MTCR Annex Handbook ENG

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex Handbook – 2010

Introduction – The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
Introduction
The Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR)
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The Missile Technology Control Regime is an informal and
•Argentina voluntary association of countries which share the goals of non‐
proliferation of delivery systems capable of delivering weapons
•Australia
of mass destruction (other than manned aircraft), and which
•Austria
seek to coordinate national export licensing efforts aimed at
•Belgium
preventing their proliferation. The MTCR was originally
•Bulgaria established in 1987 by Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
•Brazil the United Kingdom and the United States. Since that time, the
•Canada number of MTCR partners has increased to a total of 34
•Czech Republic countries, all of which have equal standing within the regime.
•Denmark
•Finland The MTCR was initiated partly in response to the increasing
•France proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and in
•Germany particular nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. The risk of
•Greece proliferation of WMD is well recognized as a threat to
•Hungary international peace and security, including by the UN Security
•Iceland Council in its Summit Meeting Declaration of January 31, 1992.
•Ireland While concern has traditionally focused on state proliferators,
•Italy after the tragic events of 11 September 2001, it became evident
•Japan that more also has to be done to decrease the risk of WMD
•Luxembourg delivery systems falling into the hands of terrorist groups and
•Netherlands individuals. One way to counter this threat is to maintain
•New Zealand vigilance over the transfer of equipment, material, and related
technologies usable for systems capable of delivering WMD.
•Norway

•Poland
The MTCR rests on adherence to common export policy
•Portugal
guidelines (the MTCR Guidelines) applied to an integral common
•Republic of Korea list of controlled items (the MTCR Equipment, Software and
•Russian Federation Technology Annex). The MTCR does not take export licensing
•South Africa decisions as a group. Rather, individual partners are responsible
•Spain for implementing the Guidelines and Annex on the basis of
•Sweden sovereign national discretion and in accordance with national
•Switzerland legislation and practice.
•Turkey
•Ukraine All MTCR decisions are taken by consensus, and MTCR partners
•United Kingdom regularly exchange information about relevant national export
•United States licensing issues in the context of the Regime's overall aims. A
Plenary Meeting is held annually and chaired on a rotational
basis. Recent plenary sessions have been held in Ottawa,
MTCR Partners Canada (2001), Warsaw, Poland (2002), Buenos Aires, Argentina
(2003) Seoul, South Korea (2004), Madrid, Spain
(2005), Copenhagen, Denmark (2006), Athens, Greece (2007)
Canberra, Australia (2008), and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2009). In
addition, inter‐sessional consultations take place monthly

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through Point of Contact (POC) meetings in Paris, while Technical Experts Meetings, Information
Exchanges, and Licensing and Enforcement Experts Meetings are held annually. The MTCR has no
secretariat; distribution of the Regime's working papers is carried out through the POC, the functions of
which are performed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France.

The MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex

The Equipment, Software and Technology Annex is designed to assist in implementing export controls
on MTCR Annex items. The annex is divided into "Category I" and "Category II" items. It includes a broad
range of equipment and technology – both military and dual‐use – that is relevant to missile
development, production, and operation. Partner countries exercise restraint in the consideration of all
transfers of items contained in the annex, and all such transfers are considered on a case‐by‐case basis.
The annex is updated periodically to improve its clarity and take into account evolving technologies.

Greatest restraint is applied to what are known as Category I items. These items include complete rocket
systems (including ballistic missiles, space launch vehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned aerial
vehicle systems (including cruise missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones) with
capabilities exceeding a 300 km/500 kg range/payload threshold; production facilities for such systems;
and major sub‐systems including rocket stages, re‐entry vehicles, rocket engines, guidance systems and
warhead mechanisms.

The remainder of the annex is regarded as Category II, which includes complete rocket systems
(including ballistic missile systems, space launch vehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned aerial
vehicles (including cruise missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones) not covered in Item
I, capable of a maximum range equal to or greater than 300 km. Also included are a wide range of
equipment, material, and technologies, most of which have uses other than for missiles capable of
delivering WMD. While still agreeing to exercise restraint, partners have greater flexibility in the
treatment of Category II transfer applications.

The MTCR Annex Handbook

This annex handbook is designed to assist in implementing export controls on MTCR Annex items. It
explains what MTCR‐controlled equipment and technologies are, how they are used, how they work,
what other uses they may have, and what they look like. The annex covers an extremely broad range of
items, and the handbook emphasizes only those technologies most critical to missile design and
production. The handbook is based on the MTCR Annex in force on November 10, 2009. The most
current version of the MTCR Annex can be accessed via the MTCR website at www.mtcr.info.

The handbook is organized like the MTCR Annex, by Item and subitem. Each section follows the same
format: the actual MTCR Annex text is reproduced in a highlighted section, followed by a detailed
elaboration and images. Any MTCR Annex “Notes” relevant to a particular subitem have been included
with the actual text to facilitate easier reading. Each subitem is discussed separately. When reviewing
subitems, the reader should pay attention to the header text in the Item, which may contain additional
descriptors for each subitem. Where applicable, side boxes identifying countries that can produce or
export particular subitems accompany the highlighted text. This list of countries that might be producing
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the specific technologies or systems under individual items is representative and not necessarily
exhaustive.

The photos included in this handbook are intended to illustrate types of equipment similar to those that
the MTCR Equipment, Technology, and Software Annex describes. The equipment shown in a specific
photo may or may not be MTCR controlled.

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Appendix I – The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Guidelines
Appendix I
The Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR)
Guidelines
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1. The purpose of these Guidelines is to limit the risks of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
(i.e. nuclear, chemical and biological weapons), by controlling transfers that could make a contribution
to delivery systems (other than manned aircraft) for such weapons. The Guidelines are also intended to
limit the risk of controlled items and their technology falling into the hands of terrorist groups and
individuals. The Guidelines are not designed to impede national space programs or international
cooperation in such programs as long as such programs could not contribute to delivery systems for
weapons of mass destruction. These Guidelines, including the attached Annex, form the basis for
controlling transfers to any destination beyond the Government's jurisdiction or control of all delivery
systems (other than manned aircraft) capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction, and of
equipment and technology relevant to missiles whose performance in terms of payload and range
exceeds stated parameters. Restraint will be exercised in the consideration of all transfers of items
within the Annex and all such transfers will be considered on a case‐by‐case basis. The Government will
implement the Guidelines in accordance with national legislation.

2. The Annex consists of two categories of items, which term includes equipment and technology.
Category I items, all of which are in Annex items 1 and 2, are those items of greatest sensitivity. If a
Category I item is included in a system, that system will also be considered as Category I, except when
the incorporated item cannot be separated, removed or duplicated. Particular restraint will be exercised
in the consideration of Category I transfers regardless of their purpose, and there will be a strong
presumption to deny such transfers. Particular restraint will also be exercised in the consideration of
transfers of any items in the Annex, or of any missiles (whether or not in the Annex), if the Government
judges, on the basis of all available, persuasive information, evaluated according to factors including
those in paragraph 3, that they are intended to be used for the delivery of weapons of mass destruction,
and there will be a strong presumption to deny such transfers. Until further notice, the transfer of
Category I production facilities will not be authorized. The transfer of other Category I items will be
authorized only on rare occasions and where the Government (A) obtains binding government‐to‐
government undertakings embodying the assurances from the recipient government called for in
paragraph 5 of these Guidelines and (B) assumes responsibility for taking all steps necessary to ensure
that the item is put only to its stated end‐use. It is understood that the decision to transfer remains the
sole and sovereign judgement of the Government.

3. In the evaluation of transfer applications for Annex items, the following factors will be taken into
account:

A. Concerns about the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction;
B. The capabilities and objectives of the missile and space programs of the recipient state;
C. The significance of the transfer in terms of the potential development of delivery systems
(other than manned aircraft) for weapons of mass destruction;
D. The assessment of the end use of the transfers, including the relevant assurances of the
recipient states referred to in sub paragraphs 5.A and 5.B below;
E. The applicability of relevant multilateral agreements; and
F. The risk of controlled items falling into the hands of terrorist groups and individuals.

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4. The transfer of design and production technology directly associated with any items in the Annex will
be subject to as great a degree of scrutiny and control as will the equipment itself, to the extent
permitted by national legislation.

5. Where the transfer could contribute to a delivery system for weapons of mass destruction, the
Government will authorize transfers of items in the Annex only on receipt of appropriate assurances
from the government of the recipient state that:

A. The items will be used only for the purpose stated and that such use will not be modified
nor the items modified or replicated without the prior consent of the Government;
B. Neither the items nor replicas nor derivatives thereof will be re transferred without the
consent of the Government.

6. In furtherance of the effective operation of the Guidelines, the Government will, as necessary and
appropriate, exchange relevant information with other governments applying the same Guidelines.

7. The Government will:

A. Provide that its national export controls require an authorization for the transfer of non‐
listed items if the exporter has been informed by the competent authorities of the
Government that the items may be intended, in their entirety or part, for use in connection
with delivery systems for weapons of mass destruction other than manned aircraft;
B. and, if the exporter is aware that non‐listed items are intended to contribute to such
activities, in their entirety or part, provide, to the extent compatible with national export
controls, for notification by the exporter to the authorities referred to above, which will
decide whether or not it is appropriate to make the export concerned subject to
authorization.

8. The adherence of all States to these Guidelines in the interest of international peace and security
would be welcome.

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Appendix II – Units, Constants, Acronyms and Abbreviations
Appendix II
Units, Constants, Acronyms
and Abbreviations
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ABEC Annular Bearing Engineering Committee
ABMA American Bearing Manufacturers Association
Angstrom 1 x 10‐10 metre
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
bar unit of pressure
0
C degree Celsius
cc cubic centimetre
CAS Chemical Abstracts Service
CEP Circle of Equal Probability
dB decibel
g gram; also, acceleration due to gravity
GHz gigahertz
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System e.g.
‘Galileo’
‘GLONASS’ – Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema
‘GPS’ – Global Positioning System
Hr(s) hour(s)
Hz hertz
HTPB Hydroxyl‐terminated Polybutadiene
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IR Infrared
ISO International Organization for Standardization
J joule
JIS Japanese industrial Standard
K Kelvin
kg kilogram
kHz kilohertz
km kilometre
kN kilonewton
kPa kilopascal
kW kilowatt
m metre
MeV million electron volt or mega electron volt
MHz megahertz
Milligal 10‐5 m/s2 (also called mGal, mgal or milligalileo)
mm millimetre
mm Hg mm of mercury
MPa megapascal
mrad milliradian
ms millisecond
µm micrometre
N newton
Pa pascal

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ppm parts per million
rads (Si) radiation absorbed dose
RF Radio Frequency
rms root mean square
rpm revolutions per minute
RV Reentry Vehicles
s second
Tg glass transition termperature
Tyler Tyler mesh size, or Tyler standard sieve series
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UV Ultra violet

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Appendix III
Table of Conversions
Appendix III – Table of Conversions
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Table of Conversions used in this Annex
Unit Unit Conversion
(from) (to)
bar pascal (Pa) 1 bar = 100 kPa
g (gravity) m/s2 1 g = 9.806 65 m/s2
mrad (millirad) degrees (angle) 1 mrad ≈ 0.05730
rads ergs/gram of Si 1 rad (Si) = 100 ergs/gram of
silicon (= 0.01 gray [Gy])
Tyler 250 mesh mm for a Tyler 250 mesh, mesh
opening 0.063 mm

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Addendum
Statement of Understanding
Addendum – Statement of Understanding
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Statement of Understanding

Members agree that, in those cases where the term "national equivalents" are specifically allowed as
alternatives to specified International Standards, the technical methods and parameters embodied in
the national equivalent would ensure that the requirements of the standard set by the specified
International Standards are met.

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MTCR Annex
MTCR Annex – Introduction, Definitions and Terminology
Introduction, Definitions and
Terminology
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1. Introduction

(a) This Annex consists of two categories of items, which term includes equipment, materials,
"software" or "technology". Category I items, all of which are in Annex Items 1 and 2, are those
items of greatest sensitivity. If a Category I item is included in a system, that system will also be
considered as Category I, except when the incorporated item cannot be separated, removed or
duplicated. Category II items are those items in the Annex not designated Category I.

(b) In reviewing the proposed applications for transfers of complete rocket and unmanned aerial
vehicle systems described in Items 1 and 19, and of equipment, materials, "software" or
"technology" which is listed in the Technical Annex, for potential use in such systems, the
Government will take account of the ability to trade off "range" and "payload".

(c) General Technology Note:
The transfer of "technology" directly associated with any goods controlled in the Annex is
controlled according to the provisions in each Item to the extent permitted by national
legislation. The approval of any Annex item for export also authorizes the export to the same
end‐user of the minimum "technology" required for the installation, operation, maintenance,
and repair of the item.

Note:

Controls do not apply to “technology” “in the public domain” or to “basic scientific research”.

(d) General Software Note:
The Annex does not control “software” which is either:
1. Generally available to the public by being:
a. Sold from stock at retail selling points without restriction, by means of:
1. Over‐the‐counter transactions;
2. Mail order transactions; or
3. Telephone call transactions; and
b. Designed for installation by the user without further substantial support by the
supplier; or
2. “In the public domain”.

Note:

The General Software Note only applies to general purpose, mass market “software”.

(e) Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Numbers:

In some instances chemicals are listed by name and CAS number. Chemicals of the same
structural formula (including hydrates) are controlled regardless of name or CAS number. CAS
xviii


numbers are shown to assist in identifying whether a particular chemical or mixture is
controlled, irrespective of nomenclature. CAS numbers cannot be used as unique identifiers
because some forms of the listed chemical have different CAS numbers, and mixtures containing
a listed chemical may also have different CAS numbers.

2. Definitions

For the purpose of this Annex, the following definitions apply:

"Accuracy"
Usually measured in terms of inaccuracy, means the maximum deviation, positive or negative, of an
indicated value from an accepted standard or true value.

"Basic scientific research"
Experimental or theoretical work undertaken principally to acquire new knowledge of the fundamental
principles of phenomena or observable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific practical aim or
objective.

"Development"
Is related to all phases prior to "production" such as:
‐ design
‐ design research
‐ design analysis
‐ design concepts
‐ assembly and testing of prototypes
‐ pilot production schemes
‐ design data
‐ process of transforming design data into a product
‐ configuration design
‐ integration design
‐ layouts

"In the public domain"
This means "software" or "technology" which has been made available without restrictions upon its
further dissemination. (Copyright restrictions do not remove "software" or "technology" from being "in
the public domain".)

"Microcircuit"
A device in which a number of passive and/or active elements are considered as indivisibly associated on
or within a continuous structure to perform the function of a circuit.

"Microprogrammes"
A sequence of elementary instructions maintained in a special storage, the execution of which is
initiated by the introduction of its reference instruction register.
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"Payload"
The total mass that can be carried or delivered by the specified rocket system or unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV) system that is not used to maintain flight.

Note:

The particular equipment, subsystems, or components to be included in the "payload" depends on the
type and configuration of the vehicle under consideration.

Technical Notes:

1. Ballistic Missiles

a. "Payload" for systems with separating re‐entry vehicles (RVs) includes:
1. The RVs, including:
a. Dedicated guidance, navigation, and control equipment;
b. Dedicated countermeasures equipment;
2. Munitions of any type (e.g. explosive or non‐explosive);
3. Supporting structures and deployment mechanisms for the munitions (e.g. hardware
used to attach to, or separate the RV from, the bus/post‐boost vehicle) that can be
removed without violating the structural integrity of the vehicle;
4. Mechanisms and devices for safing, arming, fuzing or firing;
5. Any other countermeasures equipment (e.g. decoys, jammers or chaff dispensers) that
separate from the RV bus/post‐boost vehicle;
6. The bus/post‐boost vehicle or attitude control/velocity trim module not including
systems/subsystems essential to the operation of the other stages.

b. "Payload" for systems with non‐separating re‐entry vehicles includes:
1. Munitions of any type (e.g. explosive or non‐explosive);
2. Supporting structures and deployment mechanisms for the munitions that can be
3. Mechanisms and devices for safing, arming, fuzing or firing;
4. Any countermeasures equipment (e.g. decoys, jammers or chaff dispensers) that can be
removed without violating the structural integrity of the vehicle.

2. Space Launch Vehicles

"Payload" includes:

a. Satellites (single or multiple);
b. Satellite‐to‐launch vehicle adapters including, if applicable, apogee/perigee kick motors
or similar manoeuvering systems.

3. Sounding Rockets

"Payload" includes:
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a. Equipment required for a mission, such as data gathering, recording or transmitting
devices for mission‐specific data;
b. Recovery equipment (e.g. parachutes) that can be removed without violating the
structural integrity of the vehicle.

4. Cruise Missiles

"Payload" includes:

a. Munitions of any type (e.g. explosive or non‐explosive);
b. Supporting structures and deployment mechanisms for the munitions that can be
c. Mechanisms and devices for safing, arming, fuzing or firing;
d. Countermeasures equipment (e.g. decoys, jammers or chaff dispensers) that can be
e. Signature alteration equipment that can be removed without violating the structural
integrity of the vehicle.

5. Other UAVs

"Payload" includes:

a. Munitions of any type (e.g. explosive or non‐explosive);
b. Mechanisms and devices for safing, arming, fuzing or firing;
c. Countermeasures equipment (e.g. decoys, jammers or chaff dispensers) that can be
d. Signature alteration equipment that can be removed without violating the structural
integrity of the vehicle;
e. Equipment required for a mission such as data gathering, recording or transmitting
devices for mission‐specific data and supporting structures that can be removed without
violating the structural integrity of the vehicle;
f. Recovery equipment (e.g. parachutes) that can be removed without violating the
structural integrity of the vehicle.
g. Munitions supporting structures and deployment mechanisms that can be removed
without violating the structural integrity of the vehicle.

"Production"
Means all production phases such as:
‐ production engineering
‐ manufacture
‐ integration
‐ assembly (mounting)
‐ inspection
‐ testing
‐ quality assurance

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"Production equipment"
Means tooling, templates, jigs, mandrels, moulds, dies, fixtures, alignment mechanisms, test equipment,
other machinery and components therefor, limited to those specially designed or modified for
"development" or for one or more phases of "production".

"Production facilities"
Means “production equipment” and specially designed "software" therefor integrated into installations
for "development" or for one or more phases of "production".

"Programmes"
A sequence of instructions to carry out a process in, or convertible into, a form executable by an
electronic computer.

"Radiation hardened"
Means that the component or equipment is designed or rated to withstand radiation levels which meet
or exceed a total irradiation dose of 5 x 105 rads (Si).

"Range"
The maximum distance that the specified rocket system or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) system is
capable of travelling in the mode of stable flight as measured by the projection of its trajectory over the
surface of the Earth.

Technical Notes:

1. The maximum capability based on the design characteristics of the system, when fully
loaded with fuel or propellant, will be taken into consideration in determining "range".
2. The "range" for both rocket systems and UAV systems will be determined independently
of any external factors such as operational restrictions, limitations imposed by telemetry,
data links or other external constraints.
3. For rocket systems, the "range" will be determined using the trajectory that maximises
"range", assuming ICAO standard atmosphere with zero wind.
4. For UAV systems, the "range" will be determined for a one‐way distance using the most
fuel‐efficient flight profile (e.g. cruise speed and altitude), assuming ICAO standard
atmosphere with zero wind.

"Software"
A collection of one or more "programmes", or "micro‐programmes", fixed in any tangible medium of
expression.

"Technology"
Means specific information which is required for the "development", "production" or "use" of a product.
The information may take the form of "technical data" or "technical assistance".

"Technical assistance"
May take forms such as:
‐ instruction
‐ skills
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‐ training
‐ working knowledge
‐ consulting services

"Technical data"
May take forms such as:
‐ blueprints
‐ plans
‐ diagrams
‐ models
‐ formulae
‐ engineering designs and specifications
‐ manuals and instructions written or recorded on other media or devices such as:
‐ disk
‐ tape
‐ read‐only memories

"Use"
Means:
‐ operation
‐ installation (including on‐site installation)
‐ maintenance
‐ repair
‐ overhaul
‐ refurbishing

3. Terminology

Where the following terms appear in the text, they are to be understood according to the explanations
below:

(a) "Specially designed" describes equipment, parts, components or "software" which, as a result of
"development", have unique properties that distinguish them for certain predetermined
purposes. For example, a piece of equipment that is "specially designed" for use in a missile will
only be considered so if it has no other function or use. Similarly, a piece of manufacturing
equipment that is "specially designed" to produce a certain type of component will only be
considered such if it is not capable of producing other types of components.

(b) "Designed or modified" describes equipment, parts or components which, as a result of
"development," or modification, have specified properties that make them fit for a particular
application. "Designed or modified" equipment, parts, components or "software" can be used
for other applications. For example, a titanium coated pump designed for a missile may be used
with corrosive fluids other than propellants.

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(c) "Usable in", "usable for", "usable as" or "capable of" describes equipment, parts, components,
materials or "software" which are suitable for a particular purpose. There is no need for the
equipment, parts, components or "software" to have been configured, modified or specified for
the particular purpose. For example, any military specification memory circuit would be
"capable of" operation in a guidance system.

(d) "Modified" in the context of "software" describes "software" which has been intentionally
changed such that it has properties that make it fit for specified purposes or applications. Its
properties may also make it suitable for purposes or applications other than those for which it
was "modified".

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1 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex Handbook – 2010

Category I ‐ Item 1
Complete Delivery Systems
Category I – Item 1: Complete Delivery Systems
1- 1


1.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components
1.A.1. Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launch vehicles, and
sounding rockets) capable of delivering at least a 500 kg "payload" to a "range" of at least 300 km.
Nature and Purpose: Complete rocket systems are self‐contained flight vehicles, which carry their fuel
and oxidizer internally and boost their payloads to high velocity. After burnout, the payload for many
systems continues on a predominantly unpowered,
•Brazil •Canada ballistic trajectory either into orbit or to a target on
earth. Depending on its range and trajectory, a rocket
•China •Egypt
may or may not leave the atmosphere.
•France •Germany

•India •Iran
Complete rocket systems usually consist of four
•Israel •Italy
elements: (1) the payload or warhead; (2) a propulsion
•Japan •North Korea system to accelerate the payload to the required
•Pakistan •Russian Federation velocity; (3) a guidance and control system, which
•South Korea •Spain guides the rocket along a pre‐programmed trajectory
•Syria •Ukraine to a pre‐determined destination (not all rockets are
•United Kingdom •United States guided, however); and (4) an overall structure that

holds everything together.

Evaluation of systems covered under this Item must
Global Production take into account the ability to trade off payload and
range. This inherent capability may differ significantly
from manufacturers’ specifications or intended
operational concept.

Method of Operation: Complete rocket systems and subsystems are checked for operational readiness
prior to launch, and the flight plan or trajectory is programmed into a guidance computer, which
controls and steers the rocket in order to maintain the correct trajectory. The total flight time, re‐entry
speed and range of rocket systems can be manipulated by altering the trajectory.

Ballistic missiles have three main flight phases: the ‘boost / ascent phase’; the ‘mid‐course phases’; and
the ‘terminal phase’. During the boost / ascent phase, liquid or solid propellants generate thrust to
launch the missile, which subsequently accelerates to its maximum velocity. Longer range missiles
generally have multiple stages: each stage terminates its thrust when its fuel is expended or no longer
needed and is separated from the rest of the rocket, and the next stage is ignited.

During the ‘mid‐course’ phase, the missile is coasting after boost to the point of re‐entry into the
atmosphere. In the initial part of this phase, the missile will continue to increase in altitude up to the
1- 2


apogee. If the missile is carrying multiple
warheads, they are usually released or ejected
during this phase. Some warheads might not be
ejected until shortly before the missile re‐enters
the atmosphere, and in some cases, the payload
remains attached to the missile body as it re‐
enters the atmosphere.

If the warhead separates, then it will be carried
within a Re‐entry Vehicle (RV). The RV will be
carried within a payload assembly, which may
include multiple warheads and RVs. On missiles
Figure 1: The launch of a space launch vehicle. (ULA – equipped with Multiple Independently‐targeted
Carleton Bailie) Re‐entry Vehicles (MIRVs), each RV will be carried
by a post‐boost vehicle, which has its own
propulsion motor so that it can move in space and deploy each RV against the designated target.

The ‘terminal phase’ refers to the part of the trajectory after the missile or warheads have re‐entered
the atmosphere (below 120 km altitude).

It should be noted that while some systems may have listed payload and/or range thresholds that fall
beneath the minimum 300 km and 500 kg requirements for this category, it is possible to sacrifice
payload for increased range or range for increased payload, by increasing or decreasing the amount of
fuel carried or via other modifications. This may lead to the item in question falling outside
manufacturers’ specifications or intended operational concept.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Space launch vehicles and sounding rockets are used to place satellites in
orbit or to gather scientific data in the upper atmosphere, respectively. The critical difference between
these systems and offensive ballistic missiles is their payload and intended use. With the addition of a
weapons payload and different guidance algorithms, space launch vehicles and sounding rockets can be
used as ballistic missiles. In fact, many space launch vehicles have been developed from, and share
components with, operational ballistic missiles.

Other Uses: N/A

Figure 2: A solid propellant, submarine launched ballistic missile. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook,
Third edition (May 2005))
1- 3


Appearance (as manufactured): Complete rocket systems are large, long, narrow cylinders. When
assembled, these systems typically have dimensions of at least 8 m in length, 0.8 m in diameter, and
5,000 kg in weight, with a full load of propellant. Some representative photos of ballistic missile systems,
space launch vehicles and sounding rockets are shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3. Figure 4 provides an
expanded view of a notional ballistic missile, showing a range of MTCR‐controlled items.

The forward end, or nose, typically has a conical, elliptical, or bulbous fairing that houses the payload,
and joins to the cylindrical body in which the propellants are located. The blunt aft end is straight, flared,
or symmetrically finned for stability during launch and atmospheric flight. The body of the rocket system
houses the rocket motor(s), which supplies the thrust. The rocket system surface is usually made of
metallic or composite materials with heat‐absorbing materials or protective coatings. Depending on
their intended use, some surfaces may be unfinished.

Appearance (as packaged): A complete rocket system is seldom packaged as a fully assembled unit for
shipment from the manufacturer to its point of use or storage. Instead, the major subsystems are
shipped in crates or sealed metal containers to an assembly facility near the launch location, where they
are assembled, tested for their operational readiness, and erected for vertical launch. Exceptions include
mobile ballistic missiles, which can be fully assembled and stored in a horizontal position in a mobile
transporter‐erector‐launcher (TEL) and moved to the launch point when required.


Figure 3: Left: A Satellite Launch Vehicle (ISRO). Right: A silo‐based and road mobile, solid‐propellant, single warhead,
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). (Maxim Shipenkov/AFP/Getty Images)
1- 4

1

Figure 4: Expanded view of a notional ballistic missile showing MTCR Annex items. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
1- 5


1.A.2. Complete unmanned aerial vehicle systems (including cruise missile systems, target drones
and reconnaissance drones) capable of delivering at least a 500 kg "payload" to a "range" of at least
300 km.
Nature and Purpose: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are

•Australia typically air‐breathing vehicles which use aerodynamic lift to
•China fly (and thereby perform their entire mission within the
•France earth’s atmosphere). UAVs are usually powered by small
•Germany turbine or internal combustion engines that drive either free
•Israel or ducted propellers, or small jet engines (some of these
•Pakistan propulsion systems are covered by Item 3 of the MTCR
•Russian Federation Annex), and drones tend to fly at speeds of between 360
•United States km/hr to 640 km/hr, while cruise missile systems typically
operate at high subsonic speeds (less than 900 km/hr).

Global Evaluation of systems covered under this Item must take into
Production account the ability to trade off payload and range. This
inherent capability may differ significantly from
manufacturers’ specifications or intended operational
concept.

Several of the UAVs covered in this section of the MTCR are
large systems capable of operating at altitudes of up to around 20,000 m, have flight endurance times of
between 24 and 48 hours, and maximum take‐off weights of between 2,500 kg and 12,500 kg. These
UAVs can be referred to as High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) UAVs. Several Medium Altitude Long
Endurance (MALE) UAVs are also included in Item 1.A.2.

There are varying definitions of cruise missiles, which can fly at high altitude or close to the ground.
Other UAVs can and have been converted to carry warheads to attack targets, and as such are
effectively cruise missiles for that specific
mission. They also sometimes share
similarities to cruise missiles such as rocket
propulsion, appearance, and the ability to
receive and transmit data and commands in
flight. The critical difference between cruise
missiles and other UAVs is that the latter are
designed to be re‐usable. As other UAVs are
designed to return from missions, they tend
to share many features with manned aircraft,
such as mechanisms for safe landing and
larger wings meant to maintain altitude and Figure 5: A High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Unmanned Aerial
enhance endurance. Vehicle (UAV). (U.S. Air Force)

1- 6


The fundamental difference between cruise missiles and ballistic missiles lies in altitude of flight. Cruise
missiles fly within the lower atmosphere (below 30 km), using aerodynamic lift to gain and maintain
altitude. They tend to be less expensive and smaller than ballistic missiles, which are powered by rockets
to a suborbital ballistic path, with guidance usually only during the ascent phase. Their launch is easier
to detect than that of a cruise missile. There are ballistic missiles that share features with cruise missiles,
such as additional guidance capabilities while in flight or lower trajectories, but these are typically well
over the 30 km altitude maximum of cruise missiles.

It should be noted that while some systems may have listed payload and/or range thresholds that fall
beneath the minimum 300 km and 500 kg requirements for this category, it is possible to sacrifice
payload for increased range or range for increased payload, by increasing or decreasing the amount of
fuel carried or via other modifications. This may lead to the item in question falling outside
manufacturers’ specifications or intended operational concept.

Method of Operation: Large Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) are comprised of an air vehicle
component (usually equipped with several types of payloads, including sensor equipment) complete
with avionics and data links, as well as a ground component, consisting of mission control elements
(MCEs) and launch and recovery elements (LREs), which includes a ground personnel crew of varied size
dependant on the complexity and number of systems requiring human operation.

The platform of a UAV can be based on an aircraft purpose‐built for unmanned flight or can be a
modification of a manned aircraft, either fixed‐wing or helicopter. Depending on the UAV’s means of
takeoff, the aircraft can be hidden and launched from a variety of locations, including rugged airstrips,
maritime vessels or standard airports.

The UAV system can be controlled by an onboard
navigation system, which can fly a pre‐
programmed route following waypoints.
Alternatively, the course of the UAV system can
be adjusted in‐flight with commands from a
ground‐based system, relayed via the onboard
data link. UAV ground stations include a flight
control system (usually a joystick console), and a
series of display monitors and recording
equipment. Meanwhile, an onboard flight control
system maintains the UAV system in controlled
flight, adjusting the control surfaces to maintain
Figure 6: A UAV armed with air‐to‐surface missiles. (General
the desired flight path.
Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc.)

Cruise missiles use aerodynamic lift and fly within
the lower atmosphere (below 30 km or 100,000 ft in altitude), and can change direction or altitude at
any point in their flight trajectory. These characteristics – operating altitudes and maneuverability – are
the crucial differentiators between cruise missiles and ballistic missiles. However as with ballistic
missiles, cruise missiles have three flight phases – the boost phase, the cruise phase, and the terminal
phase. Speed during the cruise phase can vary from Mach 0.5 (170 m/s at sea level) up to Mach 2.5 (850
m/s at sea level or 740 m/s at 15 km altitude).

1- 7


A cruise missile can be launched from ground vehicles, usually referred to as a Transporter‐Erector‐
Launcher (TEL), from ships, from submarines, or from aircraft. When launched from land and sea cruise
missiles will use small rocket boosters to launch them from their canisters and accelerate them to flying
speed.

Cruise missiles have the capacity to fly multiple trajectories, and often fly pre‐planned missions
specifically designed to defeat defenses by means of terrain masking or defense avoidance, and
increasingly by use of stealth technology. Most cruise missiles contain a sensor system that guides them
towards their targets by using terrain features or target signatures. Cruise missiles increasingly use
inertial navigation systems, updated by satellite
navigation receivers in addition to, or instead of,
terrain‐aided navigation systems to guide them
to the vicinity of the target, where a terminal
sensor is activated to home in on the target.
Various types of sensors are used to detect
distinctive target signatures or to match pre‐
programmed scenes of the target area. Once at
the target, the cruise missile detonates the
warhead or, if so equipped, dispenses
submunitions.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: While UAVs were
initial deployed most commonly for
reconnaissance operations, technological
advancements now enable UAVS to carry far
greater payloads over large distances for long
Figure 7: An operational cruise missile on its checkout stand, periods of time. Consequently, many UAVs are

showing its nose cone modified to lower radar returns and now designed specifically as multi‐mission
enhance aerodynamic performance. (MTCR Equipment, systems, capable of performing a variety of
Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
operational functions, including: intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR); target identification; scientific research, and combat operations /
weapons delivery.

Cruise missiles typically are used specifically to deliver weapons payloads to a distance between 300 km
and 5,500 km.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): UAVs, including target and reconnaissance drones, often look like
airplanes without cockpits for pilots. Large UAVs will vary in appearance because of their role‐specific
designs, but most will have common features, including large (and often slender) wing‐spans of between
20 m and 40 m, and distinctive domes toward the front end of the fuselage housing avionics and
electrical components, including satellite communication (SATCOM) antenna, line of sight transceiver
antenna, navigation instruments and global positioning systems (GPS). Weaponized UAVs will typically
have external wing stations for payload carriage.
1- 8

1

Figure 8: Expanded view of a notional cruise missile showing MTCR Annex items. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
1- 9


Complete UAV systems controlled under this item also may include manned aircraft that are modified to
fly autonomously as optionally piloted vehicles. Such systems also usually retain a cockpit, which is
empty or filled with electronic equipment or payload during flight.

Cruise missiles usually have a cylindrical or box‐like cross‐section and a fineness ratio (ratio of length to
diameter) between 8 to 1 and 10 to 1. Most have a lifting surface, or wings, and most use control fins at
the tail (some have ailerons on the
wings and/or canards), although the
shape and size of these surfaces
depends greatly on the intended
flight regime and payload. Cruise
missiles also tend to have a dull finish
or coating to make them harder to
detect, and advanced designs may
incorporate special geometric
surfaces to reduce radar reflections.
Most of these features of a typical
cruise missile are shown in Figure 8.

Appearance (as packaged): UAVs,
including cruise missiles, are
Figure 9: A computer‐generated image of an air‐launched cruise missile. manufactured in components or
(The Boeing Company) sections at different locations and by
different manufactures, and
assembled at a military site or a civilian production facility. These sections may vary in size from less
than 10 kg and 0.03 m3 to 150 kg and 0.1 m3 to 1 m3 or larger, depending on the class of UAV.

Large UAVs can be disassembled, loaded and shipped in heavy cardboard containers; medium‐size
sections require heavy wooden crates. The wings of large UAVs are detached from the fuselage, and
each section is crated separately for shipping by truck, rail, or cargo aircraft.

Most cruise missiles are shipped fully assembled in environmentally sealed metal canisters, which can
also serve as launching tubes. Their wings are often folded either within or along the missile body, and
the tail fins are often folded on longitudinal hinges in order to fit within the launch canister or on the
launch platform and open after launch to control the missile.

1-10


1.B. Test and Production Equipment
1.B.1. "Production facilities" specially designed for the systems specified in 1.A.
Nature and Purpose: Specially designed

•Argentina •Brazil production facilities include all the special
•Canada •China equipment used for the production of complete
•Egypt •France rocket systems and UAVs. There are many
•Germany •India different kinds of specially designed production
•Iran •Israel equipment for such missiles which, when
•Italy •Japan integrated into installations for development or
•North Korea •Pakistan production, constitute production facilities. Some
of the largest pieces of equipment in such
•Russian Federation •South Africa
production facilities are the jigs and fixtures used
•South Korea •Sweden
to ensure proper alignment of individual missile
•Switzerland •Ukraine
components during assembly. Molds, dies and
•United Kingdom mandrels are used extensively throughout the
•United States production process. These are designed for
specific production processes and are usually
unique to a part or component.

Method of Operation: Jigs and fixtures are used
Global Production to receive, support, align, and assemble
individual missile components, including fuel and
oxidizer tanks, motor cases, and engine
assemblies. Overhead cranes are used to move
the missile components from their shipping
containers and dollies onto the assembly jig.
Laser alignment instruments are sometimes built into fixtures in order to ensure precision fitting, and
electrical and electronic test equipment for functional and operational testing are used as necessary
during the assembly process.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Production facilities are used to assemble a complete missile system from
its subassemblies and component parts. At the end of each production step, mechanical and electrical fit
and function tests are performed to verify that the assembly is ready for the next step. After a rocket is
assembled and passes all production tests, it may be disassembled at prescribed body break points.
These separated missile components are loaded into individual containers or crates for shipment to a
facility for long‐term storage or to the operational launch point for final reassembly and use. However,
UAVs, including cruise missiles, are typically shipped fully assembled to operational units (depending on
the type of launch platform) or to storage depots for long‐term storage.

Other Uses: Assembly jigs and fixtures are usually single‐application items designed to produce one type
of rocket system or UAV. It is usually not practical to modify them for other uses.

1-11


Appearance (as manufactured): Assembly jigs and fixtures used in the production of rocket systems
(such as that shown in Figure 10) are usually large and heavy structures. Their overall length and width
are roughly 20 % to 30 % greater than the missile system that they are designed to assemble. Their
weight may total hundreds or even thousands of pounds.

Figure 10: Left: A Space Launch Vehicle on an assembly jig. (Korea Times) Right: Modular jig supporting a cruise missile in
final assembly.
Appearance (as packaged): Assembly jigs and fixtures for large missiles are often too large and heavy to
be packaged and shipped to the production plant as complete units. Instead, component parts are
shipped separately in large crates or protected on pallets for assembly onsite. They will be securely
fastened to the crate to restrain motion and prevent damage. Smaller jigs may be individually packaged
on crates or pallets for shipment. Large factories may produce assembly jigs and fixtures on‐site as part
of their overall manufacturing effort.

Additional Information: Assembly jigs and fixtures built to receive and assemble missile components in
a horizontal attitude require contoured surface pads or rollers to support the cylindrical body parts with
minimal deformation. Rocket assembly systems that are used to build a rocket in a vertical attitude
require fewer body support fixtures but must have a high overhead clearance within the building to
stack the components and move a fully assembled missile. The primary components of assembly jigs and
fixtures are standard structural steel members. Their size and strength are dictated by the requirement
to support and maintain alignment of the large and heavy missile components during assembly.

Jigs and fixtures are usually assembled by welding or bolting large steel plates and I‐beams or tubular
members together on the floor of the missile assembly building. In some cases, these fixtures are built
on floating pads, not bolted to the floor; such pads isolate the structure from vibrations, which might
otherwise cause misalignment of their precision reference points. Precision survey devices are used to
ensure correct alignment.
1.C. Materials

None.
1-12


1.D. Software
1.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of "production facilities" specified in
1.B.

Nature and Purpose: Production facility
software ranges from numeric control
•Argentina •Brazil
routines used to form and drill motor case
•Canada •China
components to software that controls
•Egypt •France propellant mixing and transfer operations.
•Germany •India Continuous flow propellant facilities require
•Iran •Israel precise measurement of the relatively small
•Italy •Japan quantities of specialized ingredients, such as
•North Korea •Pakistan burn rate modifiers, while the propellant is
•Russian Federation •South Africa being mixed and transferred to the motor
•South Korea •Sweden cases.
•United Kingdom •United States Method of Operation: Process software is
stored in the memory of production control
computers. This specialized software is
usually designed to perform a singular task,
Global Production but one or more modules may be rewritten
to manufacture other products. Process
software will integrate sensor information
from a variety of sources with analog or
digital control systems to maintain optimal
production flow.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The production facility software is installed in computers that are
connected to numeric control equipment sensors and/or other automation used to produce missile
components. None of this software is designed for use on the missile computer.

Other Uses: Software that is used in missile production facilities may also be employed, with
modifications, to control liquid flow within a non‐missile related facility, manufacture automobiles or to
manage other industrial processes where precise and repeatable tasks are required.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically software used in production takes the form of a computer
program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic
tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software and
data.

1-13


Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy
disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and
documents containing missile production control
software are indistinguishable from any other
storage media. Only labeling and accompanying
documentation can indicate its use unless the
software is run on the appropriate computer. This
software and documentation can be transmitted
electronically over a computer network.
Figure 11: Software in the form of a computer disc, a cassette
tape, and written media. (MTCR Equipment, Software and
Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
1.D.2. "Software" which coordinates the function of more than one subsystem, specially designed
or modified for "use" in systems specified in 1.A.
Nature and Purpose: The software used to coordinate the function of multiple subsystems on missiles
specified in 1.A. is typically flight control software. Flight software incorporated into the onboard
computer collects velocity and position information provided by the navigation or guidance system and
feedback from the control system, allowing the computer to calculate and issue steering corrections to
the flight control systems. This software also determines when to perform other flight events, such as
engine shutdown, staging and re‐entry vehicle separation.

Method of Operation: Flight software is installed
in the missile’s computer and is tested prior to

launch. During launch countdown, this software
•Argentina •Australia becomes active and takes control of the launch
•Brazil •Canada process, usually with first stage ignition. Once
•China •France free of all launch platform signal connections, the
•Germany •India missile is under the control of this software. All
•Israel •Italy position or velocity signals generated by the
•Japan •Pakistan navigation system, as well as control system
•Portugal •Russian Federation feedback, are sent to the flight computer which
•South Korea •Sweden generates corrective signals to the flight control
•Switzerland •Ukraine hardware. Engine pressures and general system
•United Kingdom health are monitored. For rocket systems, when
•United States the required velocity and position are sensed, the
propulsion system is shut down. For ballistic
missiles, when the arming signals are confirmed
by the warhead, the re‐entry vehicle may be
Global Production separated from the airframe.

UAV flight software controls the engine
operation, issues steering commands to the flight
control system, based on navigation information,
and activates the payload (camera, weapon, etc.)
1-14


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight software is used in both complete rocket systems and UAVs (to
include cruise missiles) to control the operation of all flight systems.

Other Uses: This software is uniquely prepared for individual types of rocket systems or UAVs and is not
usually used in other types of applications.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically software that controls more than one subsystem and that is
specially designed or modified for use in systems specified in 1.A. takes the form of a computer program
stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy
disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and
documents containing software that controls more than one subsystem and that is specially designed or
modified for use in systems specified in 1.A. are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only
labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the
appropriate computer. This software and documentation can be transmitted electronically over a
computer network.
1.E. Technology
1.E.1. "Technology", in accordance with the General Technology Note, for the "development",
"production" or "use" of equipment or "software" in 1.A., 1.B., or 1.D.

Nature and Purpose: “Technology” for the “development”, “production” or “use” of equipment or
“software” specified in 1.A., 1.B. or 1.D. includes “technical assistance” or “technical data.”“Technical
assistance” is the provision of instruction, skills, training, working knowledge or consulting services to a
country developing rocket systems or UAVs. “Technical data” include – but is not limited to – formulae,
blueprints, technical reports or computer databases “not in the public domain”. The purpose of
“technology” is to provide end‐users with the ability to indigenously develop the means for the
“development”, “production” or “use” of equipment or “software” specified in 1.A., 1.B. or 1.D.

Method of Operation: “Technology” and “technical assistance” are available in many forms. “Technical
assistance” may consist of instruction provided by a person experienced in one or more subjects relating
to controlled items (such as liquid propellant rocket engines) who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or
near the production or test site or the use of a consulting service that specializes in aerospace material
production directing the purchase of the right materials and equipment. A country may receive
“technical assistance” by sending students to other countries to attend training and practice the skills
necessary to build Category I systems. The manuals and materials received during training may qualify as
“technical data”.

1-15


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, the “technology” required to build rocket systems
is used only for those purposes. Sounding rockets used in weather research, with minor adjustments,
can be converted to ballistic missiles. The “technology” used in each device is very similar.

Other Uses: Some “technology” used to design, manufacture, and test UAVs may have functionality in
the military or commercial aircraft industry.

