dimension, i.e.

the point any contact occupies on the expected-unexpected contact

continuum, and a temporal dimension. This is the phase of research or

the time when the interaction occurs. The longer one stays in contact

with the field situation the more dispositions are amassed at any one time

to take forward throughout the remaining research as pre-dispositions

affecting what follows. The interaction dynamics between observer and

observed are vastly Afferent at the end of a lengthy period in the field,

from what they were at the beginning, and will obviously in turn affect the

parameters of the continuum.

Research workers commonly report on the emotions felt when they

leave the field, such have been the rapport and genuine friendship built up

during the course of fieldwork. Regret is felt at parting by both the

observer and the observed, in contrast to the susOIC cal- uneasiaess.that

can often characterize the start of research (e.g. Firth, 1972: 10-32). It
0

is thus apparent that the time dimension varies qualitatively as well as

quantitatively, i.e. in purely chronological terms.

It is necessary to take into account this third dimension in the

total field situation, as it inevitably affects all parties in it. The

dimension comprises the varying emotional charges - the analogy with an

electric battery is intentional - which are part and parcel of events in

the time dimension. If this is conceptualized'as a flow of experiences

rather than a chronological sequence of events, the electrical analogy assumes

added force. Some events are highly charged with emotion - that is they

have a high cathectic quality for the subjects of research - while others
 -448

A number
have a smaller charge, and are less psychologically demanding.

of events in theOrthodox Jewish stream of experience, in whigh fasting

is mandatory, add to their high cathectic quality by ling physiologically

demanding: For the research worker Caught up in such a flow of experiehces,

reactions to what is observed have, to adjust to a Succession of peaks and

A third'
troughs, whose cathectic quality can only be judged subjectively.

dimension is.thus added to those already discussed.

1.

The field situation, of which the research worker is himself an .

integral part, can be 'mapped' by using these three dimensions as coordinates.

The first is thychronological time dimension (an independent variable).

The second is the d,egrae of rapport on the expected-unexpected contact con-

,

tinuum. This is both an independent and dependent variable; the latter

relating to time in the field. The third is the cathectic quality or the

emotional charge in events occurring over time. The first two dimehsions

can-be shown diagramMaitically as in Figure ALL,.

illustrated.
Two hypothetical participant observation 'pathways''are

Position A suggests a high degree of rapport developed steadily over a

lengthy period of tithe. Its corresponding pathway could be typical of field-

work under classic conditions in a low culture, with-informants and a high

degree of collegiality present. Position B suggests a lower degree of

time.
rapport develloped relatively quickly, but failing to increase through
culture
Its corresponding pathway could be typical of fieldwork in a high

lacki g collegiality. Some rapport is established quickly, as learning the

langu does not present a problem, but the degree of depth of insight

and participation ultimately achieved is lower than in the low culture

pathway. 49.

4 e-}
 A TWO-DIMENSIONAL vIEW'
OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

DEGREE OF
RA PPORT

HIGH

A HYPOTHESISED LOW CULTURE PATHWAY

CURVILINEAR AS FULL RAPPORT , i.e.
CULTURAL .ASSIMILATION, IS NOT REACHED.

A HYPOTHESISED HIGH CULTURE PATHWAY

CURVILINEAR AS EXTRA TIME SPENT IN FIELD
DOES NOT GREATLY INCREASE RAPPORT.

Fig. A1.1
 450

\v.
However, phases of the time dimension have varying amounts of

emotional charge or cathectic quality. Any point on the two-dimenslkonal

time/rapport plane thus Liss its corresponding cathectic quality. The

vertical projection of all possible points forms a cathectic surface,

shown diagrammatically as in Figure A1.2. The surface is undulating to denote

the peaks and troughs of emotional charge which constitute its dominant

characteristic. These are a functioh of both time and degree of rapport,

and it seems necessary for the observer,; to take into account all three

aspects when observing and interpreting behaviours.

(4) Ethical issues in the research

The cathectic element in the fieldwork highlights the difficulties

the observer faces in preserving some objectivity, while at the same time

endeavouring to achieve a degree of empathy or verstehen in the Weberian

sense (Weber, 1962:-15, 34 ff.). To the extent that he identifies and

participates with his subjects on the cathectic plane in order to obtain

verstehen, he risks losing the objectivity that has long been considered

the hallmark of successful fieldwork. Yet, to remain emotionally detached,

risks losing the empathetic participation necessary to subjectively recon-

struct other's reality.+ Some events gain their cathectic qualityiby the

very sharing of emotions. By standing aloof at such times as, for instance,

birth of
the shower of congratulations poured upon the senior master on the

his son, the observer not only cuts himself off from a flow of shared joy
(31

and emotion, but risks prejudicing hiS future fieldwork. It seems mandatory

for the observer to be a social being in terms of the culture he is studying,

%

and describe it 'by following its own internal order and logic'(Valentine,

1968: 173).

47
 A THREEDIMENSIONAL VIEW
Jo. OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

C ATH EcT IC
C ATI I EcTic SURFACE
QUA. IFFY

Fig. A1.2

4 Ti
 452

To escape the dilemma of distorting the 'objective' picture

one presents, it seems necessary to reconstruct social reality through

closely as
a frame of reference, which the observer tries to match as

possible with that of his subjects, whilst using his own experiences and

cultural parameters as a basis parison, As Wallace has pointed

out (1972: 202): 'To assume that a. culture is understa&able only in

that
its own terms would, if carrjd to its logical conclusion, require

ethnography be.4ritten only in the native language'.

e'To reduce distortions to data from over-subjective reporting,

fieldwork experiences can be monitored by independent observers of the

culture to whom the observer has access. In this respect, fieldwork in a

high culture can be turned to positive advantage. Mead was able to alleviate

high culture by having

the sense of isolation she experienced in studying a 1
friends.
opportunities to discuss it analytically and intellectually with

These were not members of the high culture but, like her, were profession-
I had a
ally interested in' trying to understand it (Mead, 1972:,124 -45).

number of friends with whom I could discuss the boys at the school, but
0

practice
by doing so a number of ethical issues became apparent, and the

was discontinued. It was obvious that the comments intended to help me

about the unique

were, in fact, coloured by my friends' 'lack of knowledge

community of which the school is a part. Comments about 'average' Jews

were of little assistance. It was also apparent that the behaviour of boys

at the school was invariably seen as deviant, and I was in danger of

breaching confidences in some cases by discussing certain aspects. The

onty exceptions, were the psychiatrist already referred to, whose clinical

impartiality and confidentiality could bi relied on, and the officers of

476
 453

the Jewish Welfare Society who are bound by a similar code. of ethics.

Ethical issues arise-when one is tempted to go and observe

comparable institutions. At one stage during fieldwork; when nothing.

appeared to make sense - a-stage not unique to judge from the accounts
leaders
of others - it was tempting to take up invitations to visit the
to discuss
of other Jewigh congregations in the Melbourne area in,order

,,Qy own research. I also toyed with the idea of visiting their synagogues

for certain services. These all had to be rejected for several reasons.

of the
During research it had become all too apparent that the Orthodoxy
and was
Lubavitcher SchoOl set it apart from the remaining congregations,
information and comments of
seen by them in an unfavourable light: The

more liberal Jews might have been biased against the congregation attached

to the school. In discussions, I might also have betrayed confidences.

Secondly, my own impressions were confused enough, but had to be sorted

I wad a member.
out within the parameters of the field situation of which
than ease
Transferring to another situation would compound confusion rather

it.

It was also apparent'that such an action would be regarded as

disloyal by members of my own school- community. This was made .quite clear

during discussion with one of the administrative staff about obtaining a

I,happenedlo mention
seat in the shut for the approaching High Holydays.
warned" most
that I might attend one of the Liberal synagogues, but, was

seriously that this would be a mistake. Word that I had attended worship

liked at all.
there would quickly get back to thg school, and would not be
and
The implication was clear that I somehow 'belonged' to the school.
less
would be considered disloyal if'I went elsewhere, particularly to a

47:)
 454

Orthodox shul. In the outcome I attended services in 'my own' shul.

Close attachment of this nature to one's subject of research,

is implicit
which ony both feels at the personal level, and realizes
the observer's
from the expectations of others, inevitably exacerbates

ethical-problems. He has to come to terms with how much to disclose,

Such decisions are

what to keep,private, even whether to publish at all.
fieldwork
giP much part and parcel of the phenomenological stance towards

as the data themselves. It seems logical that all one can arrive at is

arguments of others,
a personal decision rather than a summation of the
be found
in which as many points for.as against what one has done can
1970;
(e.g. Shils, 1959; Barnes, 1963; Erikson, 1970; Fichter & Kolb,

Roth, 1970).
the
My research interest in the school was not concealed from

Principal at our first meeting. Then and on subsequent meetings we had

0
and teach. On
the tacit understanding that I was to carry out research
asides to me
several occasions during staff meetings, the Principal made
happened to be
that I would appreciate the significance of an item we
other Members
discussing, although he never made my dual role explicit to
carrying
of staff. A number of them gradually came to suspect that I was

t were not clear about its exact nature. A

out research of some,sort,
particularly towards
similar awareness gradually developed among the boys,

the end of the first year. Since leaving the field I have been asked by

several of the boys I taught about the progress of the thesis, in terms
role at the school
that showed they had been far more aware of my research

than I realized at the time. Far from showing resentment, their questions

have indicated a very keen interest in the outcome: of the research,

480
 V

9
455 ,

particularly what I think about the school.

o

outcome of
The research techniques used were an inevitabli

questions abput their religious

the request that I shOilld not ask the boys
research to a considerable degree, and
belief's. This obviously impeded
as was suggested by
it was tempting to abandon the whole,enterprise
However, too much had been invested in it per-
0 J
several of my advisers.
poSiion at another school to do
sonally, as I had resigned from a senior
behind me. The fear.
the research, and had more orjess butnt,my bridges

used might be harmful to the boys, is un-

that the unobtrusive measures
in preparing fbr examinations
4 founded, as all were turned to educational use

.
or.forming part qf on-going educational work.
has bgen tha
The problem of what to publish and what to conceal
between
most difficult to solve. One might firstly make a distinction

the public domain and knowledge,

knowledge about the school that belongs to
deal of the description'in
which belongs to the privateodomain. ,A great .
c(,) others besidgs
apd' s accessible to
Parts One and Two belongs to the former
Jewish community, and of the
myself - educationists, members of the wider
itself., Part of it hasieven been
community associated with )the school
common knowledge' and
published in the Jewish newspaper. It is thus
However, even in this domain some
,cannot be regarded as confidential.

precautions have been taken. By my, n decision, and at tht Principal's

P school have not been identified.

request, the exact name and location of the
to conceal identities, without
Some parts of the data have been chard
The religious curriculum
altering the meaning of what hag,been published.
gilAn'to me by the Director of:
of the school has been desdribedjas it was
thate,it be kept confidential.
Religious Studies, who made no request

481
 456

.
Knowledge that hOlongs" to the private domain occurs mainly in

Phts Three and Vour,'and lays the obligation of crfidentiality on the

observer, but. bn4y to theexeent,-it would seem, that by Oublishing it

.4 'he risks harming either the, repUtation of the school itself or any of

its members. At no time during resirch was, information given to me on

6 the condition_ that it be kept confident 1. 1Sesgite this, I hiive chosen

to duppreds a considerable amount-of personal information that came. my way

in the role of teacher rather than research wc:ker. The fievices of using

code letters for boys, pseudonyms, and compodite ideal-type boys, are
0

The
some guarantee that persons do not identify themselves or each,other.
,

lapse of time betteen thedaie of research and the publication of this

.

thesis is a further protection against identification and possible harm.

Shils has suggested (1459: 131):

Privacy and even secrecy are positive rights,but the

obligation to respect them may'properly by suspended by
the deliberate decision of the participants whose grivacy
is in question. Moreover, as long as the knowledge was

sought solely for increasing our general intellectual

understanding of human conduct, the moral obligation is
held 'within bounds.,
.

..,,
.
to employ
To some extent it would be legitimate to claim that the agreement

Me. at the school, under conditions in which my research interests were

known, was a 'deliberate decision' which partially suspended the school's

rights to absolute secrecy and privacy. In return for the privilege of

entry to tubavitchA School, I would 'hope that any increase of knowledge

of hUman conduct in this'thesis has not been gained by any improper use

of a fiduciary relationship.

P o
CY
4.8 ..-
Ir.
1

t
 r

we>
e-

APPENDICES 2A '' 2.2

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS'

's

P
1
 458

APPENDIX 2.1

THEMATIC APPERCEPTION INSTRUMENT

kiractice example of creative writing

4
Introdudtion:

As you. have already seen from practice test papers, use

.
\
of photographs or pictures is very common, The following picture

gives opportunity for creative writing. In this-case write in the

form of a reminiscence.(memory of a past event) from either an

imaginary past or real life as you wish.. Describe in a paragraph

on the back of this-sheet What the following picture suggests to

you.

.V

484.
 A PICTURE OF AN IMAGINARY EkENT
4

./

,04

Fig. A2.1

48 i
 460

APPENDIX 2.2

SENTENCE COMPLETION' QUESTIONNAIRE - PAUL

*A practice example of a tyle used in some

Written Expression tests

introduction: 1.

It is important to become fluent in reading quickly, makingeup

your mind quickly without fussing or trying to be loo complex, writing
,o, carefully and legibly, with correct use of punctuation, grammar and spelling.
Maintaining-continuity of ideas is also vital.
This exegcise gives practice in these skills. leis a story
N.
about an adolescedt boy called Paul, who thinks fairly sensibly about most'
to how you would
\things. Complete the stogy.using your own ideas as
'imagine it would be. -

a. Paul came to a new school. He has hardly been there for a few

days when he already made friends because

b. Soon hd'Wad well known to his various teachers, both ii endemic

happened.
and religious subjects. Coming out of school one day he
to overhear two of them talking about him. One,.the
said

The other, the replied

c. When Paul got homex.that evening he mentioned

A
Ceti
Later, when he was in bed and the light was out, he could not
help wondering if his father

d. The following day he met his closest fiend before school began,
and said to him: '.I want to tell yoy something confidential.

