LECTURE 3

THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

Often, to simplify the analysis of more complex circuits, we wish replace voltage sources and
resistor networks with an equivalent voltage source and series resistor. This is called a
Thevenin equivalent of the circuit. Thevenin’s theorem states that, given a pair of terminal in
a linear network, the network may be replaced by an ideal voltage sources, VOC in series with
a Thevenin resistance, RTH. VOC is equal to the open circuit voltage across the terminals, and
RTH is the equivalent resistance across the terminal when independent voltage sources are
shorted and independent current sources are replaced with open circuits.
We will illustrate Thevenin’s theorem with the circuit shown in Figure 1.20. The part
of the circuit in the dashed box will be replaced by its Thevenin equivalent. The open circuit
voltage VOC is found by disconnecting the rest of circuit and determining the voltage across
the terminals of the remaining open circuit.

terminal
the dashed box

R1
remaining
circuit
VS R2 Voc network
portion of circuit
to be replaced with
Thevenin equivalent

Figure 1.20. Example illustrating Thevenin’s theorem

Note:

VS R1

R2 terminal
Voc

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 Ri
Note: Vi  R VS in general, for N resistors connected in series (previous equation 24)
eq

For this example, the voltage divider rule gives

R2
V2  VOC  VS (37)
R1  R2
To find RTH the supply VS is shorted (i.e., VS = 0), grounding the left end of R1. If there were
current sources in the circuit, they would be replaced with open circuits. Since R1 and R2 are
in parallel relative to the open terminals, the equivalent resistance is
R 1R 2
Thevenin resistance R TH  (38)
R1  R 2

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 1.21.

terminal

RTH
remaining
circuit
VOC network

terminal

Figure 1.21. Thevenin equivalent circuit

Another equivalent circuit representation is the Norton equivalent, shown in Figure
1.22. Here the linear network is replaced by an ideal current source ISC and the Thevenin
resistance RTH in parallel with these sources. ISC is found by calculating the current that would
flow through the terminals if they were shorted together, having removed the remaining load
circuit. It can be shown that the current ISC flowing through RTH produces the Thevenin
voltage VOC just discussed.

remaining
circuit
ISC RTH network

Figure 1.22. Norton equivalent circuit

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The Thevenin and Norton equivalents are independent of the remaining circuit network
representing a load. This is useful because it is possible to make changes in the load without
reanalyzing the Thevenin or Norton equivalent.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

When linear circuits are exited by alternating current (AC) signals of a given frequency, the
current through and voltage across every element in circuit are AC signals of the same
frequency, A sinusoidal AC voltage V(t) is illustrated in Figure 1.23 and can be expressed
mathematically as
V t   Vm sin  ω t  φ  Iki sinyal AC lho…!!!.. (39)
where Vm is the signal amplitude, ω is the radian frequency measured in radians/sec, and φ
is the phase angle relative to the reference sinusoid Vm sin(ωt) measured in radians. The phase
angle is related to the time shift (∆t) between the signal and reference:
φ  ω Δt

V Vm sin  ω t 

V t   Vm sin  ω t  φ amplitude: Vm Peak-to-peak voltage: VPP

Time shift: ∆t

period: T

Figure 1.23. Sinusoidal waveform

A positive phase angle φ implies a leading waveform (i.e., it occurs earlier on the time axis)
and a negative angle implies a lagging (berlapis) waveform (i.e., it occurs later on the time
axis). The period T of the waveform is the time required for a full cycle. The frequency of the
signal, measured in Hertz (Hz = 1/sec), is related to the period and radian frequency as
1 ω
f  
T 2π

Note:
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 V
Vm sin  tω  amplitude: Vm

ω t

period: T

EXAMPLE
As an example of how the AC signal parameters are discerned (dibedakan) in signal equation,
consider the following AC voltage:
V(t) = 5.00 sin (t + 1) Volt

V t   Vm sin  ω t  φ  Iki sinyal AC lho…!!!..

The signal amplitude (Vm )is

Vm = 5.00 V
The signal radian frequency (ω) is
ω  1.00 rad/sec
ω is the coefficient of the time variable t in the argument of the sinusoid. Likewise, the
frequency in hertz is
ω 1.00
f   Hz  0.159 Hz
2π 2π
and the phase angle (φ) is
φ  1 rad  57.3 o