Appearance (as manufactured): N/A

Appearance (as packaged): N/A
1-16


Category I – Item 2: Complete Subsystems usable for Complete Delivery Systems
Category I ‐ Item 2
Complete Subsystems usable
for Complete Delivery
Systems
2- 1


Category I – Item 2: Complete Subsystems usable for
Complete Delivery Systems

2.A.1: Complete subsystems usable in the systems specified in 1.A., as follows:

a. Individual rocket stages usable in the systems specifed in 1.A.;
Nature and Purpose: A rocket stage generally consists

•Brazil •China of a structure, engine/motor, propellant, and some
•Egypt •France elements of a control system. Rocket engines or motors
•Germany •India produce propulsive thrust to make the rocket fly by
•Iran •Iraq using either solid propellants, which burn to exhaustion
•Israel •Italy once ignited, or liquid propellants burned in a
•Japan •Libya combustion chamber fed by pressure tanks or pumps.
•North Korea •Pakistan
•Russian Federation •South Korea Method of Operation: A launch signal either fires an
•Syria •Ukraine igniter in the solid propellant inside the lowermost (first
•United Kingdom •United States stage) rocket motor, or tank pressure or a pump forces
liquid propellants into the combustion chamber of a
rocket engine where they react. Expanding, high‐
temperature gases escape at high speeds through a
Global Production nozzle at the rear of the rocket stage. The momentum
of the exhausting gases provides the thrust for the
missile. Multi‐stage rocket systems discard the lower
stages as they burn up their propellant and
progressively lose weight, thereby achieving greater
range than comparably sized, single‐stage rocket
systems.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Rocket stages are necessary components of any rocket system. Rocket
stages are also used in missile and missile‐component testing applications.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Solid propellant rocket motor stages are cylinders usually ranging from 4
m to 10 m in length and 0.5 m to 4 m in diameter, and capped at each end with hemispherical domes.
Figure 1 shows the integration of a space launch vehicle booster with the solid propellant motor stage.
The forward dome usually has a threaded or capped opening for inserting an igniter; the rear dome has an
attached conical‐shaped nozzle or nozzles. The cylinders generally are made of high‐strength sheet steel, a
2- 2


composite of filament‐wound fiber in a resin matrix, or
a combination of both, and may be covered by an
insulating material such as cork or rubber sheet.
Because these stages are nearly completely filled with
high‐density, rubber‐like propellant, they may weigh as
much as 1,600 kg per m3 of stage volume.

Liquid propellant rocket engine stages are cylindrical
and capped at one end with a hemispherical dome.
Most of the space in a liquid stage is filled by propellant
tanks, pressure tanks, and pipes and valves connecting
the tanks to the engine. The engine itself is mounted in
the rear of the stage and occupies only 10 % to 15 % of
the overall stage length as shown. A conical‐shaped
nozzle or nozzles are attached to the rear of the stage
at the outlet of the combustion chamber. Liquid
propellant rocket engine stages are usually made of
thin metallic sheets, with internal rings to provide
stiffness. Because these stages are empty when
shipped, they may weigh as little as 240 kg to 320 kg
per m3 of stage volume. Figure 1: Integration of a satellite launch vehicle booster
with the solid propellant rocket motor stage (above).

(European Space Agency)
Appearance (as packaged): Virtually all rocket stages
are shipped in containers or fixtures specifically
designed for them. Smaller solid propellant rocket stages can be shipped in wooden crates with internal
restraints and shock mounts. Larger solid propellant stages are more often shipped in specially designed
metallic containers, usually cylindrical in appearance and sometimes filled with an inert atmosphere. Very
large stages may be simply wrapped with a protective covering. Solid propellant stages are supposed to
comply with international shipping requirements for explosives and have appropriate markings.

Liquid rocket stages are shipped in the same manner as solid propellant stages or in specially designed
fixtures without external packaging. Because they are shipped without propellant or pyrotechnics, they
may be transported as routine hardware without any constraints or warning labels, and weigh significantly
less than solid rocket stages.
Figure 2 Left: The first stage of a liquid‐fueled ICBM. Right: A shipping container for a liquid‐fueled upper stage. (MTCR
Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
2- 3


2.A.1.b. Re‐entry vehicles, and equipment designed or modified therefor, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A., as follows, except as provided in the Note below 2.A.1. for those designed for non‐
weapon payloads:
1. Heat shields, and components therefor, fabricated of ceramic or ablative materials;
2. Heat sinks and components therefor, fabricated of light‐weight, high heat capacity materials;
3. Electronic equipment specially designed for re‐entry vehicles;

Nature and Purpose: Re‐entry vehicles (RVs) are sharp‐ to
•China •France blunt‐tipped, conical‐shaped bodies that house and protect
•Germany •India the missile payload, or warhead, from the high heat and
•Israel •Russian Federation vibration experienced during re‐entry. RVs also carry the
•United Kingdom•United States arming and fuzing equipment to cause the warhead to
detonate when it reaches the target. After booster cutoff,
the RVs are released from the payload section of the
missile, and fall to earth in a ballistic trajectory; entering
Global Production the atmosphere at speeds between Mach 2 and 20,
depending on range. Some RVs, known as Maneuvering Re‐
entry Vehicles (or MARVs) also carry guidance and control
equipment that allows them to maneuver to either home
in on targets or avoid defenses.

Figure 3: Left: Three modern RVs attached to their mounting flange. The small fins at the aft end spin‐stabilize the RVs as
they re‐enter the atmosphere. Right: A modern RV on its payload support bulkhead. (MTCR Equipment, Software and
Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
2- 4


Method of Operation: A missile may carry one or more RVs in its forward, or payload, section. If the
missile carries two or more RVs, it usually is covered with a conic or ogival shroud or nose fairing that
covers the entire payload section at the top of the missile. After motor cutoff, the shroud or fairing is
removed, and the platform, or bus, carrying the RVs may sequentially orient each RV and release it.
Reoriented RVs are usually rotated about their longitudinal axis so they re‐enter the atmosphere in a
gyroscopically stable, nosetip‐forward attitude and thereby have greater target accuracy. Non‐oriented
RVs tumble on their trajectories until aerodynamic forces during re‐entry stabilize them with their
nosetips forward. The conic surface of the nose tip and RV usually is covered with heat shield material to
withstand the high heat of re‐entry.

A MARV using terminal guidance may implement a maneuver as it re‐enters the atmosphere to decrease
its speed, and then orient itself to bring a sensor to bear on the target. MARVs may use control surfaces,
change their aerodynamic shape, change their weight distribution, or use reaction jets to improve
accuracy or turn in ways unpredictable to the defense.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The principal function of an RV is to achieve accuracy and provide thermal
and structural protection to the weapon and the weapon fuzing and firing system during re‐entry.

Other Uses: RV structures intended for weapons have few non‐military applications. Some RV
components have commercial applications, most notably heat‐shield materials used in furnaces,
steelmaking, and engines. Certain RV‐like configurations have been used for the return of manned space
vehicles, but these have not been designed for the accuracies or re‐entry conditions required of a weapon
system.

Appearance (as manufactured): RVs are conical‐shaped structures (some with several cone angles),
usually with a hemispherically rounded nose tip. The base, or rear, of the vehicle may be hemispherical or
blunt. Small fins for aerodynamic stability may be attached at several locations at the rear of the conical
surface. The conic surface is covered with a heat shield, which may be naturally colored (black for carbon‐
based heat shields, tan or yellow for silica‐based shields) or may be painted. Advanced technology RVs are
usually long, thin cones with sharp nosetips (see Figure 4). They may have small ceramic inserts that serve
as antenna windows at several locations on the conical surface.

Figure 4: Left: A graphic depiction of an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) re‐entry vehicle. (U.S. Air Force) Right: Modern
RV midsections during manufacture. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
2- 5


RVs intended for multiple‐warhead missiles are usually less than 3 m long and less than 1 m in base
diameter. RVs used on missiles carrying a single weapon often have diameters equal to that of the
uppermost stage, and typically have lengths between 1 m and 4 m. RVs, including the weapons they
contain, typically range in weight from slightly less than 100 kg to roughly 1,000 kg.

The RV structure is usually manufactured in several sections for ease of weapon installation and field
maintenance. The forward‐most section typically contains some or all of the fuzing electronics, the middle
section carries the weapon, and the aft section commonly contains timers, additional arming system
electronics, and the spin system for those RVs that are spun up after their release from the booster.

Appearance (as packaged): The RV sections are usually transported together in special containers, either
wood or steel, not much larger than the RV itself. They are shock‐isolated and supported at several
locations inside the shipping container, which may be environmentally controlled. In the field, RVs receive
special handling because they contain weapons. They are almost always transported separately from the
booster and mated to the booster only at the launch site.
Heat Shields and Heat Sinks

Nature and Purpose: Heat shields and heat sinks are form‐fitting, protective overlays on RVs. Their
primary purpose is to protect the RV payload from destruction by the high temperatures caused by air
friction as the RV re‐enters the atmosphere.

Method of Operation: Heat shields protect the RV and its payload by ablation or insulation. In the case of
ablation, the heat shield absorbs the heat, and, in turn, causes its surface to decompose or vaporize and
thereby transfer that heat to the airflow. This process keeps the
underlying layers cool until they in turn are exposed to the high
•China temperatures. Heat sinks simply absorb the heat of re‐entry and
•France thereby decrease heat flow to the payload.
•India
•Israel Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Heat shields or heat sinks provide
•Russian Federation an external protective coating for RVs and may serve as the
•United Kingdom aeroshell. Their composition and thickness are a function of the
•United States re‐entry velocity, itself a function of the operational range of
rocket system. For ranges less than approximately 1,000 km,
simple steel skins can serve as heat sinks. For ranges greater than
Global 1,000 km, composite heat shields or much larger heat sinks are
Production required.

Other Uses: Heat shields and components are used in furnaces
and engines. The equipment used to make them can be used to
make composite tubing for oil drilling. Heat sinks and related technology have many commercial
applications, including power production and electronics. There are no commercial uses for heat shields or
heat sinks designed to fit missile RVs. Carbon‐based material suitable for heat shields is also used to line
engine nozzles and in the manufacture of disc brakes.
2- 6



Figure 5: Left: A beryllium‐copper heat sink. (National Atomic Museum) Right: A prototype heat shield for use on
vehicles during re‐entry from lunar and low‐Earth orbit missions. (Boeing)

Appearance (as manufactured): Heat shields and heat sinks usually have the same size and shape as their
underlying RVs. In some cases, they cover only the forward portion of the RV nose cone. Sizes for missile
applications range from 1 m to 3 m in length and less than 1 m in diameter. Shields are generally conical or
ogival, with pointed or rounded noses. They are either bonded to the RV or slipped over it in order to
achieve a close fit. Their surfaces sometimes display body joints and may have antenna windows installed
in them at one or more locations. These windows permit radar or other radio‐wave transmissions to occur
during re‐entry.

Appearance (as packaged): Missile RV heat shields, heat sinks, and their components are small enough to
be packaged in conventional shipping boxes or crates for protection from damage. If the heat shields or
heat sinks are bonded to the RV, the packaging must support the full weight of the RV in order to protect
the entire payload from shock and vibration as well as to protect the surface of the heat shield from
damage in shipping.
Electronic Equipment Specially Designed for Re‐entry Vehicles
•China
•France Nature and Purpose: RVs contain various kinds of electronics.
•India They must have a system to safe, arm, fuze, and fire the
•Israel warhead (the SAFF system). They may also have radars,
•Russian Federation telemetry equipment, sensors, guidance systems, computers,
•United Kingdom and defensive systems such as radar jammers and chaff
•United States dispensers. RV electronics are characterized by their relatively
small size and their ability to withstand the high temperature,
high acceleration, and strong vibration encountered during
Global atmospheric re‐entry. In addition, RVs for nuclear warheads use
Production electromagnetic pulse (EMP) protected circuits and radiation
hardened microcircuits as described in Items 11.E.1. and 18.A.1.,
respectively.
2- 7



Figure 6: Left: An RV radar antenna set packaged for shipment. Right: A portion of RV radar electronics.
(MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
Method of Operation: The many different types of RV electronic equipment operate much the same as

any corresponding avionics equipment; however, a battery usually supplies power for the RV electronic
equipment. A power supply converts the battery voltage to whatever is required by the various electronics
within the RV. Additionally, all the electronic equipment onboard the RV must be designed to operate
reliably in harsh environments.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Virtually all the electronic components in RVs are specifically designed for
them. The most important RV electronic components are those of the SAFF system; their functions are
described in 2.A.1.f. below. Other electronic equipment is optional and depends on mission requirements.
Cables and connections are ordinary but necessary accessories. RVs designed to operate in the hostile X‐
ray and neutron environments created by nuclear defenses must use highly protected electronic
components and cabling, which is clearly identified in its product specifications as capable of operation in
such hostile environments.

Other Uses: Barometric switches, power conditioners, and relays not specially designed for RVs are used
in general aviation. Standard cabling and connectors (not nuclear hardened) are common to thousands of
commercial end uses. In general, distinguishing commercial electronic equipment from equipment
specially designed for RVs is difficult because the biggest differences – nuclear hardening, temperature
operating limits, and vibration requirements – are not usually visible.

Appearance (as manufactured): The usual components of an RV electronics package are unremarkable in
appearance. The largest and most distinctive part is probably the battery, which may be roughly half the
size of an automobile battery but is often considerably smaller. Most of the remaining electronic
components are small and are usually housed in aluminum boxes. The SAFF system is assembled by the RV
manufacturer and is unlikely to be obtained as a prepackaged unit. Very advanced RV designs can use
active/passive seekers (radar and optical sensors) coupled to active control systems and stored maps of
target features. Such equipment may have a disk, conical, or truncated‐cone appearance because it is
designed to fit tightly into an RV. Any indication of special capabilities to withstand high acceleration or
severe vibration may suggest a missile application.
2- 8


Appearance (as packaged): Military‐grade electronic parts are packaged in sealed bags or containers used
to protect the electronics from moisture and shock. Foam‐lined boxes, crates, or metal suitcases may also
be used for packaging.
2.A.1.c. Solid propellant rocket motors or liquid propellant rocket engines, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A., having a total impulse capacity equal to or greater than 1.1 x 106 Ns;
Note:
Liquid propellant apogee engines and station‐keeping engines specified in 2.A.1.c., designed or
modified for use on satellites, may be treated as Category II, if the subsystem is exported subject to
end‐use statements and quantity limits appropriate for the excepted end‐use stated above, when
having a vacuum thrust not greater than 1kN.
Nature and Purpose: Solid propellant rocket motors

contain both the fuel and the oxidizer inside a single
motor casing. No tanks, pipes, pumps, or valves are
•Brazil •China needed because the fuel and oxidizer are pre‐mixed in
•Egypt •France the proper ratio and cast into a hollow solid form, which
•Germany •India is ignited internally. The outer casing of the rocket
•Iran •Israel motor often serves as the form in which the propellant
•Italy •Japan is cast. The casing acts as a pressure vessel that keeps
•Norway •Pakistan combustion gases confined during operation, and is the
•Russian Federation •South Korea main structural member that transmits the thrust to the
•Sweden •Ukraine payload. Solid rocket motors are cost effective and low
•United Kingdom •United States maintenance; they are easily stored, can be stored for
many years, and are capable of rapid deployment and
launch.

Global Production Method of Operation: Once ignited, the propellant
burns inside a hollow chamber running down the center
of the motor; the hot expanding gases rush out the
nozzle end at very high speed and provide thrust. The
propellant burns until it is exhausted. Some motors
terminate thrust by opening holes in the motor casing
and venting the gases out the sides or through the top.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Rocket motors provide the thrust to accelerate missiles to the velocity
required to reach the intended target or to operate the next missile stage. This requisite thrust can be
achieved by one large rocket motor or by clusters or multiple stages of smaller motors.

Other Uses: N/A

2- 9


Appearance (as manufactured): Solid rocket motors are cylindrical tubes with spherical or elliptical domes
at both ends. One dome could have a small hole for attaching the igniter; the other dome could have a
larger hole for attaching the nozzle. The igniter may or may not be installed before shipment; if not, the
hole is covered by a plate made of steel or other material. The nozzle is usually attached before shipment
and sealed with an environmental plug to protect the propellant from humidity and other environmental
effects. This plug hides the solid propellant grain within the case from view.


Figure 7: Top left: A re‐usable solid rocket motor for space vehicle use. (ATK) Bottom left: Solid propellant rocket motors with
total impulse close to the lower limit of Item 2 control. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third edition
(May 2005)) Right: A pressure‐fed liquid rocket engine. (Aerojet)

When installed, both the igniter and the nozzle are usually bolted in place. A modern solid rocket motor
used in space launch vehicles and complete with a nozzle is shown in the top right of Figure 7.
Approximately 450 kg of propellant is required to achieve the 2.A.1.c. threshold impulse of equal to or
greater than 1.1 x 106 Ns. Rocket motors containing this quantity of propellant would be approximately 4
m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. A rocket motor of this size would usually have a steel case, although
composite cases made of glass, carbon, or para‐aramid fiber are possible.

Appearance (as packaged): Solid rocket motors are usually shipped in steel or aluminum containers or
wooden crates. Crates have cradles at several points to support the weight of the motor and are usually
2-10


lined with foam or cushioning material to protect the motor during shipment. Rocket motors are
sometimes packaged in an inert atmosphere to keep the propellant protected from moisture. These
containers are typically hermetically sealed, pressurized, and made of aluminum. Temperature storage
limits are stated to ensure longevity of the motors. Solid rocket motors have a thick, usually braided, metal
strap with clamps at either end leading from somewhere on the motor case to the local electrical ground.
This strap discharges any static electricity buildup and helps avoid fires and explosions. When shipped, the
motor is grounded to the shipping container, and the container is grounded to the local ground.

Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
Nature and Purpose: Liquid propellant rocket engines burn fuel and oxidizer, which is fed to them from
tanks in the proper ratio by pipes, valves, and sometimes
pumps. Thus, these engines are much more complex than
solid propellant motors and can contain many precision‐
•China •France machined and moving parts.
•India •Iraq
•Japan •Libya Unlike solid rocket motors, some liquid rocket engines can
•North Korea •Russian Federation be shut off and restarted. Some liquid rocket engines can
•Ukraine •United Kingdom be re‐used after refurbishment, while few solid rocket
•United States motors are designed to be re‐usable. Liquid rocket engines
are typically more thrust‐efficient than solid rocket motors
and are usually preferred for non‐military missions.
However, they are difficult to manufacture, require more
Global Production maintenance, and take longer to prepare for launch than
solid rocket motors. Fuel and oxidizer can also be difficult
to handle and store because they are toxic, corrosive, or
cryogenic.

Method of Operation: Once a fire command is given, fuel and oxidizer tanks are pressurized; if a pump is
used, it is started. Fuel and oxidizer are forced into the injector head, where they are atomized by passing
through small injectors, and mixed in the combustion chamber. Upon ignition, the hot, expanding gases
rush out the nozzle at very high velocity and give the missile thrust. The thrust loads are transmitted
through the combustion chamber to struts, which attach to the missile body at the rear end of a fuel or
oxidizer tank.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Rocket engines provide thrust to accelerate missiles to the velocity required
to reach the intended target. This requisite thrust can be achieved by one large rocket engine or by
clusters or multiple stages of smaller engines.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Liquid rocket engines are characterized by a cylindrical or spherical
combustion chamber to which a converging/diverging nozzle is attached. The nozzle is usually larger than
the rest of the engine (as seen in Figure 8). Nozzles cooled by propellants may have sheet metal walls held
apart by a corrugated sheet metal, or be composed of a bundle of contoured metal tubes. Uncooled
nozzles are made of a refractory metal or an ablative composite material. The injector, a flat or curved
2-11


plate with a large number of individual holes, is attached to the top of the combustion chamber, as shown
in Figure 8. A number of pipes, tubes, and pumps are attached to the top and sides of the combustion
chamber.

Appearance (as packaged): Liquid rocket engines are rugged devices, but they must be protected from
shock and moisture. Typical containers include large wooden crates and metal containers.


Figure 8: Left: A second‐stage oxygen/kerosene liquid propellant rocket engine. (Aerojet) Right: The dome of an injector head
(top picture) and its underside, showing the injectors and baffles (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook, Third
edition (May 2005))
2.A.1.d. 'Guidance sets', usable in the systems specified in 1.A., capable of achieving system accuracy
of 3.33% or less of the "range" (e.g. a 'CEP' of 10 km or less at a "range" of 300 km), except as
provided in the Note below 2.A.1. for those designed for missiles with a "range" under 300 km or
manned aircraft;
Technical Notes:
1. A ´guidance set´ integrates the process of measuring and computing a vehicle's position and
velocity (i.e. navigation) with that of computing and sending commands to the vehicle's flight control
systems to correct the trajectory.
2. ´CEP´ (circle of equal probability) is a measure of accuracy, defined as the radius of the circle
centred at the target, at a specific range, in which 50 % of the payloads impact.
2-12


Nature and Purpose: A guidance set automatically steers vehicles along a trajectory or flight path.
Guidance sets are high quality assemblies of sensitive electronic, inertial, environmental (e.g. pressure),
mechanical and satellite‐based sensor equipment. The heart of any guidance set is the inertial
measurement unit (IMU), which contains the gyroscopes and accelerometers that allow the guidance set
to sense motion and changes in orientation. Guidance sets
can be very expensive, with costs ranging from several
thousand to several million dollars each; with the more
•Canada •China accurate systems being the more expensive.
•France •India

•Israel •Japan Method of Operation: Guidance sets are calibrated and
•North Korea •Russian Federation provided with information on the vehicle’s position,
•Ukraine •United Kingdom velocity, and orientation prior to launch. After launch,
•United States inertial instruments sense accelerations and rotations of
the vehicle, and usually convert these into electrical signals.
A computational device converts these signals into
deviations from the programmed flight path and issues
Global Production commands to the flight control system to correct the
course. However, because of errors in the inertial
instruments themselves, the missile tends to veer off
course over time. Guidance sets that veer off course less
than 3.33 % of range traveled are controlled under this
item. Other guidance aids such as a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, terrain reference systems, or
gyro‐astro compasses can be used to provide one or more mid‐course updates on location or orientation
to the guidance computer, thereby increasing accuracy. (Navigational equipment, including update
equipment, is covered in Item 9.A. of the MTCR Annex.)

Figure 9: Left: A missile guidance set being transported to a launch facility. (Northrop Grumman) Right: An older‐technology
guidance set, composed several components, installed in a missile. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Handbook,
Third edition (May 2005))

2-13


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: A guidance set is a common subsystem for any rocket system. Ballistic
missile guidance sets are usually very specialized pieces of equipment, often built to fit into a particular
missile, to endure hostile environments, and to perform with a high degree of accuracy. They are designed
to satisfy the stringent size, weight, power, and harsh environmental requirements of space launch and
ballistic missile applications. UAV guidance systems can still be highly specialized but less complicated
systems, and they are often supplemented with numerous other sensors and receivers as part of an
integrated navigation system (detailed in 9.A.).

Other Uses: Guidance and navigation systems of various types are widely used in marine vessels, aircraft,
and even some land vehicles.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size, weight, and appearance of guidance sets vary with the type of
missile because of the structural features of the missile and variations in mission requirements. Older
designs tend to be larger and heavier (up to around 1 m on a side / diameter and up weighing up to 100
kg); new systems, which are significantly more accurate, may require only 30 cm on a side and weigh a few
kilograms. Most sets are enclosed in metallic boxes that have airtight but removable access panels. They
are often rectangular, but they can be also be cylindrical or be comprised of several boxes of various
shapes (as seen on the left of Figure 9). Guidance sets also have quality electrical connectors, precision‐
mounting surfaces, and, in some cases, temperature control connections. Some systems have a gimbal‐
mounted or floated IMU housed in a roughly spherical chamber that bulges out somewhere on the
guidance set. Other systems have the IMU separate from the electronics.

Figure 10: Left: A guidance and navigation system, designed to meet long‐term space mission requirements. (Northrop
Grumman) Right: A shipping container for an ICBM guidance system.

Modern strapdown guidance systems are often box‐like in appearance. Figure 10 shows a guidance and
navigation system with access panel removed. Some modern strapdown guidance systems deviate from
the box‐like shape when the application requires the guidance set to fit into a small space.

Appearance (as packaged): Because most guidance sets are very expensive and sensitive to damage from
shock, they are shipped in cushioned containers, some of them special and air‐tight, to protect them from
moisture. These containers usually have labels requesting careful handling. A wide range of container
configurations, including special drums, boxes, and metal suitcases, may be used.
2-14


2.A.1.e. Thrust vector control sub‐systems, usable in the systems specified in 1.A., except as
provided in the Note below 2.A.1. for those designed for rocket systems that do not exceed the
"range"/"payload" capability of systems specified in 1.A.;
Technical Note:
2.A.1.e. includes the following methods of achieving thrust vector control:
a. Flexible nozzle;
b. Fluid or secondary gas injection;
c. Movable engine or nozzle;
d. Deflection of exhaust gas stream (jet vanes or probes);
e. Use of thrust tabs.

Nature and Purpose: Thrust vector control subsystems redirect the axial thrust produced by the hot,
expanding gases expelled through the rocket nozzle, and thereby steer the missile.

Method of Operation: There are several different ways of steering a missile. Many operate by redirecting
the engine thrust off the missile centerline, which causes the vehicle to turn. Control under this item
applies regardless of the specific design or name of the
thrust vector control subsystem. Liquid rocket engines
usually redirect thrust by swiveling the entire engine, a
•China •France process called gimbaling, while most modern missiles
•Germany •India use the flexible nozzle approach. Both approaches use
•Israel •Italy servo‐mechanical actuators attached to the missile
•Japan •North Korea frame to push and pull the engine or rocket nozzle into
•Russian Federation •Serbia the proper position. Solid and liquid engines also can
redirect thrust by deflecting the exhaust gases in the
•Spain •Ukraine
nozzles by means of movable jet vanes or fluid injection.
•United Kingdom •United States
Jet vanes are common on older technology missiles.
Fluid injection forces the exhaust flow through the
nozzle to deflect thereby causing asymmetric flow and
Global Production an off‐centerline direction of thrust.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Thrust vector control
subsystems change rocket thrust direction to steer the
missile in response to commands from the guidance set.
They are a required item on space launch vehicles and ballistic missile systems and are used on some
UAVs, particularly cruise missile booster motors.

Other Uses: Thrust vector control subsystems are used in advanced fighters, research aircraft, tactical
missiles, and spacecraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical thrust vector control assemblies include mounting rings, actuator
rods, actuator valves, hydraulic tubing or pipes, and dedicated control electronics. An example of a thrust
2-15


vector control electronics box for a large liquid rocket engine is shown on the left of Figure 11. Mounting
rings are attached to the throat area of the nozzle and are robust enough to withstand the torque
imparted to it under full‐thrust conditions. An actuating system is attached to either the mounting ring,
the engine itself, or directly to the nozzle.

Actuator rods are cylindrical, approximately 15 cm to 45 cm in length and 3 cm to 8 cm in diameter (see
image on the right of Figure 11). They push and pull on the engine or nozzle in response to signals by the
guidance system to actuator valves. A gas generator (basically a small solid rocket motor) that powers a
small turbopump is one way to pressurize the hydraulic system. Mounting rings and actuator rods are
made from high‐strength metals such as stainless steel or titanium; actuating valves have stainless steel
housings.

Figure 11: Left: A thrust vector control electronics box for use in large launch vehicle applications. (Moog, Inc.) Center: Four jet
vanes mounted in the rear of a ballistic missile. (Russian military) Right: A fine positioning linear actuator designed for use in
space applications. (Moog, Inc)
The most common way to implement gas or fluid injection thrust vector control is to store the gas or fluid
in tanks and then meter its injection into the rocket nozzle through feedlines, valves, sometimes
manifolds, and injectors. The tanks are usually cylindrical composite‐overwrapped pressure vessels that
vary in size and weight. Pressure ratings of 7 MPa (1000 psi) are typical. The gas or liquid feedlines
(approximately 1 cm in diameter for smaller engines), control valves, and injectors are often made of
stainless steel. Missiles usually use four injectors, sometimes many more.

Jet vanes are mounted inside the exhaust nozzle and rotated in response to commands from the missile
guidance system to redirect the thrust. They look like small wings usually 30 cm in length and 15 cm in
height (sizes vary with engine size). They are made of high‐temperature material such as carbon, carbon
derivatives, or refractory materials such as tungsten. The center image in Figure 11 shows four jet vanes
mounted in the aft end of a ballistic missile.

Appearance (as packaged): Gimbal rings are usually 15 cm to 50 cm in diameter and may be shipped as an
assembly (double rings) in an appropriately sized aluminum shipping container with a contoured interior.
Actuator rods and valves look like commercial rods and valves. Valves are packaged inside plastic bags for
protection against abrasive particles. Because these items can be rather heavy, they are shipped secured in
robust containers made of metal or wood. Gas or fluid injection tanks are packaged like commercial
products such as propane tanks. Injectors and valves are usually packaged like any piece of expensive
equipment in padded containers, and in plastic bags to prevent contamination.
2-16



Figure 12: Seven options for thrust vector control in solid rocket motors. (British Aerospace Defense Limited)
2-17


2.A.1.f. Weapon or warhead safing, arming, fuzing, and firing mechanisms, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A., except as provided in the Note below 2.A.1. for those designed for systems other than
those specified in 1.A.
Nature and Purpose: Warhead safing, arming, fuzing, and
•For advanced RV fuzing systems firing (SAFF) mechanisms are usually electronic or electro‐
•China •France mechanical devices that keep missile payloads (weapons)

•Germany •India safely unarmed until shortly before reaching the target, at
•Israel •Russian Federation which time they fuze and fire the explosives.
•United Kingdom•United States
Method of Operation: Before launch, most SAFF systems
ensure that the weapon is safe (unable to detonate) by
•Other types of SAFF components,
particularly for air vehicles, are either mechanically or electrically isolating the weapon
commonly available. from the firing system. After launch, the SAFF system
removes the interlocks and arms the warhead. Arming can
occur after a set time from launch or after sensing a
preprogrammed trajectory change or certain environmental
Global Production conditions such as an expected deceleration. Low
technology SAFF systems use barometric switches for the
safing and arming functions.

The weapon fuze defines when the detonation criteria are
met. Common fuzes include timers, acceleration sensors, and altitude sensing devices such as barometric
switches or active radars. When the payload reaches the predefined criteria, a signal is generated and sent
to the firing set. High voltage capacitors are then fired (discharged) and deliver an electric current to the
weapon detonators. Payloads can also have crush or contact fuzes that sense when payloads strike the
targets and begin to break up. These fuzes either back up the altitude sensing system or are used for
missions requiring target impact. Cruise missiles that dispense submunitions or air burst their weapons
fuze and fire when the guidance system determines that the target has been reached. Alternatively, they
can use radar or laser altimeters, proximity fuzes, and contact fuzes. A SAFF system may include some or
all of these options for redundancy.

Figure 13: Left: An RV SAFF system accelerometer with its associated electronics. Right: A missile fuze with safety plate and
warning label. (Kaman Aerospace Corporation)
2-18


Radar‐based fuzing systems for ballistic missiles require a relatively high frequency (S‐band or C‐band)
transmitter and transmissive window materials such as high purity silica to protect the outward‐looking
antenna from the heat created during re‐entry. For missile applications, contact fuzes are rated between
100 g and 500 g. High technology ballistic missile fuzing systems using accelerometers require instruments
capable of 100 g or more.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Some form of SAFF system is required on all missile systems with explosive
warheads to ensure that the weapons are safe until launched and detonate when intended. Because SAFF
systems are usually tailored to the internal
configuration and function of a specific missile, it is
not cost effective to modify them for non‐missile
applications.

Other Uses: The basic fuzing and firing technology
involved in a missile SAFF system is used in all
munitions items with explosive warheads. Even the
more advanced fuzing systems, in which the time or
altitude of detonation is determined by active radars
or integrating accelerometers, are used in advanced
artillery shells and submunitions. The firing
technology used for missile warheads is used
commercially in all activities in which explosives are
used, such as road construction, mine excavations,
and structures demolition.
Figure 14: A wooden shipping container with explosives
Appearance (as manufactured): Missile SAFF warning label. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology
systems and packages are not obtained as a single Handbook, Third edition (May 2005))
unit; instead, they are assembled from individual components and subsystems. These components are
generally small, aluminum‐housed packages with input/output electrical connectors. Simple fuzes are
usually housed in aluminum cylinders ranging in diameter from 1 cm for crush fuzes to several centimeters
for contact fuzes. Higher technology fuzing systems may involve sophisticated instruments such as
accelerometers or active radar transmitters and antennas.

Appearance (as packaged): Like most electronics, SAFF systems are shipped in cushioned containers,
some of them special, air‐tight containers to protect the systems from moisture. These containers usually
have labels indicating the need for careful handling. A wide range of suitable container configurations,
including special drums, boxes, and metal suitcases, may be used. Any of these may in turn be packed in a
wooden box with the explosives warning label (when appropriate) or may be shipped in ordinary
cardboard boxes.
Note:
The exceptions in 2.A.1.b., 2.A.1.d., 2.A.1.e., and 2.A.1.f. above may be treated as Category II if the
subsystem is exported subject to the end‐use statements and quantity limits appropriate for the
excepted end‐use stated above
2-19


2.B.1. "Production facilities" specially designed for the subsystems specified in 2.A.

•Argentina •Brazil Nature and Purpose: Subsystem production facilities are

•Canada •China often large industrial areas designed to manufacture the
•Egypt •France major assemblies such as solid propellant missile motors or
•Germany •India liquid propellant rocket engines, guidance and control
•Israel •Italy equipment or re‐entry vehicles. Overhead cranes are used
•Japan •Libya to move heavy components. Large X‐ray equipment may be
•North Korea •Norway available to check for voids and cracks in welds or in the
•Pakistan •Russian Federation missile propellant. Solid propellant mixing facilities are
•Serbia •South Korea
often built in isolated regions, removed from populated
•Spain •Sweden
areas for both security and safety. Guidance system and re‐
•Syria •Ukraine
entry system manufacturing facilities are characterized by
clean rooms and filtered‐air systems that are usually
temperature and humidity controlled. Technicians must
wear special clothing to control dust or lint. A prime
Global Production requisite for the manufacture of guidance instrumentation
is a rigorous filtration system. Air is passed through high‐
efficiency particulate absorption (HEPA) filters, often
covering the entire ceiling area of the clean room.

Method of Operation: Ballistic missile subassemblies are manufactured and often tested in their
production facilities before they are shipped either to storage or to a final assembly area. Raw materials
such as sheet steel are rolled into the proper forms and welded together to form cylinders that will
become the solid propellant rocket motor case. End domes are welded onto these cylinders to complete
the enclosure. Each end dome has a reinforced circular opening to mount the stage igniter and to attach
the nozzle.

The strength of a small number of sample motor cases is tested in special test facilities. Here, a motor case
is hydrostatically tested to its burst point to confirm its pressure holding capacity and to validate the
manufacturing processes used to build that lot of motor cases. The motor case is sealed, filled with water
and pressurized until it bursts. Instruments are attached to the motor case, and the stress and strain are
recorded, as is the water pressure during the test. Often the procedure is video recorded to support
detailed failure analysis.

Liquid propellant rocket engines are complex mechanical devices that require many precise machining and
assembly steps, often in clean rooms. Small precision parts are cast, machined, assembled and cleaned.
The larger propellant tank assemblies are commonly manufactured in sheet‐forming facilities that roll the
sheet material into cylindrical sections that are then welded together along their axial seams. End domes
2-20


are then welded to the resulting cylinders. These and other welds offer failure points on the missile and
must be thoroughly inspected. Nondestructive X‐ray or other means are often used to inspect this
welding. Overhead cranes are used to move and position these missile components to and from handling
jigs.

Accurate guidance system production places the greatest demands of all ballistic missile production
facilities. Manufacturing high‐quality inertial instruments requires a number of highly skilled people. The
manufacturing procedures require full attention to the details of close‐tolerance miniaturized
electromechanical component production. Missile guidance system manufacturing facilities require
precision equipment and clean‐room conditions to manufacture and test the individual guidance
instruments and then assemble them into a guidance system. Hoists and cranes are available to move
components to and from handling jigs and shipping containers.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The components and assemblies manufactured at these facilities are used to
build and test items listed in 2.A.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Several individual and specialized facilities are required to produce
missile components. Fixtures used in the production of solid propellant rocket motors are usually large
and heavy structures. Mixing and casting rocket propellant is hazardous, and the activity is ordinarily
completed in isolated locations to minimize the results of an explosion. Large‐diameter plumbing and
large‐capacity pits that may include facilities for drawing a vacuum in the rocket motor may be present.
Star or multi‐finned shaped mandrels may be visible.

Production facilities for liquid propellant rocket engines may involve smaller structures, but they normally
require large‐scale test stands. Medium‐range ballistic missiles and smaller missiles could be fabricated in
a facility that would look much like any large, well‐equipped machine shop. A quality assurance facility is
needed with laboratories. These will include clean rooms, air‐flow benches, granite surface plates,
precision measuring devices including scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), coordinate measuring
machines, gas sniffers with a detection capability of less than 5 parts per million and other specialized
measurement devices as required. Stations for assembling high‐tech re‐entry vehicles include clean rooms
to insure reliability in the arming and fuzing components and balance tables to configure the center of
gravity in the appropriate position. Hoists and cranes are available to move fragile components to and
from handling jigs and shipping containers.

Appearance (as packaged): New or replacement spare parts for these types of facilities are sometimes
large and too heavy to be packaged and shipped to the production plant as complete units. Instead,
component parts are shipped separately in crates or on protected pallets for onsite assembly. They will be
securely fastened to the crate to restrain motion and prevent damage. Smaller jigs may be individually
crated or secured on pallets for shipment.
2-21


2.B.2. "Production equipment" specially designed for the subsystems specified in 2.A.
Nature and Purpose: Production of these subsystems requires equipment tailored to the specific type of
subassembly. Each subsystem production facility must
contain specialized equipment, jigs, fixtures, moulds,
dies and mandrels that are used to manufacture the
subassembly’s components and subcomponents,
assemble them and test the subassembly.

Method of Operation: Equipment used to build solid
propellant rocket motors includes metalworking
machinery, tools for grinding, filtering and mixing
propellant, molds or mandrels to form the motor core
or burning surface, devices for fabricating and
pyrolizing motor nozzles and equipment to test the
thrust vector control system on the completed motor.
Facilities may also contain winding equipment for
covering motor cases with composite fiber materials. Figure 15: A large milling machine. (Yasda Precision Tools,
K.K.)
Many motor cases can be manufactured from steel. In
one method, steel sheets are rolled and welded in order to achieve the size and strength called for by the
case’s design. Other techniques form the cylindrical portion of the motor by extruding or flow‐forming
metal over a mandrel. The domes that form the
ends of the case are then created by flow‐forming or
•Argentina •Brazil die forming. Extruding and flow‐forming steel
•Canada •China reduces the number of possible failure points on the
•Egypt •France finished motor case by reducing the number of
•Germany •India welds needed.
•Iran •Israel
•Italy •Japan Some motor manufacturing facilities contain
filament‐winding machines that lay strong fibers
•Libya •North Korea
coated with an epoxy or polyester resin onto
•Norway •Pakistan
rotating mandrels to create composite parts with a
•Russian Federation •Serbia
high strength‐to‐weight ratio. After the winding
•South Korea •Spain operation is completed, the parts require autoclave
•Sweden •Syria and hydroclave curing to finish the process.
•Ukraine •United Kingdom
•United States The largest and most distinctive equipment in a solid
propellant rocket motor production facility is the
propellant mixing station. This facility must be large
enough to house the propellant ingredients, mixers
and other tooling used to make the motor stage.
Global Production Solid propellant components (fuels, oxidizers and
other agents) are first ground to appropriate
diameters then blended with a suitable binding
agent until the mixture (known as the “grain”)
2-22


becomes homogenous. If the mixing process can be completed in a vacuum, the number of bubbles in the
grain can be minimized. (Bubbles represent increased burning surfaces that result in pressure spikes and
possible motor case failure during combustion.) After the propellant components are completely mixed
together, the mixture is placed into the motor case. There are three principal methods for loading a motor
case with propellant. The propellant can be poured into the case (a process known as “casting the
propellant” and sometimes done under vacuum), pumped into the case, or, if the propellant is sufficiently
rigid, it may be extruded through a mold and inserted into the case.

Insulating material must be placed between the case wall and the propellant to prevent the case from
failing due to the heat of combustion. Insulation is often a thin layer of synthetic rubbery material, such as
ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM). Special sprayers may apply a thin layer of insulation to the
inside of the motor case or a layer of insulating material may be applied to a mandrel over which a
composite motor case is wound and cured.

Most nozzles for modern solid propellant rocket motors are manufactured from either bulk graphite or
multidimensional carbon‐carbon billets. Graphite billets are produced from fine‐grain graphite powders,
molded under high pressure and temperature into billet form. Carbon‐carbons begin with woven carbon
fiber preforms, which are repeatedly densified with either coal tar pitch or hydrocarbon gas under very
high pressure and temperature. Isostatic presses may be used during this process. The resulting carbon‐
carbon or graphite billet is then machined to the intended nozzle shape.

Every component in a liquid propellant rocket propulsion system requires production equipment.
Propellant on‐off valves, for example, require milling machines, like the shown in Figure 15, to
manufacture metal parts such as cases, valve seats and pintles. Electromagnetic coils are attached to the
pintles, and the valves are assembled in assembly jigs (fixtures) for welding by specialized welding
equipment. Other final assembly operations are also performed. Assembled valves go through an array of
inspections using specialized equipment to ensure that they meet all the procurement specification
requirements. Leak checks require high‐pressure helium and a gas chromatograph with capability to at
least five parts per million. An automated testing machine is used to perform repetitive actuation of the
propellant on‐off valves, while fluid is flowing through the valves, to ensure the valves will meet the
number of required on‐off cycles. Numerous other acceptance tests are completed during production and
delivery.

Electro‐discharge machining (EDM) is used extensively in the manufacture of injectors for liquid propellant
rocket engines. When first developed, the process was controlled by setup fixtures and manual controls.
Computer‐controlled EDM and CAD/CAM links are now the norm.

After components are tested and delivered to the final assembly area, the propulsion subsystem is
assembled and numerous measurements and checks are made to verify that the completed system
corresponds to the design. At that point the system could be tested to verify that the system meets
requirements.

The equipment used to manufacture inertial guidance equipment is extremely specialized. Special tooling
is required to machine the precision castings, bearings, slip rings, torquers and microelectronics that go
into gyroscopes (gyros) and accelerometers. Special equipment is also needed for the precise
measurement and inspection of the finished subassemblies. The gyroscope rotor and float case must be
precision‐machined in order to achieve a uniform wall thickness, smooth surface finish and symmetry. The
2-23


ball, gas or jewel bearings must also be precision machined. (Stainless steel bearings as small as one‐
eighth of an inch in diameter, with tolerances in the ten‐millionths of an inch, are required for gyroscope
rotors.) Further, these inertial instruments use mini‐ or micro‐circuitry to pick off and amplify position
information. If any of the manufacturing and finishing procedures are deficient, the entire subsystem will
suffer from random torques. Random torques result in drift that affect the precision of the gyro and
hence, the accuracy of the guidance system.

Computer‐operated test stations and turntables evaluate individual guidance system components for bias,
sensitivity and other features inherent in inertial instruments. These measurements are recorded and
confirmed with other test stations. These data are also sent as equipment constants to computers that
build and test the missile’s flight program. Guidance‐system components are assembled into the final
structure in a clean‐room environment and tested before shipping to the missile assembly facility or to
storage. Once assembled, they are tested to confirm mechanical integrity and ability to operate in the
vibration and thermal conditions of launch and flight. These test stations are often included in or
positioned near the manufacturing facility and include computer‐operated vibration stands, turntables
and environmental test chambers.

Equipment specialized to produce re‐entry vehicles includes high‐temperature ovens and control systems
to manufacture the ceramic or ablative material used to protect the RV from the heat associated with re‐
entering the Earth’s atmosphere.
2.C. Materials

None.
2.D. Software
2.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of "production facilities" specified in
2.B.1.

Nature and Purpose: Automated and computer‐assisted manufacturing procedures, including numeric
control, are increasingly used to produce missile components rapidly, accurately and with a high degree of
repeatability. These procedures require specifically designed software.