It is

48i
 APPENDICES 3.1 - 3.2

SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN GEOGRAPHY

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

4b

418';

O
t . *

I
462

APPENDIX 3.1
\
PREFACE - MICRO-AREA RESEARCH: u)AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO

t LOCAL SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES*

Introduction.

The fruitful method of area research, employed by Steward and

his associates (1950) in the immediate post-war period, provided the seminal

impetus for a great many studies of large'regions. Projects have been

carried out in Latin'America, Puerto Ricb,Africa, South East Asia, among

other areas, rind have been characterized by an inter-disciplinary, macro-

scale approach with the objective of\rriving at 'an understanding of socio-

cultural wholes as they 'exist in area' (ibid., p. 7).

There is an obvious(); geographical component in such an approach, and,

in the current trend to include n geography more social and cultural elements,,

area research could provide ri usefullethodblogy and structure for courses

.
1

which, we suggest,rmight be'termed social and environmental Studies.

Exciting as this probpect appears to be, there is a more, pressing need for a -

new approach to fieldwork in local areas, which too often concentrates on

purely geomorphological or ecobomIc aspects; and tends to lose sight of the

fact that geography, the study of 'things in association in area', could quite

legitimately study social and cultural 'things', provided it does so through

the accepted and appropriate methods of the discipline.

Aspects of auarea's Cultural geography, social relationships, even

social values, and other, strictly non-geographical phenomena can be graphed,

Geography Teacher, 10 (August 1970): 71-82..

Elie term social and environmental studies seems prefera1le to both social
studies and social sciences, as stress is laid on the subtle interplay
between'social and geographical factors within an areal context.

486
 463

mapped, .shownin quasi-geographical diagrams to give training'in fieldwork

skills and abilities,'without becoming the often sterile, 'let's -now-

study -coil- erosion -at- that -farm' type off' approach we commonly meat with

in schools. There is a rich harvest.to be won by teachers equi9ped with

the methods, concepts, generalizations and overall orientation of the-kind

we envisage4 local social and environmental studies auch as urban poverty

and centre city' problems, re-development achemts and their social and

environmental implications, ethnic or immigrant enclaves and their problems

of socio-economic alienation.

Hitherto, community or milieu studies have been used to look at

small communities, but have encountered some research difficulties.. Achniquest

have usually been draWn,from a single disciplin such as ethnography or

anthropology, while applied as opposed to pure sociology has developed to

study the social policies, goals and institutions of modern, industrial urban

communities. (Gouldner & Miller, 1965). But, as Martin (1970: 301) has

I commented: 'Urban studies remain highly fragmented; the contributions of

d
economics, history, political science and geogKaphy have scarcely been

integrated into sociological thinking; few general theories have been advanced

and none has gained general acceptance'.

ro achieve some holisti'c view it seems more appropriate to employ

selected inter - disciplinary perspectives from the relevant social sciences,

such as applied sociology, cultural and serial geography, urban anthropology,

applied economics; within some sort of 'generalist' and co-ordinating over-

view of the type that Spindler (1963: 15 -16) attributes to general

anthropological method.

4.8 ) 1

4
 464

Such an approach would have many of the characteristics of

Steward's area research: holistic viewpoint, areal limitations, con-

.

centration on social and cultural phenomena, inter-disciplinary focus,

-/
but would need to be at aMuch smaller scale. It seems preferable to avid

too close an identification with 'big brother', and to use instead the term

micro-area research as one basic strategy for small-scale, local social and

environmental studies, which examine small communities.

This article sets odt a rationale for the local, urban studies

that might be_attemPted, and draws upon the writer's experimental fotAh

Form course, 'Sociological Studies in Geography', trialled in a Gma4,

Independent school in a suburb of Melbourne. It suggests that micro-area

research might provide both a techAique for carrying out fieldwork exercises

in urban schools, and a useful method of obtaining the 'inner view' of

communities such as ethnic or economically disadvantaged minorities where

theycan be identified 'in area'.

Some general problems

It seems desirable to consider first some of the problems others

I) encountered from which to propose alternative approaches. Possibly the

most Common problem they met is inherent in the criteria used to identify

a 'community'. The very term itself has areal and spatial connotations

'deeply embedded in our thinking, and so much a part of most people's'

experience at certainSages of life, that urban planners (arld some research

wdrkers) still tend to,think of the city as essentially a system of local

sub-groups or communities'(Martin, op. cit., p. 303; writer's italics).

Th'h appears to have led to pre - occupation with definitions and acompuldion

to draw neat boundaries. around social aggregates in the hope of netting

thereby a community.

490
 S

465

There is, however, basic lack of consensus concerning the

meaning of the term 'community'. As Hillery (1964: 114) has remarked,

after reviewing 94 definitions.of the term: 'Beyond the concept that

people are involved in community, there is no complete agreement as to,

the nature of community'. Sklare (1958: 168) has suggested that the term

'Jewish community' in the United States at least, is 'fraught with a

number of problems The most important such problem iS that ... by

the most generous standards we can properly speak only of a Jewish cub-
.

community'. v.

There is general, agreetent Among many writers that some idea of

territory is involved in a community, though often limited in character,

and Sjoberg's (1964: 114) modification of a definition by Parsons takes '

this into account: 'A community is collectivity of actors sharing a

limited territorial area as a basis for carrying out the greatest share of

their daily activities'. When this, definition is applied to urban areas,

the-boundary compulsion appears to operate with consequent frustrati

and inaccuracies. It may be possible too draw a boUndary around, a Malayan

kart/pug, for instance, and be fairly confident that it will enclose the

majority 6f-the community, as usually land holdings are one clue to dis-

tinguishing one community from another, but in the situation of big cities,

where identification with farm land does not operate, and where community

land is rare such a technique is of limited use. Using local council

boundaries as arbitrary community limits raises the problem familiar to most

geographers where pklitico-administrative lines can cut thrOugh) otherwise

homogeneous areas that straddle them.

Solutions in,theory and their application in practice

It is tempting to abandon altogether the notion of trying to bring

 466

community..'However, some
Dome geographical referent into the concept of
delimited
urban anthropologists and sociologists have identified and

'collectivities of actors' in precise terms without putting boundaries

-

"around them. What they appear to have used instead is a variant of the

geographical concept of a node: appoint around which particular activities

stake place (Kohn, 1970). Whyte's. (1943) Street Corner Society had an

obvious geographical referent. Lewis (1961: xiv) identified community

through the tenement block or vecindad: a 'little world of its own, enclosed

shops on the
by high cement walls on the north and south and by rows of
-

other two sides. These shops ... supply'the 17sic needs of the vecindad,

neighbourhood, and
.so that many of its tenants seldom leave the immediate
Hellmann (1966) identified
are almost strangers to the rest of MeSficotity'.

a node as the slum yard she studied in Johannesburg.

Each of these nodes is functional in the sense that it provides

.of belonging
a community focal point, a means of identification and a sense
nodal regibn
for the community as a viable unit, and around it develops a
of transport
or tributary area, linked to it not only by concrete routes

, and communication, but, we can conceive, by a network of common ideas,

"values and beliefs related to it. These reinforce the sense of attachment

reason
community members derive from such community rocal points purely by
community
of having them in their midst \as symbolic reminders of collective
2
sentiments - the idea of 'ours' as opposed to 'theirs'.

We can also regard nodes as forming constellations within a

A
a community, and ap betrig ranked in a hierarchy according to the values members
joo

2 Igbo
Victor Uchendu (1965: 34-38) has given a graphic description of
Culture and the importance placed on 'getting up' (achieving community
hall"
status) by acquiring status symbols such as a school, or community
within the fence surrourting the cowmun'ity.
Cr.

I 49
 467

\,
It is an i4tructive exercise to set children the task
.

attach to them.
,
of ranking such nodes as"church, football club, town hall, elderly citizens'
, )

centre, schools, swimming pool, library in their'order of felt importance.,

The resultant. hierarchy often reflects stared community values, and begins

to establish part of the totality of the community itself,

-Operationally we suggest that,the,node can be 'seed to obtain a

*
picture of the community's ramifications as seen by persons associated with

the node. In the, of the project to be described, the-node chosen woes

a religious school; to which it was known .members of a small religious

community send their children. In'th4 case, the children are thus a sample

from the coOfflunity, although perhaps, not necessarily a representative one.

From its earliest years each childhub4V-VVeloped as part of his 'cognitiye

map' during the socialization proCess the clear picture of the school, where

it is located spatially and what it stands for or means in relation to the

3
community. The child's peers will have similar, though not identical,

cognitive Itps of the school. These will overlap inter-penetrati to some

extent; but all will contain some elements Th common: the'shaped orb,

community elements ok the child's world:"

.The school node shares the cognitive map with other nodes,

associations, the immediate neighbourhood, kinfolk and friends. The

child learns to recognize where these are, and, at the appropriate ate,

can show some of,these in diagrammatic or map formqA,.At a more advanced

level, the, idea of a ncykial region can be understood and shown on a con-

ventional Map,' and the links with associations and people illustrated by

3
The idea of 'cognitive map' is discussed by Clausen (1968: 141),
.
but the community element not developed. I
 468
44

C.

.means of a gOctac netbork diagram. ThiS powerful analytical tool,

initially developell by Barnes (1954) and later refined by Bott .(1957).

-11

in her study of families in-London is discussed in detail and illustrat d

liylartin (1970: 302=307, 331=339)k/who used the same SpproaCh in her own.
,j

study of communities in Adelaide. Redfield (1956: 113-131).deals with

fhisconCept, which has generated many studies of OociaAelatAonships,

and compares it with other models that havd been proposed.

By askirig a participant in'the commun ity,to illustrate on symboliz e

his cognitive map in the manner we have suggested, we advance some way
4
obtaining an 'inner view' of community as oppOsed to an 'outer view'. The

--distinctiOn between the two is the basis of the fundamental field-research

problem facing the anthropologist, whose prime concern and raison.d'etre

might be to obtain the 'inner perspective of human reality' (Pouwer, 1968: 21).

Levi-Strauss (1963: 281-82) has pointed out that the 'outer' (observer's)

model and the 'inner' (community member's) model do not always coincide.

By the former hemqans the -culturally 'produced constructs of the people

. A7selves, and by the latter the model devised by an independent observer.

Ward (1965) has developed this in relationo Chinese fishing communities

An Kwangtung and Kelly's (1963) theory of personal constructs stresses that

cultures are viewed differently by those within them as opposed to those

rya

outside, and emphasizes the need for an external observer to try to think

in terms of the inner view.

Useful though the'concept of a symbolized cognitive map-Could be

As an aid to establishing some of the parameters of the community through

4
We are also in quite a respectable anthropological 'mainstream' as
fieldwork, examples abound of pre-literate peOp1e drawing or, constructing
symbolic cognitive maps either as aids to memory (the Polynesian
navigation charts)., or to illustrate properties of their communities
(Bushmen, tribal Aborigines, etc.).

9
 469.-

the.eye's of children or others from its. the.method is still restricted

td4

'inner
p 'flat', one-dimensional view, and lacks'the'depth perspective or
I;

In our study, theboys produced several maps of this sort. One

view'.

showed the home and school, neighbourhood in the form of a street plan

on which were plotted all_the places with which C.he_home had regular

dea1ings:. religious buildings, boys' youth clubs, library, father's,

place of work, where this was close by, etc.

A description ofthe area in terns of population densities was

A

related Co diagrams showing squares drawn to scale representing the home

'eampus', school campus,. and local council area, with dots to show the

population figures at'a ratio worked out by the boys themselves using skills

'learned earlier in the year during case studies of population patterns. The

nodal or tributary r ion of the school was shown bfa series of concentric

circlea`drawn around th d . The radii were related to the distances

in miles out from the school to which the provision of secular and religious

goods and services extended. Central place theory (Broek & Webb, 1968:

377-88) was used as the model for this diagraip, again based'bn Previous

classwork.

Although there obviously some qualitative element present in

such methods of symbolizing the cognitive map, by the very fact that, some

aspects are selected for inclusion on,maps or in diagrams, and not others,

the result is still quantitative rather than qualitative.

The idea that people may view their relationships with the outside

world in qualitative rather than quantitative.terms is suggested in recent

developments in the mainstream of cultural geography. Three major concepts

have been evolved to express the relationShips between man and environment.

495
 C-7

470

The first is landscape, /the secondeeopystem, the third and most recent

environmental perception - an exciting and powerful analytical tool.

This 'assumes that each man has an "image" of the world and that within
f
(English, 1968: 204).
a 'given culture these images are largely shared'

A pereon'a,decisions and value sYstemscan be used as pathWays' to

discover how the picture or image of the world ittside the .person's head

relcAted to his relations with the actual world outside it. There
is
'es
form the
still remains the problem, however, of finding out in symbolic

scale of values which results in the world being viewed as one pattern

of ranked relationships instead of another.

.
Excellent results with a preliminary trial at Form 1 level

suggested that a modification of Bott's social network model was suitable

1

for this purpose. We used a form of ray diagram, with each boy (ego) at

its centre, divided into fOur quadrants, with each qUadrant representing

.
a rank in,,a scale of values. The first quadrant .(top right) was assigned

individuals
to the -boy's conceptuallzed links with associations; places and

to which he attached least Importance. The second quadrant was assigned

to links thought to be og fair importance, the third to those held to be

the most
very important, acid the fourth quadrant (top left) adsigned to
o
important links. It was thus assumed that the length of the ray would
V

reflect the value placed on' the association, place or person to which'it

connected. To reinforce the symbolicrepresentation of ranked values, the

lengths of the rays changed according to the rank.of the quadrant, even

though each quadrant had-rays, of the same length: one 'inch rays in the

first quadrant, one and a half inch rays in the second, two inches in the
,
I
thirdg and two and a half inches in the fourth quadrant. This is, of course,

quite familiar to economic geographers where the length of rays is used to

. - .