Alternating current power is used in many applications where direct current (DC)
power is impractical or infeasible. Principal reasons for using AC power include
 AC power is more efficient to transmit over long distance because it is easily
transformed to high-voltage, low-current form, minimizing power losses during
transmission. In residential areas it is easily transformed back to required levels. Note
that the voltage drop in the transmission line is small compared to the voltage level at the
source.
 AC power is easy to generate with rotating machinery (e.g., an electric generator).
 AC power is easy to use to drive rotating machinery (e.g., AC electric motor).
 AC power provides a fixed frequency signal (60 Hz in the United State, 50 Hz in
Europe) that can be used for timing purposes and synchronization.
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 The steady state analysis of AC circuits is simplified by the use of phasor analysis,
which uses complex numbers to represent sinusoidal signals. Euler’s formula forms the basis
for its analysis:

e j  ω t  φ   cos  ω t  φ   j sin  ω t  φ  (40)

where j 1 . This implies that sinusoidal signals can be expressed as real and imaginary
components of complex exponentials. Because of the relative ease of manipulating
exponential expressions vs trigonometric expressions, this form of analysis is convenient for
making and interpreting calculations.
Once all transients have dissipated in an AC circuit, the voltage across and current
through each element will oscillate with the same frequency ω as the input. The amplitude of
the voltage and current for each element will be constant but may differ in phase from the
input. This fact lets us treat circuit variables V and I as complex exponentials with magnitudes
Vm and Im and phase φ. A phasor (e.g., voltage V) is a vector representation of the complex
exponential:
V  Vm e j  ω t  φ   Vm φ  Vm  cos  ω t  φ   j sin  ω t  φ  

complex polar complex rectangular

where Vm e j  ω t  φ  is the complex exponential form,

Vm φ is the polar form, and
Vm  cos  ω t  φ    j sin  ω t  φ  is the complex rectangular form of the phasor.

A graphical interpretation of these quantities is shown on the complex plane in Figure 1.24.
Note that the phase angle φ is measured from manipulating complex phasors include

r x 2  y2 Phytagoras equation (41)

Imaginary (j) axis

Vm (φ)

y = Vm sin φ
r

φ
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real axis
(ωt reference)
x = Vm cos φ
 r x 2  y2

Figure 1.24. Phasor representation of a sinusoidal signal

y
φ  tan 1   (42)
x
r1 φ1 . r2 φ 2  r1 . r2 φ1  φ 2 (43)
r1 φ1 r
 1 φ1  φ 2 (44)
r2 φ 2 r2

where r is the phasor magnitude, φ is the phasor angle, x is the real component, and y is the
imaginary component. Note that the quadrant determined by the arguments (x,y) of the
arctangent function must be carefully considered when converting from rectangular to polar
form.
Ohm’s law can be extended to the AC circuit analysis of resistor, capacitor, and
inductor elements as
V  ZI (45)
where Z is called the impedance of the element. This is a complex number, and you can
imagine Z as a complex resistance. Its magnitude may change as a function of frequency.
Impedances can be derived from the fundamental constitutive equations for the element using
complex exponentials. The unit of impedance is the ohm (Ω).
For the resistor, since V = IR
ZR  R (46)
dI
For the inductor, since V  L , if I  I m e j  ω t  φ  , then
dt

VL

d I m e j ωt  φ  
dt
V  L j ω I m e j  ω t  φ    L j ω I (47)
Therefore, the impedance of an inductor is given by
Z L  j ω L  ω L 90 o (48)

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which implies that the voltage will lead the current by 90o. Note that since a DC signal can be
considered an AC signal with zero frequency (ω = 0), the impedance of an inductor in a DC
circuit is 0. Therefore, it acts as a short in a DC circuit. At very high AC frequencies (ω = 0),
the inductor has infinite independence so it behaves as an open circuit.
dV
For the capacitor, since I  C , if V  Vm e j  ω t  φ  , then
dt

IC

d Vm e j ωt φ  
dt
I  C j ω Vm e j  ω t  φ    C j ω V (49)
giving
 1 
V   I (50)
 Cjω 
Therefore, the impedance of a capacitor is given by
V  ZI
1 j 1 V V
ZC     90 o Z 
j ω C ωC ωC I  C j ω V
which implies the voltage will lag (tertinggal) the current by 90o. The impedance of a
capacitor in a DC circuit (ω=0) is infinite (∞), so it acts as an open circuit. At very high AC
frequencies (ω=0), the capacitor has zero impedance, so it acts as a short circuit.

EXAMPLE
The following is an illustrative example of AC circuit analysis. The goal is to find the steady
state current I through the capacitor in the following circuit:

R1 = 1 kΩ I
I1 R2 = 3 kΩ

C = 0.2 µF

L = 0.5 H
~ Vin = 5 cos (3000 t + π/2) V

Since the input voltage source is

 
Vin  5 cos 3000 t  V
 2

V t   Vm cos  ω t  φ  Iki sinyal AC lho…!!!..

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each element in the circuit will respond at the radian frequency:
ω = 3000 rad/sec
the phasor and complex form of the voltage source is V

V  Vme j  ω t  φ   Vm φ  Vm  cos  ω t  φ   j sin  ω t  φ  

       5
V5  5cos  3000t    j sin  3000 t  
2   2  2  φ = 90o
For t = 1 sec, where: 3000×57.3o = 171900o I
      
V5  5cos 171900o    j sin 171900o  
2   2  2 

171900o = 477 circle+180o = 477×360o + 180

      
V  Vm  Vm cos 171900o    j sin 171900o  
2   2  2 

V5  5 cos 180o  90o   j sin 180o  90o  
2

Cos (180o+90o) = cos 90o


V  5 90o  5 cos 90 o  j sin 90 o 
Vin  5 90 o Volt   0  5 j Volt

The complex and phasor form of the capacitor impedance is

j 1 I
ZC   j  1666.67 j Ω  1666.67  90o Ω o
ωC 3000 rad 0.2  10- 6 F φ = – 90
sec
The complex and phasor form of the inductor impedance is 1666.67
rad
ZL  j ω L  j 3000 0.5 H  1500 j Ω  1500 90o Ω
sec
Combining all of the impedances in series and parallel yields the equivalent impedance of the
entire circuit:

Note:
1 1 1  R 2  ZL  ZC
  Z R 2 LC 
Z R 2 LC  R 2  Z L  ZC ZC   R 2  ZL 

R1 = 1 kΩ
I1 R2 = 3 kΩ

C = 0.2 µF ZR2LC

L = 0.5 H
~ Vin = 5 cos (3000 t + π/2) V
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 Z eq  R 1  Z R 2 LC

 R 2  Z L  ZC
Z eq  R 1 
 R 2  ZL   ZC
The complex and phasor form of (R2 + ZL) is
 R 2  Z L    3000  1500 j Ω  3354.1 26.57 o Ω

Note:

Imaginary (j) axis

y = 1500 Vm  φ   r φ
y  1500 
φ  tan 1    tan 1    26.57
o

x  3000 
r
r  x 2  y 2  3000 2  1500 2
φ
 3354.1
real axis
x = 3000 (ωt reference)
So
3354.1 26.57 o .1666.67  90 o r1 φ 1 . r2 φ 2  r1 . r2 φ 1  φ 2
Z eq  1000  
3000  1500 j  1666.67 j

3354.1  1666.67 26.57 o  90o

Z eq  1000  
3000  166.67 j

Note: (R2 + ZL) + Zc = 3000 – 166.67j

3000 2   - 166.67
2
r x2  y2   9027778.889  3004.63

 y   166.67 
φ  tan 1    tan 1    tan   0.0555   3.18
1 o

x
   3000 
5590177.847  63.43 o r1 φ1 r
Z eq  1000    1 φ1  φ 2
3004.63  3.18 o r2 φ 2 r2
Z eq  1000  1860.52  63.43o  3.18 o   1000  1860.52  60.25 o 

Note: x = r cos φ

φ
y = r sin φ

r
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y
Vm  φ   r φ
r(φ) = 1860.52(-60.25o)

x = r cos φ = 1860.52cos (-60.25o) = 923.22

x + y j = 923.22–1615.30 j
y = r sin φ = 1860.52sin (-60.25 ) = ⎼1615.30
o

The rectangular form of the right-hand side is

Z eq  1000  923.22  1615.30 j Ω  1923.22  1615.30 j Ω

Therefore, the phasor form is

Note: 1923.22 – 1615.30j
1923.22 2   - 1615.30
2
r x2  y2   6307969.258  2511.57

 y   1615.30 
φ  tan 1    tan 1    tan   0.84   40.03
1 o

x  1923 .22 

Z eq  2511 .57  40.03o 

We can now find I1 from Ohm’s law:

5 90 o
I1 
Vin
 
5

90 o  ( 40.03 o ) A r1 φ1 r
Z eq 2511 .57  40.03o 2511 .51  1 φ1  φ 2
r2 φ 2 r2
 1.991 130.03o mA

Current division is used to find I (see eq 36) note:

I
A

I1 R2 = 3 kΩ I
I1 I2
C = 0.2 µF

VS R1 R2 L = 0.5 H

R1
Analogy I2  I
R1  R 2

R 2  ZL
I I
 R 2  Z L   ZC 1
R2  ZL  3354.1 26.57 o
I I1  1.991 130.03o mA r1 φ1
 R 2  ZL   ZC 3004.63  3.18 o r
 1 φ1  φ 2
r2 φ 2 r2
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I  1.116 26.57 o  ( 3.18 o .1.991 130.03 o mA
r1 φ1 . r2 φ 2  r1 . r2 φ1  φ 2
I  1.116 29.75 o .1.991 130.03 o mA

I  1.116  1.991 29.75o  130.03o mA

Which gives
I  2.22 159.8 o mA

y = I sin φ

I(φ) 159.8o
φ  159.8o  x 2π rad  2.789 rad
r =2.22 φ = 159.8o 360o

x = I cos φ

So the capacitor current leads the input voltage by 159.8o or 2.789 rad, and the resulting
current is
I t   I m cos   t    mA

I t   2.22 cos  3000 t  2.789 mA

Note that if the input voltage were Vin = 5 sin (3000 t + π/2) V instead, the resulting
current would be I(t) = 2.22 sin (3000 t + 2.789) mA.

Take Home Work-1 (PR-1)

1) What colors should bands a, b, c, and d be for the following circuit B to have the
equivalent resistance of circuit A?

brown gold a
black b
red c
brown
green
gold red d

circuit B
circuit A
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2). Find Vout in the following circuit
R1= 10 kΩ

V1 = 5 V
R2 = 40 kΩ Vout

V2 = 15 V

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