Method of Operation: Modern machine tools are computer numerically controlled (CNC). A
microprocessor in each machine reads the G‐Code program that the user creates; it then performs the
programmed operations. Personal computers are used to design the parts and are also used to write
programs either by manual entry of G‐Code or by use of computer‐aided manufacturing (CAM) software
that creates G‐Code from the user’s input of cutters and toolpath. Developers of G‐Code have renamed it
“Inti”; this software is now in the public domain.
2-24


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: CNC machine tools are widely used in the manufacturing and testing of
missile system parts and rely on both internal software and CAM software to create the various parts of
missile systems. Some examples of uses of CNC machine tools to manufacture missile system parts are
explained below.

Computer‐controlled machine tools can be used to manufacture liquid propellant rocket engine injectors
that have hundreds of small injector elements, as well as to create cooling channels in modern
regeneratively cooled combustion chambers.

•Argentina •Brazil Processes such as diffusion bonding of thin plates
•Canada •China use ovens that may be computer‐controlled. Plasma
•Egypt •France spray deposition and other types of material coating
•Germany •India such as electroplating are controlled by computer.
•Iran •Israel
•Italy •Japan Parts of a liquid propellant rocket engine (injectors
•Libya •North Korea to chambers and chambers to nozzles) are typically
•Norway •Pakistan welded, except for those in ground test units. Such
•Russian Federation •Serbia “orbital” welding (360 degrees around a cylindrical
•South Korea •Spain surface) is presently computer‐controlled, requiring
•Sweden •Syria specially tailored software.
Inspection of production articles is also increasingly
•United States
controlled by computer. Injectors, for example,
contain hundreds of injector holes whose size,
placement and orientation must be verified.
Global Production Computer‐controlled optical comparators are being
used to perform this inspection, and specially
developed software is required.

Automated equipment is used to control and
manage both the flow‐forming process used in steel motor case production facilities and the filament‐
winding machines that lay epoxy– or polyester‐resin‐coated fibers onto rotating mandrels to create
composite motor cases.

CNC lathes and milling machines can be used to turn the specialized graphite or carbon billets into solid
propellant motor nozzles and RV vehicle nose tips.

Automated machining equipment is required to produce the precision components that make up the
inertial guidance instruments. Once these components are assembled, they are tested and their
performance is evaluated on computer‐operated test stations. The results of this testing produce data
that is used to both characterize the instrument, such as drift rate and scale factor, and define guidance
system constants in the flight software.

Other Uses: Software that is used to operate equipment that manufactures missile components and
subassemblies may also be employed, with modifications, to control products manufactured in the civil
and military aviation industries.

2-25


Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, software used to produce rocket assemblies takes the form of a
computer program stored on printed, optical, magnetic or other media. Any common media including
magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this
software and data.

documents containing missile production control software are indistinguishable from any other storage
media. Only labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on
the appropriate computer. This software, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a
computer network.
2.D.2. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of rocket motors or engines specified in
2.A.1.c.
Nature and Purpose: Software specially designed for or modified for use by solid propellant rocket motors
or liquid propellant engines is generally integrated into the onboard flight computer software and may
perform a multitude of tasks. For both liquid propellant engines and solid propellant motors, the software
will control the sequencing of events, such as motor ignition, engine shut down, gas generator ignition,
initiation of propellant flow and other discrete events
either in time or in sequence. These events may be
initiated either by internal or external signals from the
•Argentina •Australia launcher, the inertial navigation system, other sensors
•Brazil •Canada or the flight computer. For liquid propellant engines,
•China •France some aspects of the engine control system may be
•Germany •India integrated into the software of the onboard flight
•Israel •Italy computer such as control of combustion chamber
•Japan •Pakistan pressure or propellant mixing ratio. Finally, certain
•Russian Federation •South Korea elements of the thrust vector system may be
•Sweden •Ukraine considered parts of the engine or motor, such as
•United Kingdom •United States actuators for a gimbaled nozzle, gimbaled engine
systems or altitude control thrusters. The software of
the onboard flight computer will control these
elements of the thrust vector system. This category
also includes specially designed maintenance and
Global Production diagnostic software that is used to maintain both liquid
propellant rocket engines and solid propellant rocket
motors. Most software in this category would be used
to conduct automated electrical testing, prior to flight.

Method of Operation: The flight program receives signals, such as the launch signal from the launcher,
and sends the signals in the proper sequence to accomplish the action. For some solid propellant rocket
motors this would include the signal necessary to initiate the pyrogenic charge required to ignite the solid
propellant in the motorcase. For some liquid propellant engines, the flight computer would send a signal
to initiate the solid propellant gas generator thus starting the turbine of the turbopump and initiating
propellant flow into the combustion chamber. All of these functions will be integrated into the flight
software that controls all missile functions from launch. The flight computer, through its control system
2-26


components, issues all commands and signals required to perform a complete flight within the design
parameters. While it is theoretically possible to separate the engine or motor control software from the
flight computer and software, it is unlikely. Software for maintenance of these motors or engines could be
located in the launcher software, the onboard ground control software or autonomous diagnostic
equipment.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The liquid propellant rocket engine or solid propellant rocket motor control
software is usually integrated into the onboard flight software such that seamless control of all missile
systems is conducted by flight software. Maintenance software can be located in the launcher, in the
onboard ground control software or in autonomous diagnostic equipment.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, software used for rocket motors or missile engines takes the
form of a computer program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain
this software and data.

documents containing rocket motor or missile engine control software are indistinguishable from any
other storage media. Only labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the
software is run on the appropriate computer. This software, including the documentation, can be
transmitted electronically over a computer network.
2.D.3. "Software", specially designed or modified for the "use" of 'guidance sets' specified in 2.A.1.d.
Note:
2.D.3. includes "software", specially designed or modified to enhance the performance of 'guidance sets'
to achieve or exceed the accuracy specified in 2.A.1.d.

Nature and Purpose: On a rocket system, guidance and control instruments are primarily mounted on a
stable platform in the guidance section of a ballistic missile. The stable platform is controlled by the flight
computer. Software in the flight computer collects information from instruments mounted on the
platform, processes the data, and issues signals to equipment on the platform to maintain its alignment
and stability. When the missile is launched, the flight computer continues to control the orientation of the
stable platform throughout flight. It collects accelerometer information and integrates the data to
determine speed and position. It also determines deviations from the programmed flight path and issues
correction signals to the flight control system.

2-27


Method of Operation: Accelerometers and gyroscopes
•Argentina •Australia mounted on the stable platform of a rocket system
•Brazil •Canada constantly sense acceleration due to local gravity and the
•China •France torquing forces caused by the rotating Earth. These forces
•Germany •India tend to make the platform wander unless corrected. Flight
•Israel •Italy computer software collects and processes the response
•Japan •Pakistan data from each gyroscope, incorporating information about
•Portugal •Russian Federation individual instruments such as bias, drift rates and offset,
•South Korea •Sweden and issues signals to torquing motors mounted in the
•Ukraine •United Kingdom gimbals to keep the platform stable with respect to a
•United States rotating Earth. When the missile is launched, the flight
computer continues to control the orientation of the stable
platform throughout flight. It collects changing
Global Production accelerometer data during launch and throughout powered
flight and integrates the data to determine speed and
position. While the flight computer performs these
calculations, it determines sensed deviations from the
programmed flight path and issues correction signals to the
flight control system. When the computer determines the velocity is proper and the missile is in the
correct altitude, it issues a number of closely spaced commands to terminate thrust and (on some
systems) to separate the re‐entry vehicle.

UAV guidance systems may use integrated navigation systems to augment inertial systems to accurately
fly to the target. The outputs of these systems are integrated in the flight computer to produce highly
accurate navigation. As the flight computer determines deviations from the flight path, it issues correction
of steering commands to the flight control system to maintain a proper flight path and altitude.

Typical Missile Related Uses: This software is used to operate and maintain the UAV or rocket system
during flight to its target.

Other Uses: Software in this category has few uses that are not related to missiles but may be employed
in the military aircraft industry to improve aircraft guidance systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this software takes the form of a computer program stored on
printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software and data.

documents containing this software are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling and
accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the appropriate computer.
This software, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network.
2.D.4. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of subsystems or equipment specified
in 2.A.1.b.3.
2-28


Nature and Purpose: Software in the RV is used to monitor the safing, arming, fuzing and firing (SAFF)
system and to integrate specialized terminal navigation systems designed to increase the accuracy of the
RV.

Method of Operation: The payload contained in a missile RV is designed to activate (detonate, open,
disperse sub‐munitions, etc.) only after the SAFF mechanism has determined that specific safety
constraints have been satisfied. These constraints include receipt of timing, acceleration, deceleration,
and barometric signals, computer‐generated signals related to the sensed accuracy of the missile to the
programmed trajectory, and others determined by the designers. The computer in the RV also operates a
terminal guidance system, if available, to precisely steer the RV to its target using a number of radars,
sensors and guidance system components configured in an
integrated navigation system.

•Argentina •Australia Some weapons activate with the appropriate radar return
•Brazil •Canada signal. The radar subsystem must be tested on test benches
•China •France to confirm its operational reliability. Complete RV systems
•Germany •India are tested and evaluated during a series of flight and
•Israel •Italy ground tests. Telemetry systems installed in the RV supply
•Japan •Pakistan subsystem operating performance data to ground stations.
•Portugal •Russian Federation Software is used to test these systems prior to a flight test
•South Korea •Sweden to verify the confidence of system operability.

Typical Missile Related Uses: This software is employed to
•United States
collect information from integrated navigation systems
within the RV, and to operate terminal guidance systems
and the re‐entry vehicle SAFF mechanisms.
Global Production
Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this software
takes the form of a computer program stored on printed,
magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable
hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software and data.

documents are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling and accompanying
documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the appropriate computer. This software,
including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network.
2.D.5. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of systems in 2.A.1.e.

Nature and Purpose: This software is used to operate the thrust vector control (TVC) subsystems used to
control the trajectory of a ballistic missile and some cruise missiles during boost.

2-29


Method of Operation: The trajectory of a ballistic missile is
•Argentina •Australia controlled using the thrust vector control systems. The
•Brazil •Canada flight computer issues corrections or steering signals to the
•China •France TVC system to move an actuator connected to a liquid
•Germany •India propellant rocket engine, a solid propellant missile motor
•Israel •Italy nozzle, a liquid injected thrust vector control device, jet
•Japan •Pakistan vanes or another device to deflect the thrust. Once the
•Portugal •Russian Federation actuator has moved, rate and distance information from
•South Korea •Sweden the TVC position sensor is sent back to the computer as a
•Ukraine •United Kingdom feedback signal which is then used to modify the correction

•United Staes or steering command. Thrust vector control software is
almost an indistinguishable part of the on‐board flight
program.
Global Production
Typical Missile Related Uses: This software is used to
operate the thrust vector control systems used on ballistic
missiles and some cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Similar software may also be used in the civil
and military aircraft industry. Airfoil control surfaces use servoactuators and position indicators similar to
those used on ballistic missiles.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, software used to operate thrust vector control systems takes
the form of a computer program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain

documents containing this software are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling and
accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the appropriate computer.
This software, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network.
2.D.6. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of systems in 2.A.1.f.

Nature and Purpose: Software in the RV is used to monitor the safing, arming, fuzing and firing (SAFF)
system, located in the RV.

Method of Operation: The payload contained in a missile re‐entry vehicle is designed to activate
(detonate, open, disperse submunitions, etc.) only after the SAFF mechanism has received and
determined specific safety constraints have been satisfied. These constraints include receipt of timing,
acceleration, deceleration, and barometric signals, computer‐generated signals related to the sensed
accuracy of the missile to the programmed trajectory, and others determined by the designers.

2-30


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is used to maintain the safety of the re‐entry vehicle and the
payload stored within.

Other Uses: N/A.

removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can
contain this software and data.
•Argentina •Australia
•Brazil •Canada Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy disks,
•China •France removable hard disks, compact discs and documents are
indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only
•Germany •India
labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its
•Israel •Italy
use unless the software is run on the appropriate computer.
•Japan •Pakistan
This software, including the documentation, can be
•Portugal •Russian Federation transmitted over a computer network.
•Ukraine •United Kingdom Liquid propellant rocket engines adapted as apogee engines
•United States for the purpose of providing the final burn for a satellite to
place it into a predetermined orbit are always pressure‐fed.
In other words, turbopumps are not used because it is more
Global Production cost‐effective to pressurize relatively small propellant tanks
using a high pressure helium bottle. At the subsystem level,
software for use of the liquid apogee propulsion system
includes a trajectory simulation program; typically, such a
computer code would simulate motion in three dimensions
with six degrees of freedom. Standard codes of this type can
be used for any missile or space launch vehicle of any size, and a number of them are in the public
domain. Ones that have been adopted for specific apogee engines must be evaluated in the light of the
system for which they were tailored.
Note:
Subject to end‐use statements appropriate for the excepted end‐use, "software" controlled by 2.D.2. ‐
2.D.6. may be treated as Category II as follows:
1. Under 2.D.2. if specially designed or modified for liquid propellant apogee engines, designed or
modified for satellite applications as specified in the Note to 2.A.1.c.;
2. Under 2.D.3. if designed for missiles with a "range" of under 300 km or manned aircraft;
3. Under 2.D.4. if specially designed or modified for re‐entry vehicles designed for non‐weapon
payloads;
4. Under 2.D.5. if designed for rocket systems that do not exceed the "range" "payload" capability of
systems specified in 1.A.;
5. Under 2.D.6. if designed for systems other than those specified in 1.A.

2-31


2.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment or "software" specified in 2.A., 2.B. or 2.D.

Nature and Purpose: Technology controlled under Item 2.E.1. covers the instructions and knowledge
needed to develop, produce or use any of the equipment or software specified in 2.A., 2.B. or 2.D.

Method of Operation: Technical assistance is available in many forms. Technical assistance may consist of
instruction provided by a person experienced in one of more controlled subjects (such as liquid propellant
rocket engines) who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the production site. A country may receive
technical assistance from one of more consulting services who specialize in a controlled process or who
assist in procuring components or materials that are difficult to obtain. Additionally, a country may receive
technical assistance by sending students to other countries that possess the required technology so they
may learn and practice the skills necessary to build the required systems. Any manuals and materials
received during training may qualify as technical data.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exceptions, technical assistance required to build ballistic
missile systems is used only for that purpose. As noted earlier, sounding rockets used in weather
research, with minor adjustments, can be converted to ballistic missiles. The “technology” used in each
device is very similar.

Other Uses: N/A


2-32


Category II – Item 3: Propulsion Components and Equipment
Category II ‐ Item 3
Propulsion Components and
Equipment
3- 1


3.A.1. Turbojet and turbofan engines, as follows;

a. Engines having both of the following characteristics:
1. Maximum thrust value greater than 400 N (achieved un‐installed) excluding civil
certified engines with a maximum thrust value greater than 8.89 kN (achieved un‐
installed); and
2. Specific fuel consumption of 0.15 kg N‐1 h‐1 or less (at maximum continuous power at
sea level static and standard conditions);
b. Engines designed or modified for systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.2., regardless of thrust or
specific fuel consumption.
Note:
Engines specified in 3.A.1. may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or in quantities
appropriate for replacement parts for a manned aircraft.

Nature and Purpose: Turbojet and turbofan engines controlled by 3.A.1. are those that can power
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), including cruise missiles, great distances. They are similar in design
and operation to engines that power civilian aircraft, just smaller in size and power. They make long‐
range cruise missiles operationally practical.

•China •France Method of Operation: Gas turbine engines have
•Germany •India several subcomponents, including the fan (in the
•Israel •Japan case of a turbofan), compressor, combustion
•Russian Federation •South Africa chamber, and turbine. The compressor, which may
•Sweden •United Kingdom consist of one or more stages of alternating
•United States stationary and rotating airfoil‐section blades,
draws air in, pressurizes it, and delivers it into the
combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is
a heat‐resistant tube in which air is mixed with
vaporized fuel and then ignited. Spark plugs (called
Global Production ignitors) initiate combustion, which is continuous
once ignition has occurred. The combustion
products, or exhaust gases, then pass into the
turbine, which consists of one or more stages of
alternating stationary and rotating airfoil‐section
blades. The turbine extracts only enough energy
from the gas stream to drive the compressor; the remaining energy provides the thrust. The gas flow
then passes into a converging duct, or nozzle, in order to maximize the thrust produced by the engine. In
the case of a turbofan engine, there is a larger diameter multiblade fan stage in front of the compressor.

3- 2


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These lightweight engines are used to power UAVs, including cruise
missiles.


Figure 1: Left: A small turbofan engine for a cruise missile on its checkout stand. (MTCR Equipment, Software, and
Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)) Top right: A turbofan used to power a HALE UAV. (Rolls Royce
Group, plc) Bottom right: A small turbofan engine for a cruise missile. (Williams International)
Other Uses: Such engines are generally not uniquely designed for UAV and missile purposes and can be
used directly in other applications such as manned aircraft and helicopters. Gas turbine engines are also
used in the marine and power‐generating industries and in some land vehicles, as well as marine
derivatives of turbine engines power naval and civilian vessels.

Appearance (as manufactured): The basic turbine engine is cylindrical and measuring less than 1 m in
length and 0.5 m in diameter. Numerous accessories such as an alternator, hydraulic pump, fuel pump,
and metering valve, along with associated plumbing and wiring, are visible on the outside of the engine.
Small fuel efficient engines typically weigh 30 kg to 130 kg; larger engines, such as that shown in Figure 1
(top right), have diameters of around 1 m and are 3 m in length. Engine parts are manufactured from a
number of different materials, both metallic and non‐metallic in composition. Common metallic
materials include aluminum, steel, titanium, and special alloys. Non‐metallic materials such as Teflon,
nylon, carbon, and rubber are used for sealing and insulation.

Appearance (as packaged): Engines usually are prepared for shipment in a multi‐step process. Covering
plates are attached over the engine inlet and exhaust, and secured by adhesive tape. The engine is
covered with protective paper, and desiccant bags are taped to the engine wrap. The engine is wrapped
3- 3


in corrugated cardboard, inserted into a polyethylene bag, lowered into the shipping crate, and rested
on foam blocks. The box is then filled with foam and sealed. Because cruise missile engines often
incorporate self‐starting features through the use of pyrotechnic cartridges, when properly packaged
their shipping containers usually bear markings indicating the presence of explosives.

Figure 2: Left: A turbojet shipping crate showing the explosive warning labels required because of the starting cartridge.
(Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical) Center: A small turbofan engine wrapped in plastic inside its shipping crate. (Teledyne Ryan
Aeronautical) Right: A small turbojet engine being prepared for shipment. (Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical)
3.A.2. Ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet/'combined cycle engines', including devices to regulate

combustion, and specially designed components therefor, usable in the systems specified in 1.A. or
19.A.2.
Technical Note:
In Item 3.A.2., 'combined cycle engines' are the engines that employ two or more cycles of the
following types of engines: gas‐turbine engine (turbojet, turboprop, turbofan and turboshaft),
ramjet, scramjet, pulse jet, pulse detonation engine, rocket motor (liquid/solid‐propellant and
hybrid).

Nature and Purpose: Ramjet, scramjet, and pulsejet engines are internal combustion reaction jet
engines that burn fuel mixed with intake air and expel a jet of hot exhaust gases to propel aerial
vehicles, including cruise missiles. Because these
engines have very few moving parts (they have no
mechanical compressors), they are much simpler and
•China •France
potentially less costly than turbojet or turbofan
•Germany •India
engines. Since ramjets and scramjets can tolerate
•Israel •Japan much higher combustion temperatures than turbojet
•Russian Federation •South Africa and turbofan engines, they are the only practical
•Sweden •United States option for sustained flight at high supersonic speeds.
Combined cycle engines integrate two propulsion
systems (e.g., turbojet and ramjet or scramjet) into a
single assembly in order to be operable from rest
through supersonic speeds. A pulsejet is another type
Global Production of compressor‐less jet engine; however, unlike
ramjets, combustion takes place intermittently (in
pulses), and they can produce thrust at rest.

3- 4


Method of Operation: Ramjets capture air and direct it into the engine as they move through the
atmosphere. The air is compressed by the “ram
effect” and slowed to subsonic speeds by
diffusion inside the inlet duct. Fuel is added, and
the mixture is ignited. Thrust is produced by the
expulsion of hot exhaust gases through a nozzle.
Ramjets usually operate between Mach 2 and 3,
but can operate over a wide range of speeds
from high subsonic Mach numbers to
supersonic speeds up to about Mach 4. The
primary disadvantage of ramjets is that they
cannot generate thrust at zero flight speed so
they must be accelerated by some other form of
propulsion to the necessary starting speed,
typically 650 km per hour or higher. A small
solid propellant rocket motor is often used at
launch for this purpose and discarded after the
ramjet/scramjet is started.

“Scramjet” is a contraction of “supersonic
combustion ramjet.” It operates like the ramjet,
but the air entering the engine is not slowed as
much and combustion occurs while the air in
the engine is supersonic. Scramjets usually
operate at speeds between Mach 5 and 7.
Scramjets must be boosted to an appropriate
speed (over Mach 4) to permit ignition.

A pulsejet produces thrust by a series of
explosions occurring at the approximate
resonance frequency of the engine. In one
design, air is drawn in through open valves at
the front of the engine and is heated by the
injected burning fuel. The burning gases
expand; as they increase the pressure, they
close the inlet valves and escape as a jet
through the exhaust duct. As the exhaust gases
are expelled, the pressure in the combustion
chamber decreases, allowing the front intake
valves to open again, then the cycle repeats.
The function of the intake valves is to prevent Figure 3: Top: A large ramjet engine. (March Field Air Museum)
flow reversal at the inlet. However, the Middle: A scramjet engine completes a Mach 5 test at a wind
tunnel facility. (Pratt & Whitney / NASA) Bottom: A modern
prevention of flow reversal can be accomplished pulsejet engine with a rearward facing intake. (Thermojet)
without the use of valves, through the proper
use of inlet duct area design and an
understanding of wave phenomena. By extending the length of the inlet duct or by using flow rectifiers
(i.e., passages of lesser resistance to the flow in one direction than in the opposite direction), the effects
3- 5


of flow reversal can be inhibited. Some valveless pulsejet configurations also conserve thrust by turning
the intake duct 180 degrees to the freestream (facing aft instead of forward). Pulsejets typically operate
at subsonic speeds.

The turbojet/ramjet combined cycle engine operates as an afterburning turbojet until it reaches a high
Mach speed, at which point airflow is bypassed around the compressor and into the afterburner. The
engine then operates as a ramjet with the afterburner acting as the ramjet combustor.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These engines can be used to power cruise missiles and other types of
UAVs. Ramjet and combined cycle engines provide increased speed and performance over turbojet and
turbofan engines with minimum volume and weight; however, they are not particularly fuel efficient.
Ramjets produce substantially more power per unit volume and typically offer much greater range
and/or payload capacity than solid rocket motors. Pulsejets have relatively poor performance and low
fuel efficiency, but they are relatively easy to design and manufacture.

Other Uses: Ramjet and combined cycle (turbo‐ramjet) engines have been used to power high‐speed
manned aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ramjets can be either mounted in cylindrical pods attached to the
missile in various locations or built into the missile body. These engines often resemble a metallic pipe
with a conical plug in the inlet to control the air flow and a flared conical nozzle on the opposite end. A
typical ramjet for missile use can measure 2 m to 4.5 m in length and 0.3 m to 1.0 m in diameter, and
weigh up to 200 kg. An example of a relatively large ramjet is shown in Figure 2 (top). A scramjet may
look like a simple metallic box with sharp inlets; a scramjet under development to power an air‐
launched expendable missile is shown in Figure 2 (middle). Pulsejets are characterized by their long
cylindrical resonator cavity connected to a bulbous control mechanism towards the front.

Appearance (as packaged): These engines are packaged like turbojet and turbofan engines covered in
3.A.1. above; however, they are most likely to be shipped in wooden or metal crates.

Devices to Regulate Combustion in Ramjets, Scramjets, Pulsejets, and Combined Cycle Engines

Nature and Purpose: Ramjets, scramjets, pulsejets, and combined cycle engines are often required to
work over a wide range of velocities, some of which may degrade engine performance. Devices that
regulate combustion by altering air‐ and fuel‐flow characteristics in flight are typically integrated into
the engine. The essential elements of a system to regulate ramjets are flow dividers, fuel‐injection
systems, ignitors, flameholding devices, and a power control computer.

Method of Operation: The control system for a ramjet engine performs two basic functions: it maintains
the desired engine performance throughout the flight of the vehicle; and it minimizes departure from
the desired performance during transients.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Devices that regulate combustion can make these engines operate
efficiently throughout their flight and thereby increase missile speed and range. These devices are
usually specific to the engine application and missile configuration for which they are designed.

3- 6


Other Uses: The flow dividers, fuel injection and metering devices, and flameholders found in ramjets
are similar in concept to devices found in afterburning turbojets and turbofans. However, the devices
are not interchangeable.

Appearance (as manufactured): Flow straightening devices such as flow dividers, splitter plates, turning
vanes, screens, or aerodynamic grids minimize airflow distortion and its adverse effects on fuel
distribution and combustion.

The fuel used in ramjets is fed to the combustion section with the assistance of a pump and varied
through the use of metering devices such as orifices or valves. Fuel injectors disperse the fuel into the
air in the combustion section. Ramjet engines require a fuel control (computer) to determine the proper
position of the fuel flow metering devices as a function of flight condition. These systems are usually
hydro‐mechanical or, increasingly, electronic devices.

Ignitors for ramjets take one of several forms. Ramjets may use electrical spark, pyrotechnics,
pyrophoric, or hypergolic (self‐igniting) liquid injectors. Hypergolic liquids are injected into the stagnant
region downstream of the flameholder. Surplus quantities of the ignitor liquid may be carried to enable
multiple restarts. Flameholders are used as a means to stabilize the flame produced by combustion and
to promote additional combustion. The flameholder is designed to provide a low‐velocity region to
which the hot combustion products are recirculated to the flameholder. These hot gases then serve as
the means for igniting the fresh fuel‐air mixture as it flows past the baffle.

Figure 4: Left: A fuel manifold and centrifugal fuel injector assembly for a ramjet engine. (Kaiser Marquardt) Center: Various
aerodynamic grids used to straighten the flow of air into a ramjet engine. (Kaiser Marquardt) Right: A fuel management
system for a ramjet engine. (Kaiser Marquardt)

Appearance (as packaged): Aerodynamic grids, combustors, and flameholders are integral to the ramjet
and thus are shipped together with the main engine. The exceptions are the fuel pumps, ignitors, or fuel
controls, which may be shipped separately and then mounted on the engine body during assembly.
These parts are shipped in wooden or cardboard containers.
3- 7

3- 8
Category II – Item 3: Propulsion Components and Equipment 3

Figure 5: Ramjet fuel control technology has progressed significantly since the 1960’s. (Kaiser Marquardt)

3.A.3. Rocket motor cases, 'insulation' components and nozzles therefor, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.
Technical Note:
In 3.A.3. ´insulation´ intended to be applied to the components of a rocket motor, i.e. the case,
nozzle inlets, case closures, includes cured or semi‐cured compounded rubber components
comprising sheet stock containing an insulating or refractory material. It may also be incorporated
as stress relief boots or flaps.
Note:
Refer to 3.C.2. for 'insulation' material in bulk or sheet form.

Nature and Purpose: Rocket motor cases are the
main structural components of solid or hybrid rocket
•Brazil Canada motors. Cases are the cylindrical containers of the
•China France propellant. They use special materials to resist the
•Germany India pressures and heat of combustion.
•Israel Italy
•Japan Norway Rocket nozzles are flow constrictors with bell‐shaped
•Russian Federation South Africa structures, or skirts, fitted to the exhaust end of a solid
•Sweden Ukraine propellant rocket motor, a liquid propellant rocket
•United Kingdom United States engine, or a hybrid rocket motor. Their design controls
the flow of hot exhaust gases to maximize velocity in
the desired direction and thereby improve thrust.

Method of Operation: Rocket motor cases are
Global Production pressure vessels used to contain the hot gases
generated by the propellant combustion process.
During missile launch or flight, burning propellants
create a large quantity of combustion gases. These hot
gases are expanded and accelerated through the
rocket motor nozzle to produce thrust. Interior lining and insulation are low‐density, high‐heat‐resistant
materials that provide protective layers between the burning propellant and the case.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: All solid propellant rocket motors use motor cases and interior lining or
insulation. Such cases are usually designed to meet specific requirements of particular missiles. Cases,
interior lining, and insulation are critical to maintain the integrity of solid rocket motors.

Rocket nozzles manage combustion gases to ensure efficient rocket operation. Well designed rocket
nozzles improve missile system payload and range capability. Nozzles are used on large individual rocket
motor stages that supply the main thrust for a ballistic missile; on the small control motors that steer,
separate, or spin up the missile along its flight path; and on booster rockets that launch UAVs, including
cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Motor case materials are used in high‐pressure applications such as piping. Some materials
3- 9


used in the interior linings or insulation of rocket motors are used in military or commercial applications
requiring heat‐resistant materials. Rocket motors (and hence nozzles) have been used to propel
experimental manned aircraft such as the X‐1 and X‐15 research airplanes.

Figure 6: Left: A selection of composite rocket motor cases designed to support a range of mission platforms, including the
first, second and third stage rocket stages of space launch vehicles. (ATK) Right: A rocket motor – installed in a rocket case –
which functions as the motor in the third‐stage of a launch vehicle. (ATK)

Appearance (as manufactured): A rocket motor case is a large, steel or composite‐filament‐wound
cylinder with spheroidal or ellipsoidal domes at either end. A motor case for an Item 2.A.1.c. rocket
motor typically would be larger than 4 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. Each of the domes usually has
a hole; the small hole at the front end is for the igniter or other internal motor hardware, and the large
hole at the back end is for the nozzle. A selection of rocket motor cases displaying these features is
shown in Figure 6. An interior lining is a thin layer of special chemicals used to help the solid propellant
adhere to the case insulation. The lining is usually applied to the case before propellant casting.

The case may or may not have internal insulation in place when shipped. Rocket motor insulation is
usually made of synthetic rubbery material such as ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM),
polybutadiene, neoprene, or nitrile rubber. Insulation material contains silica or asbestos and resembles
a gray or green sheet of rubber approximately 2 mm to 6 mm thick.

The shape of a rocket nozzle is either similar to an hourglass (convergent‐divergent) or conical extending
rearward from the narrow throat section at the aft end of the solid rocket motor.

Figure 7 shows a cut‐away view of a solid propellant rocket motor and how the nozzle fits into the aft
end of the motor. Modern solid propellant rocket motor nozzles are almost always made from carbon‐
composite materials or combinations of carbon‐composite and silica phenolic materials. Carbon‐
composite sections are generally black; phenolic sections are often yellowish in color.

Liquid propellant rocket engines may use carbon‐composite nozzles, but usually use metal‐based
materials such as stainless steel alloys or titanium and columbium (niobium). Metal nozzles are one of
several shades of gray, and may have a metal exterior and a non‐metallic interior made of materials that
can withstand the high temperature of the exhaust gases, such as bulk graphite or silica phenolic.
3-10


Figure 7: A cut‐away view of a solid propellant rocket motor showing how the rocket nozzle is inserted. (Aerojet)
Nozzle size depends on the rocket size and application. Large nozzles intended for solid propellant
rocket motors are increasingly built as movable nozzles. In such an application, the forward end of the
nozzle has devices and insulators that allow it to be attached to the aft dome of the motor in a ball‐in‐
socket arrangement. These nozzles may have 2 to 4 lugs on the outside wall to which the motion
actuators are fastened, or the actuators may be connected near the throat. Very advanced nozzles can
be extendable, which means they are stored in a collapsed configuration and extended to their full
dimensions when needed. Nozzles intended for liquid propellant rocket engines usually are
regeneratively cooled. They are made either by a series of metal tubes welded together to form the
nozzle, or by sandwiching a piece of corrugated metal between an inner and outer wall. Fuel is injected
into the large manifold near the bottom of the nozzle; as it flows up through the passages it absorbs
heat and cools the nozzle.

Figure 8: A rocket motor with large fixed nozzle. The motor is used on a launch vehicle. (ATK)

Appearance (as packaged): Rocket motor cases are shipped in large wooden or metal crates that
contain foam packing or other material to protect them from shock during shipment. Case liners are not
3-11


likely to be shipped or transferred separately. Insulation material is shipped on large rolls up to 1 m in
width and 0.5 m in diameter and sealed in boxes.


Figure 9: Top left: An engine with a large, regeneratively cooled nozzle. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology
Handbook, Third edition (May 2005)) Bottom left: Installation of insulation inside a filament wound rocket motor case.
(Thiokol Corp.) Top right: A rocket motor case under inspection after application of the thermal insulation. (Fiat Avio) Bottom
right: Side view of a regeneratively cooled nozzle. (Boeing)
Shipping containers for rocket nozzles are of two types, depending on nozzle size. Small nozzles with an
exit diameter no greater than 50 cm have tailored containers, even metallic cases. Larger nozzles usually
have tailored shipping containers built from wood or fiberglass. Protective plastic wraps may also be
used, depending on the environmental control capability of the shipping container.
3-12


3.A.4. Staging mechanisms, separation mechanisms, and interstages therefor, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Staging mechanisms ensure the safe
and reliable separation of two missile stages after
termination of the thrust of the lower stage. This separation
•China •France is achieved by relatively simple separation mechanisms, the
•Germany •India most common of which are explosive bolts and flexible linear
•Israel •Italy shaped charges (FLSC). Explosive bolts attach the missile
•Japan •North Korea stages together through specially constructed, load‐carrying
•Russian Federation interstages with flanges at the ends and, on signal, explode to
•United Kingdom•United States allow the two stages to separate. A built‐in FLSC is used to
make a circumferential cut through the interstage skin and
Global structure to allow stage separation. Mechanical, hydraulic, or
pneumatic devices can be used to help separate stages.
Production Similarly, mechanisms like ball locks are used for separating
the payload from the uppermost missile stage at the very end
of powered flight.

An interstage is a cylindrical or truncated cone‐shaped structure that connects two missile propulsion
stages (see Figure 10, left and center). An interstage is, in principle, a simple piece of equipment, but the
requisite electrical connections, separation mechanisms, and high strength‐to‐weight ratios make it
rather complex in its adaptation to specific missiles. An interstage structure may also be a framework of
trusses with no skin. The purpose of an interstage is to maintain missile integrity during launch and
flight, and to ensure stage separation without damage to any missile component or adverse effect on
velocity.

Method of Operation: When the propellant in any missile stage is nearly exhausted, the guidance set
commands the separation hardware to release the spent lower stage from the interstage connecting it
to the next stage. This electronic signal fires detonators which, in turn, trigger separation mechanisms
like explosive bolts or FLSC that sever the structural and electrical connection and let the exhausted
missile stage jettison. If atmospheric drag forces are not likely to be strong enough to ensure separation,
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic compression springs are placed between the two stages to force
them apart. Spent stages may require reverse thrusters or thrust termination to prevent collision of the
stages prior to next‐stage ignition. When missile stages are joined with a truss interstage, the upper
stage will ignite prior to separation from the lower stage. Once the upper stage engines are operating,
the interstage will separate. The force of the upper stage engines assists in separating the stages
without the need for separation mechanisms.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: All multi‐stage missiles require staging and separation mechanisms.
Single‐stage missiles with separating warheads also require separation mechanisms.

3-13


Figure 10: Left: A large composite center‐body section designed for a space launch vehicle. (ATK) Center: A typical rocket
interstage section. (ATK) Right: A selection of explosive bolts designed for use in space launch vehicles and military
applications. (Accra Tronics Seals Corporation)
Interstages are used to carry thrust loads from the lower stage to the upper stages of ballistic missiles
during rocket motor burn. Most designs incorporate thin‐skin shell coverings to reduce drag by creating
a smooth aerodynamic fairing between the stages. They also incorporate the separation mechanisms
used to jettison the spent lower stage. Dropping a spent lower stage improves missile range (compared
to that of a single stage missile) but must be accomplished cleanly and with proper timing to prevent
damage to the missile or deviation from its trajectory.

Other Uses: Prepackaged devices such as explosive bolts have other military applications, most notably
in launching weapons or separating external fuel tanks from fighter aircraft. FLSC are routinely used in
the oil industry for cutting large pipes. Compression springs are used in the industrial world as shock
absorbers and load‐levelers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Explosive bolts look like large machine bolts, but with a housing section
at the head end. Typically, they measure 7 cm to 10 cm in length and 1 cm to 2.5 cm in diameter, and
weigh 50 g to 75 g (see Figure 10, right). The housing section contains the ordnance and has wires or
cables leading out of it from the internal detonators, which typically require a DC power source. Built‐in
staging mechanisms almost always use FLSC, a chevron‐shaped, soft metal tube of lead or aluminum
filled with explosive, typically RDX or HMX. The FLSC is fastened by metal clips to the interior of the
interstage structure holding the two missile stages together and, when initiated by a small detonator,
cuts through the structure and skin to release the stages. The tube is a gray metal color, and the
explosive is white to whitish‐gray in color. The width, height, and weight per unit of length are a function
of the thickness of the material it is designed to cut through.

Ball locks do not involve explosives and are sometimes used in payload separation systems. Internally,
they use a solenoid/spring/ball‐bearing that enables the desired soft disconnect; externally, they appear
much like explosive bolts, that is, like a machine bolt with a housing and two wires. Compression springs
used for stage separation are long stroke (10 cm to 20 cm), small diameter (2 cm to 4 cm) devices
mounted in canisters at several locations (minimum of three) in the rim of the interstage. These steel
canisters house steel springs or pistons and have built‐in flanges for attachment to the interstage. The
hydraulic and pneumatic pistons have built‐in fluid reservoirs to pressurize the units when the stages are
assembled.

3-14


An interstage is a conical or cylindrical structure usually manufactured from graphite composite that has
the same outside diameter as the rocket stages it connects (see Figure 11). It has connecting frames at
each end and locations for separation devices on one end. It has structural supports visible inside the
structural walls and end rings or frames used to join it to the missile stages. The length of an interstage
is usually equal to about half the outside diameter of the engine nozzle on the next stage above. As
described above, an interstage may also be an open‐truss framework with no skin.


Figure 11 Left: An interstage being positioned for attachment. (MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex
Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)) Right: Two interstages in their shipping container. (Ibid)
Appearance (as packaged): Explosive bolts are shipped in simple cardboard boxes with ample internal
foam or other packing to mitigate the effects of shocks. Properly shipped boxes are marked with
“Danger‐Explosive” or “Danger‐Ordnance” symbols and are shipped under restrictions governing
explosive materials. FLSC are usually shipped in varying lengths in lined and protected wooden boxes.
They should be marked with the same “Danger” labels as they are subject to the same shipping
restrictions as any ordnance. Ball locks can be packaged and shipped without ordnance restrictions and
have no distinguishing features or labels on their packaging. Compression springs are shipped in the
uncompressed state in cardboard boxes.

Interstages are usually shipped in tailored wooden containers from the manufacturing facility to the
missile stage integrator.

3-15


3.A.5. Liquid and slurry propellant (including oxidisers) control systems, and specially designed
components therefor, usable in the systems specified in 1.A., designed or modified to operate in
vibration environments greater than 10 g rms between 20 Hz and 2 kHz.
Notes:
1. The only servo valves and pumps specified in 3.A.5. are the following:
a. Servo valves designed for flow rates equal to or greater than 24 litres per minute, at
an absolute pressure equal to or greater than 7 MPa, that have an actuator response
time of less than 100 ms.
b. Pumps, for liquid propellants, with shaft speeds equal to or greater than 8,000 rpm or
with discharge pressures equal to or greater than 7 MPa.
2. Systems and components specified in 3.A.5. may be exported as part of a satellite.

Nature and Purpose: Propellant control systems manage the
pressure and volume of liquid or slurry propellant flowing
•China •France through the injector plate and into the combustion chamber
•Germany •India of a rocket engine. High‐pressure tanks or turbopumps force

•Israel •Italy liquid or slurry propellants from fuel and oxidizer tanks into
•Japan •North Korea the combustion chamber at high pressure. High‐pressure
•Russian Federation tank systems include the tanks themselves, servo valves, and
•United Kingdom•United States feed lines to keep propellant flow continuous and void‐free
during the high acceleration of missile launch. Turbopumps
Global are used to increase the propellant pressure to levels
required for high‐thrust, high‐flow‐rate engines. Servo valves
Production can be used to control turbopump speed and thereby control
thrust.

Figure 12: Left: A modern liquid propellant control valve. (Allied Signal Aerospace) Center: A liquid propellant injector plate.
(Boeing) Right: A turbopump assembly for a space launch vehicle. (Hamilton Sundstrand)
3-16


Method of Operation: Pressure tank systems use a high‐pressure tank, often called a “bottle,” which
carries a pressurant like nitrogen or helium at up to 70,000 kPa. Pressurant is released to the propellant
tanks through a regulator that adjusts the pressure level. The pressurant then pushes the fuel and
oxidizer through control valves to the injector at the head of the combustion chamber. Thrust is
regulated by opening and closing the control valves the appropriate amount.

Servo valves function to provide nearly exact response with the help of the feedback control system.
Their use is almost fundamental to the control of high‐power systems such as advanced liquid rocket
propulsion systems. They are complicated electromechanical devices that control the flow of propellant
through them by balancing forces on both sides of an actuator piston, which regulates the position of
the valve pintle. The control signal typically moves a small (hydraulic amplifier) piston that admits
variable pressure to one side of the actuator piston. It moves until a new balance is established at a new
flow rate. Servo valves are usually the most costly, sensitive, and failure‐prone of all valves because their
orifices can easily be clogged by contaminants.

Turbopumps push propellants into the combustion chamber at pressures up to fifty times greater than
the pressure at which the propellants normally are stored. Turbopumps are powered by burning some
of the rocket propellant in a gas generator; its exhaust gases power a turbine driving the pump.
Turbopumps for missiles typically rotate at 8,000 RPM to 75,000 RPM. Engine thrust is regulated by
altering the propellant flow to the gas generator (sometimes with a servo valve), and thereby changing
the turbine speed of the turbopump and thus the propellant flow into the combustion chamber.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: All liquid propellant rocket engines use either a pressure‐fed or a pump‐
fed propellant delivery system. Pressure‐fed systems can be specifically designed for a particular engine
or assembled from dual‐use components. Turbopumps are usually specifically designed for a particular
engine.

Other Uses: Servo valves are common in closed‐loop control systems handling liquids. Numerous civil
applications include fuel and hydraulic system control in manned aircraft. Other applications involve
precision handling of fluids such as in the chemical industry. Turbine drill pumps are popular in the
petroleum and deep well industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): Servo valves look much like on‐off valves or line cylinders with tube
stubs for propellant inlets and outlets in a metal case. Most valves and housings are made of stainless
steel. However, these valves are larger than on‐off valves because they have a position feedback device.
A modern liquid propellant control valve is shown in Figure 12 (left), and a liquid propellant injector
plate is shown in Figure 12 (center).

Turbopumps are usually housed in metal cases and are sized for specific applications. Although they
resemble automotive or truck turbochargers, they are much larger and can weigh several hundred
kilograms. Turbopumps for liquid propellant rocket engines may have a separate pump and turbine
assembly for each propellant (e.g., for the fuel and for the oxidizer), or a single unit that combines both
pumps and the turbine drive mechanism. A turbopump assembly for a space launch vehicle is shown in
Figure 12 (right). The ribbing of the housings is typical of turbopumps because they provide good
strength and light weight; however, some turbopumps have smooth metallic housings.

3-17



Figure 13: Top left: A multi‐shaft turbopump assembly. (Aerojet) Top right: A single‐shaft turbopump. (Aerojet) Bottom:
A servo valve from a Scud missile. (MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May
2005))
3-18


Appearance (as packaged): Servo valves are packaged like other valves, especially on‐off valves. Inlets
and outlets are plugged to prevent contamination. The valves are placed in vacuum‐sealed plastic bags
or sealed plastic bags filled with nitrogen or argon to keep the valves clean and dry. They may
sometimes be double bagged and are usually shipped inside a container, often an aluminum case with a
contoured foam liner. Small turbopumps are often packaged and shipped in aluminum shipping
containers. Depending on size and interface features, a large turbopump may be packaged and shipped
in a custom‐built shipping crate, with pump supports built in. Turbopumps may also be shipped as a
breakdown kit in which separate components are packaged for assembly after receipt.
3.A.6. Hybrid rocket motors and specially designed components therefor, usable in the systems
specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.