49

.1+
 471

-
denote, the value or quantity. of say, trade from a port. In this case

the length of the ray indicates the value placed upon, or degree of
. .

attachment to, the associations and persons shown in the diagram.

From both imethods of symbolizing cognitive maps, it was possible

in this project to obtain quite detailed.piOtures of the community as seen

through the child's environmental perception and scale of values. The .

degree of congruence between the sets of maps from each boy in the Form

studied was quite remarkable. Some(values - in terms of associations,

organizations, and persOns - were' clearlyrejected'as being of little worth, '

Other'values.were stressed. Although it

and,this occurred consistenpy.

was known priorto the study that some of the bo'is belonged ta different

congregations district, this was confirmed by the composite picture

established from twenty sets of symbolized cognitive maps, froM which it

er

was possible to see the ramifications of the'district's 'sacred geography'. A

This effective concept has been used by Milton Singer (1960) in his study

of religious communities in Madras, India, in which he ptoceeded in'a

basically similar way to our's by using re gious nodes as his initial

starting point.

A final, and highly successful part'of the projeCt, investigated

the use to which the boys put their time during a-representative day,.a

week, and during a month in which their religious activities were greatest.

This added behavioural and temporal dimensions' to the relational aspects

already considered, and also invoinied the question of values; as,quite clearly

from the results the boys chose to,allocate their time to certain activities

c and not others.

"The diagrams employed had been practibed during sample studies

of farms and their routine. The boys drew their personal time-tables.to

49;
 .472
t

show the amount of time in the day or the week spent on majOristivitieS.

These were established and specified at the beginning so that ail diagrams .

would be-comparable, though this risks some important categorieq,being

a
omitted.

The more ambitious and demandidg task entailed the compilation

of time spent each day on the same activities for a complete month. Such

aspects as sleeping, eating, studying, recreation; etc., were tabulated,

'and the time spent on each calculated for each day. The data were shown

iby, means of a simplified form of ergograph'(Monkhouse and Wilkinson, 1952:

204), divided into the various categorieq of Activities. The picture that

resulted showed very clearly the cyclical nature of the boys' lives during

the month, in which several religious festivals occur. A similar pattern

was also apparent in the weekly diagram and, to a lesser extent, in the

daily one. Compared w4th the 'type of diagrams we might expect from a less

rerigioqs community, those in this project showed a unique life and time-
.

use style. There was also considerable correlation between the implicit

value placed\in certa n types of activity sO;an by these diagrams and the

value ranking of the places and associations where the same types:of

activities take place..

Summary

\,_We have discussed he problems of socialand environmental-ntudiec___

in modern urban societies as experienced'by research workers using traditional

,
approaches through one or'4thet of the social sciences. TO overcome these_

difficulties we proposed that selected, key social science perspectives

o mighebe used,on an inter- disciplinary basis, and developed an operational

model frot a number of recent concepts: social network theory from urban

49a
 473

'anthropology and sociology; the concept of Rode from central place theory

in geography; environmental perceptions from cultural geography;

cognitive maps from socialization theory and social psychology. We

suggestedthat the'application of the operational model to a fourth Form

_ 4

in a small, religious boys school in Melbourne formed a valuable exercise

in urbef fieldwork for their geography course, and outlined briefly thet

types of diurams and maps which were produced during the course of the

project.

The basic assumption behind the experiment was that it is possible'

to ,)btain by such means a 'picture' of the boy's community, which would

have more of an 'inner' quality, and thus'make up aiwhat it lacked in

quantitative, statistical rigour, of the kind usually considered desirable

5
in sociological studies. We considered that the method we proposed might

go some way in similar circumstances towards solving the research worker's

r dilemmp inherent in these two views of social-reality.

A further assumption was made that there was no valid reason to

doubt that the boys' unique world view and life, time-use style could be,'

and would be shown by means, of whot we termed symbolized cognitive maps.

The experiment was to all intents and purposes a geographical project, which

formed a logical part of an on-going course'in which all the skills had
a

been taught earlier in the year. 'The project was part of the routine of

assessmentqsed in thd school, and earned marks towards the

year's final total.

5
Content analysis and other methods of procesbing the data could easily
be used to Chow many of the correlations and value scales in
quantitative terms.

/ 495
IQ

474

The result of the project demonstrated that these assumptions

were justified. Sufficient verification and data triangulation were

apparent, along the lines discussedvby Webb. and his atsotiates (1966: 3),'

0to glve a high degree of probability that the picture 1btained did show

something of the 'inner' reality. Although the project was basically

for geographical purposes, we consider, now, th t a similar approach in

a school with a high immigrant or ethnic concentration would have

,comparable and significant results.

There would be attendant benefits. In the present official

policy of immigrant integration which encourages them to preserve their

sub-cultures, as opposed to aoctimilation, which does note we should

encourage children from ethnic communities to take a prids in their sub-

cultures. The approach We have suggested gives rich experience in

1

thinking about social relationships, identifying with a sub-culture

with feelings of pride, and*also the satisfaction of being able, and

allowed, to portray for their Australian peers something of the sub-culture's

-uniqueness and intrinsic worth. Benefits would be gained by the teachers

involved in seeing the real background to their immigrant pupils, and

might go some way towards remedying the gross deficiencies in present

teacher training courses where.socib-cultural backgrounds are virtually

ignored/ 'To achieve only this might. be eminently worthwhile.

Data triangulation is a safeguard suggested by Webb to overcome possible

weaknesses in 'one-shot' measures such as sociological questionnaires.

Note: References for this Preface are included in the Selected BilliOgrahy
of the thesism,
on

500
 475

APPENDIX 3.2

SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES 1p GEOGRAPHY

AN EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT FOR FORM FOUR

General Introduction

This project is designed to provi e a numbei'of situations,

combinations of facts: and other socio- geographical inforiation to use

in a series of geographical studies.

All members of the class will have the sames,data in assignment

form, or will be asked to look for and use data which all have in commoat'

The skill involved in the assignment is not the information you obtain

from various sources, but the way in which you use it in a.geographical manner.

(a), Method

Questions and directions are giyen systematically in the following

instruction sheets. When you work through"the exercises you must show all

your calculations, notes, comments and rough work. Always write these on

the left hand side of the project. The only thing that should appear on

the right hand side of the project is the final, finished results in the form

of tables, diagrap4 descriptions

Each exercise is designed to be discussed with your partner in

d

order to select the best method of working. Some methods will be suggested
4

in the exercise. If they are, use them and no others. In other exercises,

you will be given the task of choosing the method that appeats to' bp the

best suited for the exercise.

Draw diagrams on plain (un-lined) paper. Write notes on lined

paper. Use foolscap throughout.

4 501
,
D4
 476

Ms project is included unclippgd in a folder. Ag far as possible

make sure that the instructions to each exercise come before the working

sheets on which you have done the exercise.

(b) Marking

Marks will be uwarded for:

ti

Or Acuracy and detail shown in-exercises.

Approptlategess,of the method used.

Care shown in presentation, working, ,ltglish, figures etc.

The Atall impression of the result, e.g. the arrangement of

pages, placing of diagtams and comments where these are related etc.

Amount and comprehensiveness of information.

(c). Time limit

o absolute time liMit is set for this project, but it is antici-

pated that it should be near completion by the end of October.

N
.(d) Preliminary data

On the outside of the colder in the top right hand corner write

your name (print neatly). mle a line underneath it. Leave a line and

write the name of your partner:' In the middleof the folder write neatly

the title as it appears at the head of this sheet.

'Introduction to exercises .

Much of modern school geography at the Intermediate and Leaving

$
C-
levels is about people - where they live, the patterns numbers of people

and dieir settlements make in maps, the cultural landscape produced by people,

their inter-action &n the form of trade and commerce, and many other aspects.

.
This.year you have been learning some of the skills and methods

which a geographer uses to study people. Because geography and the other

502
 a.

477
$

social sciences are coming closer together, some of what. you have studied

- and the way you have studied it also uses the skills of the sociologist.

This project carries this combination of subjects further. It uses Anuoh

more sociological data, especially that concerned with your own lives.

This has been done deliberately so that nobody is the class can derive

an unfair advantage by being able to do a project on a topic which is

)
intrins*cally interesting. 4e all have social relationshipW. Weall have

homes, routine of life, relatives, friends. We all come to the sari:

4.7

school. These and other.data are our raw material.

?opic 1: . The home/school environment (Use this heading)

YoUr.first task is to locate your home, the schqol, transport

routes etc., on a map to show their-situation. Include those places that

A
are important to you and your family, i.e. use e criterion of relevance -

what is important for your daily working routine.

Choose the scale you think is most appropriate to fit within the

size of a foolscap sheet. Use the appropriate mapping layout and methods

that have been stressed during the year.

Topic 2: Population densities within the school environment r

/
This exercise, which is an important section of the Leaving-coukpe

is designeSY to get you to work in population,)density terms, at various scales:

(a) Micro-scale - calculate the population density of the inhabitants

of your home. Take the whole block on which the home atands as

the size of your territory.

(b) Medium-scale - calculate the population density of the school

.campus on a normal school day. Take the whole block and buildings

on which they stand as the campus.

5u
 478'

You will immedidtely ask what time of day should you choose.

This Can be solved by taking a series'of times of the day,

noCing the staff present at each, working out density at each

time and averaging the results. Ignore casUA visitors. The

1
meaningfulness and accuracy of your result will depend on the

times of day you choose.

(c) Macro-scale - figures showing the areas and populations are

given below for this and neighbouring suburbs, Take the figures

and calculate the population densities for the suburbs chosen.

Area in square miles Population (1964)

,Suburb A 5.28 42,200

Suburb B 8.48 70,200

Suburb C 3.3 56,700

(d) Showing population densities'in visual form

Besides working out the figures for the densities of the various

areas yli have been set, it is'also possible to show what the density looks

like in visual form by a series of dot maps.

Select scales which will' enable you to draw all the areas you have

considered on one sheet of foolscap paper as a series of squares. Draw the

boxes (squares); state the scales used as-gjeprecentative fraction.

N.B. Group the boxes so that micro and medium scales are adjacent
1111

in. one part of the sheet, and the macro-scale areas are together on another

part of thelsheet. Use the same scale ful. Lhe two (micro.. and medium) areas,

and a different scale if needed for the other areas.

Select a ratio'that' will enable yoU to showthe population totals

as a. number of dots in the boxes. You will need to use a different ratio for

each group of boxes. (An example of a.ratio of this type is - 'One dot.

504
 479

Draw the dots in their respective boxes. Label

represents 100 peOple').

the boAes appropriately.

(e) Population fluctuations

Consider how the total population of-the school campus might

fluctuate during (a the week,,,(b) the year. Select the occasion when you

° ,feel that the pop ation would be greatest during e week, and the occasion

when it would be reatest during the year. State t e-ttnie-B you choose.

Obtain data for a total population figures at the two times you select,

and work o t the ppulation density of the campus. Be careful with your
e..,-.

headings )nd labels so that what you have done and the figures you work out

are easy to understand.

Topic 3: Tbe school campus

The school campus (remember this refers to the whole school area

and the buildings in it) acts as a central place for a wide area by providing

a number of goods and services which cannot be obtained anywhere else.

Consider what these goods and 'services are. List them under an appropriate

heading. (N.B. You .should think over the whole year, and not just confine

yourself to the present time).

(a) The hinterlands of the school campus

A 'central place has a hinterland i.e. the area it serves. This is

difficult to show on a map in this case. The problem can be overcome by

thinking of the schodl campus as the centre of a number of concentric circles

at increasing radii. Each circle can be in a different colour and an appro-

priate key used. A scale can be devised to indicate the distance from the

school campus each circle 'represents. The following diagram is an example for

a State school which also runs a small shop selling goods parents bring in to

raise money for the school.

r-
t.) o t)
 4HE TYPE OF DIA(RAM TO SHOW
THE SCHOOL'S 'HINTERLAND
r.

SCHOOL
(NODE/

LIMIT OF AREA TO LIMIT OF AREA

WHICH GOODS FROM FROM WHICH
SCHOOL SHOP ARE STUDENTS COME
SOLD

SUGGESTED SCALE

2 1 0 2 4 10

MILES

Fig. A3.1

506
 481

of the
Use a similar approach to show the various hinterlands

schpol campus.

(b) The network of spatial relationships. with the campus

usually be
As we have seen from earlier work a place cannot
with which it is
understood unless something is also knagn'of those places ..

as a normal ,part of its activities and work.

Think of all the
,connect
,.

id-linked.
activities of the school campus and the places With which it
ethers. This enables
Some of theke places are clearly more impohant than
basis-of central place
us to formulate a hierarchy bf contacts,- which is the
0
theory.
important
List the places in order of importance with thb most
If you consider that links
at the top and, the least impor/tant at the bottom.
places, e.g. Mimes of members of
are with groups of similar people or similar

staff, make this a category, and include it in the list in this way.
m

Topic 4: The homes campus

obviously
One of the places with which the school is linked very

is the home of each boy. We have seen in our general work how it is possible

place linked
to move frpm consideration of one place to consideration.of a

with it (e.g.-Kwinana to the 1411yalla area).

(a) The local suburban area as a centralPplace

services
You and your family will obtain most of your goods and
Most of your
'from the, general area of the three suburbs given in Topic 2c.
to travel
daily outine services willxome from these as it is inconvenient

furt e out for them. The following list of services are those supplied by

a Council. You can think of others - e.g. food and-drink, Aothes etc.

exercise considers
However, these are goods rather than services, and this

9
r"

507
 482

only services. Some'of these obviously will not be important for you and

mour.family at the moment. However, you should think into thrfuture

of yourself and your family. SOme of the services could become very

.important indeed.

Types of services provided by the local councils and other organizations

Maternity and ng children facilities:

.4
Pre-natal and ante-natal clinics.
Infant Welfare Clinids
. Kindergartens'
Play centre for,young childrgn
Day child-care centres (creches)
After-school and vacation play centres,
Playgrounds with equipment for childreif
Organizations for looking after deprived, orphaned etc. children
Children's section of the library
Children's cinema and theatre shows organized by council
J

Brownies, Cubd, Clubs for young children

Older, children and young people:

Youth Centres provided by. local councils
SportR ribs provided by local councils
Tge Club and Library provided by councils
Clubs and yoUth centres provided by private organizations
Gymnasiums
-
_.Young people's sectionin council library
Young pedlole's education classes, discussion groups, music groups
Children's cinema programmes
Girl Guides, Scouts, Rangeis, Rover Scouts etc.
Youth employment and guidance services
Special schools for handicapped or retarded children

Family and general adult and youth:

Library fiction section
Library reference section
Adult education classes

508
 483

Tennis courts 772 public

BoWling greens .

Sports ovals and recreation facilities

Parks and gardens
Hotels
Cultural groups - literature and discussion
Cultural groups - politics and current affair?
'Cultural groups - art, drama, music
Local orchestra or music group
Local choir

CAI
General social clubs
Public swimming pool,
Museum and art gallery
Red Cross or St. John's Ambulance Centre
Blood transfusion centre
4_
WOMen't Organizations - e.g. Guild etc.
Council Home Help Service
Council Meals on Wheels Service'
Council Visitors Service
Private Hospitals
Public Hospitals
Counselling services for finding employment_ , it
Marrikke guidapce counselling services
Closed workshops for handicapped'Orretarded people

Elderly people:
Senior citizens or elderly, citizens clues
Parks and gardens with flowers and seating, etc,
Public or Private homes for the aged
Special librarigs with books in big print for old people
Special institutions for disabled people 1
Closed workshops for elderly people
aeneral Social wee agencies

50
 484

Select twenty services which yop consider are or are likely

to be useful or important for you and your family. Draw a simplifiedmap

of yoUr home area (i.e. omit unnecessary side streets). On the map plot -

by appropriate symbols the location of. the services you select. (You

could use one type of symbol for all these services and number each, then

provide a key in the margin or under the map td indicate the services the

numbers refer to).

There are othef places and services which are important to you

and your fathily not on the list. Write these following the list of the

twenty you select, and With another type of symbol plot on the map their
4

You should obviously show the situation of your home.

44,
location.
A

Draw around the council -providedservices a line in one colour

'to include the services w144.h are farthest out. The line will be irregular

but this does not matter. Do the same witlanother colour for, he non-,

These two areas are your main service regions. What-

council services.
4

relationships, contrasts or patterns, can you see between them? Note these

after the map under the heading Comparisons and Contrasts between Service

Regions.

We have considered the future in this exercise, but what of the

past? Missen of Melbourne University uses an interesting idea which shows"

the development of a service region for a Malay family over a number of

years.

What differences would you expect in your service region.

(a) 25 years ago? (b) 15 years ago? (c) 5 years ago? Has your service

region changed, grown, included, some new services but dropped others during

510
 41415

the period? It is essential to think of service regions in this way, and

not as something static and unchanging. Your answer here will be highly

speculative as it will be,based on evidence from the past which is in-

complete. Give the matter some thought, and try to show by some way

(even if onlyn.brief statement) how you think the past would have been

different. e choice of method is left to you.

(b) The social network:

Among the many methods used by sekciologists now is the social

A

network. We are all at the centre of a network of relationships with people

irtnd places. Some of these areinbre important than 'others. Geographical

techniques can be used to show these in the form bf a star diagram in which

the length of the rays of the star is proportional to the importce we

attach to the link-or"the pladd.-rThis exercise lays the.foundation for

star diagram analysis used in trade relationships where the length of the

ray is proportional to the amount or value of the trade.

The following diagram is an imaginary social network ray diagram

.for a boy in West Melbourne.' The length of the ray'is proportional to the

degree of importance. For convenience in drawing the diagram, rays of the

same length are tept together in the same quadrant. To save croviding,only

the key letter of the link or place is given at the end of the ray, and a

key is provided below the diagram. Four lengths of ray are used corresponding

to the degree of importance attached to the link. When you have read and

_understood this, and have studied the diagram try-to build your own ray diagram.

(c) The daily routine

Earlier thiS year we studied the technique used to show the daily

routine of a Gippsland dairy farmer, by using a vertical chart divided into

the hours allotted to each activity. Using the game method-draT.40-a chart,that

511
 EXAMPLE OF RAY DIAGRAM

MOST LEAST
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
214" RAY / (1.. RAY )
12

VERY FAIRLY
1y11MPORTA NT IMPORTANT
2" RAY / 1147, RAY /

LINKS :of

1 SCHOOL
etc.

4 AUNT'S HOUSE `,
etc.

YOUTH ( YMCA ) CLUB

ESSENDON FOOTBALL

Fig. A3.2)Cv

41)
512
 shale your activities in an average school day over the twenty foUr

hour period in the same way as the farmer's day was shown.

(d) The weekly routine'

Showing the seven days of the week on a similar diagram is more.

difficult and for this we can adapt the ycarly chart we used to show the

routine of the.farmer. The following diagram shows some of the activities

of a West Melbourne boy during a week. The diagram ha4 had to be made .

small to fit on the page. MU may choose to put it -on a complete side of

foolscap paper turned sideways. Each column for the day of the week can
-

"In the
be divided into four subdivisions representing three hours each.

following diagram only three days are shown. You would need to show seven.

Choose a representative schooZ week which is not associated with

a major religioUs Holy,Day period. Select the activities you consider are

important during the whole week, and first-of all work out the amount of

time per diy spent on eah activity. Block or colour in the amount of time

for each activity in the diagram.

a

(e) The monthly routine

'As calculating the.yearly routine or rhythm of activity is a very

long, and d cult procedure, this exer?Ise concentrates on looking at th

same technique at one very busy time of the year for you - namely the

month of Tishrei. This is a convenient time division as it contains thirty

days, although it spans the non - Jewish calenOar period of September-October.

In this exercise bseQthe Jewish month.

'Again, choose the categories which you consider relevant - for

example you might decide on secular school work, school religious studies,

recreation, religious observance, sleep, etc. Work out the time"hOUrs

513
 AN EXAMPLE OF A CHART TO SHOW
ALLOCATION OF TOM TO ,
MAJOR ACTIVITIES FOR A WEEK

etc.

4
3
2 1

00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18. 00 06 12 18' 00 .06 12 18 00 06 12

SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNEAY ETC.

KEY:

r'

1 RELIGIOUS STUDIES

2 SLEEP

3 SECULAR STUDIES

4 RECREATION

Fig. A3.3

514.
 489

you spent on each activity for each day of this month. Draw the following

circular grid in which each ray from the centre represents a day.

Calculating from the centre in each case plot the number of hours, involved

in each activity on each ray, and join these points up by a smooth curve.

Put Bleep as the outside category - this does not need to be calculated as

it is presumed that what is left ov 'er from other activities is spent

sleeping. (You may have to include other activities such as eating meals

in the above list). The graph should show you the cyclical nature of your

life in this period of the year, and give you an insight into the type,.of

picture you would obtain if you did the same thing for the whole year,

(Use a larger circle than the illustration below).

The importance of the ergograph is in what it can show for the

life cycle of, say, a peasant in South East Asia engaged in the routine

activities of farming.

51 5
 .1

MODEL FOR ERGOGRAH TO SHOW ALLOCATION

'OF YOUR TIME DURING 11*Oresi

KEY

STUDY AT HOME

SECULAR SCHOOL WORK

etc. N.B. COLOURS MAY BE USED INSTEAD OF LINE SHADING

Fig. A3.4

516
 ID

APPENDICES 4.1 - 4.11

DETAILS RELATING TO THE HISTORY AND

ORGANIZATION Or LUBAVITCHER SCHOOL

4

F.

517
4
 492
APPENDIX 4.1

THE FQUN1RS OF GENERAL CHASSIDISM

AND 1 E HEADS OF CHABAD

The Founder of Chassidism

RABBI ISRAEL BAAL SHEM TOV
Elul 18, 5458 - Sivan 6, 5520
(1698 - 1760)

'Successor
RABBITOVBER OF MESERITZ
(Date of births unknown) - Kislev 19, 5533
( ? - 1772)

Founder of Chabad
RABBI SHNEUR.ZALMAN OF LIADI
Elul 18, 5505 - Teveth 24, 5573
(1745 - 1812)

. Second Generation
RABBI DOVBER
(the son of Rabbi Shneur Zalman)
Kislev 9, 5534 - Kislev 9, 5588
(1773 - 1827)

Third Generation
RABBI MENACHEM MENDEL
(grandson of Rabbi Shneur-Zalman; son-in-law of Rabbi Dovber)
Elul 29, 5549 - Nissan 13; 5626
(1789 - 1866)

Fourth Generation,
RABBI SHMUEL
(son of Rabbi Menachem Mendel)
Iyar 2, 5594 - Tishrei 13, 5643
(1834 - 1882)

Fifth Generation
RABBI SHOLOM DOVBER
(son of Rabbi Shmuel)
Cheshvan 20, 5621 - Nissan 2) 5680
(1860 - 1920)

Sixth Generation
RABBI JOSEPH. ISAAC SCHNEERSOHN
(son of Rabbi Sholom Dovber)
TamTuz 12, 5640 - Shevat 10, 5710
(1880 - 1950)

Seventh Generation
RABBI MENACHEM MENDEL SCHNEERSON
(sixth in direct paternal line from Rabbi Menachem Mendel;
son-in-law of Rabbi" Joseph Isaac)
Born Nissan 11, 5662 (1902)

518
 493

APPENDIX 4.2

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE CONSTITUTION OF

STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE VICTORIAN UNIVERSITIES

AND SCHOOLS EXAMINATIONS BOARD

For each subject area examined by the Board there.ia a standing

committee responSible for the syllabus for any examination with which it
is concerned.

A etanding committee is constituted as follows;

(a) a chairman and deputy-chairman who, except in unusual circumstance's,
shall be full-time members of the teachillg staf ::44.the u ixersitiea;

(b) a member of the board of secondary inspectors;

(c) an examiner pf each sublect of the school leaving-examination
with which the committe6 is corwerned;
(d). an examiner of each subject of the matriculation examination with
which the committee is concerned;
(e) (i) one secondary school teacher nominated by the Director o
Secondary Education;
(ii) one secondary schopl teacher nominated by the,-,Director of
Catholii Education;
(iii) one secondary school teacher nominated bty the Incorporated
Association of Registered Teachers of Victoria;
four persons with expert knowledge in the subject, one of the four
to be nominated by a subject teachers' 'association, if such
exists;
four members of the teaching staff of the universities.

In subjects with small numbe of 'candidaLes appointments need not

be made under sub-clauses (e), and k
6

Notes (i) In proposed revisions of the statutes the number of

secondary school teachers will be increased.

(ii) In the following lists of names of standing committees

the above categories of appointment have been indicated.
 494 3

APPENDIX 4.3

SUB. CTS AVAILABLE AT THE MATRICULATION LEVEL (1969)

The subjects of the Matriculation Examination shall be:

1-.---English Expression
2. English Expression for. Asian Students
3. English Literature
4. Latin
5. Greek
6. French
7. German
8. Italian
9. Dutch
10. Hebrew
11. Russian
. 12. Chinese
13. Indonesian
14. PureMathematico
'15. Caidulus and Applied Mathematics
16. General Mathematics
,
17. Physics
18. Chemistry
-_-)Geology
2 . Biology
1. Agriculture Science
22. Geography .

23. Greek History

24. Roman History
25. 4uotralian History
26. Eighteenth Century History
27. European History
28. Social Studies
29. EanTomics
30. Accotftkting
31. Art
32. Biblical Studies
33. Music (Theoretical)
34. Mubit. (History and Literature)
35. Music (Practical) .

52
 495

APPENDIX 4.4

STATUS, SEX, ANPB=RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF

TEACHERS BY GRADE LEVEL

Grade Teacher Status Religious

Affiliation

Preparatory Female F/T. Jewish

Grade 1 Female FIT. Jewish

Grade 2 Female F/T. Jewish

Grade 3 Female F/T. Jewish

Grade 4 Female F/T. Gefitile

Grade 5 Female F/T. Gentile

Grade 6 Female *F /T. Gentile

Form 1 Male F/T., entile

Form 2 Female F/T. Gentile

Form 3' Male Gentile

Form 4 Male P/T. Gentile

Form 5 Male +F/T. 'Gentile

Form 6 '
Male ++F/T. Jewish

Notes: F/T - Full time; P/T - Part time

Mistress-in-charge of primary school.

De facto deputy principal with time-tabling

responsibilities, but no official (de jure)
status as such.

++ Alternative de facto principal with organizational

responsibilities for taking assemblies and Jewish°
meetings-in absence., of Principal but no official
(de jure) status.

523
 496
L.

APPENDIX 4.5

SCHOOL CENSUS DATA 1969

NUMBERS OF STUDENTS BY GRADE AND AGE RANGE

7
V 0

, Grade Age range n

. ,

Preparatory Over 4 - Under 7 years 18

1 Over 5 - Under 81 years 21

2 Oyer 6 - Under 9 years 15,

3 Over 7 - Under 10 years 18

Primary 4 %Over' '8 - Under 11 years 25

*

5 Over 9 - Under 12 years 21

6 Over 10 - Under 13 years 24

7 (Form 1) Over 11 - Under I4 years 22

8 (Form 2) Over 12 - Under 15 years 22

9 (Form 3) Over 13 - Under 16 years 18

Secondary 6

10 (Form 4) Over 14 - Under 17 years 21

11 (Form 5) Over 15 -'Under 18 years 24

* 12 (Form 6) Over 16- Under 18 years -ID

Notes: *Figure includes one boy over 20, but under 21, years
ofagenat time of official census.-

Fignres for Forms 3 and 4 changed in th latter half

of the year as boys left the school, and others joined
it. Data in Chapter 10 and Appendices refer to these
altered figures.