Nature and Purpose: Hybrid rocket motors
use both solid and liquid propellants,
usually a solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer.
Because flow of the liquid oxidizer can be
controlled, hybrid motors can be throttled
or shut down completely and then
restarted. Hybrid rocket motors thereby
combine some of the simplicity of solid
rocket motors with the controllability of
liquid rocket engines.

Method of Operation: Hybrid rocket
motors use either pressurized tanks or Figure 14: A hybrid sounding rocket motor. (NASA)
pumps to feed oxidizer into the combustion
chamber, which is lined with solid fuel. The pumps are driven by a gas generator powered by its own
fuel grain or some other source of fuel. The liquid oxidizer burns the solid fuel inside the hollow
chamber, and the hot, expanding gases are expelled through
the nozzle at supersonic speed to provide thrust. As in a solid
propellant rocket motor, the outer casing of the combustion
chamber is protected from much of the heat of combustion
•Japan by the fuel itself because it burns from the inside outward.
•Russian Federation
•South Korea Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Hybrid rocket motors may be
•United States used to power space launch vehicles, sounding rockets and
ballistic missiles.
Global
Other Uses: N/A
Production
Appearance (as manufactured): A hybrid rocket motor has
an oxidizer injector mounted in the top of the high‐pressure
motor case and a converging/diverging nozzle at the bottom.
3-19


The injector has valves and piping either from a pressure tank or from a tank and an associated pump.
The combustion chamber is usually fabricated either from steel or titanium, which may be black or gray,
or from filament‐wound graphite or glass epoxy, which is usually yellow or brown. The chamber is lined
with thick, solid propellant having one of a variety of configurations and looking like a single cylinder
with a hollow center, concentric cylinders, or wagon wheels. Nozzles are made of ablative material,
which is often brownish, or high‐temperature metals, and they may have high‐temperature inserts in
their throats (see Figure 14).

Appearance (as packaged): Hybrid rocket motors may be shipped fully assembled or partially
assembled, with tanks and associated hardware packaged separately from the combustion chamber and
attached nozzles. Fully assembled units are packaged in wooden crates; components are packaged in
wooden crates or heavy cartons. Legally marked crates are labeled with explosives or fire hazard
warnings because the missiles are fueled with solid propellant. However, because motors contain only
fuel and no oxidizer, they are less hazardous than normal solid propellant rocket motors.
3.A.7. Radial ball bearings having all tolerances specified in accordance with ISO 492 Tolerance
Class 2 (or ANSI/ABMA Std 20 Tolerance Class ABEC‐9 or other national equivalents), or better and
having all the following characteristics:
a. An inner ring bore diameter between 12 and 50 mm;
b. An outer ring outside diameter between 25 and 100 mm; and
c. A width between 10 and 20 mm.
Nature and Purpose: Radial ball bearings produced to high

specifications have important aerospace applications, most
significantly in the turbopumps of rockets used in missiles and
also in all types of gas turbine engines powering air vehicles.

Method of Operation: Radial ball bearings (sometimes known
as ball races), are commonplace in all types of machinery.
Rolling element bearings of this type enable the moving parts
of machinery to run smoothly with minimal friction. The races
are the circular metal housings, forming an inner ring and outer
ring, and containing the balls. One of the races is usually held in
a fixed position within in a machine while the other supports a
rotating shaft. The balls contained between the races are free
to rotate, together with the race supporting the moving shaft.
Figure 15: Radial ball bearings manufactured
Radial ball bearings support radial and axial loads.
to the ISO 492 tolerance class required by
3.A.7. (GMN)
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Radial ball bearings have a range
of applications in missile‐related systems, including in the following: turbopumps of rocket motors, all
main shafts and auxiliary drives of turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engines, and turboprop reduction
gearboxes.
3-20


Other Uses: High specification radial ball bearings
•Argentina •Brazil have a vast range of applications in machinery for
•Canada •China industrial, transportation, agricultural,
•France •Germany manufacturing, medical and other purposes.
•India •Indonesia
•Italy •Japan Appearance (as manufactured): Metallic double
•Malaysia •Mexico ring construction, silver in color, with a smooth
•Poland •Romania finish, sometimes polished. The balls are
•Russian Federation •Singapore generally visible between the housing races, and
•Sweden •Thailand the races will rotate freely (see Figure 15).
Appearance (as packaged): Radial ball bearings
are typically packaged in small cardboard boxes
with the manufacturer’s branding.
Global Production


3.A.8. Liquid propellant tanks specially designed for the propellants controlled in Item 4.C. or other
liquid propellants used in the systems specified in 1.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Propellants comprise most of a rocket’s weight and are pumped into large external
tanks for storage prior to launch. Separate tanks are used to store the oxidizer and fuel to prevent them
from coming into contact and igniting. Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen are common forms of oxidizer
and fuel used in liquid propellant tanks, a prominent example being an External Tank (ET), which
contains the propellants used in a large re‐usable space launch
vehicle. The ET has two separated oxidizer and fuel tanks,
connected by an intertank which transfers loads between the
tanks above and below, and acts as a structural support for the
•Germany adjoining solid rocket boosters (see Figure 16).
•Japan
•United States Other liquid propellants include: mixtures of kerosene fuel and
•Russian Federation liquid oxygen; nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and unsymmetrical
dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH); and nitrogen tetroxide combined
Global with a kerosene/gasoline mixture all of which are used widely in
Production various rocket systems.

Liquid propellant tanks and the rocket systems of which they
are a core component have a number of advantages over solid
propellant‐fueled systems. Liquid fuel is high in density, which
3-21


allows for reduced volume, and a corresponding reduction in the mass of the vehicle, thus increasing
range and payload potential. Liquid fuels can also be throttled, shut down, and re‐ignited as a mission’s
objectives require, providing far greater ability to manipulate and control overall performance of the
rocket system. The sub‐components required to achieve this level of control also makes liquid propellant
tanks and engines extremely complex.

Method of Operation: Liquid fuel propellants, such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene, when mixed with an
oxidizer such as liquid oxygen, generate a large volume of extremely hot gas. Paired liquid fuels such as
these are known as bipropellants. Some rockets use a single propellant, or monopropellant, such as
hydrazine (for which the catalyst is granular alumina with an iridium coating) or hydrogen peroxide.
Monopropellant fuels are contained in a titanium or aluminum spherical tank and forced into the rocket
engines by pressurized nitrogen or helium, and are less efficient than bipropellants.


Figure 16 Left: A typical liquid propellant tank developed for a range of space applications. (EADS) Right: A diagram of the
external tank used by a space vehicle launch engine, showing the separated oxidizer and fuel tanks. (NASA)

Liquid oxygen and hydrogen tanks are designed to maintain their fluids at very low temperatures; in the
case of the ET, ‐297 degrees Fahrenheit for liquid oxygen and ‐423 degrees Fahrenheit for liquid
hydrogen. Baffles within the tanks keep the liquids from sloshing which would adversely affect the
rocket’s flight. Liquid hydrogen is fed to the engines via cylindrical barrel sections, held together by large
ring frames, and located inside the external tank between an upper and a lower dome tank. The entire
structure is joined by a frame that receives and distributes the various loads from solid rocket boosters
and their connecting struts. Liquid fuel tanks typically have a volume capacity nearly 3 times larger than
liquid oxidizer tanks.

At launch, liquid propellants are fed from these tanks into the rocket engine. The volume and pressure
of fuel as it passes into the engine’s combustion chamber is controlled by propellant control systems
that rely on gravity, high pressure, turbopumps and/or some combination of these. Servo valves are
used to control turbopump rates and thus acceleration and speed. High pressure tanks – up to 70,000
kPa – use nitrogen or helium gases that are released through regulators into the propellant tanks. The
3-22


explosion that occurs in the combustion chamber when the oxidizer and fuel are mixed and ignited
produces thrust as gases are forced out of the rocket’s nozzle at extraordinary speed which is quickly
reflected by the rocket’s acceleration.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These tanks are a core component of every large space launch vehicle and
liquid propellant missile system. These propellants account for most of the rocket’s volume and weight,
with the engine itself occupying no more than 15 % of a rocket stage length.

Other Uses: Liquid propellant tanks are also used in many satellites and space exploration vehicles.

Appearance (as manufactured): Propellant tanks are usually manufactured in ellipsoidal, hemispherical,
or domed shapes that vary from 4 m to 10 m in length and 0.5 m to 4 m in diameter (see Figure 16, left).
Their external appearance ranges from a silver/aluminum glossy finish associated with high‐strength
sheet steel, aluminum lithium alloy or titanium from which tanks are manufactured, to a dull brownish
color associated with insulation materials to the shiny black or dark grey finish of a graphite or resin
overwrap.

Appearance (as packaged): Propellant tanks are expensive critical components of all rockets and as such
are shipped in specifically designed containers often with shock mounts and internal struts that prevent
movement en route. Shipped weight ranges from 240 kg to 320 kg per m3.
3.A.9. 'Turboprop engine systems' specially designed for the systems in 1.A.2. or 19.A.2., and
specially designed components therefor, having a maximum power greater than 10 kW (achieved
uninstalled at sea level standard conditions), excluding civil certified engines.
Technical Note:
For the purposes of Item 3.A.9., a 'turboprop engine system' incorporates all of the following:
a. Turboshaft engine; and
b. Power transmission system to transfer the power to a propeller.

Nature and Purpose: Turboprop engine systems are air‐breathing gas turbine power plants running on
aviation kerosene fuel (AVTUR) and driving an airscrew propeller by a reduction gearbox.

Method of Operation: Turboprop engines work on the same principle as the turbojet, taking in air from
an inlet, and raising its pressure with a compressor, mixing the compressed air with fuel in a combustion
chamber and burning it. The expanding gases travel through a turbine which drives the compressor. As
the turbine and compressor are connected by a shaft which runs through the center of the engine, the
process is continuous.

In a turboprop, the turbine is also connected to the propeller by a gearbox. Compared to a turbojet
engine, which depends on the high kinetic energy of gases expelled in a jet through the nozzle at the
rear, the turboprop’s turbine captures more of the expansion energy generated by combustion to drive
the propeller. In order to do this the turbine designed for a turboprop engine has extra stages compared
3-23


to a turbojet, and the turboprop produces only low residual jet thrust. A turboprop engine may be of
two‐shaft design, and in this case the propeller is driven by the low pressure turbine.

In simple terms, a turboprop moves a large mass of cool air slowly outside the engine through a
relatively slow‐moving propeller, compared to a turbojet where a smaller charge of hot gas passes
quickly and noisily through the engine. The turboprop is best suited to air vehicles travelling at speeds
up to 400 mph (645 km/h, 378 knots). Up to this
speed, the turboprop is notably fuel efficient, and is
well suited for long range or high endurance flight. It
•Canada has clear performance advantages over reciprocating
•Czech Republic gasoline engines when operating in this regime and is
•Russian Federation likely to be more reliable and have a longer service life
•Ukraine than a piston engine.
•United States
All turboprop engines require a high‐ratio speed‐
reduction gearbox to step down the turbine speed to
Global a workable speed for the propeller, and this gearbox is
integrated with the engine. The propeller is a separate
Production unit, generally an advanced design of constant speed
variable pitch type, which relies on a self‐contained

mechanism to change the pitch of the blades as power
is applied and also to control propeller rotational
speed. The complete turboprop engine system with its
propeller and gearbox is consequently more expensive to manufacture than a turbojet, and is regarded
as far less suitable for expendable applications.

The use of turboprops to propel air vehicles at airspeeds closer to the speed of sound presents
problems. Higher engine power requires a greater number of propeller blades or increasing the
diameter of the propeller, but propeller tip speeds must be kept in the subsonic range. Weight and
complication grow if co‐axial counter‐rotating propellers are used. The turbojet and turbofan are more
suited to propulsion closer to the speed of sound. In theory, a turboprop engine design known as an
open rotor or propfan, which uses highly swept propeller blades, offers the prospect of higher speeds
closer to that achieved with jets, but this engine technology is still under development.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Turboprop engines can be used to power unmanned aerial vehicles,
especially those required to operate over long ranges or on missions of long endurance. Turboprops do
not have the characteristics to power ballistic missiles or high‐speed cruise missiles, but can provide an
air vehicle with a combination of qualities including reasonable speed, relative quietness, and good load‐
carrying characteristics, combined with fuel efficiency for long range or long duration flight. The
potential clearly exists for development of a flying bomb type of turboprop UAV operating at moderate
speeds over extremely long ranges.

Other Uses: Turboprop engines power a wide variety of light and medium military and civilian aircraft
and some hovercraft. Gas turbine engines closely related to aircraft turboprops are widely used in
pumps and generator sets.

3-24


Appearance (as manufactured): Turboprop engines are cylindrical units characterized by an outer casing
which may vary in diameter along its length. Turboprop engines seldom conform to the classic layout of
a jet engine, where the compressor fan is visible at the front and the open jetpipe is seen at the rear.
Instead the turboprop generally resembles a tube closed at both ends. An intake is generally visible,
although not always at the front of the engine. The casing may carry fuel pipes, thermocouples and
various accessory boxes. With its propeller detached, a turboprop engine is harder to identify. The
propeller mounting hub is a small diameter disc at the end of the engine with several drilled holes
around the circumference and mounting pegs.

Figure 17: Left: A turboprop engine used to power UAVs controlled under 19.A.2 of the MTCR. (Pratt & Whitney Canada)
Center: A turboprop engine used to power a UAV, controlled by 1.A.2 of the MTCR. (Honeywell) Right: A turboshaft engine
designed for use in a range of UAV applications. (Rolls Royce, plc)

Gas turbine engines are extremely compact and have a high power‐to‐weight ratio. A turboprop engine
capable of producing 900 kW can measure slightly less than 2 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter and
may be mistaken for a heater or industrial pump when seen outside an aerospace context. Large
turboprop engines may be as long as 3.5 m and weigh more than 1 ton. With its propeller attached, a
turboprop engine is hard to mistake for anything else.

Appearance (as packaged): A turboprop engine should normally be mounted horizontally on a transit
stand or servicing stand which comprises a base (sometimes wheeled) and a cradle supporting the
engine at a convenient height for handling, and with provision for lifting by a fork truck. The stand may
be fitted with shock attenuating devices for transport. The air intake(s) are covered with blanking plates
for protection and the complete engine may be entirely covered by a purpose‐made plastic jacket closed
by fasteners and buckles. A separate covering is sometimes applied to the propeller when fitted. The
engine and propeller may otherwise be covered with plastic sheet. Turboprop engines may be carried in
wooden crates or in purpose‐built fiberglass or metal containers.

When separated from the engine, propellers are usually carried or stored vertically on a triangular
stand, supported at the hub. Under most circumstances, a packaged turboprop engine is likely to be
closely accompanied by documents providing its history and maintenance state.

3-25


3.B.1. "Production facilities" specially designed for equipment or materials specified in 3.A.1.,
3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.8., 3.A.9. or 3.C.

Nature and Purpose: Subsystem production facilities are often industrial areas designed to manufacture
the major assemblies listed in 3.A.1., 3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.8., 3.A.9. and 3.C. There may
be equipment to test these devices at the component level and as assemblies prior to transferring the
subsystem to storage or to the main assembly facility. Turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engines
designed to power UAVs may be manufactured at civil or military aircraft production facilities. Solid
propellant mixing facilities, as most explosive industries, are often built in isolated regions, removed
from populated areas for both security and safety. Staging mechanisms involve pyrotechnics and
specialized shaped charges to sever sheet metal interstage sections connecting rocket motors. Danger
and explosive safety placards are usually present in these facilities.

Method of Operation: Jigs and fixtures are used to support, align and assemble individual components
such as turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engines, fuel and oxidizer tanks, motor cases and engine
assemblies. Molds, dies and mandrels are uniquely designed and used in the production of component
parts. Overhead cranes are used to move the raw material and components from their shipping
containers and dollies onto the assembly jigs. Pyrotechnic devices are installed on interstage sections in
remotely located facilities. Proper materials and manufacturing procedures are critical to the production
of reliable liquid propellant pumps and servo valves.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Production facilities are used to manufacture or produce UAV and rocket
subsystems from raw materials or assemble them from components imported from external sources.
The finished subsystems are loaded into individual containers or crates and shipped to a facility for long‐
term storage or to facilities for final assembly and use.

Other Uses: Production facilities used to manufacture MTCR‐controlled UAV engines, build rocket
motors and engines, and test equipment, can also be used to manufacture products associated with civil
and military aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): These facilities may use overhead cranes to move UAV and rocket
subsystems from one jig or area to another. Assembly jigs and fixtures used in the production of UAV
and rocket systems are usually large and heavy structures. Their overall length and width are roughly 20
to 30 percent larger than the missile system that they are designed to assemble. They weigh hundreds
or even thousands of pounds. Interstage manufacturing facilities contain explosive hazards and include
suitable grounding and other hazard‐mitigating procedures. Interstage manufacturing facilities are
associated with explosive storage areas and may be located in remote regions far from populated areas.
Liquid propellant pumps and servo valves require specialized materials and precision machining
equipment to produce reliable products.

3-26


Appearance (as packaged): UAV and rocket assembly jigs and fixtures are often too large and heavy to
be packaged and shipped to the production plant as complete units. Instead, component parts are
shipped separately in large crates or protected on pallets for assembly onsite. They will be securely
fastened to the crate to restrain motion and prevent damage. Smaller jigs may be individually crated or
palletized for shipment.
3.B.2. "Production equipment" specially designed for equipment or materials specified in 3.A.1.,
3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.8., 3.A.9. or 3.C.

Nature and Purpose: Each subsystem production facility designed to produce the items listed in 3.A.1.,
3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.8., 3.A.9. and 3.C. contains the specialized jigs and fixtures
necessary to form, machine, assemble and test the propulsion system and equipment sub‐assemblies
specified in 3.A.1., 3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.8., 3.A.9. and 3.C. Industrial machining
equipment is used to manufacture turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engine components. Large X‐ray
equipment may be available to check for voids and cracks in the solid propellant rocket motor. Electrical
and electronic test equipment is used to support actuator and other subcomponent level functional and
operational testing.

Method of Operation:

Turbojet and Turbofan engines: Turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engines used to power UAVs
(including cruise missiles) are manufactured using essentially the same technology as their larger
counterparts in the civil and military aviation industry. These engines are machined from temperature‐
tolerant materials using standard aviation tooling and assembly procedures.

Solid Propellant Rocket Motors: Equipment used to build solid propellant rocket motors includes metal‐
working machinery, possibly continuous filament‐case‐winding equipment, solid propellant grinding and
filtering equipment, equipment for mixing propellant (often in a vacuum), molds or mandrels to form
the core or burning surface, nozzle winding and pyrolizing equipment and equipment to test the thrust
vector control system on the completed motor.

Rocket motor cases are manufactured from high‐strength steel into the designed case size and strength,
or they are wound from composite fibers to produce lightweight motors as strong as steel cases.

The largest and most distinctive facility is the propellant mixing station. This facility is large enough to
house the propellant ingredients, mixers and other tooling used to make the motor stage. Solid
propellant components are mixed together in a suitable binder for long enough to ensure that the mix
becomes homogenous. If the mix process can be completed in a vacuum, the probability of air voids or
bubbles is decreased. (Bubbles represent increased burning surfaces that result in pressure spikes and
possible motor case failure.) After the propellant ingredients are mixed, the mixture is placed into the
solid propellant rocket motor case. There are three principal methods for loading a motor case with
solid propellant. The propellant can be poured into the case (a process known as “casting”, sometimes
carried out under vacuum), pumped into the case, or, if the propellant has sufficient mechanical rigidity,
3-27


it may be extruded through a mold and inserted into the case. Extruded propellant is normally used to
build smaller rocket motors.

Insulating Material / Liner: The solid propellant rocket motor requires insulating material between the
case wall and the propellant to prevent the case wall from failing due to excessive heat from
combustion. This insulation is often a thin layer of rubber or a layer of propellant without the oxidizer
component added (also known as “inhibited propellant”).

Nozzles: Nozzles for solid propellant rocket motors are manufactured from graphite composite material
and require specialized equipment to construct. They are built from ingots composed of carbon fiber
wound structures that are heat‐treated to cure resin and fibers into the desired shape. These ingots are
further densified by adding impregnating resins and curing to still higher temperatures, often at
elevated pressures within an inert atmosphere. The process may be repeated a number of times to
increase the density of the final article to meet design criteria. Isostatic presses may be used during this
process. Once the ingots are produced, they are machined to the designed nozzle shape using standard
industrial machine shop facilities.

Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines: CAD/CAM (computer‐aided design and computer‐aided
manufacturing) software is used extensively in today’s rocket factories and supporting facilities that
provide component parts to the engine‐system integrator. Propellant on‐off valves, for example, require
milling machines to manufacture metal parts such as cases, including valve seats, and pintle valves.
Electromagnetic coils are attached to the pintles, and the valves are positioned in assembly jigs (fixtures)
for welding by specialized equipment. Other final assembly operations are also performed. Assembled
valves go through an array of inspections to ensure that they meet the procurement specification
requirements, inspections for which specialized equipment is required. Leak checks require the use of
high‐pressure helium and a gas chromatograph with a detection capability to at least five parts per
million. Numerous other acceptance tests are completed during production and delivery.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) has been used extensively in the manufacture of injectors. When
first developed, it was controlled by set‐up fixtures and manual controls. Currently, computer‐controlled
EDM and CAD/CAM links are the norm.

Every component in the liquid propulsion system has an analogous set of production equipment to
fabricate components and verify that they meet specified requirements. After components are tested
and delivered to the final assembly area, the propulsion system is assembled and numerous
measurements and checks are made to confirm the device as built corresponds to design specifications.

At that point, the system could be installed in a test facility to verify by operation that the system meets
system requirements. Interstage separation devices are manufactured in remote areas that incorporate
explosive safety precautions. Safe and arm devices are tested to insure the pyrotechnic devices are safe
to handle but will activate on command. Bridge wire testing confirms the electrical leads are connected
to the explosive detonators and that the circuit through the safe and arm device is complete.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The components and assemblies manufactured at these facilities are used
to build or test turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet, scramjet, pulsejet, and combined‐cycle engines,
rocket motor cases, rocket staging mechanisms, liquid propellant control systems and tanks and the
3-28


lining and insulation used in solid propellant motors. Each of these items is required to manufacture or
assemble a MTCR‐controlled UAV or rocket system.

Other Uses: Production equipment used to manufacture MTCR‐controlled UAV engines, solid propellant
rocket motors, liquid propellant rocket engines and associated test equipment can also be used to
manufacture products associated with civil and military aircraft and satellite or spacecraft
subassemblies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Equipment and fixtures used in the production of solid propellant
rocket motors are usually large and heavy structures. Mixing and casting rocket propellant is hazardous,
and the activity is ordinarily completed in isolated locations to minimize the results of an explosion or
contamination of the environment. Large‐diameter plumbing and large capacity pits that may include
facilities for drawing a vacuum in the rocket motor may be present. Star‐ or multi‐finned‐ shaped
mandrels may be available.

Liquid propellant rocket engine production facilities are currently smaller than they were several
decades ago, when large numbers of missiles and systems were being manufactured. Medium‐range
ballistic missiles and smaller missiles could be fabricated in a facility that would look much like any large,
well‐equipped machine shop. In addition, there would need to be a quality‐assurance facility with
laboratories, including clean rooms and air‐flow benches, granite level benches and so forth, with
precision measuring devices, including scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), gas sniffers with a
location capability of less than 5 parts per million and other specialized measurement devices as
required.

Appearance (as packaged): New equipment or replacement spare parts for these types of facilities are
sometimes large and too heavy to be packaged and shipped to the production plant as complete units.
Instead, component parts are shipped separately in crates or on protected pallets for onsite assembly.
They will be securely fastened to the crate to restrain motion and prevent damage. Smaller jigs may be
individually crated or palletized for shipment.
3.B.3. Flow‐forming machines, and specially designed components therefor, which:

a. According to the manufacturers technical specification can be equipped with numerical
control units or a computer control, even when not equipped with such units at delivery;
and
b. Have more than two axes which can be co‐ordinated simultaneously for contouring
control.
Note:
This item does not include machines that are not usable in the "production" of propulsion
components and equipment (e.g. motor cases) for systems specified in 1.A.
Technical Note:
Machines combining the function of spin‐forming and flow‐forming are, for the purpose of this
item, regarded as flow forming machines.
3-29


Nature and Purpose: Flow‐forming machines are large shop machines used in heavy‐duty
manufacturing to make parts to precision dimensions. Their bases are massive in order to support the
mounting rollers, mandrels and other components and to support the fluid pressures required without
deformation. Power supplies, hydraulic rams and positioning screws are also large enough to resist
deflection by the large forming forces.

Method of Operation: Flow‐forming machines use a point‐deformation process whereby one or more
rollers move along the length of a metal blank, or preform, and press it into a rotating mold or onto a
mandrel with the desired shape.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flow‐forming machines are used to make rocket motor cases, end domes
and nozzles.

Other Uses: Flow‐forming machines are used to make numerous parts for the aerospace industry,
including commercial aircraft parts, tactical missile components and liners for shaped charges. They are
also used to make automobile wheels,
automatic transmission components for
automobiles, gas containers, pressure‐tank
heads and containers for electronic
•Austria •Belgium equipment.

•China •Egypt
•France •Germany Appearance (as manufactured): Flow‐
•India •Italy forming machines can be configured either
•Japan •Poland vertically or horizontally. Vertical
•Russian Federation •Spain configurations can form larger parts because
they have protruding servo‐driven arms to
•Switzerland •United Arab Emirates
hold the rollers and more horsepower for
deformation. Horizontal configurations do not
have roller arms as long as those of the
vertical machines. An example of a flow‐
Global Production forming machine used to make end domes
for propellant tanks is shown in Figure 18 (top
right). The related spin‐forming process can
produce shapes like those made by the flow‐
forming process. However, spin‐forming uses
less power to shape the material because it
changes the thickness of the material very little from preform to final shape. Specially designed
production facilities and equipment resemble aerospace and manufacturing equipment but with
attributes designed for a given system.

Appearance (as packaged): Larger vertical machines usually require that roller areas, vertical columns
and mandrels be boxed separately in wooden crates for shipping. Smaller vertical machines as well as
horizontal machines may be shipped in large wooden containers, with the roller arms shipped in the
assembled configuration. They will be securely fastened to the containers to preclude movement. The
control unit and any hydraulic supply and power units are also boxed separately for shipment.
3-30



Figure 18: Top right: A flow‐forming machine used to make end domes for propellant tanks. (Aerojet) Bottom right: A
horizontal flow‐forming machine. (A Handbook for the Nuclear Suppliers Group Dual‐Use Annex, Report No. LA‐13131‐M
(April 1996) Left: A vertical flow‐forming machine. (Ibid)
3.C. Materials
3.C.1. 'Interior Lining' usable for rocket motor cases in the systems specified in 1.A. or specially
designed for systems specified in 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Technical Note:
In 3.C.1. 'interior lining' suited for the bond interface between the solid propellant and the case or
insulating liner is usually a liquid polymer based dispersion of refractory or insulating materials e.g.
carbon filled HTPB or other polymer with added curing agents to be sprayed or screeded over a case
interior.
3-31


Nature and Purpose: The interior lining, or liner, is a thin layer of special chemicals used to help the
solid propellant adhere to the case insulation. The liner is typically made from elastomers or plastics,
and usually is composed of the same binder that is used in the propellant plus additives, such as carbon
block, which improve the strength of the liner.

•Argentina •Austria
Method of Operation: The lining of a solid
•Azerbaijan •Belgium
propellant rocket motor is a liquid adhesive
•Brazil •Canada
used to bond the propellant to the insulation. It
•China •Czech Republic is often a 10 mm to 20 mm thick layer of a
•France •Germany rubbery material applied to the inside of the
•India •Iran motor case then partially cured. The freshly
•Israel •Italy mixed (uncured) propellant is then cast into the
•Japan •Kazakhstan motor case against this partially cured liner. The
•Malaysia •Netherlands cure of both the propellant and the liner is then
•New Zealand •Norway completed at an elevated temperature.
•Pakistan •Poland
•Portugal •Romania Typical Missile‐Related Uses: All solid
•Russian Federation •South Africa propellant rocket motors use lining. The lining
•South Korea •Spain bonds the solid propellant to the rocket motor
•Sweden •Switzerland case insulation.

•Turkey •United Kingdom
•United States Other Uses: Some materials used in the interior
linings or insulation of rocket motors are used in
military or commercial applications requiring
heat‐resistant materials.
Global Production
Appearance (as manufactured): Interior lining is
often made from the binder used in the solid
propellant mixture without the oxidizer
component added (also known as “inhibited
propellant”). It is difficult to identify case
insulation from solid propellant without performing various chemical tests on samples of the material.

Appearance (as packaged): Because interior lining is often made from the same binder used in the solid
propellant mixture (without the oxidizer component added) and it is used shortly before casting the
solid propellant into the motor case, it is not usually packaged for shipment.
3.C.2. 'Insulation' material in bulk form usable for rocket motor cases in the systems specified in
1.A. or specially designed for systems specified in 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Technical Note:
In 3.C.2. 'insulation' intended to be applied to the components of a rocket motor, i.e. the case, nozzle
inlets, case closures, includes cured or semi‐cured compounded rubber sheet stock containing an
insulating or refractory material. It may also be incorporated as stress relief boots or flaps specified
in 3.A.3.
3-32


Nature and Purpose: The main function of insulation is to protect the motor case from combustion
products (especially heat) during flight. Case insulation must also meet several secondary objectives.
The insulation must mechanically bond the case wall with the propellant. It must also withstand the
stresses caused by thermal contraction of the propellant, the weight of the propellant during motor
storage and the inertia of the propellant,
particularly in upper stages, during acceleration.

•Argentina •Austria Method of Operation: Motor case insulation is
•Azerbaijan •Belgium sized to allow a maximum amount of propellant
•Brazil •Canada in the motor case, but thick enough to protect
•China •Czech Republic the case for the anticipated burn time plus a
•France •Germany margin of safety. Stress relief flaps, located at
•India •Iran the forward and aft end domes are used to
•Israel •Italy prevent case deformations due to high internal
•Japan •Kazakhstan pressure. Case deformations in these areas will
•Malaysia •Netherlands likely induce stress cracks in either the
•New Zealand •Norway propellant grain or in the case insulation
•Pakistan •Poland resulting in motor case failure in flight.
Insulation is usually made from elastomers or
•Portugal •Romania
•Russian Federation •South Africa plastics, and many times the insulation is made
of synthetic rubbery material such as ethylene
•South Korea •Spain
propylene diene monomer (EPDM),
•Sweden •Switzerland
polybutadiene, neoprene or nitrile rubber.
•Turkey •United Kingdom
Insulation material may contain silica or
•United States asbestos and resemble a gray or green sheet of
rubber.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The main purpose
Global Production of case insulation is to protect the solid
propellant rocket motor case from combustion
products (especially heat) during flight.

Other Uses: Some materials used in the interior
linings or insulation of rocket motors are used in military or commercial applications requiring heat‐
resistant materials.

Appearance (as manufactured): Internal insulation is a sheet of rubbery substance that is 3 mm to 10
mm thick and up to 1 m in width. It may range in color from black to gray to dark brown.

Appearance (as packaged): Insulation material is shipped in large rolls up to 1.0 m in width and 0.5 m in
diameter and sealed in boxes. The solid propellant rocket motor case may or may not have internal
insulation in place when shipped.
3-33


3.D. Software
3.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of "production facilities" and flow
forming machines specified in 3.B.1. or 3.B.3.

Nature and Purpose: Software controlled under Item 3.D.1. is used to operate the facilities or flow‐
forming machines used to produce turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet, and scramjet engines and
related components; solid propellant rocket motor case insulation and nozzles; staging and separating
mechanisms and interstage sections; liquid propellant pumps, servo valves and tanks; and hybrid rocket
motors.

Method of Operation: Modern machine tools are computer numerically controlled (CNC). A
microprocessor in each machine reads the G‐Code program that the user creates and performs the
programmed operations. Personal computers are used to design the parts and are also used to write
programs by either manual typing of G‐Code or using Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) software
that outputs G‐Code from the user input of tools and toolpath. Developers of G‐Code have renamed it
“Inti” and this “software” is in the public domain internationally.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Computer‐controlled machine tools are used in the manufacture of liquid
propellant rocket engine injectors that have hundreds of small injector elements, as well as cooling
channels in modern regeneratively cooled combustion
chambers.

Processes such as diffusion bonding of thin plates use
•Austria •Belgium
ovens that may be computer‐controlled. Plasma spray
•China •France deposition and other types of material coating such as
•Germany •India electroplating use computer‐control methods.
•Italy •Japan
•Poland •Russian Federation Assembly of parts of a liquid propellant rocket engine
•South Korea •Spain (injectors to chambers and chambers to nozzles) are
•Sweden •Switzerland typically welded, except for “work‐horse” ground test
•Ukraine •United Kingdom units. Such “orbital” welding (360 degrees around a
•United States cylindrical surface) is presently computer‐controlled,
requiring specially tailored “software”.

Global Production Inspection of production articles is also increasingly under
computer controls. Injectors, for example, contain
hundreds of injector holes that must be verified as to size,
placement and orientation. Computer‐controlled optical
comparators are being used to perform this inspection,
and specially developed “software” is required.
3-34


Other Uses: “Software” used to manufacture MTCR‐controlled UAV engines, solid propellant rocket
motors and liquid propellant rocket engines, and test equipment can also be used to manufacture
products associated with civil and military aircraft and sounding rockets used to study weather and
atmospheric conditions at various altitudes. This “software” may also be employed, with modifications,
to control other industrial operations.

Appearance (as manufactured): This “software” takes the form of a computer program stored on
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this “software” and data.

documents containing this “software” are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling
and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the “software” is run on the appropriate
computer. This “software”, including the documentation, is capable of being electronically transmitted
over a computer network.

3.D.2. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 3.A.1.,
3.A.2., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6. or 3.A.9.
Notes:
1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of engines specified in 3.A.1. may be
exported as part of a manned aircraft or as replacement "software" therefor.
2. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of propellant control systems specified in
3.A.5. may be exported as part of a satellite or as replacement "software" therefor.

Nature and Purpose: This “software” is used to operate, install, maintain, repair, overhaul/refurbish
turbojet, turbofan and turboprop engines; ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet engines; ballistic missile staging
mechanisms, separation mechanisms, and missile interstage sections; liquid propellant pumps and servo
valves; and hybrid rocket motors.

Method of Operation: Before launch, flight “software” described in this section is loaded in the flight
computers and flight controllers of rockets and UAVs to launch, navigate and control all in‐flight activity
and operation such as ballistic missile staging and weapon release. This type of “software” is also used
to control liquid propellant engine and hybrid rocket motor operation. The flight “software” receives
continuous position updates while in flight. Flight computers evaluate this data using this “software”
and issue correction signals or steering commands to the flight control systems to keep the rocket or
UAV on target.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This “software” is used to operate and guide UAVs, including cruise
missiles, and ballistic missiles to their targets. Well‐written “software” in this Item performs periodic
guidance system calibrations. Often, this type of “software” can automatically initiate malfunction
analysis to identify failed components.

3-35


Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this “software” takes the form of a computer program stored
on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, compact
discs and documents can contain this “software” and data.

documents containing this software are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling
and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the “software” is run on the appropriate
computer. This “software”, including the documentation, is capable of being electronically transmitted
3.D.3. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "development" of equipment specified in
3.A.2., 3.A.3. or 3.A.4.
Nature and Purpose: This “software” is used to research and design ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet engines;
ballistic missile solid propellant rocket motor cases with internal insulation and liners, and nozzles; and
missile staging mechanisms, separation mechanisms, and missile interstage sections; and to develop
pilot production procedures, configuration and integration programs for these items.

Method of Operation: “Software” described in this section is used on computers to develop detailed
serial and parallel manufacturing procedures, to design the various components listed in this section, to
operate computer controlled machines used to manufacture the various assemblies, and to design,
model and test configuration and integration programs for each of these items.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This “software” is installed on automated equipment to evaluate the
design and development of ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet engines; ballistic missile solid propellant rocket
motor cases with internal insulation and liners, and nozzles; and missile staging mechanisms, separation
mechanisms, and missile interstage sections. Usually this task is completed with a series of planning,
simulation, flow modeling and other “software” packages. Other “software” in this Item is used to
develop the pilot production procedures, configuration and integration programs for these items.

Other Uses: Generally, this “software” can be used, with modifications, to design and test other detailed
operations in large industrial organizations, such as oil production and distribution.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this “software” takes the form of a computer program stored
on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks,

documents are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labeling and accompanying
documentation can indicate its use unless the “software” is run on the appropriate computer. This
“software”, including the documentation, is capable of being transmitted electronically over a computer
network.
3-36


3.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment, materials or "software" specified in 3.A.1., 3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4.,
3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.9., 3.B., 3.C., or 3.D.

Nature and Purpose: “Technology” controlled under Item 3.E.1. covers the instructions and knowledge
needed to “develop”, “produce” or “use” any of the equipment, materials or “software” specified in
3.A.1., 3.A.2., 3.A.3., 3.A.4., 3.A.5., 3.A.6., 3.A.9., 3.B., 3.C. or 3.D.

Method of Operation: “Technical assistance” is available in many forms. “Technical assistance” may
consist of instruction provided by a person experienced in one or more controlled subjects such as liquid
propellant rocket engines, who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the production site. A country
may receive “technical assistance” from one or more consulting services that specialize in a particular
production skill, or in the procurement of technical items or materials. Additionally, a country may
receive “technical assistance” by sending students to other countries possessing the technology to
attend training and practice the skills necessary to build the required systems. Any manuals and
materials received during training may qualify as “technical data.”

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, “technical assistance” required to build ballistic
missile systems and UAVs are used only for those purposes. Sounding rockets used in weather research,
with minor adjustments, can be converted to ballistic missiles. The “technology” used in each device is
very similar.

Other Uses: Some “technology” used to design, manufacture and test UAVs may have functionality in


3-37


Category II – Item 4: Propellants, Chemicals and Propellant Production
Propellants, Chemicals and
Propellant Production
4- 1



None.


4.B.1. "Production equipment", and specially designed components therefor, for the "production",
handling or acceptance testing of liquid propellants or propellant constituents specified in 4.C.

Nature and Purpose: Individual components of liquid propellant production equipment are common to
any petroleum distillation facility or large
chemical plant. Typical components include
•Argentina •Australia reactor tanks, condensers, recovery columns,
•Austria •Beligum heaters, evaporators, filter assemblies,
•Brazil •Bulgaria decanters, chillers, gas separators, and
•Canada •China centrifugal pumps. None of these components
•Czech Republic •Egypt by themselves are specially designed for use
•Finland •France in making liquid propellants. However, when
•Germany •Greece combined into a propellant production facility,
•India •Iran such a facility is generally optimized for the
•Israel •Japan production of a particular propellant and ill
•North Korea •Pakistan suited for making anything else.
•Poland •Russian Federation
•Slovak Republic •South Africa The technologies for making liquid propellants
•South Korea •Spain are generally well known, although various
•Sweden •Ukraine companies may have proprietary procedures
•United Kingdom •United States for maximizing yield, minimizing cost, or
finding alternative uses for byproducts.
Exceptions to this general rule include
chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5) and fluorox
Global production (ClF3O), the manufacturing methods of which
are closely held.

Acceptance testing of liquid propellants
requires analytical equipment common to

4- 2


most chemical quality control labs, including equipment such as gas chromatographs, atomic absorption
spectrometers, infrared spectrometers, and bomb calorimeters. This equipment generally can be used
without modification to analyze liquid rocket propellants for acceptance.

Method of Operation: Specific production methods depend on the propellant being manufactured.
Many of the constituents used in propellants are commonly produced for commercial purposes but
require additional processing to purify, stabilize, inhibit, or blend to achieve certain properties. For
example, sulfuric acid or magnesium carbonate is used to purify nitric acid. Commercial nitric acid,
usually combined with water as hydrate, contains only 55 % to 70 % acid. Chemical processing is needed
to break the hydrates to produce 97 % to 99 % pure, anhydrous (waterless) nitric acid. To form Inhibited
Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA), N2O4 is added to the concentrated nitric acid to stabilize it against rapid
decomposition, and trace amounts of hydrogen fluoride (HF) are added to reduce corrosion of
containers.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Liquid propellant production and acceptance testing equipment are
required to develop an indigenous capability to make propellants.

Other Uses: The equipment and technologies are in common use and widely known in the petroleum
and chemical production industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): In general, complete liquid propellant manufacturing facilities are not
bought and transferred in one piece; they are assembled from many common pieces of chemical and
industrial process equipment. Unless a turnkey plant is shipped, the most likely encountered items are
probably the plans, drawings, calculations, and equipment lists associated with a plant design. There is
even commercially available software that assists chemical engineers in designing such facilities.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of liquid propellant manufacturing equipment dictates the
packaging. Smaller machines are crated in shock‐absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets
isolated from other packages. Larger machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled onsite
and their components are packaged separately in crates or pallets.
4.B.2. "Production equipment", other than that described in 4.B.3., and specially designed
components therefor, for the production, handling, mixing, curing, casting, pressing, machining,
extruding or acceptance testing of solid propellants or propellant constituents specified in 4.C.

Nature and Purpose: The production equipment and
infrastructure necessary to produce solid rocket
propellant are complex and specialized. Facilities and
equipment are necessary for preparing the various
propellant ingredients, mixing and handling the
propellant, casting and curing the propellant inside the
motor case, and other specialized operations such as
pressing, machining, extruding, and acceptance testing.

Figure 1: A propellant casting mandrel. (ATK)
4- 3


Method of Operation: Solid propellant is produced by one of two
processes, either batch mixing or continuous mixing. Most missile
programs use the batch process to make solid rocket motor
propellant. After receipt and acceptance testing of the individual
ingredients, ammonium perchlorate (AP) is usually ground in a mill to
obtain the required particle size. All ingredients, including the binder,
AP, metal powder, stabilizers, curing agents, and burn‐rate modifiers,
are mixed in large mixers to form a viscous slurry. The propellant
slurry is poured or cast into the rocket motor case (see Figure 3), in
which a mandrel (see Figure 1) creates a hollow chamber running
down the center of the motor. The loaded motor case is placed in a
large oven to cure the propellant. During curing, the slurry is
transformed into a hard rubbery material called propellant grain. The
rocket motor with the cured propellant is then cooled, the mandrel
removed, and any final trimming or machining operations done. Figure 2: Slurry cast double‐base
Finished motors are usually X‐rayed (see Figure 4) to ensure that the mixing equipment for a small
propellant grain is homogeneous, bonded everywhere to the case, motor. (British Aerospace Limited)
and free of cracks.

In continuous mixing, the same propellant ingredients are continuously measured into a mixing
chamber, mixed, and continuously discharged into the motor or other container until the required
amount of propellant has been obtained. This type of mixing is difficult because it is hard to precisely
measure small amounts of some ingredients
such as curing agents required for some
•Argentina •Beligum propellant mixtures. Continuous mixing is
•Brazil •Canada not, therefore, used to any large extent.
•China •Egypt
•Finland •France Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Better solid
•Germany •India propellants improve missile range and
•Iran •Ireland payload capability. Solid propellant
•Israel •Italy production equipment and acceptance
•Japan •Netherlands testing equipment are required for a nation
•Pakistan •Russian Federation to develop an indigenous capability to
•South Africa •South Korea produce propellants for rocket‐motor‐
•Spain •Sweden powered missiles.
•Switzerland •Syria
•Ukraine •United Kingdom Other Uses: N/A
•United States
Appearance (as manufactured): Specialized
devices are used to cast propellant by
creating a vacuum, which removes air from
Global production the propellant as it is poured into the rocket
motor case. The size of these devices varies
with the size of the rocket motors, but
principles of operation are the same. The
equipment and process for a small motor are

4- 4


shown in Figure 2. The mixed propellant is poured from the mix bowl into a large casting funnel that is
attached to the rocket motor. A large valve in the neck of the casting funnel isolates the motor in the
vacuum from ambient atmospheric conditions. Once the casting
funnel is full of propellant, the valve is opened slowly to allow the
propellant to flow into the rocket motor case. Very large motors
are sometimes cast in a cast/cure pit, which is an underground
concrete structure lined with heating coils. The entire pit is
evacuated before casting operations start. As with other specialized
propellant equipment, the casting equipment is generally
constructed on‐site; its size depends on the size of the motor and
the manner in which the casting operation is done.