522
 497
APPENDIX 4.6
OCCUPATIONS OF FATHERS IN MIDDLE
AND SENIORS SCHOOL BY FORM LEVEL

Form 3 (n = 19)
0,

Retailer (shoes) Manufacrer (shoes)

Milkbar proprietor **Malagacturer & seller (furs)
Rabbi Ritual mebt inspector
Manufacturer (clothing) Delicatessen owner
Retailing (unspecified) Tailor and cutter'
Lorry driver Merchant (unspecified)
Manufacturer (plastic bags) **Market stall holder
**Teacher Taxi owner
Manufacturer (children's wear) Rabbi
Milkbar proprietor
Form 4 (n = 20)
Research scientist Pet shopkeeper
Market stall holder Butcher
Milkbar proprietor Coat Manufacturer
Belt factory proprietor' Clothing factory storeman
**Caretaker Knitting factory manager
Research Fellow (mathematics) "Fabric manufacturer and seller
Delicatessen shopkeeper Builder and contractor
General manager, dress Quilt manufacturer
manufacturer Managing Director Weaving`Co.
Hotel business Sock manufacturer
Printer
Form 5 (n = 22)
Wax merchant Butcher
' *Headmaster Rabbi
Manufacturer (sportswear) Manufac rer (knitwear, clothes)
Builder Wholesaler (unspecified).
Wool merchant Wool merchant
ButCher Accountant
Saw miller Tailor
*Shoe maker Merchant (unspecified)
Manufacturer (clothing): Manufacturer _(dresses, clothing)
Builder supplier Delicatessen & milk bar proprietor
Manufacturer & seller (furs) Shopowner

Form 6 (n = 10)
Builder Milkbar proprietor
' Clothing retailer Ritual meat inspector
Orchardist Painter
Rabbi Tailor
Clothing manufacturer Knitwear manufacturer

Notes: * Two sons in Form.

.** Father deceased - mother's occupation given.

523
 498.

APPENDIX 4.7 I

SCHOOL CALENDAR
1969 5729-30

(As published by the school)

TUESDAY 4th February New,School Year Commences.

TUESDAY 4tb, March Purim. -School closes 1 p.m.

%

TUESDAY 1st April Break up for Pesach Holidays.

MONDAY 14th April Return to School.

I
FRIDAY 9th May st Term,Brealikle.

TUESDAY 20th May Return. 2nd Term Commences,

FRIDAY 23rd May 1st day Shavuot. School Closed.

4
THURSDAY 24th July Tisha B'Av School Closed.

FRIDAY 22nd August Second Term Break-Up.

TUESDAY 2nd September Return. 3rd Term Commences.

FRIDAY 12th September Erev Rosh Hashannah. 5ehool

closes 1 p.m.

MONDAY 22nd September, Yom Kippur. School Closed.

FRIDAY 26th Septembgr Erev Succos. School closes 1 p.m.

FRIDAY ,. 12th December SEhool Closes end of School year.

PLEASE. NOTE FROM PESACH TO SUCCOS THE SCHOOL CLOSES AT 3.15 p.m.
fi
ON FRIDAYS.

524
 499

APPENDIX 4.8

1970
17,11= .
CALENDAR

(As publishgd by the school)

TERM 1:
Tuesday 3rd February Schobl re-opena
Fridaf 27th March School closed
Monday 30th March School closed
'Tuesday, 31st March School losed
Friday 17th April School loses at 3.15
for esach
Wednesday h April School re-opens
Friday 8th May School,c19sed for Holidays

TERM II:,

Moaday 18th May School re-opens

Tuesday 9th June. Erev Shavuoth - Scho91
closes,A 3 . 15

Wednesday 10th June Schbol closed - Shavuoth

Thursday' 11th June School closed - Shavuoth
Tuesday 11th August School closed - Tisha B'Av
Friday 21st August School closes 3 . 15 for
Holidays

TERM III:

Monday 31st August School re-opens

Wednesday 30th September School closes 1 p.m. - Erev
Rosh Hashapnah
Thursday 1st October School claga - Rosh Hashannah
kriday 2nd October School )' losed - Rosh Hashannah
Friday 9th October ,School closes 1 p.m. - Erev
Yom Kippur
(Beth Rivkah closed all day)
Thursday 15th October School closed - Succoth
Friday 16th October School closed - Succoth
Thursday 22nd October School closed - Shmini Atzeret
Friday 23rd October School closed - Simchat
Torah
Tuesday 15th December School closes for Holidays.

52i
 500

APPENDIX 4.9

LUBAVITCHER YOUTH ADVERTISEMENT FOR PESACH CAMP

ri II a

LUBAVITCHER YOUTH

. CAMP GAN ISRAEL

FEEL LIKE LETTING OFF A LITTLE STEAM?

Come along to the

;CAMP REUNION - PESACH OUTING
/ AND
Travel on the only existAg
Steam Train in passenger
service - THE "PUFFING ,BILLY"
TO
EMERALD,
Where we'll relive fora sho
while all the fun of camp!
c;s,

Leaving 9 a.i. on SUNDAY

6th April -
FROM
THE SCHOOL

Bring along camp photos

Prizes for winning groups

Bring a Pesaandikker Lunch

NorrCampers welcome also!! Cover charge:

under 14 - $1.00
over 14 - $1.30

We will arrive back at the School by 6 p.m.

526
 501
'4
a

APPENDIX 4.10
771,a
LUBAVITCHER YOUTH ADVERTISEMENT FOR A

SRAVUOT EVENING

AGAIN THIS SHAVUOT AT

TZACH IS ORGANISING THE SCHOOL

EVENING ACTIVITIES FOR 8.15 p.m.

FORM I - 2

WITH G

FORM 3 -,4

WITH H

FORM 5 - 6 and over 9.30

IN THE DINING ROOM

GUEST SPEAKER MR

T .
"Tax Payment and evasion of
Tax accordingto Halacha.

IF YOU NEED SOMEONE TO ACCOMPANY YOU CONTACT

N Q , K
 50Z

APPENDIX 4.11 ,

(/.

A 'PASTORAL' .ETTER FROM THE LUBAVITCHER REBBE

FREE TRANSLATION

RABBI MEI4ACHEM M. SCHNEERSON

Lubavitch
770 Eastern Parkway
Brooklyn 13, N. Y. By the Grace of G-d
llth of Nissan, 5729
HYadinth 3-9250 Brooklyn, N.Y.
.?)

To My brethren, everywhere
G-d bless you all.

0
Greeting and Blessing:

The Yom Tov Pesach, "head" of the Three Festivals (Pesach,

Shavuos, Succos) and first of all febtivals, with its central theme of
/Yetzias Wtzraim,(Liberation from Egypt) and the birth of the Jewish
nation, are of Apecial,significance as an historic eve of comprehensive

and enduring consequences. Hence all,detaiis connected with this event

by
are also comprehensive in their instruction, and, of course, eternal
nature, like all matters of Torah, which is eternal and not limited in
time and place.

We will dwell here on one aspect of Korban Pesach (Pesach sacrifice)

and Yetzias Mitzraim.

A prerequisite of'Korban Pesach, and thus connected with it, is

the Mitzvah of Milah (Circumcision), as it is written: "Every male shall
be circumcised and then shall he draw near to make it (the sacrifice) ...
and no uncircumcised shall eat of it". Moreover, our Sages declare that

the whole event of Yetzias Mitzraim came to pass in the merit of the two
Mitzvos: Korban Pesach and Milah.

There an inner connection between the two Mitzvos:

Brie Milah (Covenant of Circumcision), taking place on the eighth

day after birth, constitutes the Covenant between the Jew and G-d right at
the beginning of his lifetim , the effect that his whole life should be

lived in accordance with G-d's will.

526
 503

Korban Pesach is a Mitzvah which was commanded, first of all, to

the head of the family ("Each man shall take a Iamb according to the
paternal household, a lamb for each household .. according to your
families"). Furthermore, in connection with the first Korban Pesach it
"Draw out (i.e. withdraw - from idolatry) and take unto 7oll"
is written:
a lamb for the Korban Pesach. We are thus reminded that at this stage
of life there is a past, and it is possible that the past was not as it
should have
have been, and requires tp be rectified.

Applying the above mentioned cone:

11s in the daily life, we are
taught as follows:

Ea minute of life is the beginning of a new sequence of hours

and days, and t the same time also the continuation of the previous living.
To put it in g neral terms;

re are times and seasons when a person begins new things, and
there are times and seasons when a person continues and works on previous
matters.

Since life's purpose is, as it has been said: "I was created

to serve my Creator", and, moreover, since we owe subservience to G-d

because He liberated us from Egyptian bondage ("I am G-d, yoyr G-d /because
I am He/ Who brought you out of Egypt, from the house of bondage") - the
above mentioned concepts of Bris Milah and Korban Pesach reflect two general
modes of serving G-d: the service of a Tzaddik, whose mainyreoccupation is
with new things and new achievements; and the service of a Baal-Teshuvah
(repenter), whose main endeavor is in the Ze10444epairing and rectifying
the past., Also in the higher aspect of Teshuvah - return to the Spurge -
there is `the obvious implication that there was a time when the individual
was closer to the Source but had moved away. Indeed, the soul, before its

descent to a life on earth, was purely spiritual, and the purpose of her
descent is not merely that she remain spiritual when it inhabits the body,
but that she should spiritualize also the body and the animal soul in man.

In more specific terms,in the every-day life of every Jew: Immediately

upon rising in the morning, he is like a new creature, ginning a new life

with the declaration: "I thank Thee, 0 Living and E rnal King," etc. And

52:
 504

at the end of the day,'before retiring to bed, there isdhechbon hanefesh

(soul searching ) of the bygone day, during the reading of the Shema before
going to bed, prior to commending his soul into G-d's care: "Into Thy

Hand I entrust my spirit."

* * *

This is also the concept of Zeman Cheiruceinu (Season of Our

Liberation) and Yetzias Mitzraim as a daily experience: To be free and
unobstructed by limitations and confines (metzerim ugvulim)of one's own
nature, as well as of subservience fo the spiritually alien environment.
This requires avodah (service) on two levels: on a level similar o that

of a Tza - coatinually initiate new good things, do good; and on

the level f a Baal Teshuvah, turn away from evil and do good - to repair
what is to be repaired of the past, and to strive and rise ever closer to
one's primordial Source in G-dliness.

Even if a person findsJiimself, G-d forbid, in a situatiori similar

to Galuth Mitzraim of old, when many undesirabe alien things encrust the
soul, he can quickly free himself by making a resolute decision to belong to
G-d. His declaration, "G-d, our G-d.(elokeynu, our strength and vitality),
G-d is One," Will bring the immediate response, "I am G-d your G-d, Who
brought you out jif Igypt" - and still does, now as then. Thereupon, his
enslavement to 'Pharaoh" and "Mitzraim" abominations is nullified, and he
climbs out of the quagmire, repairs the past, and begins a new.life, a truly
Jewish life, attaining true freedom through Torah and Mitzvos.

***
May G-d grant that all. the above should be as in the time of the
first 'tetzias Mitzraim - with a "raised hand," with a lofty spirit, song
and joy.

Thereby bringing closer and hastening the fulfilment of the prophetic

promise: "As in the days of your coming out of Egypt, .I will show nim
wonders" - With the true and complete redemption through Moshiach Tzidkeinu.

With blessing for a

Kosher and joyous Pesach

/Signed/ Menachem Schneerson

53u
40

APPENDICES 5.1 - 5.3

DETAILS RELATING TO THE SCHOOL NEIGHBOURHOOD

AND CULTURE ISLAND

CONTENT ANALYSIS DATA F OM

THE AUSTRALIAN JEWISH' NEWS

53i
 506

APPENDIX 5.1

FREQUENCY OF MENTIONS OF JEWISH -OWNED OR MANAGED

BUSINESSES WITHIN THE SCHOOL NEIGHBOURHOOD

Category Number of mentions

A. Retailing
1. Delicatessens-, milk bars, self
service storeso:neat and poultry
suppliers. 28 (38)

2. Dress and fashion shops, boutiques,

men's wear, lingerie etc. 17 (22)

3. Miscellaneous other retail

B. Persohal services and entertainment

Hairdressers and beauticians 6 (21)

Restaurants, cafes, hotels 13 (34)

C. Manufacturing

Furniture, household fittings and

soft furnishings 8 (18)

Textiles and clothing 6 (13)

Processed foods, confectionery 3 ( 3)

Paper and printing 2 ( 2)

Note: Figures in brackets refer to the total advertisements

in each category i.e. Jcwish and non-Jewish.

N._

532
 507,

APPENDIX 5.2

AN EXAMPLE OF A NEW YEAR GREETING

YOUR C4THING AND HOUSEHOLD

GOODS CAN BE OF GREAT HELP TO

THE
c7

LUBAVITCHER SCHOOL OPPORTUNITY SHO

A HAPPY AND PROSPEROUS NEW YEAR

AND WELL OVER THE FAST

c"1
 .508

APPENDIX 5.2

AN EXAMPLE OF A NEW YEAR GREETING

JEWISH BOOKSHOPS

Wish Friends and Customers

A HAPPY AND PROSPEROUS NEW Y1AR
AND WELL OVER THE FAST

. BAGS(SILK, WOOL TERYLENE) ..TALES

BAGS (gILK AND VELVET) BEAUTIFUL
.

EMBROIDERED YARMULKAS PRAYER BOOKS

.

FOR ALL SYNAGOGUES IN MANY TRANSLATIONS

(SPECIAL ONES FOR LADIES) . SILVER
STERLING KIDDUSH CUPS CANDLE STOCKS
.

AND CANDELABRAS IN STERLING SILVER AND

SILVER PLATED . SHOFARS AND SILVER
DECORATIONS FOR SEFER TORAHS.

EXCLUSIVE GIFTS FOR ALL *WISH SIMCHAS.

53LLi
6

APPENDIX 5.2

AN EXAMPLE OF A NEW YEAR GREETING

`C,*

THE I L SHOP
Has for

ROSH HASHANAH

A LARGE-VARIETY OF GREETING CARDS

a Israeli Illustrated and Personal

Printed with Name and Address

SILK/WOOL TALLEISIM . MAHZERIM(Heb./Eng.

- Heb. only - Heb., Yiddish) . KIDDUSH
CUPS CANDLESTICK & CANDELABRAES . MANY
.

BEAUTIFUL SILVER/SILVERPLATE/COPPER &

OLIVEWOOD PRODUCTS AND PORCELAIN DISHES .

& CERAMICWARE FOR THE YOM TOV & SHABBAT

TABLE & FOR THE HOME OR AS GIFTS ...

'HUNDREDS OF .B 0 OK S'
For Adults arid Children

ISRAELI JeWELLERY
*

R E--CORDS
Hebrew /Yiddish /English

ISRAELI GIFTS IN LEATHER/PLASTIC

. GAMES . NOVELTIES . BABYWEAR

° Open Daily 9a.m.-5.45p.m.

Sunday. Mornings 10.30a.m.-1.00p.m.

0 535
 APPENDIX 5.2

AN EXAMPLE OF A NEW YEAR GREETING

CONTINENTAL

KOSHER BUTCHERS

Under the Supervision of the Melbourne

'Beth Din announce that, they are preparing

different Kosher Smoked Meat, Goose Sausages,

Chicken Sausages, Turkey Sausages, Salami &

mixed smoked small goods.

WE WISH ALL OUR. RELATIVES, FRIENDS AND CUSTOMERS

A HAPPY NEW YEAR AND WELL OVER THE FAST

4/
fl
 511
S/
5 APPENDIX 5.3

AN ADVERTISEMENT FOJt THE TEFILLIN CAMPAIGN

-47
By the grace of G-d

URGENT CALL
IN VIEW OF THE PRESENT STTUATION IN THE HOLY LAND, THE
LUBAVITCHER REBBE, RABBI MFNACHEM M. SCHNEERSON, HAS
EMPHATICALLY, REITERATED HIS CALL CONCERNING THE SPECIFIC NEED -

TO STRENGTHEN AND DISSEMINATE THE OBSERVANCE OF THE MITZVAH

OF TEFILLIN AMONG JEWS

The Reb emphasised that the fulfillment of thi itzvah in

addition to i essential aspect as a.Divine Comman ent which must
be observed for its.own sake, is even more impera ve at this time_
not merely for its protective quality as indic ed in the Torah,.
"and they shall fear you" - the fear thq instilled in the heart
of the enemies of Israel as a result of t e observance of this
mitzvah (as explained by our Sages in Ber chot 6a) - but even more
so for the Divine strength which the Mitz ah of Tefillin bestows
upon defenders of Israel to vanquish the enemy in the course of
battle.
The Rebbe declared that it is a halachic decision stated by
the Rosh (Halochos K'tanos, "Hilchos Tefillin", 15) in the merit
of the observance of the mitzvah of Tefillin which are donnedion
the arm'and the head, there will be fulfilled in the members of the
Defence Forces the Divine promise, "And they will smite both the,arm
and the head" of the enemy (Deut. Chap. 33: 20).
THE LUBAVITCHER REBBE APPEALED: -

a) Ehch and every Jew shoilld scrupulously observe this Mitzvah

every weekday. Also, one should have his Tefillin examined
'periodically as stated in the Code of Jewish Law.
b) By every possible means everyone should spread and foster
observance of this precept among his fellow Jews,
ESPECIALLY THOSE INTHE MILITARY DEFENCE FORCES, THEIR RELATIVES
AND FRIENDS,
by explaining to them the vital importance of this mitzvah.
May it be G-d's will, concluded the Rebbe in his call, that
in the very near future the current situation will be a thing of
the past, for peace shall reign over the entire world, especially
in the Holy Land about \sitich it iss stated: "Anti I will grant peace
in the Land" and that every Jew should be able to study Torah and
observe the mitzvos in-peace and tranquility.,-

Lubavitch Youth Organisation

770 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn,
N.Y. 11213

vt, r; Q "
Co, (
 APPENDICES 6.1 - 6.3

MICRO - ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA CONCERNING THE

CONSTRUCTIONS OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

IN, FORMS 1, 2 and 4

538
 513

APPENDIX 6.1

MICRO-ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA OF BOYS' BEHAVIOUR

DURING SUPL,AVISED GEOGRAPHY LESSON IN -0RM 1

Introduction

The lesson starts at 3.20p.m. Definite work has been

given to the boys to do. I arrive on time, and receive a

0
ragged unenthusiastic response to my greeting 'goo afternoon

boys'. Some four or five boys start pestering me to o out

and play sport. I insist,that they get on with the ex cise

their usual teacher has set them for revision.

I

Four boys immediately, get up and start wandering aroun

the room, grumbling to themselves and other boys. I write up

their work on tke blackboard, but am conscious all the time that

many of the boys are fooling around behind me. The noise level

increases. When.I turn round half a dozen are out of their

seats, so I order them back to their placr. All boys are then

reminded about the work they have to do and are Id to start

work.
t.

A chronological record is kept of their subsequent behaviotir.

Observer's comments'are given on some aspects. Boys are

A

identified by the randomly allocated code letters in the

accompanying Figure A6.1.

 O

SCHEMATIC LOCATION GRID - FORM

IRIS

C7

L M F 1G1
I

Y P
04

TEACHER'S TABLE

BOARD

UNOCCUPIED

Fig. A6.1

OP

540
 515

Description

-3.22-3.24 p.m. Up to eight boys wander around making little attempt to

settle down to work.

3.24 All the boys are now settled down more or less quietly. I have-42

walk around the room twice, directing some half a dozen boys.to get

down to work, lingering near them for a few seconds to make sure they

comply. Despite my surveillance, by the time I get to the teacher's

table, and start a formal record of interaction incidents, some boys

r
are still not occupied, though all are in their seats.

3.26 B and Y , both new boys, get up from their seats and

wander around looking for books. I send them back, not without argument

from B , who says he has nothing to work from.

3.27 C gets up for about the sixth time, and wanders to back row

where he leans on a desk talking and joking with K , H

and I . P and Q are'talking and fooling around.

turns around in his seat to talk 10 H and I

3.30 B gets up again, and wanders around to front of class. He

plays with the gas heater near the window, and fiddles with the cupboard

beside the blackboard. A gets up, and wanders aimlessly to

the back of the class.

and Q continue to chatter and fool around. They have

3.31 P

yet to get down to work. I ask Q what he's doing. He says

he is excused from work as he has been sick, and is still dizzy. This

does not prevent him distracting P with chatter. I tell him

to get on with his work..

 516

3.32 G gets up, and throws something out,of the window. V

, start talking, possibly about work so I ignore

them. C gets up again, and starts to drift towards the back.

I tell him to sit down. He complies reluctantly. I and K

are chatting idly and looking around at others. A calls back

(r
to L and M about work, then gets up and goes, to talk

with them. I let it. go on as long as it appears to be about work.

When conversation appears to get off work, to judge from the silliness

and joking, I order A back to his seat.

3.34 R and S start a fight over a roneoed worksheet,

snatching at it, and cuffing each other around the head and shoulders.

M turns to K 4 , and starts talking. 0 comes out

to the front ostensibly toget a book he has forgotten. He glances

quickly at what I am doing - nothing escapes his notice - and circles

back to his desk where he stands until told to sit down and 'get on

with it'.

3.36 L turns around, and starts grabbing at'the books of J

and K . X shoves his desk lid up, and starts grubbing

aroun4 inside.

3.37 J comes out and asks to 'be excused'. I let him go to the

toilets. C gets to his feet again (possibly in reaction to

J going to the toilet). There is a general murmur of voices

4
from most boys. Some of this appears to be 'work ndise', the remainder

is obvious'y gossip, as the chatter has continued non-stop since the

beginning of the lesson.

3.38 V jumps up suddenly, and snatches a book from S

apparently he has been jostled, and remonstrates loudly. There is a

111

4
t) 'I
 51.7

sudden outburst of irritation from J and K A

calls out across the room to Y and Z . U gets

to get at book.
up, and Camas around the back of my seat to C

B gets up, and wanders to the front, talking to himself

and to nobody in particular.

A skirmish erupts between F and G . Four boys are now

3.39

out of their seats and wandering around in a generally aimless but

disruptive manner. The noise level rises. I tell the class in general

to get on with their work. F , who has not been working

consistently, comes out for Permission to go and see another, unspecified

I refuse permission, and tell him to sit doWn. C gets

boy.

up again, and moves restlessly to the window. He repeatedly .lances

out of the window.

3.40 M gets up, and starts wandering down the aisle towards the

and Q are stilliatting. P has done

front. P

almost no work despite my reminders to get on with what he has been set.

interrupts him continually.He seems to have nothing to do

Q
butlgossip. B gets up; and starts wandering around near the

I ignore him. C gets up again. I have

cupboard and gas fire.

told him to sit down several times, and at last he does so reluctantly.

3.42 Q is now so noisy and disruptive that "I send him outside to

After a great deal of cheeky argument he goes. Periodically

cool off.

\ he pokes his head through the door to ask if he can come in again.

X , who began to root around in his desk at 3.36 finishes whatever

he is doing, closes the desk lid, and sits back idly looking through a

pamphlet he has discovered. It is unconnected with geography. J

returns from the toilet noisily, and sits down.

 518

3.44 A skirmish starts between J and K over possession

of pencils and books. Class by now is generally noisy and chattery.

The noise level rises until I have to step in and remind them to get

on with work. U turn3 around. He leans his elbows on

front of R 's desk, and starts chatting idly. L half

gets up from his seat, and turns to.J and K to get

some books.

3.45 H has been blowing his noise like a trumpet on and off in an

exaggerated manner for about ten minutes. He finally swaggers to the

front, and'fhrows a tissue ostentatiously into the wastepaper basket.

The girls school siren goes, and there is a general stir near the

window. Those closest look out. G and C wave;

apparently to girls passing by below. I reflect that, of all the

classes I take, this one seems to have most to do with girls, possibly
4
due to the,proximity"of their playground to the windows of the classroom.
I
When I arrive by car, and park opposite the playground at lunchtime,

there isfuSually a group of first Form boys and girls playing basketball,

not as a team together, but with two seemingly independent games going

on. They are not exclusive, however. Each frequently pirates the

other's ball, there is general skirmishing and chaffing at each other.

Mild flirting takes place with scuffling and name-calling: .'4o-and-so

loves so-and-so', with embarrassed pushing and blushing giggles, 'don't

be so silly'. I continue to reflect that this may have something to

do with the pre-Barmitzvah status of the boys. The proximity

classroom and playground is another factor: I had frequently seek boys

leaning out of windoWs calling to girls. It is quite usual for boys

near the windows to jump up, call or wave Out of the window to girls

544
 519 '

below. Once, when I went to a window during a supervised lesson, I

had inadvertently disturbed a group of girls who were standing in

their playground looking saucily up at the windows, and waving to

boys, much to their (the girls') embarrassment and apparent confusion.

It is ficu1t not to smile in sympathy - blood will out, despite

all the yestrictions which have been placed on boys using the girls'

playground.

For the first time, except for W and X , the whole Class
3.46

is working quietly and productively, with that unmistakable air of

purposeful industry with its slight 'buzz' of activity, involved in

work which 'absorbs attention, and is the ideal of many teachers. I

Can relax at last. But and .X still seem to\he

wasting time, each idly leafin through a pamphlet which bears little

relation to the work I have set. They also examine a note passed to

them through the Form's 'pipeline'. My relaxation is short- lived..

Q gets up, darts to the front and whispers something to A

M gets up, and goes across the aisle to F , then comes

3.47

back and sits down again. F then gets up, and goes to talk

to K and M across the aisle. A skirmish erupts between

U and V over the possesdion of a paMphlet. K

'gets to his feet, and looks around the class. .G and E

start giggling and chatting. M - turns around in his seat, and

hits out at J who remonstrates vociferously.

A silly, giggly scuffle starts between U and V 0

3.49

turns around, and starts meddling with M work. P

who has been wasting time and working spasmodically, asks to be excused,

and is allowed to go to the toilet. He goes out quickly.

545
 520

3.50 C is up on his feet again, moving around the room, restless

and irritable. H who hfis been keeping up his nose -blowing

on and off for some time, gets up and looks out of the window.

Giggling and name - calling have been heard intermittently-from the

playground for the past few minutes. The class as. a whole is now

beginning to get restless. Boys work fitfully. X seems to,

have started to pack up. "I tell; him to get on with his work.

3.51 Y , who has done nothing all the lesson - he is a new boy from

Brooklyn, New York - turns around to talk to W , who similarly

has been doing nothing all the period.

comes out. He wanders from W to P to B

3.52 H

and finally gravitates to my desk. I tell him to sit down. K

gets up, and.looks out of the window. A ],ittle child starts crying

outside in the playground. A mimics the sound, setting the

whole class laughing. I, tell him to be quiet and get on with his work.

C gets up again restlessly (does he want to go to( the toilet

but is unwilling to ask?).

0

3.53 H, and I are'now on their feet, idly chatting and looking

around. L 'gets up, and stands talking to .3

3.54 3
gets up again, and wanders, as if compelled, to the front

cupboard. He finds a story book, and sits an-'t'he gas fire, reading.

3.55 X begins to pack his case. J comes ostentatiously to

the front to show me all the Mork he has been doing. A persistent

troublemaker and irritatingly cheeky boy on past occasions, he has been

quieter and more productive this lesson than formerly, when he has been

the focus of attention and I recognized disruptive element in the class.

5 4 t;
 521

C turns around to G and starts talking, all the while

3.56

keeping one eye on me. K gets up, and looks atme truculently.

and I are also on their feet, talking. H

H

starts an ob-ouEl hacking cough. The class stirs, aid

many laugh-with approval. H again comes forward, and makes

an ostentatious display of dropping something in the wastepaper basket.