Curing equipment ranges in size from large, electrically or steam‐
Figure 3: Solid propellant in liquid form heated ovens, to large heated buildings. This equipment is not
is poured into rocket casings and cast particularly specialized because the process is a simple one,
into the required shape. The casting is
moved by a hydraulic mount to remove
requiring only that motor temperature be raised for a given amount
bubbles or other defects. (ATK) of time. Large cast/cure pits are permanent, on‐site facilities.

The equipment used for acceptance testing of a batch of propellant is identical to the equipment found
in an analytical chemistry or a materials testing laboratory. This equipment is used to perform chemical
testing to verify the composition; to burn small amounts of propellant or test subscale motors to verify
burning rate; and to conduct tensile testing to ensure that the propellant has the physical properties
required by the rocket motor design.

Figure 4: A finished motor being X‐rayed to ensure Figure 5: A finished motor being X‐rayed to ensure
that the propellant grain is homogeneous, bonded to that the propellant grain is homogeneous, bonded to
the case, and free from cracks and other the case, and free from cracks and other
imperfections. (ATK) imperfections. (ATK)

Machining of solid propellant surfaces is generally done by large cutting machines specially modified to
accommodate the safety hazards associated with solid propellants. Many of these types of machines are
built specifically for a particular rocket motor.
4- 5


Solid propellant grains for the large rocket motors of interest are usually too large to be directly handled
by an extruder. However, some propellants of MTCR interest are extruded in a preliminary processing
step. Extrusion is generally limited to propellant grains less than 0.3 m in diameter and has more
application to tactical air‐to‐air, surface‐to‐air, and air‐to‐surface missiles.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of solid propellant production equipment dictates their packaging.
Smaller machines are crated in shock‐absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets. Larger
machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled onsite. Their components are packaged
separately in crates or on pallets.
4.B.3. Equipment as follows, and specially designed components therefor:

a. Batch mixers with provision for mixing under vacuum in the range of zero to 13.326
kPa and with temperature control capability of the mixing chamber and having all of the
following:
1. A total volumetric capacity of 110 litres or more; and
2. At least one mixing/kneading shaft mounted off centre;
b. Continuous mixers with provision for mixing under vacuum in the range of zero to
13.326 kPa and with a temperature control capability of the mixing chamber having any
of the following:
1. Two or more mixing/kneading shafts; or
2. A single rotating shaft which oscillates and having kneading teeth/pins on the
shaft as well as inside the casing of the mixing chamber;
Note:
1. The only batch mixers, continuous mixers, usable for solid propellants or propellants
constituents specified in 4.C., and fluid energy mills specified in 4.B., are those specified in 4.B.3.
Nature and Purpose: Batch mixers are powerful

•Argentina •Brazil mixing machines for batch quantities of very viscous
•China •France material. They are derived from machines used to
•Germany •India mix bread dough. Their purpose is to mix liquids and
•Iran •Israel powders of differing densities into a uniform blend.
•Russian Federation Continuous mixers are powerful mixing machines
•United Kingdom that operate in a flow through manner. They mix
•United States larger quantities than batch mixers for high volume
production.

Method of Operation: Batch mixers operate much
Global production like a household electric mixer. The bowl holds the
ingredients that may be added in sequence while the
turning blades mix everything together. Temperature
control and vacuum are maintained by surrounding

4- 6


the bowl with a water jacket and by covering the bowl
with a sealed lid.

Continuous mixers gradually feed all the ingredients
simultaneously in their correct proportions through the
mix region. The mixing/kneading shafts thoroughly mix
the continuous flow of liquids and powders, and the
uniform blend is gradually discharged out the large pipe
in a steady viscous stream.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Batch and continuous
mixers are used to mix precise quantities of liquid
propellant constituents and powdered propellant
Figure 4: A 420‐gallon propellant mixing bowl. constituents into a very uniform blend. This mixture will
(ATK) burn violently if ignited so safety procedures are critical.
The blend produced is later cast and cured in another process to create a rubbery composite material
that serves as the propellant in a solid propellant rocket motor.

Other Uses: Batch and continuous mixers may be used whenever the production of a viscous blend is
required. However, most commercial applications will not require the temperature control and vacuum
capabilities specified in 4.B.3.

Appearance (as manufactured): The most distinctive components of a batch mixer are the mixing bowl
and the mix blade assembly. The mixing bowls are typically 0.75 m to 1.5 m deep and 1 to 2 m in
diameter, as shown in Figure 6, but may be significantly larger for mixers greater than 450 gallons (1,700
l). They are double‐wall constructed; the inner wall is made of highly
polished stainless steel, and the outer wall is generally made of cold‐rolled
steel, sometimes painted. The space between the walls is used for a
hot/cold water heating/cooling jacket. The outer wall has two valves for
the connection of inlet/outlet water hoses. The bowl is generally welded
to a thick steel rectangular plate with wheels at each corner. The wheels
may have grooves so that the bowl assembly can be placed on rails for
easier movement.

Sometimes the upper rim of the bowl is a machined flat surface with a
large groove to accommodate an O‐ring (gasket); other times the mixer
head is provided with one or more such grooves. The purpose of the O‐
Figure 5: Solid propellant
ring is to provide a seal while the mixing operation is under vacuum. The being mixed in a 600‐gallon
blade assembly consists of two or three large blades, also made of highly vertical planetary mixer.
polished stainless steel. Most assemblies use twisted‐paddle blades where (Thiokol Corp.)
one of the blades has an opening. Other assemblies use cork‐screw‐shaped blades. Although it is not
evident in the shipping configuration, the blade assembly operates in a “planetary” manner; that is, the
central blade rotates in a fixed position while the other one or two blades rotate about their own axes
as well as rotating about the central fixed blade. The remaining mixer components include an electric
motor, gear assembly, mixer head, and supporting structure.
4- 7


Appearance (as packaged): Mixers may be shipped as complete units or as components. As precision‐
machined devices, mixer blades are packaged to protect them from damage and the shipping
environment. They are likely to be incorporated into the mixer head and frame assembly and securely
cradled in shock isolation material blocking during shipping. Mixing bowls are large, heavy pieces of
equipment also likely to be shipped in large, strong, wooden crates. They are securely attached to the
crates to avoid damage. Crates tend to lack any distinctive features or markings.
4.B.3.c. Fluid energy mills usable for grinding or milling substances specified in 4.C.;

Nature and Purpose: Fluid energy mills use

high‐pressure air (or nitrogen, where the
•Australia •Belgium material being milled presents a risk of a dust
•China •France explosion) to cause particles to impact
•Germany •India against one another and thereby be fractured
•Italy •Japan to very small particle sizes, generally 20
•Luxembourg •Netherlands microns or less. Particle sizes in this range are
•New Zealand •Russian Federation
not easily obtained by other grinding means
•South Africa •Spain
such as hammer mills. Fluid energy mills are
also much safer for grinding explosive
materials such as Octogen (HMX) and
•United States
Cyclonite (RDX).

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Fluid energy
mills produce fine‐grained AP, HMX, or RDX
Global production powders used as oxidizers or burn‐rate
modifiers for solid rocket fuel.

Other Uses: Fluid energy mills are also used in
food, pharmaceutical, mining, and paint
pigment industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): Fluid energy mills are extremely simple devices with no moving parts.
Most are flat, cylindrical devices made of stainless steel and measuring 7 cm to 10 cm in height and 7 cm
to 40 cm in diameter. They have an inlet and outlet port for the attachment of ancillary equipment. The
interior of the mill is a tubular spiral that the material to be ground is forced through with high‐pressure
air. Particle size is controlled by the rate at which the material to be ground is fed in, and the air
pressure or airflow rate.

Appearance (as packaged): Fluid energy mills are generally shipped in wooden crates with foam or
packing material used to protect them during shipment. The crates are not distinctive.

4- 8


Figure 6: Examples of various fluid energy mills. (The Charles Stark Draper Laboratories, Inc.)
4.B.3.d. Metal powder "production equipment" usable for the "production", in a controlled
environment, of spherical or atomised materials specified in 4.C.2.c., 4.C.2.d. or 4.C.2.e.
Note:
4.B.3.d. includes:
a. Plasma generators (high frequency arc‐jet) usable for obtaining sputtered or spherical metallic
powders with organisation of the process in an argon‐water environment;
b. Electroburst equipment usable for obtaining sputtered or spherical metallic powders with
organisation of the process in an argon‐water environment;
c. Equipment usable for the “production” of spherical aluminum powders by powdering a melt in
an inert medium (e.g. nitrogen).
Note:
Forms of metal powder “production equipment” not specified in 4.B.3.d. are to be evaluated in
accordance with 4.B.2.

Method of Operation: The most common approach for producing fine metal powders for use as
constituents in missile propellants is the molten metal process using equipment specified in Item
4.B.3.d.c. above. This process scales well and can be used to make large amounts of powdered metal
cost effectively. Both the plasma generator and electro‐burst methods are relatively new in the
application and are not in widespread use on production programs. They are currently considered
laboratory or R&D processes when compared to the molten metal process.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Atomized and spherical metallic powder production equipment is used to
produce uniform, fine‐grained metal powders used as a constituent in solid and liquid rocket fuel.
Metallic powder is used to enhance the performance characteristics of the motor/engine. Powdered
4- 9


metals are crucial in modern composite solid propellant motors. Atomized and spherical metallic
powders in missile propellant increase missile range and payload capability.

Other Uses: Atomized and spherical metallic powder production equipment may be used to produce
metal powders for many commercial applications, from pigments in metallic paints to fillers in structural
adhesives.

Appearance (as manufactured): Equipment to produce atomized, spherical metal powder via the
method described above is readily assembled from common equipment. The equipment includes a large
tank into which the liquid metal is sprayed; a pump attached to the tank to remove the air; a filling
system for the inert gas (e.g., tanks and a valve); a heater in which the metal is melted; and a sprayer‐
and‐nozzle assembly that injects the metal into the tank.

Appearance (as packaged): An atomized‐metal maker is not shipped as a single unit. Instead, its
components are disassembled, packaged, and shipped like most industrial equipment. Smaller pieces
are boxed or crated and secured to a pallet. The tank is boxed to protect it from denting. Spray nozzles
are packaged separately in protected boxes.
4.C. Materials
4.C.1.: Composite and composite modified double base propellants.

Nature and Purpose: Composite and composite modified double‐base
propellants are heterogeneous mixtures of fuels and small particulate
oxidizers held together by a rubbery material referred to as the binder. They
provide a stable, high‐performance, solid propellant for rocket motors.

Method of Operation: Selected fuels and oxidizers are mixed in exact ratios
and cast (poured and then solidified) directly into rocket motor casings or
into a mold for subsequent insertion into a case (cartridge loaded). When
ignited, the propellant burns and generates high‐pressure, high‐temperature
exhaust gases that escape at extreme speeds to provide thrust. Once ignited, Figure 7: Composite
the propellant cannot be readily throttled or extinguished because it burns propellants manufactured
without air and at very high temperatures. for use in rocket motors.
(Daicel Chemical
Industries, Ltd)
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Composite and composite modified double‐
base propellants are used to provide the propulsive energy for rocket systems, kick motors for satellites,
and for booster motors for launching cruise missiles and other unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

4-10


Other Uses: These propellants are also used in
•Argentina •Brazil tactical rockets.
•Canada •China
•France •Germany Appearance (as manufactured): Composite and
•India •Israel composite modified double‐base propellants
•Italy •Japan are hard, rubbery materials resembling
•North Korea •Norway
automobile tires in texture and appearance (see
•Pakistan •South Korea
Figure 9). Ingredients such as aluminum or
•Russian Federation •Spain
other metal powder gives them a dark gray
color; however, other additives – included to
•Taiwan •United Kingdom
•United States control ballistic and mechanical properties, as
well as to ensure chemical stability – may cause
the color to vary (from red to green to brown to
black; see Figure 10).

Global production
Appearance (as packaged): Once the
components of the propellants are mixed
together, they are poured directly into the
missile case and solidify into a single piece of
material to form a completed motor. Thus,
these propellants are shipped only as the major
internal component in a loaded rocket motor and usually are not encountered separated from a motor.
Exceptions are cartridge‐loaded systems that fit a cartridge of propellant into a motor case.

Additional Information: The most commonly used fuel component of composite propellants is
aluminum powder, which has better performance and greater ease of use than other metal powders
that may be used. The oxidizer component of choice is
ammonium perchlorate (AP); other oxidizers are metal
perchlorates, ammonium nitrate (AN), and ammonium
dinitramide (ADN).

The use of metal perchlorates or AN greatly decrease
performance and thus have only limited use in specialized
propellants. ADN is a new oxidizer with better performance
than AP, but it has limited availability and is very difficult to
work with. The high explosives HMX and RDX may be used as
an adjunct to AP in order to increase propellant performance.
The binder used in composite propellants is normally a
synthetic rubber; the best one is hydroxyl‐terminated Figure 8: A sample of double‐base rocket
polybutadiene (HTPB). Other binders are carboxy‐terminated motor propellant. (Bayern‐Chemie GmbH)
polybutadiene (CTPB), polybutadiene‐acrylic acid polymer (PBAA), or polybutadiene‐acrylic acid‐
acrylonitrile terpolymer (PBAN). Elastomeric polyesters and polyethers such as polypropylene glycol may
also be used as binders. Composite modified double‐base propellant also uses nitrocellulose plasticized
with nitroglycerine or other nitrate esters as a binder system.
4-11


4.C.2. Fuel Substances as follows:

a. Hydrazine (CAS 302‐01‐2) with a concentration of more than 70%;
b. Hydrazine derivatives as follows:
1. Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) (CAS 60‐34‐4);
2. Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) (CAS 57‐14‐7);
3. Hydrazine mononitrate;
4. Trimethylhydrazine (CAS 1741‐01‐1);
5. Tetramethylhydrazine (CAS 6415‐12‐9);
6. N,N diallylhydrazine;
7. Allylhydrazine (CAS 7422‐78‐8);
8. Ethylene dihydrazine;
9. Monomethylhydrazine dinitrate;
10. Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine nitrate;

11. Hydrazinium azide (CAS 14546‐44‐2);
12. Dimethylhydrazinium azide;
13. Hydrazinium dinitrate;
14. Diimido oxalic acid dihydrazine (CAS 3457‐37‐2);
15. 2‐hydroxyethylhydrazine nitrate (HEHN);
16. Hydrazinium perchlorate (CAS 27978‐54‐7);
17. Hydrazinium diperchlorate (CAS 13812‐39‐0);
18. Methylhydrazine nitrate (MHN);
19. Diethylhydrazine nitrate (DEHN);
20. 3,6‐dihydrazino tetrazine nitrate (DHTN);
Technical Note:
3,6‐dihydrazino tetrazine nitrate is also referred to as 1,4‐dihydrazine nitrate.
Nature and Purpose: Hydrazine, MMH, and UDMH are liquid rocket fuels. They are used in a wide
variety of liquid propellant rocket engines requiring high performance and long storage times.
Hydrazine is most often used as a monopropellant (without an oxidizer) by decomposing it into hot gas
with a catalyst. Up to 50 % hydrazine is often mixed with MMH or UDMH fuels in order to improve
performance.

Method of Operation: At room temperature and pressure, the hydrazine family of fuels is hypergolic
(self‐igniting) when mixed with various oxidizers such as nitric acid, chlorine, or fluorine. When used in a
bipropellant system, hydrazine releases about half of its energy by decomposing into a hot gas and half
by burning with an oxidizer.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Although hydrazine can be burned with an oxidizer, safe combustion is
difficult to achieve. Thus, it is not widely used in conjunction with an oxidizer; however, it is often used
as an additive to enhance performance of the more stable‐burning MMH and UDMH fuels. MMH and

4-12


UDMH, which remain liquid over a –50 to +70 °C temperature range, are high‐performance fuels used
for missiles.

Hydrazine, MMH and UDMH are widely used in combination with N2O4 (NTO) in bipropellant rocket
engines. The reactions of allylated hydrazines with N2O4
under ideal conditions should yield CO2, N2 and H2O. It
•Brazil has been found, however, that complete combustion is
•China rarely, if ever, achieved in actual engine firings. During
•France pulse‐mode operation of the bipropellant rocket engines,
•Germany the high chamber temperatures required for the
•Russian Federation complete combustion of the fuels cannot be attained.
•United Kingdom
•United States Other Uses: Hydrazine is the current and most common
propellant for small thrusters for spacecraft attitude
control and satellite maneuvering. Hydrazine is also used
in electrolytic plating of metals on glass and plastics,
pharmaceuticals, fuel cells, dyes, photographic
Global production chemicals, and agricultural chemicals, and as a
polymerization catalyst and a corrosion inhibitor in boiler
feed water (water treatment) and reactor cooling water.
MMH is used in aircraft emergency power units.

Appearance (as manufactured): Hydrazine is a clear liquid with a freezing point slightly above that of
water, at +1.5 °C, and a normal boiling point of 114 °C. Its density is slightly greater than that of water,
at 1.003 g/cc. It is irritating to the skin, eyes,
and lungs, and is highly toxic when taken
orally. MMH is a clear liquid with a freezing
point of –52 °C and a normal boiling point of
88 °C. These features make it an attractive
fuel for tactical military missiles. Its density is
0.87 g/cc. It is highly toxic. UDMH is a clear
liquid with a freezing point of –57 °C and a
normal boiling point of 62 °C. Its density is
0.78 g/cc. It is also highly toxic.

Appearance (as packaged): Anhydrous
(water eliminated) hydrazine, MMH, and
UDMH are classified as flammable liquids and
poisons. Hydrazine products can be stored
and shipped in aluminum, 300‐series stainless Figure 9: 34‐gallon anhydrous hydrazine shipping containers
made of 300‐series stainless steel. (MTCR Equipment, Software
steel, and titanium alloy barrels or tanks. and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))
Small purchases are commonly packed in 55‐
gallon drums; larger orders are shipped in railroad tank cars. Containers of fuel in the hydrazine family
are all air purged and are backfilled with an inert gas such as nitrogen to prevent contamination and
slow oxidation.
4-13


4.C.2.c. Spherical aluminium powder (CAS 7429‐90‐5) with particles of uniform diameter of
less than 200 x 10–6 m (200 µm) and an aluminium content of 97% by weight or more, if at
least 10% of the total weight is made up of particles of less than 63 µm, according to ISO
2591:1988 or national equivalents such as JIS Z8820;
Technical Note:
A particle size of 63 µm (ISO R‐565) corresponds to 250 mesh (Tyler) or 230 mesh (ASTM
standard E‐11).
4.C.2.d. Zirconium (CAS 7440‐67‐7), beryllium (CAS 7440‐41‐7), magnesium (CAS 7439‐95‐4)
and alloys of these in particle size less than 60 x 10–6 m (60 µm), whether spherical,
atomised, spheroidal, flaked or ground, consisting of 97% by weight or more of any of the
above mentioned metals;
Technical Note:
The natural content of hafnium (CAS 7440‐58‐6) in the zirconium (typically 2% to 7%) is
counted with the zirconium.
4.C.2.e. Boron (CAS 7440‐42‐8) and boron alloys in particle size less than 60 x 10–6 m (60
µm), whether spherical, atomised, spheroidal, flaked or ground with a purity of 85% by
weight or more;
4.C.2.f. High energy density materials, usable in the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A., as
follows:
1. Mixed fuels that incorporate both solid and liquid fuels, such as born slurry,
having a mass‐based energy density of 40 x 106 J/kg or greater;
2. Other high energy density fuels and fuel additives (e.g., cubane, ionic solutions,
JP‐10) having a volume‐based energy density of 37.5 x 109 J/m3 or greater,
measured at 20°C and one atmosphere (101.325 kPa) pressure.
Note:
Item 4.C.2.f.2. does not control fossil refined fuels and biofuels produced from vegetables,
including fuels for engines certified for use in civil aviation, unless specifically formulated for
systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.
Nature and Purpose: The metals aluminum, beryllium, boron, magnesium, and zirconium are good fuels
in particle sizes less than 60 x 10–6 m (60 µm). They are used as a constituent fuel to enhance solid and
liquid rocket propellant performance. For example, aluminum powder as a fuel additive makes up 5 % to
21 % by weight of solid propellant. Combustion of the aluminum fuel increases the propellant flame
temperature by up to 800°K and increases specific impulse by as much as 10 %.

4-14


Method of Operation: Metal powder is added to either the solid propellant grain during rocket motor
production or to liquid rocket fuel to form a slurry. Because the surface‐to‐volume ratio of such small
metal particles is very high, the oxidizer envelops and
quickly burns each metal particle, thereby releasing high
energy per weight at very high temperature. There are
•Brazil •Canada also high energy density fuels and fuel additives
•China •France formulated for missile uses that do not use metal
•India •Iran powders.
•Russian Federation Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Aluminum powder is
•United Kingdom relatively inexpensive and is widely used as a fuel
•United States component in solid and liquid rocket motors/engines to
increase the specific impulse of the propellant and to
help stabilize combustion. Beryllium, boron, magnesium,
Global production and zirconium metal fuels may also be used, but in
practice they have few military missile‐related uses. In
general, they are expensive, dangerous to handle, and
difficult to control. Beryllium motors have been
developed only as upper stages because some of their
exhaust products are toxic.

Some high energy density fuels are formulated specifically for missile applications, such as Jet Propellant
10 (JP‐10) for use in volume‐constrained cruise missiles, and certain formulations of kerosene for use as
rocket fuel. Other high energy density materials, such as cubane, may be used as a fuel additive to gain
more seconds of specific impulse for existing rocket systems and propellants.

Other Uses: Aluminum powder is used as a main ingredient in aluminum spray paint. Spherical
aluminum powder is used as a catalyst and as a component in coatings for turbine shells and in
construction materials like foamed concrete and thermite. Magnesium is used primarily in the
pyrotechnics industry. Boron is sometimes used in fuel slurry for ducted rockets and solid‐fuel ramjets
for tactical missiles. Zirconium has been used in some high‐density composite propellants for volume
limited tactical applications. Both boron and zirconium are used in ignition compounds for igniters.

Appearance (as manufactured): Aluminum powder is a gray or dull silver powder. The particle size of
most propellant grade aluminum powder ranges from 3 to 100 microns, although larger sizes have been
used. The particle shape is more or less spherical. Beryllium, magnesium, and zirconium are also gray or
dull silver powders. Boron is a dark brown powder. The appearance of boron slurry depends on the
liquid to which it is added and the boron particle size; typically, the color is dark brown or black. For
example, boron mixed with dicyclopentadiene is a potential ramjet fuel and forms a chocolate‐brown
slurry with the consistency of honey. Missile fuels, such as Rocket Propellant 1 (RP‐1) and JP‐10, are
similar in appearance to jet fuels which are clear to amber colored liquids.

Appearance (as packaged): Aluminum powder is generally packaged and shipped in steel drums with a
capacity of 30 gallons or less. Aluminum powder in a 30‐gallon drum weighs approximately 180 kg. The
other metals, though much less likely to be encountered, are packaged similarly. Missile fuels, such as
4-15


JP‐10 and RP‐1, may be packaged and shipped in 55‐gallon drums. Given the large quantities of RP‐1
used in rocket systems, it may also be transported in large 7000 gallon capacity tanker trailers.

Additional Information: Aluminum has a density of 2.7 g/cc, but its bulk density is somewhat less,
depending on particle size. Beryllium and its combustion products are very toxic. Boron is difficult to
ignite. Zirconium is very dangerous to handle in finely powdered form because it spontaneously ignites
in air; thus, it is usually shipped in water.
4.C.3. Oxidizers/Fuels as follows:

Perchlorates, chlorates or chromates mixed with powdered metals or other high energy fuel
components.

Nature and Purpose: Perchlorates, chlorates, and chromates mixed with fuel components of any kind
(e.g., powdered metals) are extremely unstable, likely to ignite or explode, and hard to control in
propellants. AP, the oxidizer of choice for most solid propellant applications, is rarely shipped in large
bulk quantities mixed with a fuel component because of the associated combustion hazard. However,
these mixtures are shipped in components such as igniters or
in small packages (approximately 3 kg).

•There are no known suppliers of Method of Operation: The oxygen in perchlorates, chlorates,
these mixtures because of the and chromates is released during combustion, making it
extreme fire hazard; however, available to burn the high‐energy fuel in the propellant
many countries can create and mixture. Because the oxygen is distributed evenly throughout
ship such mixtures. the mixture, it burns very rapidly without air and is difficult to
extinguish.
Global
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: AP mixed with powdered
production aluminum is routinely used in solid rocket motors. Other
mixtures of oxidizers and fuels are generally used in missile
ignition or delay devices and are rarely used for other
purposes in missiles.

Other Uses: When mixed with powdered metals, perchlorates, chlorates, or chromates have commercial
use in flares and incendiary devices.

Appearance (as manufactured): The color of these materials varies with the oxidizer and fuel used.
Numerous combinations exist, but the most likely (AP and aluminum powder) are light gray materials
with a texture resembling table salt.

Appearance (as packaged): Perchlorates, chlorates, or chromates, when mixed with powdered metals,
are extreme fire or explosive hazards and are very unlikely to be shipped in such mixtures. Rather, they
are shipped separately from powdered metals or other high‐energy fuel components and then mixed
together as a motor is being cast.

4-16


4.C.4. Oxidiser Substances as follows:

a. Oxidiser sustances usable in liquid propellant rocket engines as follows:
1. Dinitrogen trioxide (CAS 10544‐73‐7);
2. Nitrogen dioxide (CAS 10102‐44‐0) /dinitrogen tetroxide (CAS 10544‐72‐6);
3. Dinitrogen pentoxide (CAS 10102‐03‐1);
4. Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen (MON);
5. Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA) (CAS 8007‐58‐7) ;
6. Compounds composed of fluorine and one or more of other halogens, oxygen or
nitrogen;
Note:
Item 4.C.4.a.6. does not control Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF3) (CAS 7783‐54‐2) in a gaseous state as
it is not usable for missile applications.
Technical Note:
Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen (MON) are solutions of Nitric Oxide (NO) in Dinitrogen Tetroxide /
Nitrogen Dioxide (N2O4/NO2) that can be used in missile systems. There are a range of
compositions that can be denoted as MONi or MONij where i and j are integers representing the
percentage of Nitric Oxide in the mixture (e.g. MON3 contains 3% Nitric Oxide, MON25 25%
Nitric Oxide. An upper limit is MON40, 40% by weight.)

Nature and Purpose: Oxidizers provide oxygen or halogen to burn the fuel in any rocket motor or
engine. By carrying the fuel and oxidizer together, a missile is not dependent on the atmosphere for
oxygen and can thus operate in space.

Method of Operation: In solid propellant rocket motors, the oxidizer is mixed evenly with fuels and cast
into the motor case before use. In liquid propellant rocket engines, the oxidizer and fuel are injected
into the combustion chamber at great pressure, mixed, and ignited. In either case, heat causes the
oxygen to disassociate from the oxidizer and become more available to burn with the fuel. Some liquid
propellants react spontaneously on contact. Resulting hot gases accelerate through a rocket nozzle to
develop reaction thrust.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses:

Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) is a black liquid at normal atmospheric pressure that decomposes above 3.5 °C
and freezes at –102 °C. N2O3 is not often used as a missile propellant.

Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), also known as nitrogen tetroxide (NTO), is a dimer of two molecules of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas. N2O4 is a liquid at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature (below 21
°C). However, it is a liquid in a small temperature range, so it can only be used on missiles kept in
temperature controlled environments such as silos. Therefore, N2O4 is not commonly used in mobile and
tactical missiles. Depending on temperature and pressure, NO2 and N2O4 form equilibria at various
4-17


percentages. The result is mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON), represented by MONi, where i represented
the percent of NO. These propellants are green liquids with high vapor pressures and lower liquid
temperature range and are used in tactical missile systems.

Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) is not normally used as an oxidizer in liquid rocket engines because it is a
solid at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature.

Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA) has a high density and a low freezing‐point; it is a commonly
available nitric acid oxidizer favored for tactical missiles.

Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) and chloryl (per‐)fluoride (ClO3F) are the two most common halogen‐based
oxidizers. Because they are very toxic and energetic oxidizers, they are difficult to handle. Thus, they are
rarely used except for technology development. Other inter‐halogen oxidizers have been developed and
tested but they are not used because of cost, handling, and safety considerations. For example, chlorine
pentafluoride (ClF5) and fluorox (ClF3O) are difficult to make safely and are not available. They were
originally developed because fluorine/hydrazine is a very
high performing propellant combination, but the fluorine
must be kept below its boiling point (–188 °C) to keep it
•Brazil •China from boiling off and is thus impractical for use as an
•France •Japan oxidizer for tactical missiles. The same is true for chlorine.
•Russian Federation Halogen‐based oxidizers are unlikely to be encountered.
•United Kingdom
•United States Other Uses: N2O4 is commonly used in satellites and in
•Worldwide (for Nitric Acids) orbital maneuvering systems. A mixture of nitric oxide
(NO2) and N2O4 is the precursor for all nitric acid
•Only Russian Federation, Sweden, production and is used as a nitrating agent for agricultural
and the United States have chemicals, plastics, paper, and rubber. N2O5 is used to
produced ADN. make explosives and is a nitrating agent in organic
chemistry.

Global Concentrated nitric acid, the main constituent of IRFNA, is
production used to make pharmaceuticals and explosives.

Chlorine and fluorine have many commercial uses.
Chlorine is used widely to purify water, to disinfect or
bleach materials, and to manufacture many important compounds including chloroform and carbon
tetra‐chloride. ClF3 is used in nuclear fuel reprocessing and ClO3F is used as a gaseous dielectric in
transformers.

Appearance (as manufactured) (Measurements are at standard temperature and pressure): NO2 is a
red‐brown gas, and N2O4 is a red‐brown liquid at room temperature. Depending on temperature and
pressure, NO2 and N2O4 form equilibria at various percentages. MONs are mixtures of NO2 and N2O4, and
form green liquids with lower freezing points than N2O4, which freezes at –11 °C and boils at +21 °C. The
density of N2O4 is 1.43 g/ml.

Red‐fuming nitric acid (RFNA) is nearly anhydrous nitric acid that is stabilized with high concentrations of

4-18


added nitric oxides. Roughly 15 % NO2 is typically dissolved in the acid but more can be added to
increase the liquid density. Maximum density nitric acid (MDNA) is 56 % HNO3 and 44 % N2O4. Because
nitric acid is corrosive to most non‐noble materials (materials that react chemically), a small amount
(approximately 0.75 %) of hydrofluoric acid (HF) is added to produce IRFNA. Stored in stainless steel or
aluminum containers, HF forms protective fluorides that reduce the rates of wall corrosion. IRFNA
freezes at approximately –65 °C and boils at approximately +60 °C. Its density at normal room
temperature is about 1.55 g/ml, depending on the amount of N2O4 added.

Fluorine is a pale yellow, highly corrosive, poisonous, gaseous, halogen element. It is usually considered
the most reactive of all the elements. Its freezing point is –220 °C, and its boiling point is –188 °C, which
makes it a cryogenic liquid. Its specific gravity in liquid state is 1.108 g/ml at its boiling point.

Chlorine is a greenish‐yellow gas that is highly irritating and capable of combining with nearly all other
elements. It is produced mainly by electrolysis of sodium chloride. Its freezing point is –101 °C; its boiling
point is –35 °C; and its specific gravity is 1.56 g/ml (at –34 °C).

Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5), which boils at –14 °C at one atmosphere pressure, must be pressurized to
maintain liquid form. Its density is 1.78 g/ml at +25 °C. Because chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) boils at +12 °C,
it is easier to handle than ClF5 but it must still be pressurized for shipping. Bromine pentafluoride (BrF5)
boils at +40 °C, but other characteristics such as shock sensitivity, toxicity, corrosiveness, and lower
specific impulse potential make it an impractical propellant.

Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) is a cryogenic oxidizer that boils at –130 °C and has a density of 1.55 g/ml at its
normal boiling point. Nitrogen tetrafluoride (N2F4) has a higher density and boiling point but is also
cryogenic.

Appearance (as packaged): Nitric acids and NTO/N2O4 variants are usually stored in stainless steel tanks
that have been specially prepared. Aluminum tanks and lines are also compatible with nitric acid.
Packages for shipping these chemicals use identifying words, warnings, labels, and symbols. MON must
be shipped in pressurized containers due to its high vapor pressure and low boiling point.

IRFNA is usually stored and shipped in aluminum tanks that have been specially prepared. Stainless steel
tanks and lines are also compatible.

Exotic propellants such as chlorine and fluorine are cryogenic liquids and are extremely reactive and
toxic. Accordingly, their shipping and handling are tightly regulated. Ordinary metal containers cannot
be used to contain them. Super‐cooled and pressurized tanks are required to ship in liquid form. Oxygen
difluoride (OF2) can be stored at low temperatures in glass‐lined, stainless steel tanks that have been
specially prepared.

4-19


4.C.4 .b. Oxidiser Substance usable in solid propellant rocket motors as follows:
1. Ammonium perchlorate (AP) (CAS 7790‐98‐9);
2. Ammonium dinitramide (ADN) (CAS 140456‐78‐6);
3. Nitro‐amines (cyclotetramethylene‐tetranitramine (HMX) (CAS 2691‐41‐0); cyclotetrimethylene‐
trinitramine (RDX) (CAS 121‐82‐4);
4. Hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF) (CAS 20773‐28‐8);
5. 2,4,6,8,10,12‐Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (CL‐20) (CAS 135285‐90‐4).
Nature and Purpose: Solid oxidizers provide oxygen needed to burn solid rocket motor fuel. By carrying
fuel and oxidizer together, the rocket does not depend on the atmosphere for oxygen. Nitro‐amines are
not oxidizers per se, but high explosives
added to propellants to increase their
performance.

Method of Operation: The solid
oxidizer is mixed evenly with fuels and
cast into a rocket motor. The oxygen
disassociates during the burn process
and becomes available to rapidly burn
available fuel and, by generating gases
exhausted at very high speeds, produce
thrust.

Figure 10: Two different ammonium perchlorate shipping containers. Typical Missile‐Related Uses: AP is an
(The Charles Stark Draper Laboratories & Kerr McGee)
oxidizing agent used by most modern
solid propellant formulas. Depending on
the formulation, it accounts for 50 % to 85 % of the propellant by weight.

ADN is an oxidizing agent for solid propellant. This material is used in a manner similar to AP.

HMX, commonly called Octogen, and RDX, commonly called Cyclonite, are high‐energy explosives often
added to solid propellants to lower the combustion temperature and reduce smoke. Usually less than 30
% of the propellant weight is HMX or RDX. 2,4,6,8,10,12‐Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane is about 20 %
more powerful than HMX. HNF is an energetic oxidizer used for solid rocket propellants; its combustion
is very efficient and when combined with modern binders, has a very small ecological impact as it is free
of chlorines.

Other Uses: AP is used in explosives, pyrotechnics, and analytical chemistry, and as an etching and
engraving agent. ADN has no known commercial uses. HMX and RDX are used in warheads, military and
civilian explosives, and oil well pipe cutters. HNF has no known commercial uses outside
aerospace/rocket propellant.

4-20


Appearance (as manufactured): AP is a white or, depending on purity, off‐white crystalline solid, similar
in appearance to common table salt. ADN is a white, waxy, crystalline solid that may appear as thin
platelets or small round pills. HMX and RDX are white crystalline materials that resemble very fine table
salt. 2,4,6,8,10,12‐Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane are crystalline materials. HNF is a yellow crystalline
material that resembles long needles, although further development has produced a granular form.

Appearance (as packaged): AP is usually packaged and shipped in 30‐ or 55‐gallon polyethylene‐lined
drums with oxidizer or explosive symbol markings. Two different types of AP containers and their
markings are shown in Figure 12. ADN is
packaged and shipped in a similar manner to
•Belgium •China AP. HMX and RDX are usually packaged and
•Denmark •France shipped either in water or alcohol (because
•Finland •Germany in dry form they are prone to explode) in 30‐
•India •Netherlands
or 55‐gallon polyethylene‐lined drums with
•Norway •Russian Federation oxidizer or explosive symbol markings.
•Spain •Switzerland

•Ukraine •United Arab Emirates
Additional Information: AP is generally
produced with an average particle size of
200 to 400 microns (70 to 40 mesh). The
•HNF
•Netherlands •United States density of AP is 1.95 g/cc, but the bulk
density is less and varies with particle size.
AP decomposes violently before it melts. The
chemical formula of AP is NH4ClO4. ADN has
Global production a density of 1.75 g/cc and a reported melting
point of 92‐95 °C. The chemical formula for
ADN is NH4N(NO2)2.

HMX and RDX are generally produced with a
particle size of 150 to 160 microns (100‐80 mesh). HMX has a density of 1.91 g/cc, a melting point of 275
°C, and a chemical formula of C4H8N8O8. RDX has a density of 1.81 g/cc, a melting point of 204 °C, and a
chemical formula of C3H6N6O6. HMX and RDX also decompose violently at their melting points.
4.C.5. Polymeric Substances as follows:

a. Carboxy‐terminated polybutadiene (including carboxyl‐terminated polybutadiene) (CTPB);
b. Hydroxy‐terminated polybutadiene (including hydroxyl‐terminated polybutadiene) (HTPB);
c. Glycidyl azide polymer (GAP);
d. Polybutadiene‐Acrylic Acid (PBAA);
e. Polybutadiene‐Acrylic Acid‐Acrylonitrile (PBAN);
f. Polytetrahydrofuran polyethylene glycol (TPEG).
Technical Note:
Polytetrahydrofuran polyethylene glycol (TPEG) is a block co‐polymer of poly 1,4‐Butanediol and
polyethylene glycol (PEG).

4-21


Nature and Purpose: These six polymers are chemicals used as a binder and fuel in solid rocket motor
propellant. They are liquids that polymerize during motor manufacture to form the elastic matrix that
holds the solid propellant ingredients together in a rubber‐like polymeric composite material. They also
burn as fuels and contribute to overall thrust. GAP is the only energetic polymer in this group. It provides
energy as a result of its decomposition during the combustion process.

Method of Operation: Batch mixers (or, rarely,
•China continuous mixers for very large scale production) are
•France used to blend carefully controlled ratios of rocket motor
•India propellant ingredients into the polymeric substance. The
•Japan viscous, well blended material is then cast into a rocket
•Russian Federation motor case, in which it polymerizes and adheres to either
•United States an interior liner or insulator inside the rocket motor case.
The result is a rocket motor fully loaded with solid
propellant.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These polymeric
Global production substances are used in the production of solid propellant
for solid rocket motors and hybrid rocket motors. They
are also used in the production of smaller solid rocket
motors used to launch UAVs and cruise missiles. These
binding ingredients greatly affect motor performance,
aging, storability, propellant processing, and reliability.

Although all these materials are of concern as potential solid propellant binders, HTPB is the preferred
binder. At present, no fielded ballistic missile systems use GAP or PBAA. CTPB and PBAN have largely
supplanted PBAA because of their superior mechanical and aging characteristics.

Other Uses: PBAN has no commercial uses. HTPB has extensive uses in asphalt and electronics, and as a
sealant.

Appearance (as manufactured): These six polymeric materials are clear, colorless, viscous liquids.
Antioxidants are added at the level of one percent or less at the time of manufacture in order to
improve shelf life; they impart a color to the materials that
may range from light yellow to dark brown. This color
depends on the type and amount of antioxidant used.

The viscosity of these six liquids ranges from that of light
syrup to that of heavy molasses. Except for GAP, which is
nearly odorless and has a specific density of 1.3 g/cc, the
polybutadiene‐based polymers have a distinctive
petroleum‐like odor and densities slightly less than that of Figure 11: A Polybutadiene‐Acrylic Acid‐
water (0.91 g/cc to 0.94 g/cc). Acrylonitrile (PBAN) shipping drum. (The
Charles Stark Draper Laboratories)

Appearance (as packaged): These liquids are usually shipped in 55‐gallon steel drums. The interiors of
the drums are usually coated with an epoxy paint or other material to prevent rusting. If the liquids are

4-22


shipped in stainless steel drums, the coating is not necessary. Smaller or larger containers may be used
depending on the quantity being shipped; tank‐cars or tank‐ trucks may be used to ship very large
quantities. An example of PBAN in its shipping drum is presented in Figure 13.
4.C.6. Other propellant additives and agents as follows:

a. Bonding agents as follows:
1. Tris (1‐(2‐methyl) aziridinyl) phosphine oxide (MAPO) (CAS 57‐39‐6);
2. 1,1',1" ‐trimesoyl‐tris (2‐ethylaziridine) (HX‐868, BITA) (CAS 7722‐73‐8);
3. Tepanol (HX‐878), reaction product of tetraethylenepentamine, acrylonitrile and
glycidol (CAS 68412‐46‐4);
4. Tepan (HX‐879), reaction product of tetraethylenepentamine and acrylonitrile (CAS
68412‐45‐3);
5. Polyfunctional aziridine amides with isophthalic, trimesic, isocyanuric, or
trimethyladipic backbone also having a 2‐methyl or 2‐ethylaziridine group;
Note:
Item 4.C.6.a.5 includes:
1. 1,1' ‐Isophthaloyl‐bis (2‐methylaziridine) (HX‐752) (CAS 7652‐64‐4);
2. 2,4,6‐tris (2‐ethyl‐1‐aziridinyl)‐ 1,3,5‐triazine (HX‐874) (CAS 18924‐91‐9);
3. 1,1' ‐trimethyladipoylbis (2‐ethylaziridine) (HX‐877) (CAS 71463‐62‐2).

Nature and Purpose: Propellant bonding agents are used to improve the bond or adhesion between the
binder and the oxidizer, typically AP. This process
vastly improves the physical properties of the
•MAPO propellant by increasing its capability to withstand
•France •India stress and strain. Bonding agents are normally used
•Japan •Russian Federation only with HTPB propellants. Some bonding agents
•United States are used as curing agents or cross‐linkers with CTPB
•BITA, Tepanol and Tepan, PAAs or PBAN propellants.
•United States
•The United States is the main producer Method of Operation: Bonding agents are added to
and supplier of these materials, but some the propellant during the mixing operation at levels
European and Asian countries may have usually less than 0.3 %. The bonding reacts with the
production licenses, and production of AP to produce a very thin polymeric coating on the
these materials may be more widespread surface of the AP particle. This polymeric coating
because the composition of these acts as an adhesive between the AP and the HTPB
materials is open‐source information and binder. The molecular structure stays much the
production methods are not difficult to same.
duplicate.
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Propellant bonding
agents are used to polymerize propellants (bond
Global production the oxidizer) for solid rocket motors. They are also
used in smaller rocket motors that launch UAVs,
including cruise missiles. MAPO is a curing agent for
CTPB prepolymers and a bonding agent for HTPB
4-23


prepolymers. BITA is a bonding agent with HTPB. Tepan is a bonding agent with HTPB. Polyfunctional
aziridene amides (PAAs) are bonding agents with HTPB and thickeners for CTPB and PBAN.

Other Uses: MAPO is used only in solid rocket propellants. BITA is used with HTPB in the commercial
sector, especially in electronics, as a sealant and a curing agent for CTPB prepolymers. Tepanol and
Tepan are used only in solid rocket propellants. PAAs are used in adhesives in the commercial sector.

Appearance (as manufactured): MAPO is a slightly viscous amber liquid. It has a very distinctive acrid
odor. It polymerizes violently if it comes into contact with acids and AP. Its boiling point is 1,200 °C at
0.004 bar; its density is 1.08 g/cc and its chemical formula is C9H18N3OP. BITA is a light yellow, viscous
liquid; when cooled below 160 °C, BITA is a pale, off‐white, waxy solid. BITA has no sharply defined
melting point, a density of 1.00 g/cc, and a chemical formula of C21H27N3O3. Tepanol is a dark yellow,
viscous liquid. It has a very strong odor like that of ammonia. Tepan is much less viscous than Tepanol
but identical to it in all other respects including a very strong odor like that of ammonia. PAAs are similar
to BITA.