Out of the corner of my eye I see him signal to J , then, on

his return, stoop to pick up a slip of paper that was flipped out to

the front by Y some time previously. K _lets out of

ocry.0.16
his seat, and comes-over to lk to A

comes out to me for help on a work problem. I had ignored

3.58 O

his and other requests for help, which have been shouted out in my

general direction, unless boys. had complied with my request to put up

their hands. Y gets up, and walks behind me to the window,

where he stands staring out until told to sit down. P , who it

will be remembered, went to the toilet.at 3.49 p.m. comes in noisily,

and goeammediately to J whose work is consequently interrupted.

Inured to such behaviour by now, I forbear to question him about the

time he has taken to get back. Past experience has taught me that doing

so results in a tangle of involved explanations and excuses. Instead,

I tell him to sit down, and remind J to get on with what he is

doing. He immediately bounces to his feet expostulating vehemently

that he had not stopped work all the period. It is'now approaching

4 p.m. and dismissal time. The whole class is getting very noisy and

fidgety.
 522

3.59 C gets up - for tt.(1. umpteenth time,I reflect wearily; -

and moves around the room restlessly. L gets up, and goes

414
over talk to.V . H is on his feet, looking out

L
((- of the wincialf,, anti cl,!.allino, to someone below.

to the back row, Boys start packing up generally and noisily without

being-told to do so. When the siren soundb for the end of school,

boys cram belongings into their cases. When instructed, they Make

.a dash for their coats. A mad scramble takes place in which at least

seven incidents of shoving, scuffling and hitting take plade. Despite

the fact thaileeir own time is now involved,

all are not able to be

ready for dismissal pntil 4.05 - five minutes after the formal end .

of the period.

4.05 The class is dismissed and all stream out noisily, about a third touch

the meauzah. I remain behirid until the caretaker comes in, then leave

myself - a typical lesson completed.

54 o
 523
(

APPENDIX 6.2

MICRO-ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA OF BOYS' BEHAVIOUR

DURING SUPERVISED GEOGRAPHY EESSON.IN FORM 2

Introduction

An afternoon lesson in mid-October. The weather is bleak,

windy, cold and showery. An assignment ,has been set by their 1

normal teacher. The lesson starts promptly at 2p.m. I give

u.
instructions for 411 to'get doWnYo-.4wor n the asilirent,

and repeat these about four times. C- immediately puts'

up his hand,' 'I'vefinished; what can I 'do now?' I tell him

to get on with work in another subject. 'Science?' he asks.

'les, do 1science'; I reply, 'but get down to work':

( I take up my seat at the table, and keep a record of the

boys'subsequent behaviour. Observer's comments are given on

some aspvtg. Boys arJ identified by the randomly allocated code

letters in,thetaccompanying Figure A6.2.

54
 1

SCHEMATIC LOCATIDN GRID FORM 2

A JIK S
At,

L U N

D'

E O V 0

H P Q Y

TEACHER'S TABLE
4it

BOARD

4>

UNOCCUPIED

Fig. A6. 2

55u
 525
n

Description

2.03 p.m. The boys are still noisy,4,and I remind them to get down to work.

Some goon chatting, complaining, rooting around in their desks for

Several boys axe late getting to the lesson. N t%kes

books.

cards-. K turns around to look at

out two New Year greeting

these. I remind him that they both have work, to do, and should get on

with it. The class begins to settle down.

and P arrive. They tell

2.05 There is an interruption as H
A

me thab"they have been held up by rain. I tell themto get down to

work as quickly as possible. H sits down, but immediately

starts to talk to N across the aisle, who is still looking

at the New Year cards.

2.07 A hits C immediately in front of him, who has been

playing with a magnet since the lesson started. 0 gets up with

0

a Hebrew book, and comes forward to the front to show it to K

around,
I tell him sharply to get back to his desk, but he loiters

then wanders behind me to the cupboard, and starts fiddling with Hebrew

books and tidying them up. After a while he goes back to his seat

I remind all the class to get on with their work. however,

reluctantly.

the noise level again starts to rise; some boys leave their seats to

chat to neighbours. 0 calls across the classroom to someone

H continues to talk to N across the aisle.

at the back.

starts to play with his magnet again. Behind him, A

2.09 C

is obviously eating something.

gets out ofehis seat. He hits K in front of him,

2.10 0

them wanders to the back of the class, where he scuffles witlithose

551
 526

in the back seat of the centre row. J pushes and scuffles

with L in front of him. Z in the right hand row turns '

around in his desk, and swings a blow at Y , the boy immediately

behind him. V and W get up and wander aimlessly around

the class. Again, noise starts increasing; In this period there are

some five boys wandering around thelclassroom, fooling and talking to

friends. F comes in late. He tells me that he has been kept

at home to help his mother, who is

2.10 I give an order to the boys to stop their noise, sit down and get on

with the work they had beed given. All boys go back to their seats.

I warn H Snot to call out. Then I resume my scribbling, with

head down and attention apparently on my work. Immediately 0

calls out to me for attention - something to do with the work he is

F starts talking to C behind him. H

doing.

calls out to N . L in the centre row gets up and walks

out to the front, then moves to the back of the classroom, where
A

and B are sitting. C turns around and hits A

behind him.

2.18 I again remind boys to get on with their work, and tell those standing'

up to sit down. rA , who has been eating surreptiously all

the lesson, becomes more open about it with the result that I spot him

putting something in his mouth. I reprimand him, and tell him to put

the sweets in the Wastepaper basket. He comes out with a great show,

and with exaggerated movements puts an obviously empty packet in the

basket, then returns to his seat. All the boys except Z have

stopped work to watch this pantomime. They grin behind their hands,

and slide looks to one another to see if I had noticed and will react.

55) 7
 527

I do nothing, but remind them to get on with work.

calls out to P V and bound up,

2.20 H .

and start scuffling over something. H gets up and grabs a

1book from P . :-,oth borla fight over possession of the book

0 talks to K in front of him. V ). in the

right hand row starts talking to M v diagonally behind him

across the aisle. A scuffle develops between C and L

from across the aisle, who has moved into the vacant seat beside hire.

When he sees me look up, L quickly gets back to his own seat.

is now talking to a group of boys near 0 calls

V -

out to H . N also chips in, calling to H

Fooling and joking start up between V in the right hand row

and M in the centre row. B 46 in the left hand row

scuffles with J across the aisle. M , in front of J

turns around and hits out hard at J who apparently knocked him

during the scuff General scuffling breaks out between a number of

boys. The noise level is now very high.

2.23 I warn J. to sit down, and tell the remainder of the class to

quieten down and get on with their work. Then I resume my own workv,

while the class gets back to their's.

to scuffle breaks out between V and W in the right hand

2.25

is 'making a noise and I check him. N interrupts

row. H

P to ask him something. C starts being silly again,

calling across the aisle to L . The boy in the left hand row -

A has started eating again. This time I get up and go to find

out what he is up to. He has a pile of chips on the seat bedide him

5 5'S
 528

as I suspected. I reprimand him angrily, then tell him to get the

waste paper basket and,to sweep the chips into it. Some of the boys

start cat-calling, sayijig that I am forcing A to waste food,

which is against 1,:ws. Fine th chips are in the

basket, and some order is restored. I get back to my seat, and start

working again.

hits the boy in front of him with a book. H calls

2.26. 0

across to P . L gets up, and goes rooting around in

the lockers at the back of the room, then wanders slyly over to B

in the back corner, and hits him, managing to jostle J on

the way. R and S in the back right hand row get

to fiddle with the blinds; ostensibly to reduce the glare from the

sun, which has broken through after a shower. They start pulling down

the blinds all the wayllilong the windows. This causes the usual

expostulations from those in other seats near the windows, who object

to having the blinds down.

2.28 'After watching this for some moments, I tell R and S ,

to get the blinds settled and then sit down. C gets out of

his seat to go to the waste paper basket for no apparent reason. I

-to sit down. N and P in the front start a

tie,

scussion which is obviously about worktao I ignore it. 0

rns around and interrupts M and S are

now crouched down in their seats joking together. C throws

something over to J Fooling around and joking are now going

on between C and D in the left hand row. L

drops his pen, and searches around for it under the desk in a vigorous
 529

way. He manages to jostle N in the process, who turns

around and expostulates violently. A scuffle erupts at the back

between C who turns around to hit A . J

gets up, leans across to B and hits out at him, manages

to hit D , the boy in front 'of him, and thenrdashestback to

his seat. When I look up at him, he claims that they had hit him

first. N and K turn around for an animated discussion

with the two boys behind them. T and U startG;oling

around, then turn around to talk and joke with the two boys behind

them in the back seats.

I get up and go to separate V and W , who have been

2.31

quietly estling fo ome seconds. do so with obvious ange'r and

use a deg ee of force. T class becom s watchful and quiet at t

display of annoyance. Most have their, heads down working, or pretending

2

Y t noise starts to- build up once again. V and

to work.

W , who I had just separated, start fooling again. I begin to

loose my temp and warn them that there will be serious trouble if

\
they co tinue. Despite this, L and M in the centre

row continue to fool around with their heads down almost under the desk.

2.32 J yells out for help with his work, without putting up his

hand. I remind him of the normal rules, and answer'his question.

0

z
0 turns around to ask M a question, and succeeds in

disturbing his work. He then calls out to me for the meaning of a

`*word. U at the back turns to talk to R and S

C turns around to talk io A . J gets up with

the intention of going to talk to C , but I tell him sharply to

q
 530

sit down. T from the right hand row gets up, and strolls

He
casually to the left hand row around theback of the class.

hit A , lingers in the vicinity, and exchanges jokes.

calls across the aisle to K . 0 and P

2.33 H

talk together. C grabs the jumper of the boy

K

behind him, they scuffle.

I again warn all boys to get on with their work. As soon as I have
2.34
4

finished speaking, 0 '

gets up, and comes out to the front,

'leans on K 's desk, and starts talking to him about books. I

tell him to sit down, but he continues his conversation. I repeat

and ultimately succeed in getting him to sit down. Meanwhile

my order

C and A start another scuffle, then a conversation.

They attract the attention of E , who until now has been

relatively quiet. He and F start to talk about something that

H ducks under his desk

is obviously not connected with work.

and fiddles with his case; he keeps up this activity for some time.

There is a general murmur of talking in the class, and the noise is

rising.
four boys
2.35 I tell all the boys to get on with their work quietly. The

in the back right hand corner of the row near the window start an

animated discussion, apparently about work, so I let it continue.

calls out to P 0 drops a plastic ruler

H .

and
with which he has been fiddling for some time, spinning it round

round his fingers. He picks it up off the floor, and continues

spinning it abstractedly. V leans across to M arid

pulls several times at the button on top of his yarmelkeh. M

C starts
has been working relatively well until this m,oment.
 533.

fooling around with the boy behind him, talking and laughing.
1
0 turns around, and starts to interfere with M s

work. K starts to discuss work with P

2.37 0 again drops the plastic ruler picks it p, slumps in his

seat, Ppinning the ruler abstractedly around his finger. C

leans across the aisle, and grabs a pencil from L , and pretends

to break it across his knee. L moves across to get it, and

several other boys join in amidst general uproar. C , A

and L scuffle for the pencil. I tell them to be

quiet -and hand the pencil back to the right owner. 0 then gets

up, and gbes to the far back right hand corner where he interrupts the

work of S . 0 stands in the aisle idly spinning his

ruler. I tell him to get back to his seat and sit down. Entually

he complies. , A and B start up a gossip

with J and L across the aisle. 0 asks to be

allowed to hang up his overcoat, which he has kept on since coming

into class. I tell him that he has been such a nuisance that he can

keep i on, as he will only disturb the others further. He stands up,

takes off his coat with a show of defiance, rolls it into a ball, and

then interferes with th work of N , sitting beside him. N

hits back vigorously. Meanwhile R and S start a

conversation with K 'across the aisle.

2.39 H , who has been relatively quiet for some few minutes, woTng

at the assignment, talks across the aisle to N . F

C and L . ,A4ho has shifted his seat next to C

are all deep in conversation. J calls on', for help on the

 532

meaning of a word, and I give it to him'automatically, without stopping

to enforce the rules about calling out. B comes from the

back of the left hand row to talk to F On his way he swipes

across the back of the head. C tosses his magnet

L

into the air, and motions to H further down the aisle to

catch it. This time I get up and confiscate the magnet, amid an

uproar of protestations. There is now, general disturbance in the room

as the lesson ends. I remind them to get on with their next period's

WQ k until the teacher comes.

2.40 As I leave the class to its own devices and walk along the corridor,

pandemonium breaks out behind me as it usually does unless I stand in

the doorway, and keep the boys subdued with threats of detentions and

the like. Their next teacher is habitually late, and I cannot stay,

as I know that the class to which I am going will also be unruly

unless I get there quickly. This seems to be the lesser of two evils.

Comments

What is described in this account comprises about seventy five

The sheer
percent of the total interaction incidents that took place.

number of simultaneous petty incidents made it impossible to record every-

thing, and at the same time riot disclose what I was doing. The value of

the observations is limited to this extent, but, in general, the overall

As
pattern of this lesson is very typical of others that I had supervised.

koI was occupied in recording observations it was not possible to maintain

the tight disciplinary control over the boys that was necessary, and to
had
this extent the behaviours maybave been worse than in other lessons I

supervised. At these, I spent all my time patrolling around the classroom

keeping boys down to work, and squashing incidents before they generated

r-
t) t)
 533
too much trouble.

A further factor in the account should be oted. This involyes

the type of weather at the time, and the approach ng Festival.of

Rogh Hoohanah. It is known that the former ca have an effect on pupils'

behaviour in class, and r-rm two may have be n unduly affected by the

blustery, bleak conditions. Regarding th latter, thein'teacher had earlier

commented to me that the next two or th ee weeks would be bad for behaviour

and noise, as the boys do not usually work at anything until their ceremonies

are over. However, I had not note4 such a tendency in other Forms to

substantiate her comment.

The pattern of inter ction incidents is very similar to that in Form

There is constant act ity, movement, and comings and goings. Numerous
one.

ue to physical or verbal aggression. Even those

petty interruptions occur

boys, who manage to keep some work, seem to have the need to accompany it

with a monologue, or 7iscuss the work with thN.r. neighbours. Only one boy in

the whole class was/able to work steadily throughout the entire lesson.

More than in Form one, certain boys are the focps of the frequent

violence, aggression and interruptions. These are C H

4

and 0 . They are inti5Ztious to orders, and comply with them only

under threats of severe punishment. Physical sanctions were out of the

question, as far aS I was concerned. Not only'is punishment of this type

inimical to good teaching, but in this school it could quite easily ps._

labelled as anti-semitic persecution, as one of my colleagues had warned.

But even threats produced short-lived results., All three had been put

outside the door on numerous past occasions, yet within minutes were

plamouring to be let in again, and by their interruptions, making themselves

a worse nuisance than if they had been inside.

55
 34

APPENDIX 6.3

IMPROMPTU DISCUSSION TOPICS SUGGESTED BY BOYS IN FORM 4

c9

1. Should Australia sign the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty

or not?

2. Should Australia withdraw troops from Vietnam?

3. Should the voting age be lowered to sixteen?

4. Boxing - should we have it or t?

5. Whether teachers should go on trike

6. Should soccer or Victorian Rules football be Chosen for

the school sport?

7. Should the school acquire some sporting facilities?

8. Censorship

9. Prices of haircuts

10. Should a student be allowed to grow a beard in Form six

11. Should there be external or internal examinations?

12. Should Britain withdraw from South East Asia?

ih

t4
 APPENDICES 7.1-7.5

SOCIOGRAMS ILLUSTRATING BOYS' PREFERRED PARTNERS

FOR A VARIETY OFTASKS IN FORMS 3-5.

7 5G1
 SOCIOGRAM SHOWING PREFERENCES .FOR
TAKING PART IN GROUPS TO CARRY OUT
TOUR OF MELBOURNE SHOW- FORMS 3 &4

FORM: 3
(ONE ABSENTEE)

ORM : 4
TWO ABSENTEES)

#--

N.B. NO RESTRICTION ON SIZE OF GROUPS CHOICES 4NOTc. CONFIDENTIAL

Fig. A7.1

5 r)9,
 7-
$OC1OGRAM SHOWING PREFERRED
PARTNERS FOR TEAMS TO WORK.
(40GRAPHY. PROJECT - FORM 4
N.>

N. B. EACH BOY ASKED TO CHOOSE THREE OTHERS

'PREFERENCE

RECIPROCATED l'f'REFERENCE

Fig. A7.2

a
SOCIOGRAM SHOWING PREFERRED PARTNERS
FOR TEAMS TO TAKE PART IN AN EXTENDED
GEOGRAPHY YIELD TRIP. - FORM 4

r N.B. EACH BOY'ASKED TO CHOOSE THREE OTHERS

P
PREFERENCE

RECIPROCATED PREFERENCE

Fig. A7.3

S(4
 SOCIOGRAM. SHOWING MARKED ANTIPATHY
FOR FOUR BOYS IN RESPECT OF :WORKING
ON GEOGRAPHY PROJECT - FORM 4 J

N. B. EACH ROY ASKED TO STATE THOSE HE DID NOT WISH TO WORK WITH.

0 11 REJECTS ANTIPATHY
-10 REJECTS
10 REJECTS ----0.- RECIPROCATED ANTIPATHY,
O 7 REJECTS

Fig. A7.4

565
 SOCIOGRAM SHOWING PREFERENCES FOR
GEOGRAPHY FIELDWORK GROUPS - FORM 5

EACH BOY ASKED TO CHOOSE . TWO OTHERS AND. INDICATE ANY PARTICULAR AVERSIONS
1
PREFERENCE

--- RECIPROCATED PREFERENCE S STAR

- - - AVERSION I ISOLATE
t7
N.B. ONE ABSENTEE - A NOTED ISOLATE

Fig. A7. 5

Or t
V
At
 APPENDICES 8.1 -8.3
(
DATA FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN GEOGRAPHY

PROJECT RELATING TO THE WORLDS OF OBJECTS

CONSTRUCTED BY fOYS,'IN FORM 4

y
1

567
 542

APPENDIX 8.1

OBJECTS IN THE WORLDS OF FOURTH FORM BOYS

Objects Degree of importance

(Number of mentions)

Least Firly Very Most

Places of worship
1 2 9
Lubavitcher shul
1 3 8 . 3
Others
Totals 1 4 10 12

1 19
The School

1 2 8
Rabbinical College

Mikveh 2

Libraries
1 4 6 2
Public
.
2 1 1 1
School t
Totals 3 5 7 2

2 2 4
Father's place of work

Relatives
7 L
Home
3 1
Grandparents
4 2
Aunts & cousins
Others (not specified) 1

Totals 1 6 11 10

Friends
3 7 1 3
Personal
2 1
Neighbours
if Totals 5 7 2 3

5
 543
APUNDIX 8.1 (continued)

Objects Degree of importance

(Number of mentions)
Least Fairly Very Most

Recreation facilities
6 6 1
Jewish sports centre
2 5 1
Jewish youth groups
Squash & tennis courts 1 2

Swimming pbol 1 2

7 3
Parks & gardens
Neighbouring hills
e+-

Jewish guest house 3 1

6 1 1
V.F.L. & V.F.A. grounds . ,

Cinema Jewish theatre 1 1.

Bowling centre 1

Totals 28. 21 7 1

Services
5 3
Major shopping centre
2 1
Central business district
1 1 1
Local shops
3
Local Jewish shops
2 3 1
Post offices & telephones
1 1 1 2
Banks
Airport & travel agent 2

Laundrymat 1'

Doctor, dentist & medical 6 5 '5 3

Totals 15 15 13 7

r-,
 544

APPENDIX 8.2

BOYS' PERCEPTIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS

OF THE SCHOOL COMPLEX

Number of
Function mentions

A. Functions associated with'the

Great Tradition

1. Provision of facilities:
shut for Sabbath and weekday worship; selichot

prior to Rosh Hoohanah; and kapparot before

Yom Kippur Total 24,

2. Locliton for religious studies:

General' religious education 7

Religious education during vacations 1

Religious education on Sundays 5

Advanced learning in Judaism at Yeshivah Gedolah 11

Talmudical discourses s(shiurim) for senior

students on Saturday afternoons 5

Introduction7to Chassidus 1

Religious library 4

Total 34

3. ,Location for weddings, Bar Mitzvahs and

BarmitzVah lessons 10
4

4. Provision of ritual and ceremonial goods and

services Eor specific occasions:
'Breakfast for those. attending Shacharis 9 6

Mobile succah during Succos 19

Lulav and esrog; Zulav Blessing Service

during Succos 6
4,3

Succah covering material. (srach), 13

Communal succah for boys and worshippers 5

57o
 545

APPENDIX 8.2 (continued)

Function Number of
mentions

Baking dnd supply of shwurah matzoth under

strict rabbinical supervision for Pesach 13

Supply of Roman lettuce for Pesach

Students on Holidays and Festivals
-(yomim tovim) e.g. Simchas Torah, to visit .
other shuts to liven up proceedings 8

_Shophar visiting service for sick on Rosh Hoshanah 7

Total 79

5. General provision of ritual goods,

devotional literature etc.:
Phylacteries - centre for supply and ritual
inspection of tephillin; tephillin campaign; 10.

Tzitzit sold 6

Publications of Lubavicher Movement books

7
and pamphlets
Prayer Books in Ari edit 10n 1

Total 24

6: Miscellaneoueactivities:
Annual fete on the Feast of Lots 2

'8
Bazaars
Collection and distribution of goods for
Opportunity Shop 13

Youth Group (Tzach) activities '20

4 Total 50

571
 546

APPENDIX 8.2 (continued)

Function Number of
mentions

B. Functions associated with the

. Academic Tradition

1. Provision of secular schooling including

pre-school and kindergarten 23

Relationships with teachers' homes 3

2.

3. Photocopying service 8

Tuck shop facilities, hot dogs y 5

4,

5. Taxi transport to outlying suburbs 3

Total 42
 547

APPENDIX 8.3

FOURTH FORM BOYS' RANKING OF THE SOCIAL OBJECTS

ASSOCIATED WITH THE SCHOOL COMPLEX

(In order of importance based on mean rank)

Rank Social ,LJE,t Number of Range of can

order mentions ranking rank

Students' homes 16 1-5 1.9

1

2 School Administrative Staff 6 1.-4 2.3

Teachers' homes 17 1-6 2.9

3
-,
4 Lubavitcher Movement and
Headquarters 5 1-6 3.4

State Education Department b 12 1-12 3.8

5

Homes of congregants 9 2-7 3.9

6

=7 Jewish Education Board 2 4 4.0

2 2-6 5.0
-7 Adjacent Girls-School
Jewish Welfare Societi-es 1 5 5.0
=9
=9 2 5..0
Local City Council ,5

=9
....-)
y 2 5 5.0
Local Lib '

5 4-7 5.2
12, Yeshivah dedolah
Benefactors of Schpol (donations) ''3 3-7 5.3
13
Local Commonwealth Bank 6 3-9 5.8
14
6 2-10 6.2
15 State Electricity Commission
,
2 7 7,0
=16 University Library
Rabbi's Library 2 7 7.0
=16 . .

Jewish Organizations (Zionist etc) 2 7 7.0

=16
..,,

7.0
=1 Tramways 1 7

Bus Company 11 5-10 7.0

=16
21 Taxi Company 11 4-11 7.1

Security Company guarding premises 4 3-13 , 7.8

22
General Post Office 8 4-12 7.9
.3
Farms for matzah wheat 2 8 8.0
=24
i /
2 8 8.0
Mikveh
,

=24
 548
APPENDIX 8.3 (lontinued)

Rank Social object Number of Range of Mean

mentions ranking rank
order .

Local Council Park 2 8-9 8.5.

26

Hospital
.-
2 9 9en
=27
1 9 9.0
=27 Railway service
29 .., Other synagogues 9 5-14 9.1

30 Israel 2 . 9-10 9.5

Suburban opportunity shop 2 9-11 10.0

=31 .
%
Gas & Fuel Corporation 5 6-12 10.0
=31
Duplicating Material Suppliers 4' ,6-14 10.0
=31
City Bookstores 12 4-16 10.3
34
2 'f' 10-11 10.5
35 America
36 Local Jewish Shops supplying
books and religious items 7 6-16 11.0

Insurance Company 5 8-16 11.4

37
Jewish Sports Centre ' 10 5-18 11.9
38
Jewish butcher supplying school 14 8-16 12.5
39
3 10-14 ..
12.7
40 Local food suppliers
Milk suppliers to school 6 10-15 12.8
41
Local (Continental) shopping centre 2 13 13.0
42
Local fruit suppliers 1 , 15 15,0
=43
Commonwealth Grants Authority r 15 15.b
=43
45 Metropolitan Fire Brigade
(extinguisher inspections) 3 15-17 1,5.7

Local Jewish bread shop 3 9-14 14.0

=46
Local photographer for school photos 1 16 .16.0
=46
1 17 17.0'
48 Local milk bar
Local petrol service station 1 18 ,18.0
49

574
1
a

ars.
549
Is
REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, R.S. 1970, 'Interaction in Classrooms'. Pp. 284-295 in

W.J. Campbell (ed.), Scholars in Context: The Effects of- -

Environments on Learning. Sydney: John Wiley.

Allport, F.H. 1933, Institutionalized Behavior,- Chapel Hill, N.C.:

University of North Carolina Press.

Allport, G.W. 1954, The:Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, Mass.:

Addison-Wesley,,,

Argyle, M. 1973, Social Interaction. London: Tavistock Publications

(Social Science Paperback).

Ball, D.W. 1970, 'An Abortion Clinic Ethnography'. Pp. 174-185 in.
W.J. Filstead (ed.), Qualitative Methodology: Firsthand'
Involvement with the Social World. Chicago: Markham '

Publishing Company.

Bandura, A. and Walters, R.H. 1959, Adoleseent Aggression: A study of

the influence of child-training practices and family
0 interrelationships.
New York: Ronald Press.

Banks, 0. 1968, The Sociology of Education. London: Batsford.

Banton, M. (ed.) 1966, Anthropological Approaches to the Study of

Religion, A.S.A. Monograph 3. London: Tavistock Publications.
.

Barnes, J.A. 1954, 'Class and Committees, in a Norwegian Island

Parish'. Human ReZations,7(1): pp. 39-58.

Barnes, J.A. 1962, 'African Models in the New Guinea Highlands!.

Man, 62: pp. 5 -9.

Barnes , J.A. 1963, 'Some ethical problems in modern fieldwork'.

British Journal of Sociology, 14: pp. 118-134.

Bassett, G.W. 1963, 'Edu'Cation'. Pp. 276-312 in A.L. McLeod (ed.),

The Pattern of Australian Culture. Ithaca, New, York:
Cornell University Press.

Bassett, G.W. 1970; 'Australian Education'. Pp. 210-237 in F.M. Katz

kand R.K. Browne (eds.), Sociology of Education. Sydney:
Macmillan.

Bateson, G. 1958, Naven (Second Edition). Stanford, Calif.:

Stanford University Press.
AI

Beals, A.R.'1973, Culture in Process (Second Edition). New York:

Holt Rinehart and Winston.

I
 41.
550

Beattie, J. 1964, Other,Cultures. London: Cohen &-West.

Becker, H.S. 1945, 'Interpretive Sociology and Constructive Typology'.

Pp. 70-95 in Gurvitch, G. and Monte, W.E. (eds.),
Twentieth` Century Sociology. New York: Philosophical Library.

Becker', H.S. 1970, 'Problems ,of Inference and Proof in Participant

Observation'. Pp. 189-201 in W.J. Filstead Ced.),
Qualitative Methodology: Firsthand Involvement with the
Social World. Chicago: Markliam Publishing Company.
a

Becker, H.S. and peer, B. 1970, 'Participant Observation and Interviewing:

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