Appearance (as packaged): MAPO is packaged and shipped in standard, 1‐ to 55‐gallon steel cans or
drums. BITA is packaged in 1‐gallon steel cans that are usually shipped in insulated containers packed
with dry ice and stored at 0 °C or less in order to maintain its useful shelf life. Tepanol, Tepan, and PAA
shipping and storage conditions are identical to BITA.

4.C.6.b. Curing reaction catalysts as follows:

Triphenyl bismuth (TPB) (CAS 603‐33‐8)

Nature and Purpose: Curing agents and catalysts are used to polymerize solid rocket motors; that is,
they cause the viscous mixture of liquid polymeric substance
and other solid propellant ingredients to solidify into a
rubbery composite that adheres to the inner lining or
•France insulator inside the motor case.
•Japan
•Switerzland Method of Operation: TPB is added in small quantities to
•United States HTPB to trigger a relatively mild chemical reaction known as
polymerization. The molecular structure of HTPB stays
Global much the same but the material converts from liquid to
production solid form due to molecular cross‐linking.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: TPB is used as a cure catalyst
in HTPB solid rocket propellants.

Other Uses: TPB is used in some plastics.

Appearance (as manufactured): TPB is a white to light tan crystalline powder. TPB has a density of 1.7
g/cc, a melting point of 78 °C, and the chemical formula C18H15Bi.

4-24


Appearance (as packaged): TPB is packed in brown glass containers because of its sensitivity to light.
These containers range in capacity from a few grams to 5 kg. When shipped in larger quantities, TPB
may be packed in polyethylene bags inside fiber packs or cardboard cartons.
4.C.6.c. Burning rate modifiers as follows:

1. Carboranes, decaboranes, pentaboranes and derivatives thereof;
2. Ferrocene derivatives, as follows:
a. Catocene (CAS 37206‐42‐1);
b. Ethyl ferrocene (CAS 1273‐89‐8);
c. Propyl ferrocene;
d. n‐Butyl‐ferrocene (CAS 31904‐29‐7);
e. Pentyl ferrocene (CAS 1274‐00‐6);
f. Dicyclopentyl ferrocene;
g. Dicyclohexyl ferrocene;
h. Diethyl ferrocene (CAS 1273‐97‐8);
i. Dipropyl ferrocene;
j. Dibutyl ferrocene (CAS 1274‐08‐4);
k. Dihexyl ferrocene (CAS 93894‐59‐8);
l. Acetyl ferrocenes;
m. Ferrocene Carboxylic acids;
n. Butacene (CAS 125856‐62‐4);
o. Other ferrocene derivatives usable as rocket propellant burning rate modifiers;
Note:
Item 4.C.6.c.2.0. does not control ferrocene derivatives that contain a six carbon aromatic
functional group attached to the ferrocene molecule.

Nature and Purpose: Burning rate modifiers are chemical additives to solid rocket propellant that alter
the rate at which the fuel burns. The purpose is to tailor the rocket motor burn time to meet
requirements.

Method of Operation: Burning rate modifiers are blended in carefully controlled quantities into rocket
motor propellant during production.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: They are added to propellant to modify burn rates and allow designers to
tailor the thrust profile to meet requirements.

Other Uses: Some borane derivatives have commercial uses as catalysts in olefin polymerization, water
treatment, used in the pharmaceutical industry for disease diagnosis treatment, and as agents in rubber
vulcanization.

Appearance (as manufactured): Catocene is a slightly viscous, dark red liquid but appears yellow in a
thin film or as a yellow stain on white cloth or paper. It is a mixture of six isomers, all with high boiling
4-25


temperatures. It is insoluble in water but soluble in most organic solvents. It has a density of 1.145 g/cc,
slightly greater than that of water. Catocene has the chemical formula C27H32Fe2. Catocene, the
commercial trade name for 2,2’‐bis (ethylferrocenyl) propane, is probably the most widely used
ferrocene in the propellant industry. All ferrocene derivatives contain iron and are added to propellants
containing AP.

Ferrocene and its derivates is an orange to yellow
•For Catocene
•United States powder crystal. It is an organometallic compound that
•For Ferrocene derivatives has a sandwich structure. It is a fuel additive designed to
•China prevent knocking in rocket engines. It has a melting point
•France of 173 °C.
•Germany
•Japan N‐butyl ferrocene and other ferrocene derivatives are
•Russian Federation similar in appearance to Catocene. Ferrocenes have

•Switzerland fewer applications in Category I missiles than in smaller
•United Kingdom tactical missiles. They increase propellant sensitivity to
•United States accidental ignition by friction and electrostatic discharge.
•For Borane derivatives
•France Butacene is unique as it is both an HTPB binder and a
•Russian Federation burn rate modifier. It is a very high‐viscosity liquid that
•United Kingdom resembles a very heavy, dark corn syrup or molasses.
•United States
•For Butacene
Carboranes, decarboranes, pentaboranes, and their
•France
derivatives are clear, colorless liquids with no distinct
odor. The most common carborane derivatives used in
solid propellants are n‐hexyl carborane and
Global production carboranylmethyl propionate. Carboranes may cause
nerve damage, according to a few studies. Alkali metal
salts of decarboranes and pentaboranes are white
powders. Most borane derivatives are less dense than
water and are toxic. Borane derivatives are used to
produce extremely high burn rates in solid propellants. Borane derivatives are extremely expensive to
produce. They are rarely used in ballistic missile propellants.

Appearance (as packaged): All of these materials are shipped in steel drum containers ranging in
capacity from 1 gal to 55 gal.

4-26


4.C.6 .d. Esters and plasticisers as follows:

1. Triethylene glycol dinitrate (TEGDN) (CAS 111‐22‐8);
2. Trimethylolethane trinitrate (TMETN) (CAS 3032‐55‐1);
3. 1,2,4‐butanetriol trinitrate (BTTN) (CAS 6659‐60‐5);
4. Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN) (CAS 693‐21‐0);
5. 4,5 diazidomethyl ‐2‐methyl‐1,2,3‐triazole (iso‐DAMTR);
6. Nitratoethylnitramine (NENA) based plasticisers, as follows:
a. Methyl‐NENA (CAS 17096‐47‐8);
b. Ethyl‐NENA (CAS 85068‐73‐1);
c. Butyl‐NENA (CAS 82486‐82‐6);
7. Dinitropropyl based plasticisers, as follows:
a. Bis (2,2‐dinitropropyl) acetal (BDNPA) (CAS 5108‐69‐0);
b. Bis (2,2‐dinitropropyl) formal (BDNPF) (CAS 5917‐61‐3);

Nature and Purpose: These nitrate esters, also known as nitrated plasticizers, are additives to solid
rocket propellants used to increase their burn rate.

Method of Operation: Nitrate esters and nitrated plasticizers are liquid explosives that contain enough
oxygen to support their own combustion. They are generally added to high performance propellants
containing HMX and aluminum to achieve higher performance.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Nitrate esters and nitrated plasticizers are added to double‐base
propellants to increase their propulsive energy. Because plasticizers do not react with the cure agents
and remain liquid at low temperatures, they make solid propellants less likely to crack or shrink in cold
temperatures.

Other Uses: Nitrate esters are used as components of
military and commercial explosives.
•Any country can acquire the

capability to produce these
Appearance (as manufactured): Nitrate esters are dense,
products. Any country that has
oily liquids ranging in color from clear to slightly yellow.
set up a nitration plant, such as
for the production of explosives,
could produce a variety of these Appearance (as packaged): Nitrate esters are shipped in 5 to
nitrate esters. 55 gallon steel drums marked with labels indicating
explosives. Except for BTTN, these nitrate esters are shipped
Global undiluted unless the end‐user requests that they be shipped
production diluted with a solvent. Because of its sensitivity to shock,
BTTN is shipped diluted with either methylene chloride or
acetone. When diluted with methylene chloride, BTTN has a
sweet odor like that of chloroform. When diluted with
acetone, it has an odor like that of nail polish. When
stabilizers are added (usually at the 1.0 % level) the nitrate ester acquires a deep red color.
4-27


4.C.6 .e. Stabilisers as follows:
1. 2‐Nitrodiphenylamine (CAS 119‐75‐5);
2. N‐methyl‐p‐nitroaniline (CAS 100‐15‐2).

Nature and Purpose: 2‐nitrodiphenylamine (2‐NDPA) and N‐methyl‐p‐nitroaniline (MNA) are additives
that inhibit or reduce decomposition of rocket fuels containing nitrate esters or nitrocellulose. These
types of propellants are referred to as double‐base, composite‐modified double‐base, or cross‐linked
double‐base propellants.

Method of Operation: These stabilizers alter the chemical environment within the propellant to reduce
decomposition of its constituents.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These stabilizers make composite propellants less subject to the effects of
aging. As a result, they increase the effective lifetime of solid propellant missiles.

Other Uses: 2‐NDPA is used in explosives as a nitroglycerin stabilizer. It is used widely throughout the
ammunition industry. MNA has no known commercial uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): In its pure state, 2‐NDPA
•2‐NDPA is a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a density of 1.15
•France g/cc and a melting point of 74‐76 °C. The chemical
•Japan formula for 2‐NDPA is C12H10N2O2. When exposed to light,
•Switzerland
2‐NDPA turns to a dark orange color.
•United Kingdom

•United States
MNA is also a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a density
•MNA
•Switzerland of 1.20 g/cc and a melting point of 152–154 °C. The
•United Kingdom chemical formula for MNA is C7H8N2O2.
•United States
Appearance (as packaged): When shipped in small
quantities, 2‐NDPA and MNA are packaged in brown glass
containers because they are sensitive to light. When
Global production
shipped in larger quantities, they are packaged in
polyethylene bags and placed inside fiberpack or
cardboard containers.

4-28


4.D. Software
4.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 4.B. for the
"production" and handling of materials specified in 4.C.
Nature and Purpose: Process‐control software can be used in liquid propellant manufacturing facilities
to automate the procedures required to produce these chemicals. Usually, liquid propellants are toxic,
hazardous to handle and highly flammable
or readily support combustion. Automated
methods for producing these propellants
•Argentina •Australia reduce risk and result in consistent output.
•Austria •Belgium
•Brazil •Bulgaria Analytical equipment used in liquid
•Canada •China propellant acceptance‐testing laboratories is
•Czech Republic •Egypt largely automated. Usually, this off‐the‐shelf
•Finland •France test equipment produces reliable and
•Germany •Greece accurate analyses with no modification to
•India •Iran the operating software.
•Israel •Italy
•Japan •Luxembourg Solid propellant production facilities rely on
•Netherlands •New Zealand remote control operations and robotics to
•North Korea •Pakistan move the composite propellant materials
•Poland •Russian Federation
from storage to the mixing equipment. This
•Slovak Republic •South Africa
procedure is extremely hazardous as
•South Korea •Spain
mistakes usually result in explosions that can
destroy the mixing facility. Computer‐based
•Syria •Ukraine
•United Kingdom •United States mixing systems are used to measure the
proper amount of propellant ingredient into
motorized hoppers that move from the
storage facility to the mixing equipment,
usually located in remote areas to minimize
Global production the results of an accidental explosion. The
hopper dumps its load into the mixing bowl
then it returns for another load of the same
ingredient or returns to the storage area.
The second ingredient and any additives are
added to the mixing bowl in the same way. After the propellant is poured into the motor case, computer‐
assisted equipment is used to machine (smooth) the grain pattern in the center of the motor.

Analytical equipment used to evaluate solid propellant also relies on automated equipment to determine
its chemical composition. Propellant samples are ignited and the properties of these samples are
4-29


analyzed in bomb calorimeters and infrared spectrometers. Solid propellant samples are also evaluated
for mechanical strength and ability to withstand stress and strain in computer‐aided stress/strain test
and measuring equipment.

Method of Operation: The software is loaded on computers as small as a PC to control the specified
process. Software used to control the electromechanical valves and other equipment found in a
chemical plant can be used to manage fluid transfer, heat management and other processes used to
manufacture liquid propellants. Numeric control machines are used to mill and machine the surfaces of
solid propellant motor cores to remove waste left when the mandrel is removed from the motor.
Robotic equipment and computer‐assisted manufacturing procedures are used to measure the solid
propellant ingredients and to move these ingredients from separate storage areas to the mixing bowl.
The mixing operation is completed under remote control, usually with video cameras recording the
operation. The video is used later as an analysis tool if an accident occurs that destroys the facility.

Other Uses: Much of the software used in the production of liquid and solid propellants is used as is or
modified from other purposes to support propellant production.


and accompanying documentation can indicate its use, unless the software is run on the appropriate
computer. This technology, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network
4.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment or materials specified in 4.B. and 4.C.

Nature and Purpose: Propellant technology is the know‐how to manufacture propellant production
equipment, to understand the processes used to manufacture liquid or solid propellants, to test the
results of the production processes, and to use the equipment and facilities to produce this material.
The equipment and facilities necessary to produce reliable and high‐quality propellant in suitable
quantities requires knowledge that is often gained by experimentation.

Method of Operation: The technology used to design liquid propellant production facilities can be
gained from chemical engineering textbooks. Building and operating these facilities is more complex and
requires additional skills, often honed through experience. The required know‐how can be acquired
from countries that have the capabilities. A country may receive technical assistance from one or more
consultant services that specialize in a particular propellant‐manufacturing skill. The country may
request outside assistance to plan and operate the facility until an indigenous capability develops and

4-30


matures. Any manuals and materials received from this assistance may qualify as technical data.
Technical assistance can also take the form of assistance in the procurement of the machines,
equipment or materials needed for propellant production.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This technology is used to produce propellants used to power missiles.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): N/A.

4-31


Reserved for future use
Category II – Item 5: Reserved for future use
5- 1


Category II – Item 6: Production of Structural Components, Pyrolytic
Production of Structural
Deposition and Densification, and Structural Materials
Components, Pyrolytic
Deposition and Densification,
and Structural Materials
6- 1



6.A.1. Composite structures, laminates, and manufactures thereof, specially designed for use in the
systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. and the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.

Nature and Purpose: Composites and laminates are used to make missile parts that are often lighter
weight, stronger, and more durable than parts made of metals or other materials.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Composites and laminates are generally used in critical structural
components of ballistic missiles or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), including cruise missiles. Uses
include solid rocket motor cases, interstages,
wings, inlets, nozzles, heat shields, nosetips,
structural members, and frames.
•China •Denmark
•France •Germany Other Uses: Composite structures can be formed
•Israel •India into almost any shape to meet required needs;
•Japan •Russian Federation they can increase the speed of product
•South Africa •Sweden manufacturing, and allow greater flexibility in the
•United Kingdom •United States configuration of the final product. They are used
both in civilian and military aircraft, recreational
products (skis, tennis racquets, boats, and golf
clubs), auto parts and in infrastructure (bridge
Global Production repairs and small bridges).

Appearance (as manufactured): Composites
assume the shape of the object, mandrel or tool
on which they are formed, but they are
lightweight compared to metallic structures. The
reinforcement used to make a composite often
results in a textile‐like pattern on the surface of the object, especially when prepregged cloth is used.
Even when cloth is not used, the linear pattern of the tape may still be present; however, a coating like
paint sometimes may conceal this pattern.

Appearance (as packaged): Composite structures are packaged much like other structures, with foam or
other materials to protect them from surface abrasions or distortions from stress.

6- 2


6.A.2. Resaturated pyrolised (i.e. carbon‐carbon) components having all of the following:
a. Designed for rocket systems; and
b. Usable in the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.
Nature and Purpose: Carbon‐carbon is a composite of carbon

fiber, usually made from pitch, rayon, or polyacrylonitrile (PAN),
in a carbon‐dominated matrix. It is usually made by using a high‐
content carbon resin as the initial matrix and then driving off the
non‐carbon elements through high heat. It is lightweight, highly
heat‐resistant, thermal‐shock‐resistant, and malleable for
shaping.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Carbon‐carbon materials are used
for items such as rocket motor exit cones and nozzles, and re‐
entry vehicle (RV) nosetips, heat shields, and leading edges of
control surfaces that must resist the effects of high
temperatures and ablation. Figure 1 shows the results of a 300‐
second arcjet test on a carbon‐carbon nose cone coated with
layered silicone‐carbide. No mass or dimensional changes in the
structure of the cone were evident after exposure to extremely
high temperatures. Figure 1: The effects of high temperatures
on a carbon‐carbon nose cone are seen
after 15 seconds (upper image) and 295
Other Uses: Carbon‐carbon structures are used in military and seconds. (Ultramet Advanced Materials
civilian aircraft applications such as high‐temperature brake Solutions)
shoes, and in other
applications requiring high strength and low weight such as wing
roots. They can also be used for tooling requiring long life in
severe, usually high‐temperature manufacturing environments,
•France such as pouring ladles for steel, heaters for high‐temperature
•India furnaces, and hot press tools.
•Japan
•Russian Federation Appearance (as manufactured): Typical carbon‐carbon materials
•United Kingdom designed for rocket systems are black and have a patterned
•United States surface as a result of textile reinforcement. Nosetips and rocket
nozzles are usually machined from blocks or billets or can be
woven to shape.
Global
Production Appearance (as packaged): Before machining, blocks of carbon‐
carbon material are rugged enough to be packed in filler and
shipped in cardboard boxes. Machined parts require careful
packaging because, although resistant to breaking (impact
resistant), they can easily be gouged or scraped.
6- 3


6.B.1. Equipment for the "production" of structural composites, fibres, prepregs or preforms, usable
in the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2., as follows, and specially designed components,
and accessories therefor:
a. Filament winding machines or fibre placement machines, of which the motions for positioning,
wrapping and winding fibres can be co‐ordinated and programmed in three or more axes, designed
to fabricate composite structures or laminates from fibrous or filamentary materials, and co‐
ordinating and programming controls;
Nature and Purpose: Filament winding machines and fiber placement machines lay strong fibers coated
with an epoxy or polyester resin onto rotating mandrels in prescribed patterns to create high strength‐
to‐weight ratio composite parts. The winding machines look and operate somewhat like a lathe. After
the winding operation is completed, the part requires
autoclave and hydroclave curing.

Method of Operation: First, a mandrel is built to form
the proper inner dimensions required by the part to
•Italy •Japan
be created. The mandrel is mounted on the filament
•Netherlands •Russian Federation
winding machine and rotated. As it spins, it draws
•United Kingdom •United States continuous fiber from supply spools through an epoxy
or polyester resin bath and onto the outer surface of
the mandrel. After winding, the mandrel and the part
Global Production built up on it are removed from the machine, and the
part is allowed to cure before the mandrel is removed
in one of a variety of ways. Common types of
mandrels include water‐soluble spider/plaster
mandrels; and segmented, collapsible mandrels.
Large motor cases for solid rocket motors are usually
manufactured on water‐soluble sand mandrels. Non‐removable liners are sometimes also used. For
example, metal‐lined pressure vessels are made by using a metal liner as the mandrel, which is simply
left inside the wound case.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Filament winding machines and fiber placement machines are used to
make rocket motor cases, propellant tanks, pressure vessels, and payload shrouds. The high strength
and low weight of the resulting structures make increased missile ranges and payload rates possible.

Other Uses: Filament winding machines and fiber placement machines are used to produce aircraft parts
such as tail stabilizers, parts of wings, and the fuselage. They can be used to make liquid natural gas
tanks, hot water tanks, compressed natural gas tanks, golf club shafts, tennis racquets, and fishing rods.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size of filament winding machines and fiber placement machines
varies with the size of the part to be made. Filament winders used to manufacture parts 10 cm in
6- 4


diameter measure about 1 m x 2 m x 7 m and can fit on a tabletop. Winders for large components, such
as large rocket motor segments, are approximately 3 m diameter and 8 m in length and weigh several
tons (see Figure 2); advanced winding machines are computer numerically controlled and can wind
complex shapes to meet special requirements.

Figure 2: Left: A graphite epoxy case produced using an advanced filament winding machine. (ATK) Center: Tabletop
filament‐winding machine. (Thiokol Corp.) Right: A filament‐winding machine with multiple spools of fiber. (Ibid)

Appearance (as packaged): The size of filament winding machines dictates their packaging. Smaller
machines are crated in shock‐absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets isolated from other
packages. Larger machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled on‐site, and their
components are packaged separately in crates or on pallets.
6.B.1.b. Tape‐laying machines of which the motions for positioning and laying tape and sheets
can be co‐ordinated and programmed in two or more axes, designed for the manufacture of
composite airframes and missile structures;
Nature and Purpose: Tape‐laying machines

resemble filament winding machines but are used in
applications that have sufficiently gradual contours
or angles to allow the use of thick or wide tapes. The
•France •Germany purpose of using a tape‐laying machine instead of a
•Italy •Japan filament winding machine is to reduce the number
•Netherlands •Russian Federation of revolutions of the mandrel needed to wind the
•United Kingdom •United States part produced. This speeds up production and
lowers cost.

Method of Operation: Tape‐laying machines
Global Production operate much like filament winding machines. The
head on tape‐laying machines can handle tape of
various widths. Structures with little curvature use
tapes with larger widths (up to about 30 cm).
Structures with moderate to large curvature use
tapes in smaller widths or apply them on the bias
6- 5


with respect to the principal direction of curvature.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Tape‐laying machines are used to make RV heat shields, exit nozzles,
igniters, and other parts exposed to high temperatures.
Other Uses: Tape‐laying machines can be used to make many of the items made by filament winding
machines, but they are most advantageously used to produce items that are generally cylindrical.
Examples are certain aircraft parts, tubes for bicycle frames, and water heaters. They are also used to
make columns for bridge supports, containers, and pipes. They are extensively used to wrap high‐
temperature, down‐hole pipe in oil‐drilling operations.


Figure 3: An automated tape‐laying machine head. (Automated Dynamics)

Appearance (as manufactured): The size of tape‐laying machines varies with the size of the required
parts. Machines are either operator assisted or Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC). CNC machines
have a keyboard to input data for the desired composite lay‐ups. The flatbed, which is the dominant
feature of the machine, measures 1 m to 2 m in length for the manufacture of small parts and 10 m for
very large parts. The weight of large machines with a steel table and gantry could be 1000 to 2000 metric
tons. An example of a tape‐laying machine is shown in Figures 3.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of tape‐laying machines dictates their packaging. Smaller machines
are crated in shock‐absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets isolated from other packages.
Larger machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled on‐site, and their components are
packaged separately in crates or on pallets.

6- 6


6.B.1.c. Multi‐directional, multi‐dimensional weaving machines or interlacing machines, including

adapters and modification kits for weaving, interlacing or braiding fibres to manufacture composite
structures;
Note:
6.B.1.c. does not control textile machinery not modified for the end‐uses stated.

Nature and Purpose: Multi‐directional, multi‐dimensional weaving machines are used to interlink fibers
to make complex composite structures. Braiding machines provide a general method of producing multi‐
directional material preforms. The purpose is to systematically lay down fibers along anticipated lines of
stress in complex preform configurations and thereby make the parts stronger and lighter‐weight than
otherwise possible.

Weaving machines require intricate handling mechanisms to interlink fibers, with spools and
rotation/movement mechanisms integral within each machine. Some machines, particularly those used
for RV heat shields, are mounted on a bed and rely on
rigid rods in at least one direction to stabilize the weave
•France geometry. For weaving machines used to manufacture
•Germany three‐dimensional (3‐D) polar preforms, the basic
•Japan network construction needed to do the weaving includes
•Netherlands pierced plates with specially designed hole patterns, plain
•United States plates, metallic rods, knitting needles, retraction blades,
and, if the process is fully automated, the machinery
•Textile machinery not controlled and required to operate the knitting needles and retraction
readily modified for low‐end use can be blades. The sub‐elements for other types of weaving
purchased in many countries. depend on the specific design of the machine.

Method of Operation: In one system, a weaving mandrel
is first installed onto the machine. As the mandrel
Global Production assembly rotates, circumferential fibers are continuously
laid down at the weaving site by a tubular fiber delivery
system, which includes fiber‐tensioning devices and
missing‐fiber sensors. At each pie‐shaped corridor
formed by the weaving network, a radial knitting needle
traverses the corridor, captures a radial fiber at the inside of the port, and returns to the outside of the
port, where it makes a locking stitch that prevents movement of the radial fiber during subsequent
operations. This process is continued and completed by final lacing.

Braiding machines intertwine two or more systems of fibers in the bias direction to form an integrated
structure instead of lacing them only in a longitudinal direction as in weaving. Thus, braided material
differs from woven and knitted fabrics in the method by which fiber is introduced into the fabric and in
the manner by which the fibers are interlaced.

6- 7


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Multi‐directional, multi‐dimensional weaving machines are used to make
critical missile parts such as RV nose tips, rocket motor cases and rocket nozzles that are exposed to high
temperatures and stress.
Other Uses: Weaving machines are used to make a broad range of complex composite parts such as
aircraft propellers, windmill spars, skis, utility poles, and sporting goods.


Figure 4: Left: A 144 carrier overhead gantry braiding machine. (Wardwell Braiding Machine Co.) Right: Prototype of a multi‐
directional weaving machine under development. (MD Fibertech Corp)
Appearance (as manufactured): A weaving machine has a work area on a rotating table with a network
of rods penetrating pierced plates around which the fiber is woven. The work area is surrounded by
spooled fiber dispensers and by weaving and lacing needles. The drive motors, cams, and push rods that
do the weaving are also mounted on the main frame of the machine.

Weaving machines used to make small parts might measure 2 m in length and 1 m in width. Those used
to make large parts might be 10 m long if arranged horizontally or 10 m high if arranged vertically.
Braiding machines can be either floor‐mounted or have an overhead gantry supporting the spindle on
which the preform is made. In either configuration, the fiber is fed to the spindle radially through a large
wheel centered on the spindle. The control panel is located at the center of the gantry in order to
monitor preform development.

Appearance (as packaged): The packaging of weaving machines depends on their size. Smaller machines
can be completely encased in packing crates. The components of larger machines are disassembled for
shipping and reassembled on‐site, and are packaged separately in crates or on pallets. It is likely that
one large crate contains the machine frame. All components are suitably protected from shock and
vibration during transportation and handling.

6- 8


6.B.1.d. Equipment designed or modified for the production of fibrous or filamentary materials as
follows:
1. Equipment for converting polymeric fibres (such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon or polycarbosilane)
including special provision to strain the fibre during heating;

Nature and Purpose: Polymeric fibers are precursors to high‐temperature carbon and ceramic fibers that
have great strength and stiffness at high temperatures. The conversion from a polymer to a high‐
temperature fiber occurs when the polymeric fiber is stretched and heated while exposed to a specific
reactive atmosphere. The equipment controlled under this subitem heats, stretches, and exposes the
fiber to the required reactive atmosphere.

Method of Operation: The polymeric fibers are fed into a machine with controlled tension, speed,
temperature, and atmosphere. The fiber path is usually long and complex because the total time for the
conversion is lengthy so higher production rates require a
longer fiber processing length. The fiber passes through a
•Germany series of furnaces with controlled temperature and
•Japan atmosphere, and is driven at higher and higher speeds to
•Russian Federation convert it into a small diameter, high‐temperature fiber
•United Kingdom with a high degree of crystallographic order. Critical pieces
•United States of equipment include the process controllers, which
maintain the desired temperatures at each step, and the
textile rollers and drive motors, which carry product
Global through the various heat treatment steps.
Production
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The equipment is used to
convert or strain synthetic fibers to produce fibers used in
missile applications where great strength and low weight
are paramount. These fibers are used in missiles to
improve the strength of the motor case, fairing, and propellant tank while reducing weight and thereby
increasing the range and payload capacity of the missile.
Other Uses: The equipment is used to convert polymeric fibers for many uses, including aircraft
structures, tires, golf clubs, and boat hulls.

Appearance (as manufactured): Describing the appearance of the equipment used to convert polymeric
fibers is difficult because of the variety of ways in which equipment layout can occur. The layout is
usually tailored to the production building and covers considerable floor space. The most noticeable
items are the many precision rollers and the mechanisms for their control. The rollers are typically 8 cm
to 20 cm in diameter by 30 cm to 120 cm long, with their size related to the ovens in which they are to be
used. Drive rollers are used to slowly pull the organic precursor fiber through an oven under controlled
tension. The drive rollers are typically made of polished stainless steel or chrome‐plated steel and are
6- 9


either driven in a manner to keep the filaments at a constant tension or are driven at a preprogrammed
rate to elongate the filaments as a part of the process. Thus, rollers may be driven by individual motors
on their shafts or proportionately driven by gears from one motor‐driven shaft.

The machinery is designed to allow the fiber to make several passes through the heated zone with
precise control of the speed of the fiber, the temperature in each zone of the furnace, and the tension on
the fiber. The fiber must pass through several of these furnaces because the process requires a wide
variety of different reactions. A typical fiber‐drawing oven system has many rollers and isolated heating
zones in the furnace. The size of the equipment varies widely.

Typically, the vertical‐treating oven systems are used for higher temperature thermal treatment.
However, the diverse treatments required to produce a carbon or other refractory fiber from a polymeric
fiber demand that several pieces of equipment be used. Typical requirements include low‐temperature
furnaces with critical textile handling systems and high‐temperature ovens with fiber handling capability
for conversion of the fiber to its final state.

Appearance (as packaged): The ovens, furnaces, and processing equipment needed to produce carbon
fibers vary in packaging depending on their size, weight, and sensitivity to environmental factors.
Generally, laboratory versions of the equipment can be completely crated and shipped by rail or truck.
Larger furnaces designed for commercial use generally have to be shipped in component units and
assembled on‐site. However, some of the furnaces can be of such large diameter that they must be
specially handled as oversize cargo. The weight for these larger furnaces approaches 1000 metric tons or
more.
6.B.1.d.
2. Equipment for the vapour deposition of elements or compounds on heated filament substrates;

Nature and Purpose: The equipment for vapor deposition applies a very thin coating to filaments and
thereby changes the properties of the filaments in several different ways. Metallic coatings are
conductive and add abrasion resistance; some ceramic coatings protect fibers from reacting with either
the atmosphere or adjacent materials. Coatings may also
improve the eventual compatibility of the fibers with a
matrix material, as is the case for some metal matrix
•Germany composites.
•Japan
Method of Operation: This equipment provides a suitable
partial vacuum environment for condensing or depositing a
•United Kingdom
coating on filaments. The vapor deposition process has
•United States
several variations; two of the most important basic
processes are chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical
Global vapor deposition (PVD).
Production
The CVD process deposits solid inorganic coatings from a
reacting or decomposing gas at an elevated temperature.
6-10


Sometimes this process occurs in a radio‐frequency‐generated plasma to ensure thermal uniformity and
improve the quality of CVD coatings in a process called plasma‐assisted CVD (PACVD). The PVD
processes use sputtering, evaporation, and ion plating to deposit the coating on the filaments. The
equipment for PVD is similar to the equipment for CVD except that the chamber does not have to
operate at a high temperature and does not require a reactive gas supply.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The equipment for the deposition of elements on heated filaments
produces fibers used in rocket motor nozzles and RV nose tips.
Other Uses: This equipment coats fibers used in jet aircraft. PACVD is currently an important technique
for the fabrication of thin films in the microelectronics industry and has been applied to the continuous
coating of carbon fibers.

Appearance (as manufactured): CVD and PVD chamber configurations vary greatly. Some are long tubes
with seals at each end that permit the passage of filaments but not gases. Others are large chambers, 2
m to 3 m on a side, with room enough to hold the filament spools, filament guide equipment including
spreading and tensioning rollers, a hot zone if needed, and the reactant gases. Because of this variation,
the only standardized and readily recognizable parts of the equipment are the gas supply system, a large
power supply, vacuum pumps, and possibly the instrumentation that controls the temperature. In all
cases, the power supplies are of substantial size and weight, typically greater than 0.6 m x 0.9 m x 1.5 m
with water inlets for cooling, pumping, and safety cutoffs. PACVD equipment looks like a conventional
CVD or PVD system except that it has a radio‐frequency (RF) power supply to produce the plasma.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging varies depending on size, weight, and sensitivity to environmental
factors. Generally, laboratory versions of the equipment can be completely crated and shipped by rail or
truck. However, even laboratory versions generally have components packaged separately so that the
textile spools, motors, and special glassware can receive adequate protection. Larger systems designed
for commercial use are usually shipped as subassemblies or components and assembled on‐site.
6.B.1.d.
3. Equipment for the wet‐spinning of refractory ceramics (such as aluminium oxide);

Nature and Purpose: Wet‐spinning equipment is used to
•Germany produce long filaments from a mixture of liquids and solids.
•Japan These filaments are further processed to produce high‐
•Russian Federation strength, high‐temperature ceramic filaments for ceramic or
metal‐matrix composites.
•United Kingdom

•United States
Method of Operation: In wet‐spinning of refractory
ceramics, a slurry of fiber‐like particles is physically and
Global chemically treated and drawn into a filament through an
Production orifice called a spinneret. The chamber in which the
filaments are created either rotates or contains an internal
mixing device, either of which produce the vortex in which
6-11


filament entanglement occurs. The material emerges from the spinneret and is solidified by a
temperature or chemical change, depending on the binder system used in the wet bath surrounding the
spinneret. The bath supports and stabilizes the filaments produced as it cools.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The wet‐spinning equipment is used to make high‐grade ceramic fibers for
making missile nose tips and rocket engine nozzles. Such fibers are also used to produce some ramjet
and turbojet engine parts applicable to cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Wet‐spinning equipment is used to make ceramic fibers for producing engine parts for small
gas turbine engines, chemical processing containers, and high‐temperature structural applications.
Ceramic fibers or whiskers can be combined with other composite materials to enhance strength and
high‐heat resistance in many commercial products.

Appearance (as manufactured): A major component of wet‐spinning equipment is the cylindrical
chemical reaction chamber. Although glassware is acceptable for laboratory and prototype wet‐spinning
equipment, stainless steel or glass‐lined reaction chambers are used for production grade wet‐spinning
equipment. Typically, the chamber is vertically oriented and tapered at the bottom, where the dies that
extrude the filaments are located.

Other equipment associated with the chemical reaction chamber includes a cylindrical vessel (much
longer than its diameter) that contains the chemical slurry from which the filament is produced; a
pressure gauge and gas exhaust line attached to the vessel; a tube assembly containing sections of both
fixed and rotating glass tubes; a ball valve connected to the fixed glass tube; a motor and controller for
driving the rotating tube; and a snubber roller and take‐up reel for the finished filaments.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging is typical of any similarly sized industrial equipment. Generally,
fully assembled laboratory versions of the equipment can be crated and shipped by rail or truck.
Components of larger equipment designed for commercial use are shipped in separate boxes or crates
and assembled on‐site.
6.B.1.e. Equipment designed or modified for special fibre surface treatment or for producing
prepregs and preforms, including rollers, tension stretchers, coating equipment, cutting equipment
and clicker dies.

Nature and Purpose: Fiber surface treatment and prepregging equipment is used to coat fibers in
preparation for making high quality composite materials. Surface treatments improve adhesion or
change electrical properties of the fibers; prepregging adds enough resin to the fiber (or filaments,
roving, or tape) for curing it into a composite.

Method of Operation: The fiber filaments, roving, or tape to be processed in this equipment is passed
through a series of dip baths made up of liquid reactants for etching or resins (sizings). A reactant etches
or activates the surface of the fiber for additional operations. Materials are fed on rollers through a bath
of reactants in a simple dip operation. The number and speed of rollers in the bath determines how long
the part is etched or how much sizing is retained. Heaters are used to modify the reactivity of the etch
6-12


system, to control the viscosity of the sizing bath, to promote chemical reactions that make the sizing
stable, and to dry the product.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment is used to surface treat various fibers used in the
manufacture of missile parts in order to improve bonding and to give additional strength to missile
components such as nose tips, motor cases, and exhaust nozzles.

Other Uses: This equipment is identical to that used to make the fibers for all commercial applications of
composite technology from boat hulls to golf clubs.
Figure 5: Left: A prepreg machine constructed by the Composite Materials Group for the production of prepreg materials
using fibers and resins. (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven) Right: A machine adding resin to seven lines of roving. (Hunting
Engineering, Ltd.)

Appearance (as manufactured): A laboratory bench with small rollers and heater guns is the only
equipment needed to treat or prepreg fiber on a prototype basis. For production‐level activity, the textile
handling equipment is much larger so that multiple lines
can be treated at the same time. The process may also
involve heater stacks many stories high. All of the
•France systems have rollers for keeping the textile material
•Germany moving, maintaining tension on the fiber, and squeezing
•Sweden out excess liquid, as well as an oven with a complex path
•Switzerland over the rollers so that the filaments traverse the oven
•United Kingdom several times.
•United States
Appearance (as packaged): The packaging of the
equipment, with the exception of small laboratory
apparatus, usually requires that components be shipped
Global Production separately and assembled on‐site. The reason is that the
base, the vats for holding chemicals, and the textile
handling apparatus require different types of packaging
protection. The vats for chemicals can be packaged in
simple corrugated boxes, but the rollers, which have a
precision or special surface finish to avoid damaging the
filaments, need cushioning and rigid mounting in substantial crates. Electrical control equipment, if
included, will be packaged like other fragile electronics.
6-13


Note:
Examples of components and accessories for the machines specified in 6.B.1. are moulds, mandrels,
dies, fixtures and tooling for the preform pressing, curing, casting, sintering or bonding of composite
structures, laminates and manufactures thereof.
6.B.2. Nozzles specially designed for the processes referred to in 6.E.3.

Nature and Purpose: Nozzles for pyrolytic deposition direct an unreacted gas to a surface on which
deposition is desired. The nozzles must be movable or located so they can cover the entire surface
within a CVD furnace at high temperature and pressure.

Method of Operation: Nozzles used in CVD furnaces deliver cold, unreacted gas to the surface being
treated. The gas must be both unreacted so that the coating occurs on the intended surface rather than
on the inside of the nozzle, and close to the surface to be treated so that the surface and not the walls
of the furnace get sprayed. A nozzle is like a paint spray
gun, which must be close to the part being painted.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These nozzles are required
•France
parts of pyrolytic deposition equipment used to make
•Germany
critical, highly heat‐tolerant parts such as rocket nozzles
•Russian Federation and RV nose tips.
•United States
Other Uses: These nozzles are used to make highly heat‐
tolerant parts for jet engines.

Global Production Appearance (as manufactured): Nozzles for CVD
furnaces are designed to tolerate high furnace
temperatures either by construction from high
temperature‐resistant material such as graphite or by
water‐cooling. Nozzle dimensions are approximately half
the width of the furnace. Small nozzles are typically
made of graphite because it is inexpensive, easily
replaced, and lightweight (approximately 0.5 kg to 2.5 kg). Larger nozzles for production furnaces are
often made of metal, require water‐cooling, may have integral attachment flanges, and weigh upwards
of 25 kg.

Nozzles are made in varying lengths, which depend on the size of the furnace and the surface. The larger,
more complex, water‐cooled nozzles are up to 1.5 m long, with their tubular portion 20 cm in diameter.
However, because some portion of most nozzles is custom designed, there is no standard shape or size.

6-14


Appearance (as packaged): Packaging for the nozzle and pyrolytic deposition equipment is suitable for
preventing damage to a highly durable pipe with somewhat fragile valves and fittings. Typically, several
nozzles are shipped together in well protected packaging separate from any large furnace shell.
6.B.3. Isostatic presses having all of the following characteristics:

a. Maximum working pressure equal to or greater than 69 MPa;
b. Designed to achieve and maintain a controlled thermal enviroment of 600°C or greater;
and
c. Possessing a chamber cavity with an inside diameter of 254 mm or greater.
Nature and Purpose: Isostatic presses are used to infuse carbon into a porous carbon preform of a
rocket nozzle or RV nose tip under great pressure. This process, referred to as densification, fills up and
virtually eliminates voids in the preform and thereby increases the density and strength of the treated
object.

Method of Operation: The object to be processed is placed in the appropriate chamber and lowered
into the hot zone of the furnace. All water and electrical
connections are made and all process instrumentation is
connected before the lid is lowered into the furnace and
•France sealed. As the object is heated, it is subjected to great
•Germany pressure until the proper densification has been
•Russian Federation achieved. Reaction products are removed by internal
•United States plumbing so they do not come into contact with the
electric heaters and cause them to short.

Global Production Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Isostatic presses are used in
making nose tips for RV and nozzle inserts for rocket
motors.

Other Uses: These presses are used in diffusion bonding
of similar metals, diffusion bonding of dissimilar metals to
form laminates (silver‐nickel‐silver or copper‐stainless),
and provision of seamless joints. They are used in various powder metallurgy applications. They are also
used to improve the quality of metal castings and forgings by hydrostatically forcing defects to close and
bond shut.

Appearance (as manufactured): Isostatic presses intended for densification are specially modified to
operate while a pyrolysis reaction is occurring. A typical laboratory‐size system has three main
components: a pressure chamber, a high‐pressure generator, and a control console. The pressure
chamber is usually a vertical, thick‐walled cylinder with a removable, high‐pressure closure, or plug, at
the upper end. Some presses, such as that shown in Figure 6, have horizontal pressure cylinders.

The press may be surrounded by an energy‐absorbing shield. This shield may be engineered at the plant
where the system operates and often involves installing the chamber below ground. The pressure
chamber also has an isolation chamber and plumbing to be sure that gas from the process zone is
removed from the exhaust and does not flow to the heater zone.
6-15


Figure 6: Left: A laboratory sized isostatic press. (ESPI) Right: A laboratory sized hot isostatic press. (Abra Fluid AG)

The high‐pressure generator uses air to drive a large piston connected directly to a smaller piston, which
pressurizes the gas used in the chamber. These simple pumps operate at pressure ratios between 10
MPa and 1000 MPa and are available with maximum pressures up to about 1,400 MPa.

The control console has an instrument panel with typical industrial temperature and pressure control
and recording instrumentation. The console usually includes a computer and a keypad for entering data
required to control the operation of the press. Isostatic presses can be quite large.

Figure 7: Left: Side view of a large isostatic press. (Engineered Pressure Systems, Inc.) Center and Right: Two different views
of an alternative shipping crate for an isostatic press. (Engineered Pressure Systems, Inc.)

Appearance (as packaged): The components of an isostatic press system are likely to be shipped
separately and assembled at the final work destination. Packaging varies with the requirements of the
purchaser, but wooden pallets and crates with steel banding and reinforcement are common. Larger
chambers are very heavy because of the thick walls and may be packaged in a cylindrical wooden crate
with wide steel banding.
6-16


6.B.4. Chemical vapour deposition furnaces designed or modified for the densification of carbon‐
carbon composites.
Nature and Purpose: CVD furnaces are used to infuse carbon into a porous carbon preform of a rocket
nozzle or RV nose tip. This process, referred to as densification, fills up and virtually eliminates voids in
the preform and thereby increases the density and strength of the treated object.

Method of Operation: CVD furnaces use either isothermal or thermal‐gradient processes for
densification. The object to be processed is placed in the appropriate chamber and lowered into the hot
zone of the furnace. All gas, water, and electrical connections are made, and all process instrumentation
is connected before the lid is lowered into the furnace and sealed. The process sequence of heating and
supplying the deposition gases is automated, but furnace
operators follow the part development through viewports
•France built into the furnace walls.
•Germany
•Russian Federation Typical Missile‐Related Uses: CVD furnaces are used to
•United Kingdom make carbon‐carbon rocket nozzles and nose tips. Carbon‐
•United States carbon pieces are lightweight and strong, and can increase
system performance.

Global Production Other Uses: CVD furnaces are used in coating optics, some
medical instruments and components (e.g., heart valves),
and cutting tools; in coating and polishing precision
surfaces; and in making semiconductors.

Appearance (as manufactured): CVD furnaces are large,
double‐walled, cylindrical vessels with gas‐tight closures. Typical CVD furnaces are large because they
house an internal heat zone, electrically driven heaters, and insulation. Furnaces smaller than 1.5 m in
height and 1 m in diameter are considered laboratory scale and are barely able to process a single nose
tip or rocket nozzle insert. Process production sizes are larger than 2 m in height and 2 m in diameter.
These furnaces have several ports: at least one large port for power feeds, others for instrumentation,
and, when temperatures are measured by optical or infrared pyrometers, one or more view‐ports.

CVD furnaces are double‐walled so that they can be water‐cooled during operation. Power cables are
large and may also be water‐cooled. The actual retort is housed inside the furnace and is heated by a
graphite induction or resistive heater to temperatures of between 2,200 °C and 2,900 °C.

A custom designed CVD furnace is shown in Figure 8, consisting of several components, including an
impregnation vessel for adding a liquid resin to the preform; instrumentation and control panels
(foreground); and a pressure‐carbonization furnace.
6-17


Figure 8: Left: A large scale custom CVD furnace which inductively heats graphite to temperatures in the 2800 °C range.
(CVI) Right: A large CVD furnace. (Seco Warick)
6.B.5. Equipment and process controls, other than those specified in 6.B.3. or 6.B.4., designed or
modified for densification and pyrolysis of structural composite rocket nozzles and re‐entry vehicle
nose tips.
Appearance (as packaged): Packaging consists of pallets and crates for each part because of the large
size and weight of the equipment. The large lids, the power supply, and the body of the furnace often
have built‐in lift points or rings to help move and assemble them.

Nature and Purpose: Specialized equipment and process controls are essential for the densification and
pyrolysis necessary to produce structural composites used for rocket nozzles and RV nose tips. Specially
designed software often is required to operate the equipment and/or control the processes to produce
these structural composites. Manufacturing composite parts from this type of material usually requires
cycling through various process conditions such as high temperature and/or pressure. Precise control of
the conditions during the cycles and their timing is key to ensuring acceptable results. This subitem also
includes documentation (technical data) of the various process conditions needed to produce these
materials.

Method of Operation: Equipment, process controls, and software for densification and pyrolysis are
used throughout the manufacturing process for structural composites to handle, process, and finish the
material and the resulting products (i.e., rocket nozzles and RV nose tips).

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment, process controls, and software are used to produce
structural composites (including carbon‐carbon items) used for rocket nozzles and RV nose tips.

Other Uses: These items are also used for diffusion bonding of metals, in powder metallurgy, and for
treating metal components.

Appearance (as manufactured): The equipment resembles other manufacturing equipment but can
include smaller (research size) items. Process controls can take the forms of technical data such as paper,
magnetic, or other media. Designed or modified software is usually indistinguishable by visual inspection
from commercially available software and can take the form of computer disks, CD‐ROMs, DVDs, etc.
6-18


Appearance (as packaged): Larger pieces of equipment may be shipped as components, while smaller
items may be shipped assembled. These items are usually shipped in crates or on pallets in a similar
manner to other industrial equipment. Process controls (including technical data) are shipped like other
information on paper, magnetic, or other media. Software can be transferred on disks, CD‐ROMs, DVDs
etc., or over networks. Software and technical data may be included in the shipping containers with its
respective equipment.
6.C. Materials
6.C.1. Resin impregnated fibre prepregs and metal coated fibre preforms, for the goods
specified in 6.A.1., made either with organic matrix or metal matrix utilising fibrous or
filamentary reinforcements having a specific tensile strength greater than 7.62 x 104 m and a
specific modulus greater than 3.18 x 106 m.
Note:
The only resin impregnated fibre prepregs specified in 6.C.1. are those using resins with a glass
transition temperature (Tg), after cure, exceeding 145°C as determined by ASTM D4065 or
national equivalents.
Technical Notes:
1. In Item 6.C.1. 'specific tensile strength' is the ultimate tensile strength in N/m2 divided by the
specific weight in N/m3, measured at a temperature of (296 2)K ((23 2) °C) and a relative
humidity of (50 5) %.
2. In Item 6.C.1. 'specific modulus' is the Young's modulus in N/m2 divided by the specific weight
in N/m3, measured at a temperature of (296 2)K ((23 2) °C) and a relative humidity of (50 5)
%.

Nature and Purpose: Prepregs and preforms are the basic materials from which lightweight, high
strength composite structures are made. Prepreg is the name given to a cloth‐like material made of
fibers and impregnated with resins. Prepregs are assembled over a form (e.g., a mandrel or mold) into
the desired shape. Sometimes several layers are used to create laminates. Preforms are solid, three‐
dimensional, fiber structures with the same shape and roughly the same dimensions as the desired part
and impregnated with resin. After curing, the preform is machined into the final configuration. Usually,
the materials of interest are then cured to temperatures above 175 °C to complete polymerization of
the resin and to achieve a high glass transition temperature.

Method of Operation: Prepregs and preforms are precursors to the composites and laminates that can
be used almost anywhere in ballistic missiles and UAVs, including cruise missiles. Uses include solid
rocket motor cases, interstages, wings, inlets, nozzles, heatshields, nosetips, structural members, and
frames.

6-19


Figure 9: Left: A nose cone for a space launch vehicle manufactured using advanced prepreg techniques. (ATK) Right: Prepreg
material used in the manufacture of lightweight, high‐strength composite aerospace and defense structures. (Ibid)
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment, process controls, and software are used to produce
structural composites (including carbon‐carbon items) used in a range of aerospace and defense
applications, including rocket nozzles, missiles, satellite structures and RV nose tips.

Other Uses: Prepregs and preforms allow composite structures to be formed into almost any shape to
meet required needs. They are used in both civilian and military aircraft, recreational products (such as
equipment for water sports, skis and golf clubs), and in
infrastructure and industry. They also have medical
application in the design of prosthetic limbs and surgical

•France devices.
•Germany
•Russian Federation Appearance (as manufactured): Prepregs are textile
•United Kingdom products that are impregnated with a pliable resin. They
are manufactured in thin filaments, tapes from
•United States
submillimeters to centimeters wide, and fabrics up to a
few meters wide. They are usually stored on spools or in
Global rolls, just like yarn or fabric (see Figure 10), and look much
Production like unimpregnated yarn.

Although a prepreg can still deform, it is considerably less
capable of draping than a fabric, tape, or yarn that has no
resin; however, they are all still deformable enough to be shaped into a composite structural part.
Prepregs may be used to form the approximate shape of a desired part, called a preform. A nose cone
manufactured using advanced prepreg hand layup is shown in Figure 11. After heating and curing, these
preforms are machined to their final shapes and finishes.

Appearance (as packaged): The fibrous materials discussed here must be refrigerated after
impregnation with resin. Refrigeration prevents the resin from polymerizing and hardening before the
prepreg is used to manufacture composite materials. If the temperature is held at about –20 °C, the
shelf life of the prepreg is approximately six months. To maintain sufficiently low temperatures during
shipment, the prepreg material is packed in special containers for dry ice cooling, or it is shipped in
mechanically refrigerated cargo containers.
6-20


6.C.2. Resaturated pyrolised (i.e. carbon‐carbon) materials having all of the following:
a. Designed for rocket systems; and
b. Usable in the systems specified in 1.A. and 19.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Carbon‐carbon is a composite of
•Brazil •China carbon fiber, usually made from pitch, rayon or
•France •Germany polyacrylonitrile (PAN), in a carbon‐dominated matrix. It is
•India •Israel usually made by using a high‐content carbon resin as the
•Japan •Russian Federation initial matrix and then driving off the non‐carbon elements
with high heat. It is lightweight, highly heat resistant,
thermal‐shock‐resistant and malleable for shaping.
•United States

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Carbon‐carbon materials are
used for items such as rocket motor exit cones and
Global Production nozzles, and RV nose tips, heat shields and leading edges
of control surfaces that must resist the effects of high
temperatures and ablation.

Other Uses: Carbon‐carbon structures are used in military
and civilian aircraft applications such as high‐temperature brake shoes, and in other applications
requiring high strength and low weight such as wing roots. They can also be used for tooling requiring
long life in severe, usually high‐temperature, manufacturing environments, such as pouring ladles for
steel, heaters for very high‐temperature furnaces and hot press tools.

Figure 10 Left: Special cardboard container for holding dry ice packing around a carbon fiber prepreg tape spool during
shipping. The dry ice is normally contained in a plastic bag packed around the spool. (A Handbook for the Nuclear Suppliers
Group Dual‐Use Annex, Report No. LA‐13131‐M (April 1996)) Middle: A block of carbon‐carbon material ready to be
machined into a rocket nozzle. The larger cylindrical block is about 70 cm in diameter. (Ibid) Right: A carbon‐carbon rocket
nozzle throat showing the fabric pattern of the underlying fibers. (Ibid)

6-21


Appearance (as manufactured): Typical carbon‐carbon materials designed for rocket systems are black
and have a patterned surface as a result of textile reinforcement. Nose tips and rocket nozzles are
usually machined from blocks or billets.

Appearance (as packaged): Before machining, blocks of carbon‐carbon material are rugged enough to
be packed in filler and shipped in cardboard boxes. Machined parts require careful packaging because,
although the material is resistant to breaking (impact resistant), they can easily be gouged or scraped.
6.C.3. Fine grain graphites with a bulk density of at least 1.72 g/cc measured at 150C and having a
grain size of 100 x 10‐6 m (100 µm) or less, usable for rocket nozzles and re‐entry vehicle nose tips,
which can be machined to any of the following products:
a. Cylinders having a diameter of 120 mm or greater and a length of 50 mm or greater;
b. Tubes having an inner diameter of 65 mm or greater and a wall thickness of 25 mm or
greater and a length of 50 mm or greater; or
c. Blocks having a size of 120 mm x 120 mm x 50 mm or greater.

Nature and Purpose: Fine‐grain recrystallized bulk graphite is
used to create very strong, heat‐resistant parts. Graphite is the
only known substance that doubles in strength as the
temperature increases from room temperature to 2,700 °C.

Carbon particles are combined with pitch, a viscous coal tar
residue, in a suitable mold and subjected to heat and pressure.
The resulting block can be easily machined into the required
part. It also has excellent thermal shock resistance and good
thermal and electrical conductivity. Pyrolytic graphite is formed
by high‐temperature vapor deposition but is not widely used
because its uneven thermal conductivity causes it to crack
when heated.
Figure 11: Various parts machined from fine‐
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Fine‐grain recrystallized bulk grained bulk graphite. (MTCR Equipment,
graphites are used for RV nose tips, thrust tabs, and nozzle Software, and Technology Annex Handbook,
throats. A typical billet Third Edition (May 2005))
for a nosetip could be
as small as several centimeters in each dimension.
•Brazil
•China Other Uses: Graphite is used in biomedical applications, in
•India nuclear reactors, as a mold in casting and manufacturing metal
•Russian Federation parts, and for critically‐dimensioned furnace fixtures. Graphite is
•United States also the preferred material for electrodes for electric discharge
machining. When infiltrated with metals, graphite is used for
Global brushes in electric motors and as bearings in many mechanical
applications.
Production
Appearance (as manufactured): Bulk graphite is a very fine, dark
gray to black powder. The density of processed graphite ranges
6-22


from 1.64 g/cc to 2.7 g/cc, the latter for pyrolytic graphite. Machined parts made from graphite are black
and have a gloss dependent on the machining operation. Fine‐grain graphite can be distinguished by its
lack of surface pitting and some of the fine details that are often in the manufactured product. Graphite
is much softer than metals; a ball point pen can dent the surface.

Appearance (as packaged): These materials are packaged to protect their delicate surfaces and often to
prevent any surface contamination. Typically, parts are placed in plastic bags or containers, which are
packaged in materials normally used for fragile parts (i.e., bubble wrap, foam, etc.).
6.C.4. Pyrolytic or fibrous reinforced graphites usable for rocket nozzles and re‐entry vehicle nose
tips usable in systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.
Nature and Purpose: Pyrolytic graphite is a unique form of graphite. It is manufactured by decomposing
hydrocarbon gas, typically methane, in a vacuum furnace at high temperatures. The result is an
exceptionally pure product that nears theoretical density and is – as a result of its layered structure –
highly anisotropic (i.e. exhibiting different characteristics when
measured along different axes; across the layers, it has very
low thermal conductivity, and acts as an insulator; with the
•China layers, it has very high thermal conductivity, and thus acts as
•United States an excellent conductor). Its thermal, electrical, and mechanical
properties are commonly far superior to conventional
graphites. Pyrolytic graphite is chemically inert, stable to 3,000
Global °C, impermeable, self‐lubricating, non‐dusting, and low
Production weight. However, its uneven thermal conductivity and
resultant tendency to crack restricts certain applications.

Method of Operation: To manufacture pyrolitic graphite, the
underlying surface material on which the pyrolytic graphite is
deposited is heated to a relatively high temperature, ranging from around 1,500 °C to 2,500 °C.
Hydrocarbon gas is introduced under elevated temperature and reduced pressure. The result is that the
pyrolytic graphite forms an ablative (capable of being burned away in a controlled manner) and
insulating layer that can withstand the heat of a rocket motor.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Pyrolitic graphite has a variety of aerospace and defense applications
owing to its ability to withstand extremely high temperatures. In particular, it is used in the design and
manufacture of rocket nozzles, on the nose cones of RVs, and in heat sinks.

Other Uses: Pyrolytic graphite’s exceptional conduction properties offer useful solutions to thermal heat
in high‐heat flux semiconductor power electronics, such as RF and wireless, light emitting diodes (LEDs),
laser diodes, wide‐gap semiconductors, and integrated circuit lids. Pyrolytic graphite is also used in the
manufacture of dyes and forming tools that shape semi‐molten glass as well as heater elements,
sputtering targets, and thermal insulators. Pyrolytic graphite is also used by specialty glass
manufacturers, as well as in container glass and stemware.

6-23


Appearance (as manufactured):
Processed graphite’s density
varies from 1.64 g/cc to 2.7 g/cc.
In powder form, it is dark grey to
black in color. In manufactured
parts the color is black with the
extent of glossiness dependent
on the machining process.
Surfaces are pitted.

Appearance (as packaged): The Figure 12: A selection of pyrolitic graphite plates and rods that are high in
danger of cracking to which density, strength, and purity. Note the pitted surface on the large plate on the
pyrolitic graphite is susceptible left of this figure. (Advanced Carbon Technologies, Inc)
requires that it is well packaged,
with components usually placed in plastic bags or containers, surrounded by bubble wrap or foam.
6.C.5. Ceramic composite materials (dielectric constant less than 6 at any frequency from 100 MHz
to 100 GHz) for use in missile radomes usable in systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Ceramic composite materials have strength and thermal properties sufficient for
some use as heatshield materials. Unlike carbon‐based materials, however, ceramics are insulators and
do not conduct electricity, and electromagnetic radiation
(e.g., radio waves) can pass through them. They are
useful in protecting structures and equipment from high
•China •France heat while still allowing communications to and from the
•Germany •India vehicle.
•Japan •Russian Federation
•United States Silicon‐carbide reinforced ceramic composites are
suitable for use to 1,200 °C in an oxidizing atmosphere
and to a somewhat higher temperature if coated. Silicon‐
carbide composites reinforced with filaments are very
Global Production tough and, with a density of 2.3 g/cc, are considerably
lighter than superalloys. These characteristics make them
useable for RV nosetips.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Ceramic composite
materials have been used in ballistic missile RV antenna
windows. Silicon‐carbide unfired ceramic nosetips are
hard and extremely heat‐resistant; however, because they tend to chip but not break, they are not
widely used.

Other Uses: Highly heat‐resistant ceramics are used in some gas turbine engines, automobile engines,
furnaces, and solar energy receivers. Their uses include grinding rods and balls, furnace tiles, welding
cups and nozzles, sandblast nozzles, and a variety of intricate parts for electronic applications. They are a
6-24


common tooling material for use in manufacturing steps at elevated temperatures. Silicon‐carbide
reinforced ceramic composites are used in some military jet engines for thrust vector control flaps. Uses
for all these materials are growing.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ceramic composite materials used in RV antenna windows generally use
ceramic filament reinforcement to prevent thermal‐stress‐induced failure. A block of three‐dimensional
(3‐D) silica‐silica from which antenna windows are made may have a textile pattern evident on all
surfaces. This material is often covered with a clear protective coating as a barrier to moisture. A silicon‐
carbide reinforced ceramic has the same pattern but is dark gray or black. All of these ceramic materials
are very hard, much harder than other composites, and have a surface patterned like the textile
reinforcement. They may be found in virtually any size between 1 mm discs and 50 cm cubes, which can
be cut and ground to the required configuration by diamond tooling.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of their high cost and brittleness, these composites are packed in
shock‐absorbent materials. Since silica‐silica material is also hygroscopic (i.e., it absorbs water), it is also
packed in sealed bags of either mylar or other plastic, often with some type of a desiccant in the larger
packing container. Some shippers also fill the sealed bags with dry nitrogen to protect the material from
water absorption.

6.C.6. Silicon‐carbide materials as follows:
a. Bulk machinable silicon‐carbide reinforced unfired ceramic usable for nose tips usable in
systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.;
b. Reinforced silicon‐carbide ceramic composites usable for nose tips, re‐entry vehicles,
nozzle flaps, usable in systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Silicon‐carbide is a compound of silicon and carbon used in the manufacturing of
strong ceramic materials. It is also found in the rare mineral moisssanite. When silicon carbide powder is
heated below its melting point in a process called
‘sintering’, particles adhere to one another to form
extremely hard ceramics with high endurance
•Austria •Brazil
properties. Ceramic composites that have been
•China •France
strengthened by silicon‐carbide can withstand
•Germany •India
temperatures up to 1,200 °C in oxidizing conditions.
•Italy •Japan
•Russian Federation •South Korea Method of Operation: The critical properties of
•Switzerland •United Kingdom silicon‐carbide are low density, high strength, low
•United States thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, high
hardness, excellent thermal shock resistance, and
superior chemical inertness.
Global Production
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Silicon‐carbide is used
in rocket engine nozzles, nose cones, and nozzle
flaps. It is also used in ballistic missile RV antenna
windows. Its ability to withstand strong thermal
6-25


shocks allows it to be used as a heat shield and its non‐conductivity of electricity and electromagnetic
radiation protect spacecraft from heat while allowing continued communications with the ground
control station. A silicon‐carbide coating protects from oxidation the reinforced carbon‐carbon panels
along leading edges and nose cones of RVs. Composites containing silicon‐carbide and reinforced with
filaments are highly durable, heat resistant, and lighter‐weight than super‐alloys; these characteristics
are extremely important in nose cones designed
for reentry into the earth’s atmosphere.

Silicon‐carbide also has utility in advanced
semiconductor electronic devices. Silicon‐carbide‐
based electronics and sensors can function in harsh
and extreme environments in which conventional
silicon‐based electronics – restricted to 350 °C for
normal operation – are not able to perform. The
compound’s ability to perform under the stresses
of high temperature, high power, and high

radiation allow significant performance increases
Figure 13: Silicon carbide coatings have a range of space and
aerospace applications, including protecting graphite in a wide range of rocket systems and applications.
material from oxidation. (Schunk Group) For example, silicon‐carbon has been used in the
design of lightweight thyristors for high
temperature power conditioning in spacecraft and to fabricate turbine inlet guide vanes that can
withstand temperatures of 222 °C greater than standard nickel‐base‐super alloy turbine airfoils.

Other Uses: Silicon‐carbide’s abrasive qualities, low cost, and durability are useful in lapidary work as
well as such abrasive machining functions as sandblasting, honing, water‐jet cutting, and grinding.
Silicon‐carbide is used in composite armor as well as in the ceramic plating of bullet‐proof vests.
Recently developed body armor manufactured from small overlapping silicon‐carbide ceramic plates
affords the wearer increased flexibility and is resistant to rounds fired from an AK‐47 without plate
inserts.

Ceramic composites that have been reinforced with silicon‐carbide are used as thrust vector control
flaps in some military jet engines. Silicon‐carbide is an important component of light emitting diodes
(LED). Its low thermal expansion coefficient, high hardness, and thermal conductive properties are used
in manufacturing mirrors for astronomical telescopes. The compound is also used in some automotive
as well as gas turbine engines, furnaces, and passive solar energy panels. It is found in furnace tiles,
welding cups, and in industrial applications that perform at high temperatures.

Silicon‐carbide is also used in the tristructural‐isotropic coating for nuclear fuel elements of high
temperature gas‐cooled reactors or very high temperature reactors.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ceramic composite materials produced as components of rockets, for
example RV antenna windows, are reinforced with ceramic filament to prevent failure as a result of
heat‐caused stress. The three‐dimensional silica‐silica used to make antenna windows may have a textile
pattern on all surfaces. To prevent against moisture, this material is often protected with a clear coating.
Ceramics reinforced by silicon‐carbide will exhibit the same surface pattern but the color is black or dark
gray. These ceramic substances are much harder than other composites and possess a surface pattern
6-26


that reflects their textile reinforcement. Size ranges from 1 mm discs to 50 cm cubes that can
subsequently be cut or tooled to the desired shape.

Appearance (as packaged): Silicon‐carbide is a brittle compound, and thus shock‐absorbent substances
are used to pack silicon‐carbide composites. Sealed bags or other plastics are used to prevent exposure
to moisture during shipping. Larger shipments often contain desiccants. Sealed bags are sometimes
filled with dry nitrogen to provide additional protection against water absorption.
6.C.7. Materials for the fabrication of missile components in the systems specified in 1.A.,
19.A.1. or 19.A.2., as follows:
a. Tungsten and alloys in particulate form with a tungsten content of 97% by weight or
more and a particle size of 50 x 10‐6 m (50 µm) or less;
b. Molybdenum and alloys in particulate form with a molybdenum content of 97% by
weight or more and a particle size of 50 x 10‐6 m (50 µm) or less;
c. Tungsten materials in the solid form having all of the following:
1. Any of the following material compositions:
i. Tungsten and alloys containing 97% by weight or more of tungsten;
ii. Copper infiltrated tungsten containing 80% by weight or more of
tungsten; or
iii. Silver infiltrated tungsten containing 80% by weight or more
of tungsten; and
2. Able to be machined to any of the following products:
i. Cylinders having a diameter of 120 mm or greater and a length of 50
mm or greater;
ii. Tubes having an inner diameter of 65 mm or greater and a wall
thickness of 25 mm or greater and a length of 50 mm or greater; or
iii. Blocks having a size of 120 mm x 120 mm x 50 mm or greater.

Nature and Purpose: Some materials in 6.C.7. are controlled as powders, which can be formed into
missile parts by pouring them into a mold and subjecting them to high heat and pressure (i.e., sintering).
Other materials in 6.C.7. include the solid forms of
tungsten and its alloys and tungsten infiltrated with
copper or silver, which may result from the sintering
•Germany process. Parts made from these materials are very hard,
•Japan dense, and strong. They also have extremely high melting
•Russian Federation temperatures: tungsten melts at 3,410 °C and
•United States molybdenum at 2,610 °C. Thus, finished parts are resistant
to ablation in a high‐heat and mass‐flow environment such
Global as those experienced in re‐entry or in missile exhausts.

Production Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Although these materials
have high strength and a high melting point, because they
are so dense and heavy, they tend to be used for smaller
6-27


parts at critical points: RV nosetips, nozzle throat inserts (but not the entire nozzle), and jet vanes, which
are used to steer engine exhaust.

Other Uses: Tungsten powder is used in metal evaporation work, glass‐to‐metal seals, electrical contacts,
and as an alloying element for steel. Tungsten‐carbide tool bits are critical for the metal working, mining,
and petroleum industries. Copper infused tungsten is also used for heavy duty projection welding
electrodes and some applications for Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) electrodes requiring sharper
detail and superior surface finish. Molybdenum is an element used for powder metallurgy.

Appearance (as manufactured): Tungsten, molybdenum, and their alloys as spherical or atomized
particles look like many other powder metallurgy products. The particles have a metallic sheen and flow
freely because of their spherical shape. Tungsten in solid form is a silvery‐white lustrous metal that
tarnishes in air forming a protective oxide coating. These materials are very heavy because both
tungsten and molybdenum are high‐density materials. Tungsten has a density of 19.3 g/cc, and
molybdenum has a density of 10.2 g/cc. For comparison, iron has a density of 7.87 g/cc, and aluminum
has a density of 2.7 g/cc.

Appearance (as packaged): These materials, in particulate form, are packaged in sealed containers or
drums to minimize contact with air and oxidation of the surface of the particles. The containers feel
heavy for their size and are secured to a pallet or container to prevent movement.
6.C.8 Maraging steels having an ultimate tensile strength equal to or greater than 1.5 GPa,
measured at 20oC, in the form of sheet, plate or tubing with a wall or plate thickness equal to or less
than 5.0 mm usable in systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1.
Technical Note:
Maraging steels are iron alloys generally characterised by high nickel, very low carbon content and
use substitutional elements or precipitates to produce strengthening and age‐hardening of the alloy.
Nature and Purpose: Maraging steel is a

•Austria •China particular alloy of steel noted for its high yield
•France •Georgia strength. It is designed for specific levels of
•Germany •India yield strength ranging from 1030 MPa to 2420
•Iran •Israel MPa. Maraging steels differ from conventional
•Japan •Russian Federation steels in that they are hardened by a
•South Africa •South Korea metallurgical reaction that does not involve
•Sweden •Switzerland carbon. Typical formulations of maraging steel
•United Kingdom •United States have relatively very high nickel (18 % or
higher), cobalt and molybdenum content and
relatively low carbon content (less than 0.03
Global Production %) as compared to most structural steels.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The forms
controlled by the MTCR (sheets, plates, and
6-28


tubes) are generally used to make solid rocket motor cases, propellant tanks, and interstage
components.

Other Uses: These steels are used in special aircraft parts, submarine hulls, fencing blades, pipes, and
reactors in the chemical and nuclear industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): Maraging steel has a lustrous gray color when clean and freshly
prepared. If the metal has been subjected to an aging treatment to improve strength, it may have a dark
oxide layer on the surface. This dark layer may also indicate that the maraging steel has been subjected
to a controlled degree of oxidation in order to improve corrosion resistance during service.

Appearance (as packaged): Maraging steel is often shipped in the low‐strength, non‐heat‐treated
condition so that it can be formed into the desired shape by the end user. It is bundled and shipped
much like stainless steel, which it closely resembles. Sheets and plates are stacked and secured to a
pallet. Tubes are bundled and secured to a pallet as well. Both may be covered with plastic sheet and/or
crated to protect the materials from the shipping environment.
6.C.9. Titanium‐stabilized duplex stainless steel (Ti‐DSS) usable in the systems specified in 1.A.
or 19.A.1. and having all of the following:
a. Having all of the following characteristics:
1. Containing 17.0 ‐ 23.0 weight percent chromium and 4.5 ‐ 7.0 weight percent
nickel;
2. Having a titanium content of greater than 0.10 weight percent; and
3. A ferritic‐austenitic microstructure (also referred to as a two‐phase microstructure)
of which at least 10 % is austenite by volume (according to ASTM E‐1181‐87 or
national equivalents); and
b. Any of the following forms:
1. Ingots or bars having a size of 100 mm or more in each dimension;
2. Sheets having a width of 600 mm or more and a thickness of 3 mm or less; or
3. Tubes having an outer diameter of 600 mm or more and a wall thickness of 3
mm or less.

Nature and Purpose: Titanium Stabilized Duplex Stainless Steel (Ti‐DSS) is a special alloy of stainless
steel noted for its ease of welding and resistance to corrosive liquid propellant oxidizers. Typical
formulations for Ti‐DSS range from 17 % to 23 % by weight of chromium and 4.5 % to 7.0 % by weight of
nickel, and such steel contains traces of titanium which, compared to other stainless steels, makes Ti‐
DSS particularly resistant to oxidizers such as Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA). Additionally, Ti‐
DSS is a preferred material for liquid propellant missile applications because it is easily welded using
common welding technology and, unlike other forms of stainless steel, does not require heat treatment
after welding. Duplex Stainless Steel stabilized with Nitrogen instead of Titanium is a non‐MTCR
controlled material with many commercial applications. For example, items such as Nitrogen Stabilized
Duplex Stainless Steel piping have applications in gas and oil handling, desalination plants, pipes
6-29


handling chlorides, high‐strength and highly resistant wiring, mechanical and structural components,
utility and industrial systems, and chemical tankers, among others.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Ingots or bars, sheets, and tubes
meeting the MTCR‐criteria are of sufficient size to be used to
•Japan manufacture liquid propellant tanks and rocket engine
•Russian Federation plumbing.
•South Korea
•United Kingdom Other Uses: There are very few known commercial uses for Ti‐
•United States DSS. Although usable for many stainless steel applications, Ti‐
DSS is very hard, making it difficult to form into sheets or
Global tubing. Machining or shaping this material is generally too
expensive for common commercial applications. Additionally,
Production although it is especially resistant to IRFNA, a common missile
oxidizer, it does not perform well when exposed to other
similarly corrosive materials such as chemical fertilizers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ti‐DSS is virtually identical in
appearance to other stainless steels. It has a very fine grain, which usually requires a magnifying glass or
microscope to view.

Appearance (as packaged): Ti‐DSS is generally bundled and shipped much like other stainless steels.
Sheets and ingots or bars are often stacked and secured to a pallet. Tubes are usually bundled and
secured to a pallet as well. Both may be covered with plastic sheet and/or crated to protect the
materials from the shipping environment.
6.D. Software
6.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 6.B.1.

Nature and Purpose: Software for composite and fiber production equipment is used in CNC devices
that control the motion of filament‐winding and tape‐laying machines and monitor the tension of the
fibers and tape used to construct composite motor cases and UAV airframe components. Other software
in this category is used to control multi‐directional, multidimensional and interlacing machines used to
manufacture complex composite structures such as the ingots that can be machined into RV nose tips
and rocket nozzles. The ingots must be impregnated with additional resins and heat treated to produce
the final product. There is no known software that monitors and controls these final processes.

Method of Operation: The software is configured to operate in computers connected to CNC winding
machines and to multi‐directional, multidimensional and interlacing machines designed to produce solid
propellant rocket motor or UAV airframe components.

6-30


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The software is
•France •Germany designed to produce particular components when
•India •Italy used on a specific winding machine. It can be used
•Japan •Netherlands to produce motor cases, fins, nozzles, RV nose tips
•Russian Federation •Sweden and other parts and components.
•Switzerland •United Kingdom
•United States Other Uses: The software can be modified to
produce liquid natural gas storage tanks, hot water
tanks, compressed natural gas tanks, golf club
shafts, tennis racquets and fishing rods.
Global Production
Appearance (as manufactured): Typical composite
and fiber production equipment software takes
the form of a computer program stored on
printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any
common media including magnetic tape, floppy
disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software and data.

and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the appropriate
computer. This technology, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network.
6.D.2. "Software" specially designed or modified for the equipment specified in 6.B.3., 6.B.4. or
6.B.5.
Nature and Purpose: Software used in the isostatic control computer operates the high‐pressure press
and monitors the pressure and water coolant temperature. CVD equipment uses software to control the
process of heating and supplying the
deposition gasses to the porous carbon
preform. Process control software is used to
•China •Denmark operate the high‐temperature pyrolysis ovens
•France •Germany and to monitor and control the processes used
•India •Israel to produce objects such as rocket nozzles and
•Japan •Russian Federation RV nose tips.
•South Africa •Sweden
•United Kingdom •United States Method of Operation: Software used in the
isostatic control computer accepts operator
input specifying pressure and time. The
software activates the press and controls the
extraordinary operating pressure over time. It
Global Production monitors the cooling‐water temperature and
oven heat to insure the system operates in the
appropriate and safe zone for the item. The
CVD process operator uses a computer loaded
with the appropriate process control software
6-31


to set the furnace temperature, to set the infusion gas pressure and timing and to monitor the cooling‐
water temperature and other instrumentation and sensor outputs. Precise temperature control over a
relatively long time frame is critical to producing carbon‐carbon rocket nozzles and nose tips. Process
control software used to produce structural composite materials controls the pyrolysis oven
temperatures and pressures over a user‐determined number of cycles.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The software used to control the densification and pyrolysis processes are
used to manufacture highly temperature‐resistant and lightweight missile components like rocket motor
nozzles and RV nose tips.

Other Uses: Isostatic control software is used in processes to diffusion bond similar and dissimilar
materials. CVD process control software is used to produce coated optics, cutting tools, medical
instruments and manufacture semiconductors. Software that controls densification and pyrolysis
processes is also used to diffusion bond metals and for treating metal components.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, process control software is a computer program stored on
printed, optical, magnetic or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents can contain this software.

computer. This software, including the soft copies of the documentation, is capable of being
electronically transmitted over a computer network.
6.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment, materials or "software" specified in 6.A., 6.B., 6.C. or 6.D.
6.E.2. "Technical data" (including processing conditions) and procedures for the regulation of
termperature, pressures or atmosphere in autoclaves or hydroclaves when used for the production
of composites or partially processed composites, usable for equipment or materials specified in 6.A.
or 6.C.

Nature and Purpose: Process control data are used to manage the processing of composites or partially
processed composites into useful component parts. The technical data of interest with respect to
autoclaves and hydroclaves generally concern processing conditions and procedures, tooling and
preparation for cure and cure control. Because the precise process settings for temperature, pressure
and duration have a critical effect on the strength, impact resistance and flexural modulus of the parts
produced, manufacturers have developed proprietary processes and rarely release the information for
6-32


production of specific parts. Processing conditions, debulking periods and related procedures are usually
individually tailored for the specific part.

Method of Operation: These data are used as guidance in making or partially processing specific, highly
heat‐tolerant, composite parts in autoclaves and hydroclaves. Cure control can be carried out by a
human operator, but it is more commonly carried out by computer. The latter may be based on a
prescribed process cycle or may take the form of intelligent processing in which the computer makes
decisions on the basis of the combined input of analytical process models, sensors in or near the part
being processed, and human knowledge built into the system as artificial intelligence.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These data are part of the instructions for preparing the preform or
composite for use as highly heat‐tolerant and ablative components such as RV nose tips and rocket
motor nozzles.

Other Uses: Similar processes and procedures are used
•The autoclave or hydroclave
equipment is produced in most to make the materials for commercial applications of
industrial countries because it is used composite technology, from boat hulls to golf clubs.
in common manufacturing processes.
Although general knowledge of these Appearance (as manufactured): In general, technical
processes is widely known, data on data can take the form of blueprints, plans, diagrams,
processes for specific applications are models, formulae, engineering designs and
proprietary. specifications, and manuals and instructions written or
• recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape
and read‐only memories. These data are usually provided
Global Production in handbooks and graphs as part of either the autoclave
or hydroclave manufacturer’s documentation, or as a
part of the resin manufacturer’s recommendations. The
manufacturer’s documentation refers to each of the
subcomponents and compiles specifications and
instruction manuals for each of them. These components include items such as solid‐state controllers or
computers for controlling and monitoring temperature and pressure during the cure operation.

Appearance (as packaged): The data accompanying the equipment and containing the cure information
are typically placed in loose‐leaf books or a collated set of instructions. Documentation has a report
format and accompanies new equipment. Data supplied by manufacturers of resin or prepreg are on
data sheets and accompany the raw resin or prepreg material.
6.E.3. "Technology" for producing pyrolytically derived materials formed on a mould, mandrel or
other substrate from precursor gases which decompose in the 1,300 0C to 2,900 0C temperature
range at pressures of 130 Pa (1 mm Hg) to 20 kPa (150 mm Hg) including "technology" for the
composition of precursor gases, flow‐rates, and process control schedules and parameters.
6-33


Nature and Purpose: Pyrolytic deposition is a high‐temperature process used to deposit a thin, dense
coating of metal, ceramic, or carbon onto a substrate (mould or mandrel) in order to form a part. It also
can be used to coat another material in order to achieve strong adhesion and bonding between the
coating material and the underlying surface. The purpose of these processes is to improve the ability of
the coated or densified items to survive the extreme environments in which critical rocket system parts
operate.

The general procedures and methods used to create pyrolytically derived materials and their precursor
gasses are widely known. However, specific formulae, processes and equipment settings are usually
empirically derived and considered proprietary trade secrets by industry. Controlled data (technology)
may take the form of technical assistance including instruction, skills, training, working knowledge,
procurement assistance and consulting services. Technology may take the physical form of blueprints,
plans, diagrams, models, formulae, engineering designs and specifications, and manuals and instructions
written or recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, CD‐ROM and DVD.

Method of Operation: The technology for pyrolytic carbon deposition is found in primarily small
laboratory environments. There is no known large‐scale industrial production by pyrolytic carbon
deposition. The technology is not readily shared nor exported. The technology for metal or ceramic
deposition is more prevalent and could be acquired by a country by a number of means. A country may
gain the technology through instruction provided by a person experienced in one of more of these
controlled subjects who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the production site. A country may
receive technical assistance from one or more consulting services that specialize in a particular
production skill or in the procurement of technical machinery, tools and materials. Finally, a country
may receive technical assistance by sending students to other countries possessing the technology to
attend training and practice the skills necessary to build and operate the required systems. Any manuals
and materials received from this assistance may qualify as technical data.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, using this technology to build missile or coating
nozzle throat inserts, is limited to those specific purposes.

Other Uses: Some ”technology” may have functionality in the military or commercial aircraft industry,
in the manufacture of dyes and forming tools that shape semi‐molten glass as well as heater elements,
sputtering targets, and thermal insulators. This technology may also used by specialty glass
manufacturers.


Appearance (as packaged): N/A.

6-34


7- 1


8- 1


Category II – Item 9: Instrumentation, Navigation and Direction Finding
Instrumentation, Navigation
and Direction Finding
9- 1


9.A.1. Integrated flight instrument systems which include gyrostabilisers or automatic pilots,
designed or modified for use in the systems specified in 1.A., or 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. and specially
designed components therefor.

Nature and Purpose: Integrated flight instrument systems use a variety of sensors as well as inertial
instruments (accelerometers and gyroscopes) to track the flight path of rocket systems and UAVs. By
collecting and using more data than purely inertial guidance sets, these systems are highly accurate,
while the additional sensor data may allow the use
of less expensive inertial instruments with large
•China •France time dependent errors without a reduction in
•Germany •India overall system accuracy. Manufacturers have used a
•Israel •Italy variety of names for integrated flight instrument
•Japan •Norway systems, including integrated navigation systems,
•Russian Federation •South Africa and such systems with other names may also be
•Spain •Sweden controlled under 9.A.1.
•United Kingdom •United States Method of Operation: Integrated flight instrument
systems collect and process in‐flight data from
active and passive sensors, receivers, and inertial
instruments in order
Global production to track the missile’s
flight path. They use
one of several
hierarchical or voting
schemes to derive
the best estimate of
position and heading for comparison with the preprogrammed flight
path. The results are used to generate signals to steer the vehicle along
the intended flight path and to trigger other preprogrammed functions
(such as payload release) at their appropriate time.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Integrated flight instrumentation systems
are required equipment in UAVs, including cruise missiles. Figure 1: The main body of a
cruise missile’s integrated flight
Other Uses: Integrated flight instrumentation systems are used in both instrumentation system. (Litton
civilian and military aircraft. Guidance and Control Systems)
9- 2


Appearance (as manufactured): Integrated flight instrument systems vary greatly in size and
appearance because they are designed for different interior configurations of different vehicles, and use
various combinations of subsystems. Systems designed for UAVs can be as small as 0.2 m x 0.2 m x 0.1
m, and weigh as little as 1 kg (see Figure 2). Others, designed for cruise missiles or larger UAVs, can be as
large as 0.5 m in length and weigh several kilograms. As with missile guidance systems controlled under
2.A.1.d., most integrated flight instrumentation systems controlled by 9.A.1. are enclosed in metallic
(often aluminum) boxes, which often have removable access panels. In some cases, components of the
system may be distributed throughout the missile, with some sensors and antennas located well apart
from the computer and inertial measurement unit (IMU).


Figure 2: A selection of integrated navigation systems (INS) designed for UAV applications. From left: an autopilot and
mission management system for UAVs and other military applications; a fully‐integrated INS/GPS system; and a system
which has integrated solid‐state gyros, accelerometers, magnetometer and GPS receiver. (Rockwell Collins)

Appearance (as packaged): Although integrated flight instrument systems are not as delicate and
expensive as some of the more expensive ballistic missile guidance sets, their packaging is usually robust
and includes desiccants and air‐tight wrappers for protection against moisture. These systems are
usually shipped in cushioned containers with labels indicating the need for careful handling.
9.A.2. Gyro‐astro compasses and other devices which derive position or orientation by means of
automatically tracking celestial bodies or satellites, and specially designed components therefor.
Nature and Purpose: Gyro‐astro compasses are precision assemblies of sensitive optical and electro‐
mechanical equipment used for navigation. They provide an in‐flight orientation update and thereby
increase the navigational accuracy.

Method of Operation: These devices use an optical sensor to detect a distant point‐source of light in a
known direction, typically relying on stars, but also making use of satellites travelling in known orbits.
The guidance computer compares the expected direction of the star on the current trajectory with its
measured direction and sends signals to the flight control system to make any necessary course
corrections.

9- 3


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Gyro‐astro compasses are
•France
used in missiles that fly a portion of their trajectory above
•Germany
the atmosphere.

•United Kingdom
Other Uses: Gyro‐astro compasses are used in space
•United States
probes and some aircraft as well as on some ships to aid
in navigation.

Global production Appearance (as manufactured): Improvements in optical
sensor technology have reduced the size and weight of
such sensors, and are likely to continue to do so.
Although gyro‐astro compasses vary considerably in
design, the optical sensors, or telescopes, all have a
visible optical lens, which may be protected by an
automatic shutter or trap door. Many telescopes are gimbal‐mounted (i.e., mounted inside one or more
pivoting cages) and thus can be automatically pointed to locate an optical reference. A typical unit might
measure less than half a meter and weigh less than 10 kg. A photograph of a gyro‐astro compass is
shown in Figure 3. Compasses without gimbals consist
of little more than an optical sensor with precision
mounting surfaces, a shutter, and supporting
electronics. Their metal cases often measure only 5 cm
to 7 cm on a side and weigh approximately 0.5 kg.

Appearance (as packaged): Because gyro‐astro
compasses are delicate mechanisms, they are usually
packed in robust shipping containers that prevent
damage from moisture and mild shock. Shipping
containers usually have warning labels indicating that
they contain costly assemblies of sensitive optical, Figure 3: A high resolution gyro‐astro compass.
electrical, or mechanical equipment. (Litton Alenia Difesa)

9- 4


9.A.3. Linear accelerometers, designed for use in inertial navigation systems or in guidance
systems of all types, usable in the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2., having all of the
following characteristics, and specially designed components therefor:
a. 'Scale factor' 'repeatability' less (better) than 1250 ppm; and

b. 'Bias' 'repeatability' less (better) than 1250 micro g.
Note:
Item 9.A.3. does not control accelerometers specially designed and developed as Measurement
While Drilling (MWD) sensors for use in downhole well service operations.
Technical Notes:
1. 'Bias' is defined as the accelerometer output when no acceleration is applied.
2. 'Scale factor' is defined as the ratio of change in output to a change in the input.
3. The measurement of 'bias' and 'scale factor' refers to one sigma standard deviation with
respect to a fixed calibration over a period of one year.
4. 'Repeatability' is defined according to IEEE Standard 528‐2001 as follows: 'The closeness of
agreement among repeated measurements of the same variable under the same operating
conditions when changes in conditions or non‐operating periods occur between
measurements'.

Nature and Purpose: Accelerometers are sensitive pieces of electro‐mechanical equipment used in
measuring acceleration, which is the rate of change of speed in a given direction. Acceleration is
integrated once to provide velocity and
integrated again to provide distance
traveled from the point of origin or
launch.

Missile accuracy is directly dependent on
the quality of the missile’s accelerometers
and gyros; missiles that fly for a long time
without external updates require high
quality accelerometers. Missiles that use
Figure 4: This accelerometer is used in many commercial and
sensor systems like Global Positioning military strap‐down inertial navigation systems. (Honeywell)
System (GPS) receivers, stellar fixes, or
terrain‐matching sensors to make mid‐flight corrections can use lower quality accelerometers. Much of
the cost of inertial‐grade accelerometers results from the extensive calibration testing that must be
performed on each unit.

Method of Operation: Accelerometers receive electrical power, sense acceleration, and provide
measurement information as an electric signal. Information from the accelerometer, along with
9- 5


information on time, local gravity, orientation, and possibly other measurements, allows vehicle speed,
heading, and position to be estimated by the guidance set or integrated flight instrumentation system.
Several different types of accelerometers exist, each with its
own method of operation.

•China •France
Many pendulous accelerometers (often referred to as force
•Germany •India
balance, force to balance, or force rebalance
•Israel •Italy
accelerometers) use a small weight on a flexible hinge that is
•Japan •North Korea
supported against the forces of gravity and acceleration by a
•Norway •Pakistan
magnetic field. Numerous variations of this design exist, but
the principles are much the same. The small weight is held in
•Sweden
a null position by an electromagnet. As the acceleration
•United Kingdom
changes, the weight moves, and control circuitry changes
•United States
the current in the electromagnet to bring the weight back to
the null position. The amount of current required for this
repositioning, or rebalancing, is proportional to the
Global acceleration.
production
A spinning mass gyroscope with an unbalanced mass added
along its spin axis can be used as an accelerometer. The
gyroscope revolves about a pivot perpendicular to its axis of
spin at a rate proportionate to acceleration including gravity. The sum of these revolutions serves as a
mechanical integration of acceleration to provide an output proportionate to velocity rather than
acceleration. Accelerometers of this type are known as pendulous
integrating gyroscopic accelerometers (PIGAs). PIGAs can be very
expensive and have been used in some of the most accurate long‐
range ballistic missile systems.

Other accelerometer designs also exist such as vibrating element
accelerometers that vary the tension and frequency of a vibrating
element. Chip accelerometers use a flexible portion of the microcircuit
semiconductor to vary electrical resistance and produce an electrical
output. Accelerometers of this type are at the lower end of the
performance range, but design efforts will continue because of the
potential for substantial cost reduction. Such modern accelerometers
are already used in IMUs requiring a lower degree of accuracy.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Accelerometers are used in missile
Figure 5: A pendulous integrating guidance sets or integrated flight instrumentation systems. Typically,
gyro accelerometer (PIGA) next to three accelerometers mounted perpendicular to each other provide all
an inch scale. (The Charles Stark the acceleration measurement information necessary for inertial
Draper Laboratories, Inc.)
navigation. They can be installed in a gimbal structure (see 2.A.1.d.),
mounted in a floating ball, or affixed (strapped down) to the missile frame. Combined with gyro‐scopes,
they make up an IMU or inertial sensor assembly (ISA). Depending upon mission requirements, some
UAVs, including cruise missiles, can make do with only one or two accelerometers.

Other Uses: Accelerometers are used in both civilian and military aircraft and space systems, in oil well
9- 6


drilling stress testing, as inertial navigators in cars and other land vehicles, and in electronic equipment,
gravity meters, robotics, and carnival rides (roller coasters). However, most of these uses do not require
the high stability and highly calibrated accuracy of inertial‐grade accelerometers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Accelerometers vary greatly in appearance because many designs exist.
They are usually cylindrical, metallic, and shiny from precision machining. The larger accelerometers
used in ballistic missiles are several centimeters in length and can weigh up to several kilograms. Those
used in UAVs, including cruise missiles, are smaller and lighter; they may measure only a few
centimeters on a side and weigh less than a kilogram. Many accelerometers of MTCR concern have high
quality electrical connections and precision mounting surfaces for accurate alignment. Many
accelerometers are factory‐sealed instruments, not usually disassembled or even opened for service by
any customer. The model and serial
number on the exterior of the
accelerometer should appear on the
associated documentation, which contains
information about accuracy.

Distinguishing MTCR‐controlled from
other accelerometers simply by visual
inspection can be difficult because,
although different models of an
Figure 6: This accelerometer offers very high inertial navigation‐ accelerometer have different performance
grade performance with primary applications in spacecraft capabilities, they may look identical.
navigation and control systems. (Honeywell)
Relevant information unique to each
model and serial‐numbered accelerometer can be derived from the associated documentation (often
called a calibration sheet or cal‐data), including the g‐threshold and linearity error. A major factor that
makes an accelerometer accurate enough for use in sophisticated missile guidance sets is the exhaustive
testing needed to compile the calibration data. Thus, the detail and amount of the calibration and error
modeling data associated with each accelerometer are key indicators for determining the missile‐related
use of an accelerometer.
Figure 7: Left: An integrated circuit accelerometer. (Litton Sextant Avionique) Right: Two force‐rebalance
accelerometers that can be built with any of a wide range of performance capabilities. (Lockheed Martin Federal
Systems)
9- 7


Appearance (as packaged): Because they are designed to be sensitive to acceleration, precision
accelerometers are vulnerable to damage from relatively minor impact. They are usually protected from
physical shock in small, high quality packages with thick, contour‐fitted foam lining much like a package
for a fine pocket watch. For shipping, one or more of these special boxes are packed in yet another box
or other container with cushioned lining of some sort. The documentation on the accuracy of each
model and serial‐numbered accelerometer is usually contained in its package.
9.A.4. All types of gyros usable in the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2., with a rated
'drift rate' 'stability' of less than 0.5 degrees (1 sigma or rms) per hour in a 1 g environment, and
specially designed components therefor.
Technical Notes:
1. Drift rate is defined as the component of gyro output that is functionally independent of input
rotation and is expressed as an angular rate. (IEEE STD 528‐2001 paragraph 2.56)
2. Stability is defined as a measure of the ability of a specific mechanism or performance coefficient
to remain invariant when continuously exposed to a fixed operating condition. (This definition does
not refer to dynamic or servo stability) (IEEE STD 528‐2001 paragraph 2.247)

Nature and Purpose: Gyroscopes, or gyros, are sensitive pieces of electro‐mechanical or electro‐optical
equipment that measure rotation about one or more sensitive axis. Gyroscopes are usually mounted
with accelerometers in the guidance set or integrated flight instrumentation system. They measure any
change in the angular orientation of the accelerometers,
so that the direction of the accelerometer
measurements is known. One of the most important
performance parameters is drift rate stability, usually
•Austria •Canada measured in fractions of a degree per hour. This
•China •France determines how quickly the gyro loses knowledge of its
•Germany •India orientation. For gyros used in strapdown guidance
•Israel •Italy systems, the stability of the scale factor – the factor
•Japan •North Korea relating the sensed rotation rate or angle and the gyro
•Pakistan •Russian Federation output signal – is also critical.
•South Africa •Sweden
•United Kingdom Missile accuracy is directly dependent on the quality of
•United States the missile’s accelerometers and gyros; missiles that fly
for a long time without external updates require high
quality gyros. Missiles that use sensor systems like
Global production Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, stellar fixes, or
terrain‐matching sensors to make mid‐flight corrections
can use lower quality gyros. Much of the cost of inertial‐
grade gyros results from the extensive testing that must
be performed on each unit.

9- 8


Method of Operation: Gyros sense angular shifts (changes in orientation) and provide measurement
information, as some form of electric signal. The orientation information from the gyros, along with
information on time, local gravity, acceleration, and possibly other measurements, allows vehicle speed,
heading, and position to be estimated by the guidance set or integrated flight instrumentation system.
Several different types of gyros exist, each with its own method of operation. Most inertially guided
missiles use either spinning mass gyros or electro‐optical gyros.

Spinning mass gyros contain a spinning disk and operate on the gyroscopic principle whereby a
proportionate measurable torque is generated perpendicular to the angular disturbance. There are two
common types of spinning mass gyros. Single degree‐of‐freedom (SDF) gyros sense rotation about only
one axis, while two degree‐of‐freedom (TDF) gyros sense rotation about two axes. Since missile
guidance systems usually require orientation knowledge for all three axes, three SDF gyros are required,
but only two TDF gyros (one axis will be redundant).

An SDF gyro has the spinning mass suspended cross‐axis inside a cylinder that floats inside yet another
slightly larger cylinder fixed to the guidance platform. Many designs float the inner cylinder in a liquid
while others suspend it with gaseous flow. Rotations of the floated inner cylinder are related to input
orientation changes by the gyroscopic effect of the spinning mass. Measurement of those rotations or
measurement of the force needed to prevent those rotations is the output of the SDF gyro.

The most commonly used TDF gyro is the dynamically tuned gyro (DTG). It uses no floatation fluid, so it
is sometimes referred to as a “dry” tuned gyro. A DTG has the spinning mass suspended on a complex
gimbaled flex‐hinge assembly, essentially an ultra‐precision universal joint. The complex hinge assembly
is tuned so its error torques cancel at one specific speed, often in excess of 10,000 rpm. DTGs need very
good speed regulation to operate reliably at
the tuned rpm. Older types of TDF gyros
consist of a series of mechanical gimbals that
isolate the spinning rotor from the case. The
angular position of the spinning mass with
respect to the case is used to measure the
platform’s orientation changes.

Electro‐optical gyros generate counter‐rotating
beams of laser light around a closed path to
form an interference pattern that is sensed by
Figure 8: This dynamically tuned gyro (DTG) is used in a variety
of military applications, including in inertial measurement a detector. When rotation about an axis not in
units (IMUs) and tactical missile guidance. (Northrop the plane of the loop occurs, the difference in
Grumman) the effective lengths of the respective paths
creates a relative shift of the interference pattern. This shift (known as the Sagnac effect) is observed by
the detector, which provides an output proportional to the rotation of the gyro.

There are two common types of optical gyros, the ring laser gyro (RLG) and the fiber optic gyro (FOG),
and there are several variations of each. RLGs create their counter‐rotating beams of laser light inside
gas tubes that are cavities configured in a closed polygonal path, often triangular, but sometimes four or
five sided. These cavities are made in glass with a near‐zero thermal expansion for higher accuracy.
FOGs use long spools of fiber optic cable to carry the counter‐rotating beams.

9- 9


Figure 9: A FOG (left), an RLG (center), Figure 10: A dynamically Figure 11: A vibrating structure gyro.
and an accelerometer (right). (MTCR tuned gyro (DTG). (The (British Aerospace Ltd.)
Equipment, Software and Technology Charles Stark Draper
Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May Laboratories, Inc.)
2005))
Figure 12: Top left: three exposed ring laser gyros without their associated electronics. (Honeywell) Top right: a fiber
optic gyro with its top removed. (Honeywell) Bottom: a fiber optic, rate sensing gyro. It is 2 cm x 6.5 cm x 8 cm. (LITEF)

9-10


An important difference between RLGs and FOGs is that the spool of fiber optic cable gives the FOG a
much longer optical path length and, at least theoretically, better accuracy. In practice, however, this
improvement is offset by imperfections in the fiber optic cable and cable interfaces.

FOGs are designed as single‐axis gyros so most missiles that use them will need three to track rotations
about all three axes; the same is true of single‐ring RLGs. Sometimes multi‐axis RLGs are used that
contain three or more rings in a single block of glass; only one such unit would be required in a guidance
set.

Other types of gyros include the hemispherical resonating gyro, which establishes and monitors a
standing vibration wave in a hemispherical cup (somewhat like a small wineglass). There are also designs
like small tuning forks that operate by a method that involves Coriolis force. However, any gyro capable
of meeting MTCR performance specifications is controlled regardless of its method of operation.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Gyros are used in a missile’s guidance set or integrated flight
instrumentation system to sense changes in accelerometer orientation. Designs may use two, three, or
four gyros. They usually are mounted perpendicular to each other in order to provide angular
measurement information about all three axes. They can be used in a gimbal structure (see Item
2.A.1.d.), mounted in a floating ball, or affixed to a block which is in turn affixed to the missile airframe
in a strapdown configuration. Combined with accelerometers, they make up the IMU or ISA.

Other Uses: Gyros are used in non‐missile guidance sets, integrated flight instrumentation systems,
gyrostabilizers, automatic pilots, and in navigational equipment. Military applications include artillery,
tanks, ships, and aircraft. Commercial applications include ships, aircraft, and oil drilling. In most non‐
missile applications, gyros can be smaller, cheaper, and
less complex because operating environments and
accuracy requirements are usually less demanding.

Appearance (as manufactured): Modern SDF gyros can
be 5 cm to 8 cm in diameter and 8 cm to 12 cm long,
and weigh up to 1 kg. DTGs are usually cylindrical with
diameters of 4 cm to 6 cm and lengths of 4 cm to 8 cm,
and generally weigh less than 1 kg. Older gyros can be
somewhat larger, approximately twice the size of newer
gyros and weigh several kilograms. Gyros used in UAVs,
including cruise missiles, can be much smaller and
lighter, perhaps weighing only tens of grams.
Figure 13: A tactical grade inertial measurement
Many gyros of MTCR concern have precision mounting unit is a high‐performance fiber optic gyro‐based
surfaces for accurate alignment and high quality motion sensor used in UAV guidance and
electrical connections. Because many designs exist, a navigation systems. (KVH)
gyro’s appearance can vary greatly. Spinning mass gyros are usually cylindrical, metallic, heavy for their
size, and shiny from precision machining.

Individual optical gyros are usually pad‐like and mounted in a low profile, sealed box. A three‐ring RLG
unit will tend to be cubic and between 4 cm and 10 cm on a side. It may weigh between fractions of a
kilogram to over a kilogram. Some single‐axis designs resemble cylinders with diameters exceeding 20
9-11


cm. Some FOG designs are only 2 cm to 4 cm in diameter, contain a fiber several hundred meters long,
and weigh fractions of a kilogram.

MTCR‐controlled and uncontrolled gyros may look identical. Relevant information unique to each model
and serial‐numbered gyro can be derived from the associated documentation (calibration sheet or cal‐
data), including the drift rate stability. As with accelerometers, the exhaustive testing needed to compile
this calibration data is a substantial part of what makes a gyro accurate enough for use in a missile
guidance set. Thus, the detail and amount of the calibration and error modeling data associated with
each gyro are critical to determining the missile‐related use of a gyro. The cal‐data normally cites a serial
number that is visible on the gyro.

Appearance (as packaged): Spinning mass gyros are vulnerable to damage from shock, but optical gyros
are fairly rugged. Spinning mass gyros are packed in high quality, cushioned containers. Optical gyros do
not need as much cushioning material in the package, but they are still likely to be shipped in high
quality packages typical of expensive electronic instruments and sensors.
9.A.5. Accelerometers or gyros of any type, designed for use in inertial navigation systems or in
guidance systems of all types, specified to function at acceleration levels greater than 100 g, and
specially designed components therefor.
Note:
9.A.5. does not include accelerometers that are designed to measure vibration or shock.

Nature and Purpose: Accelerometers and gyros specified
to function at acceleration levels greater than 100 g are a
special category of accelerometers and gyros, which may
•China •France include those in Item 9.A.3. and 9.A.4., respectively.
•Germany •India These devices produce uninterrupted signals throughout
•Israel •Italy their specified range and are designed to operate under
•Japan •North Korea extreme accelerations in excess of 100 g. All such
•Pakistan •Russian Federation instruments are controlled under this item regardless of
•United Kingdom performance specifications. Their purpose is to provide
•United States inertial instrument data under heavy accelerations like
those experienced by re‐entry vehicles (RVs) during
defense avoidance and re‐entry deceleration. These
Global production instruments may also be used as part of a fuzing system.
No accuracy specifications are included because
instruments with significantly lower accuracy can be
used due to the relatively short period of operation.

Method of Operation: These inertial instruments
operate in much the same way as those covered in Item 9.A.3. and 9.A.4., but they are ruggedized and
have a greater operating range (in excess of 100 g).
9-12


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These accelerometers can be used as fuzes in RVs. Continuous output
accelerometers and gyros are used in the guidance sets that steer maneuvering RVs as they evade
defenses or terminally guide themselves to a target. Such
accelerometers and gyros are fairly accurate and probably
radiation hardened. Continuous output accelerometers
rated in access of 100 g are also used in fuzing and firing
mechanisms for cruise missiles with penetrating warheads.

Other Uses: Accelerometers and gyros able to operate in a
100 g environment can be used in guided munitions such as
artillery shells. Such accelerometers are also used in
laboratories for high‐g tests that require continuous output.

Figure 14: An integrated circuit accelerometer
Appearance (as manufactured): Accelerometers may look
rated at over 100 g. (MTCR Equipment,
Software and Technology Annex Handbook, identical to those covered in Item 9.A.3. Similarly, gyros
Third Edition (May 2005)) specified to function at levels greater than 100 g may also
be virtually identical in appearance to those covered in Item
9.A.4. They all are usually cylindrical or pad‐like with precision mounting flanges and high quality
electrical connectors. Because smaller instruments are inherently more g‐tolerant, they tend to be
smaller than most other accelerometers and gyros. There are even miniature high‐g accelerometers
integrated into circuit elements.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of their rugged nature, these instruments do not need special
handling. They are shipped as small hardware items. The documentation on the operating g range of
each model and serial numbered unit is usually contained in its package.
9.A.6: Inertial or other equipment using accelerometers specified in 9.A.3. or 9.A.5. or gyros specified
in 9.A.4. or 9.A.5., and systems incorporating such equipment, and specially designed components
therefor.

Nature and Purpose: This MTCR Annex item ensures that any of the accelerometers and gyros
controlled in Item 9 remain controlled when they are components of a larger assembly used for
navigation and direction finding. Examples of such assemblies include IMUs and complete guidance sets
not controlled under 2.A.1.d. Any inertial system, subsystem, or other equipment is controlled as
Category II under this item if it contains one or more of items 9.A.3., 9.A.4., or 9.A.5.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment is used in guidance sets and integrated flight
instrumentation systems for ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, as described in Item 2.A.1.d. and 9.A.1.

9-13


Other Uses: This equipment can also be used in guidance sets and navigation systems for a whole range
of space flight, aviation, gravity mapping, ocean navigation, land navigation, and well drilling uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): The appearance of
•China •France inertial or other equipment using accelerometers or
•Germany •India gyros varies widely. IMUs can be designed to be rigidly
•Israel •Italy mounted in a strapdown configuration. Equipment using
•Japan •Norway accelerometers and gyros may also use optical sensors,
•Pakistan •Russian Federation Global Positioning System satellite receivers, radar units,
•South Africa •Spain horizon sensors, computers and software, and other
•Sweden •Switzerland items, depending on the specific application. The
•Ukraine •United Kingdom equipment has electrical connectors and mounting
•United States surfaces, and may have removable access panels for
replacing accelerometers, gyros, or other subelements.

Global production They vary in size and weight depending on application.
The IMU shown in Figure 15 is 8 cm in height and just 8.5
cm in diameter, and weighs 750 g.

Appearance (as packaged): Because many
accelerometers and gyroscopes are inherently delicate, they are packed in robust shipping containers
with cushioning and insulation to prevent damage from shock and moisture. Containers may be wood,
metal, or plastic with foam cushioning. The shipping packages are likely to have the cautionary labels
usually used on containers of costly assemblies of sensitive electrical or mechanical equipment.

Figure 15: An Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) utilizes inertial fiber optic gyros
(FOGs) and micro‐machined accelerometers and is used in space stabilization,
missile guidance, UAV guidance and flight control. (Northrop Grumman)
9-14


9.A.7. 'Integrated navigation systems', designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A.,
19.A.1. or 19.A.2. and capable of providing a navigational accuracy of 200 m CEP or less.
Technical Note:
An 'integrated navigation system' typically incorporates all of the following components:
a. An inertial measurement device (e.g. an attitude and heading reference system, inertial
reference unit, or inertial navigation system);
b. One or more external sensors used to update the position and/or velocity, either periodically or
continuously throughout the flight (e.g. satellite navigation receiver, radar altimeter, and/or
Doppler radar); and
c. Integration hardware and software.
N.B. For integration "software", see Item 9.D.4.

Nature and Purpose: Integrated navigation systems are composed of low‐rate update sensors (e.g. GPS
receiver, 1‐20 Hz) and high‐rate propagation sensors (e.g. inertial components, 50‐1000 Hz) to provide a
robust position, velocity, and attitude solution to the
host platform. The processing software may execute on
one of the sensor processors or on an external
computing platform.
•Argentina •Australia

•Brazil •China
The update and propagation sensors serve different
•Denmark •France
purposes and have complementary error characteristics.
•Germany •India
Update sensors such as GPS, radar altimeters, and
•Israel •Italy
Doppler radars produce position and/or velocity
solutions by direct measurement and each solution
contains an independent error level. Propagation
sensors such as inertial components (i.e. accelerometers
•United Kingdom
and gyroscopes) measure incremental changes in
•United States
velocity and attitude that must be integrated to produce
comparisons with the update sensors.

Global production Propagation sensors provide the basis for an attitude
solution as they measure attitude changes relative to
inertial space. Update sensors are not able to provide an
instantaneous attitude measurement.

Various grades of inertial measurement components exist that drive the requirements for the updating
sensor rate. Inertial systems for defense applications are typically grouped into tactical, navigation, and
marine grades and are differentiated mainly by the quality of their gyroscope components.

Method of Operation: Prior to providing a navigation solution, an inertial platform must be aligned. This
is the process by which its attitude estimate is refined to match that of its host platform relative to a
local horizontal navigation frame. It is assumed the mounting angles of the navigation system relative to
9-15


the host platform are known and do not need to be estimated. Depending on the host platform, this can
be accomplished through a static, in‐motion, or transfer alignment process.

During static alignment, gyrocompassing (i.e. measuring earth rotation rate) is used to find the yaw
angle and accelerometers are used to determine pitch and
roll angles. With in‐motion alignment, errors in the
inertially‐derived attitude estimate are reduced by
comparing the propagated inertial navigation solution with
that of the updating system through several measurement
epochs. Finally, for a carried weapon, transfer alignment
can be used to replicate the host vehicle attitude solution
(from its navigation system) to the weapon platform.

Once the inertial attitude solution has converged,
accelerometer measurements are mechanized at the

inertial propagation rate from their measurement
coordinate frame to the local‐level navigation frame. The Figure 16: An internal Inertial Measurement
Unit (IMU) and GPS. (Northrop Grumman)
transformed acceleration measurements are then
integrated once to produce an incremental velocity change and integrated again to produce an
incremental position change within the navigation frame.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Integrated navigation systems
are used in UAVs and some ballistic missile systems. Notable
examples include submarine‐ launched ballistic missiles that
incorporate integrated inertial measurement units with
stellar sensors or surface‐to‐surface missiles that utilize GPS
receivers.

Other Uses: Integrated navigation systems serve many
purposes outside of missile‐based operations. They are
commonly used in civilian and military aircraft. They are also
used in ground vehicles that operate in urban areas where
they may have to deal with GPS outages or
Figure 17: An internal Inertial Measurement intentional/unintentional RF jamming. An integrated
Unit (IMU) and GPS with laser gyro (inset). navigation system can rely on the inertial solution between
(Northrop Grumman)
sparsely available GPS updates.

Remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs) also benefit from integrated navigation systems. They may experience
significant dynamic conditions and be exposed to jamming, both of which could cause a satellite
navigation receiver to temporarily fail.

Since an integrated navigation system provides a robust attitude solution, aerial platforms that require a
precise location and pointing angle of a sensor (e.g. photogrammetry, radar) can have this capability as
part of the platform navigation system or as a separately contained unit.

9-16


Underwater vehicles with marine‐grade inertial components can make use of an integrated navigation
system by surfacing periodically to allow GPS updates. The update
period is dependent on the quality of the inertial sensors utilized and
the desired navigation solution accuracy over time.

Appearance (as manufactured): Integrated navigation system
components (e.g. GPS receiver, inertial components, and integration
hardware/processing) are typically mounted in rugged(ized) enclosures
with several externally‐visible connectors. These connectors provide
inputs for power and antennas and outputs to a guidance system or
display. The longest enclosure linear dimension is typically just less
than one ft (30 cm). It is possible for either the GPS receiver or inertial Figure18: An internal inertial
measurement unit (IMU) to reside outside the integration measurement unit (IMU) and
hardware/software enclosure depending on the application. GPS. (Honeywell)

Appearance (as packaged): Integrated navigation systems would be shipped in metal or plastic crates or
in padded cardboard boxes. External cabling and antennas may be included with a shipment depending
on the intended platform.
9.A.8. Three axis magnetic heading sensors having all of the following characteristics, and specially
designed components therefor:
a. Internal tilt compensation in pitch (+/‐ 90 degrees) and having roll (+/‐ 180 degrees)
axes.
b. Capable of providing azimuthal accuracy better (less) than 0.5 degrees rms at
latitudes of +/‐ 80 degrees, referenced to local magnetic field; and
c. Designed or modified to be integrated with flight control and navigation systems.
Note:
Flight control and navigation systems in Item 9.A.8. include gyrostabilisers, automatic pilots and
inertial navigation systems.

Nature and Purpose: Three axis magnetic heading sensors
measure the earth’s magnetic field in three orthogonal
•Finland •France
components. This field points from the magnetic south
•Israel •Netherlands
pole to the magnetic north pole, is vertical (large “dip”
angle) near the magnetic poles, and horizontal (small “dip”
•United States
angle) near the equator. These sensors derive a heading
Global angle from the horizontal component of the local magnetic
production field. Near the poles, an accurate heading measurement is
difficult, since the magnetic field has only a small
horizontal component.

Once a magnetic heading is calculated, the user or
application may prefer the heading to be referenced to true, rather than magnetic, north. This
declination correction is calculated as a function of position and time from various global models.
9-17


Method of Operation: A common type of magnetic sensor utilized for navigational purposes is the
magnetoresistive (MR) sensor. This sensor is made up of thin strips of permalloy (NiFe magnetic film)
whose electrical resistance varies with a change in applied magnetic field. These sensors have a well‐
defined axis of sensitivity and are mass produced as an integrated circuit.

Due to ferrous materials present in the host vehicle structure and its associated electrical systems, the
measured magnetic field is distorted from that of the true magnetic field. Offsets due to magnetic fields
produced by permanent magnets and electrical components are
considered “hard‐iron” and can be modeled as constant biases. Those
that vary with platform orientation are considered “soft‐iron.” If the
platform can be physically rotated, the hard‐iron and soft‐iron errors
can be estimated and stored in calibration tables. Alternatively, some
systems utilize a self‐generated, variable magnetic field to perform this
calibration step in place. Prior to error calibration, it is assumed the
mounting angles of the magnetometer sensor axes are known relative
to the vehicles axes.

Similar to strapdown inertial measurement units, three axis
magnetometer measurements are electronically gimbaled to the local Figure19: This is a precision
stand‐alone magnetic heading
horizontal frame. This is accomplished after measuring vehicle pitch and sensor. (KVH)
roll with a three axis accelerometer or with an additional navigation
system. Then the heading angle is resolved from the two horizontal magnetic field components.

Gyroscope compensation is also sometimes utilized to allow for a robust heading
measurement while the host vehicle is possibly exposed to transient magnetic
anomalies.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can use the
heading measurement from magnetic sensors for navigation purposes as they fly
between waypoints. Magnetic sensors also have application in laser range finders,
antenna alignment, and may also be integrated with Global Positioning Systems
(GPS) / inertial navigation systems for missile applications. These sensors serve as
an additional measurement source during the update period of a Kalman filter
algorithm (see section on integrated navigation systems above). The heading
estimate may also be directly utilized by the automatic pilot system of a missile
guidance system.

Figure 20: This gyro‐ Since magnetic sensors make an absolute measurement of orientation, rather
stabilized magnetic than an integrated measurement (e.g. from a gyroscope), they do not suffer from
compass module
uses three‐axis
increasingly large drift errors experienced by uncorrected inertial systems. During
magnetic heading periods of RF interference, which can deny GPS updates, magnetic sensor
sensors. (Honeywell) measurements remain useful as they do not require periodic updates.

Other Uses: Magnetic sensors have a number of applications in addition to their utility in missile
navigational systems. They are used in ground vehicles to provide the driver with an “8 point” compass
reading (e.g. NW, N, NE, etc.). Since ground vehicles typically function close to horizontal, tilt
9-18


compensation of the sensor measurements may not be required. If magnetic sensors are permanently
mounted in a static location, they may be used for vehicle detection and classification as the sensed
magnetic fields will vary due to vehicle proximity and ferrous characteristics. Magnetic sensors within
personal navigation devices (PNDs) can be used to update map orientation or augment reality features
within specific mobile applications as PNDs are rotated.

Appearance (as manufactured): Magnetic sensor components could be mounted as a triad directly on a
printed circuit board within a navigation system or may be separated from other electronic components
in their own non‐ferrous enclosure. A separate enclosure allows the magnetic sensors to be mounted as
far away as possible from ferrous materials in the host vehicle. Magnetic sensors are very small in size,
with typical dimensions of around 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm x 15 cm. They are also very light, weighing around 15
g to 20 g.

Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic sensor components are shipped in small boxes or crates and are
not themselves susceptible to shock damage. However, the tilt compensation components (e.g.
accelerometers) could be affected by large shock events, thus requiring the entire system to be padded
during shipping.
Note:
Equipment or "software" specified in 9.A. or 9.D. may be exported as part of a manned aircraft,
satellite, land vehicle, marine/submarine vessel or geophysical survey equipment or in quantities
appropriate for replacement parts of such applications.

9-19


9.B.1. "Production equipment", and other test, calibration and alignment equipment,
other than that described in 9.B.2., designed or modified to be used with equipment
specified in 9.A.
Note:
Equipment specified in 9.B.1. includes the following:
a. For laser gyro equipment, the following equipment used to characterise mirrors, having
the threshold accuracy shown or better:

1. Scatterometer (10 ppm);
2. Reflectometer (50 ppm);
3. Profilometer (5 Angstroms);
b. For other intertial equipment:
1. Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) Module Tester;
2. IMU Platform Tester;
3. IMU Stable Element Handling Fixture;
4. IMU Platform Balance Fixture;
5. Gyro Tuning Test Station;
6. Gyro Dynamic Balance Station;
7. Gyro Run‐In/Motor Test Station;
8. Gyro Evacuation and Filling Station;
9. Centrifuge Fixture for Gyro Bearings;
10. Accelerometer Axis Align Station;
11. Accelerometer Test Station.
9.B.2. Equipment as follows:

a. Balancing machines having all the following characteristics:
1. Not capable of balancing rotors/assemblies having a mass greater than 3 kg;
2. Capable of balancing rotors/assemblies at speeds greater than 12,500 rpm;
3. Capable of correcting unbalance in two planes or more; and
4. Capable of balancing residual specific unbalance of 0.2 g mm per kg of rotor
mass;
b. Indicator heads (sometimes known as balancing instrumentation) designed or modified
for use with machines specified in 9.B.2.a.;
c. Motion simulators/rate tables (equipment capable of simulating motion) having all of the
following characteristics:
1. Two axes or more;
2. Designed or modified to incorporate sliprings or integrated non‐contact devices
capable of transferring electrical power, signal information, or both; and
9-20


3. Having any of the following characteristics:

a. For any single axis having all of the following:
1. Capable of rates of 400 degrees/s or more, or 30 degrees/s or
less; and
2. A rate resolution equal to or less than 6 degrees/s and an
accuracy equal to or less than 0.6 degrees/s.
b. Having a worst‐case rate stability equal to or better (less) than
plus or minus 0.05% averaged over 10 degrees or more; or
c. A position “accuracy” equal to or (less) better than 5 arc second;
d. Positioning tables (equipment capable of precise rotary positioning in any axes) having
the following characteristics:
1. Two axes or more; and
2. A positioning “accuracy” equal to or less (better) than 5 arc second;
e. Centrifuges capable of imparting accelerations above 100 g and designed or modified to
incorporate sliprings or integrated non‐contact devices capable of transferring electrical
power, signal information, or both.
Notes:
1. The only balancing machines, indicator heads, motion simulators, rate tables,
positioning tables and centrifuges specified in Item 9 are those specified in 9.B.2.
2. 9.B.2.a. does not control balancing machines designed or modified for dental or other
medical equipment.
3. 9.B.2.c. and 9.B.2.d. do not control rotary tables designed or modified for machine tools
or for medical equipment.
4. Rate tables not controlled by 9.B.2.c. and providing the characteristics of a positioning
table are to be evaluated according to 9.B.2.d.
5. Equipment that has the characteristics specified in 9.B.2.d. which also meets the
characteristics of 9.B.2.c. will be treated as equipment specified in 9.B.2.c.
6. Item 9.B.2.c. applies whether or not sliprings or integrated non‐contact devices are fitted
at the time of export.
7. Item 9.B.2.e. applies whether or not sliprings or integrated non‐contact devices are
fitted at the time of export.

Nature and Purpose: Alignment, calibration, and test equipment is used to build, calibrate, test, and
characterize these instruments to meet the requirements. Gyroscopes, accelerometers, and IMUs are
precision instruments that must be accurate and reliable over time. Particularly important is test
equipment that subjects an instrument to accelerations and orientation changes while measuring the
instrument’s response over time. This equipment is essential to the manufacture of high quality inertial
instruments. Any specially designed test, calibration, alignment, and production equipment is controlled
even if it is not specified on the list.

9-21


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment is required to produce and calibrate inertial instruments
for use in missiles of all types.

Other Uses: Most spacecraft, aircraft, and other vehicles using inertial navigation or guidance units
require similar equipment and technologies for development, production, test, and calibration.
However, many other non‐missile applications can use inertial instruments with higher drift rates, lower
vibration and acceleration tolerances, and lower stability requirements. Thus, the test, calibration,
alignment, and production equipment for non‐missile inertial equipment is often less sophisticated and
less precise than that required for accurate missiles.

Appearance (as manufactured): Specially designed alignment, calibration, test, and production
equipment for these guidance and navigation items described in 9.A. are usually limited‐production
items. They are as diverse in size, weight, and appearance as they are in function, and these features
change as the technology changes. Although far from a complete list, short descriptions of some
examples are provided below.

Because ring laser gyros sense the phase change of minute wavelengths in light, their accuracy is
determined by the quality of their mirrors. The mirrors must be a precise shape and reflect almost all
the light falling on them and neither absorb nor scatter it. The following three pieces of equipment are
designed to characterize mirrors for use in such gyros.

A scatterometer measures the tendency of a mirror to scatter light away from its intended direction to
an accuracy of 10 ppm or less. It provides a beam of known intensity and measures the intensity of
scattered rays.

A reflectometer measures the ability of a mirror to reflect light to a measurement accuracy of 50 ppm or
less. It works by shining a beam of known intensity on the mirror and measuring the intensity of the
reflected light.

A profilometer measures the profile of the optical surface of a mirror to an accuracy of 5 Angstroms (5 x
10–10 m) or less. Various methods are used to map the minute variations in optical surface height. This
mapping helps determine the localized deviations from theoretical perfect geometry, whether it is
designed flat, concave, or convex.

The accuracy of inertial guidance systems is determined by the quality of their accelerometers and
gyroscopes. Most of the following equipment either characterizes or tests these instruments as they
operate separately, as an assembly, or as a complete IMU.

An IMU Module Tester operates an IMU module electrically, simulates inputs, and collects response
data to confirm proper electrical operation. An IMU Platform Tester operates a complete IMU platform,
that is, the stable element or fully operational strapdown IMU. A three‐axis rate table, also referred to
as a motion simulator, is often used as part of an IMU platform tester. Such tables are controlled under
Item 9.B.2.c. An IMU tested by this equipment should correctly sense the earth’s gravity and rotation
through all orientation changes without misinterpreting it as lateral or vertical movement and without
losing track of its initial alignment with respect to a fixed coordinate reference frame.

9-22


An IMU Stable Element Handling Fixture safely handles the IMU stable element, that is, the inner
portion of a gimbaled or floated IMU, which contains the inertial instruments. Careful handling
facilitates numerous necessary manipulations without degrading the stable element during its assembly,
test, and adjustment.

An IMU Platform Balance Fixture determines IMU platform imbalance and thereby facilitates
adjustments to establish balance. The center of balance must be established accurately to avoid torques
under acceleration and vibration during flight.

A Gyro Tuning Test Station energizes the gyro at the desired
voltage over a range of speeds to determine the best
operating rate of rotation, or rpm. The best rpm is achieved
when the effects of gyro error sources are minimized as
indicated by data collected. A typical rate table used as part
of a gyro tuning test station is shown in Figure 21.

A Gyro Dynamic Balance Station precisely balances the
high‐speed rotating members of spinning mass gyroscopes.
Balance is critical to gyro performance and longevity. These
balancing machines are subject to control under Item
9.B.2.a. if they have the specified performance
characteristics.

A Gyro Run‐In/Motor Test Station energizes the gyro or
Figure 21: A typical rate table used for tuning gyro motor at the desired voltage and frequency to
gyros. (Ideal Aerosmith, Inc) accumulate run time and thereby break in the gyro bearings
and measure motor performance at the design rpm.

A Gyro Evacuation and Filling Test Station purges a gyro internal cavity and fills it with the design
pressure of a desired liquid or blend of gases. Most gyros and accelerometers will be filled with an inert
dry gas to improve long term performance. In addition, certain gyros have internal cavities that need
either a specific liquid of a given density and viscosity or a specific blend of gases to function properly.

A Centrifuge Fixture for Gyro Bearings facilitates testing of gyros in a centrifuge to confirm the ability of
the bearings to withstand the acceleration forces expected during flight. Centrifuge fixtures are also
used to remove excess lubricant from a gyro’s bearing retainer rings.

An Accelerometer Axis Align Station checks accelerometer axis alignment by rotating the accelerometer
about its input axis while the input axis is horizontal. This test is often repeated after vibration tests or
temperature cycles to determine input axis alignment stabilities. Accelerometer input axis alignment is
again checked after installation at the IMU level to determine the slight but important deviations from
desired mutual perpendicularity of the input axis.

Accelerometer Test Stations are used to test the accuracy with which an accelerometer can measure
gravity over a range of positions and angles. These data are then used to calibrate the instrument.
Accelerometers are mounted to a vertical table surface and tumbled to experience gravitational
9-23


acceleration while upright and alternately upside down. Accelerometer test stations can run tests that
include temperature control, using data recording equipment that take data over a long period of time.

Balancing machines are used primarily to balance spinning mass gyroscopes to a high level of precision.
Balancing machines are controlled under Item 9.B.2.a.

Indicator heads are precision round steel tables that can be rotated and locked in a specific direction
repeatedly without loss of accuracy. They are also known as tumble testers, indexing heads, positioning
tables, and dividing heads. Indicator heads modified for use in Item 9.B.2.a. controlled balancing
machines are controlled under Item 9.B.2.b.,
and high precision, multi‐axis indicator
heads (i.e., positioning tables) are controlled
under Item 9.B.2.d.

Controlled motion simulators and rate

tables are precision machines that rotate a
mounting table about multiple axes at
precisely known speeds and angles. They
are normally used in guidance development
to test instruments and IMU assemblies as
described above. Figure 22 shows a two‐
axis, rate‐integrating gyro motion simulator.
Figure 22: A two axis rate integrating gyro test station utilizing a Rate tables are controlled under Item
motion simulator / rate table. (Contraves, Inc) 9.B.2.c.

A centrifuge is used as part of an accelerometer test station in order to determine accelerometer non‐
linearities over a range substantially in excess of the plus and minus one g available in tumble tests.
Centrifuges are controlled under Item 9.B.2.e.
Figure 23: Left: a profilometer system used for measuring mirrors. (Digital Instruments) Middle left: is another portable
IMU tester connected to a miniature IMU. (Litton Guidance and Control Systems) Middle right: is a three‐axis table for
testing IMUs or gyros. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)) Right: is a
dividing head with a temperature control chamber for testing an accelerometer inside the chamber. (Litton Guidance &
Control Systems)

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging varies greatly with the size, weight, and sensitivity of the specific
equipment. However, because most of these items are precision equipment sensitive to shock or rust,
packaging is likely to be robust, with padding and coverings to protect against shock and moisture. Much
of the equipment can be disassembled and shipped in separate containers or crates.

9-24


9.C. Materials

None.
9.D. Software
9.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 9.A. or 9.B.

Nature and Purpose: Integrated flight instrumentation systems use software to interpret and translate
information collected from outside the airframe into reconnaissance, target homing or guidance
information. Gyro‐astro compass, ring laser gyroscopes
and sensitive inertial instruments used in other
applications can be installed and used in missile‐system
•Austria •Canada navigation systems as sensors used with a flight computer
•China •France to determine highly accurate acceleration, velocity and
•Germany •India position information. Each of these systems requires
•Israel •Italy specialized software that incorporates sensor output and
•Japan •Norway compensates for error signals, such as drift.
•Pakistan •Russian Federation
•South Africa •Spain Terminal guidance software integrates the output from
•Sweden •Switzerland many sensors to guide the released weapon to its target.
•Ukraine •United Kingdom Especially rugged accelerometers are used in re‐entry
•United States vehicles to determine the magnitude of rapid
deceleration. The weapon may be enabled or activated
when the deceleration value is at a predetermined value.
Global production
Software installed on a UAV flight computer is used to
launch and fly the UAV to its target and activate the
payload (camera, weapon, etc.) once over the target. UAV
inertial guidance systems may be augmented by
additional systems that make use of ground radio signals,
GPS signals or astro‐gyroscope assemblies that identify celestial points of reference.

Other types of software are used to test, calibrate and align guidance system assemblies. Guidance
system components are placed on test stations and are subjected to a variety of tests designed to
measure such characteristics as drift and scale factors. Seemingly identical instruments will have
characteristics that vary from one unit to another. Each device must be characterized. The data collected
by these tests are added to the flight program as a form of correction factor for that instrument.
9-25


Method of Operation: The integrated flight instrument system forms a series of redundant navigation
systems that result in highly accurate navigation. A gyro‐astro compass installed in a UAV or rocket
system uses navigation software to determine (upon receipt of one or more “star locks”) its velocity,
location and heading. Automated navigation systems can use this concept to follow preprogrammed
flight plans to its target area. Gyroscopes are used to maintain inertial platform orientation in space
while the rocket system or UAV is on the ground and through powered flight. Flight software
subroutines contain correction factors such as drift‐rate data. The flight computer processes this
information and issues correcting signals to torquing motors mounted in the platform gimbals. These
motors maintain the platform in a stable orientation throughout flight. Information from accelerometers
mounted on the stable platform is sent to the flight computer as acceleration data. Flight software
collects this data and, after incorporating additional integrated flight instrument system data, issues
steering and control signals to steer the airframe to the target.

Special versions of flight software incorporate the output signals from additional navigation sensors to
update or augment inertial guidance data. Gyro‐astro compasses send star or satellite position data to
the flight computer. Software in the flight computer can use this data to update position information or
augment inertially sensed acceleration data. Ring laser gyros provide highly accurate platform
misalignment information that can be used to maintain stable platform orientation throughout a
number of flight maneuvers and flight accelerations.

Test and calibration stations are used to measure guidance system defects, such as gyro drift, and
provide characterization data used in the flight program to compensate for these deficiencies.
Alignment stations confirm the quality and appropriateness of the installation and calibration of inertial
instruments on the stable platform. It is these procedures that take the longest development time and
add the greatest cost to each instrument. Identical instruments manufactured on common equipment
require detailed testing and calibration to precisely determine the individual characteristics.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The type of software controlled under Item 9.D.1. is used to provide highly
accurate UAV and rocket system navigation. Automated machining equipment is required to produce
the precision components that make up the inertial guidance instruments. Once these components are
assembled, they are tested and their performance is evaluated on computer‐operated test stations. The
results of this testing produce data that is used to both characterize the instrument, such as drift rate
and scale factor, and define guidance system constants in the flight software.

Other Uses: Elements of integrated flight instrument systems (radar, laser systems and direction‐finding
equipment) are all used in civil and military aircraft to augment inertial navigation systems. Lesser‐
quality inertial navigation components may be used in measurement while drilling applications.
Software used to test, calibrate and align these instruments is found in civil and military aircraft test and
repair facilities.

Appearance (as manufactured): Software takes the form of a computer program stored on printed,
magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable

9-26


computer. This software, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a computer network.
9.D.2. Integration "software" for the equipment specified in 9.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Rocket system or UAV integration software for the equipment specified in 9.A.1. is
used to couple the output of a gyrostabilizer, an autopilot or other integrated flight instrumentation to
the flight computer. The flight computer then incorporates information from these auxiliary navigation
devices with data provided by the instruments mounted within the inertial navigation system. The result
is accurate guidance and steering commands using less expensive navigation instruments.

Method of Operation: Rocket system or UAV navigation
software stored in the flight computer accepts
information from the integrated flight instrumentation.
•China •France This position information is evaluated against the
•Germany •India planned trajectory, and the flight computer issues
•Israel •Italy correction or steering commands to the flight control
•Japan •Norway system.
•South Africa •Spain Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is used to
•Sweden •Switzerland support UAV and rocket system missile navigation.
•United States Other Uses: This software may also be used to support
civil and military aircraft guidance systems.

Global production Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this software
takes the form of a computer program stored on printed,
magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard
disks, compact discs and documents can contain this
software and data.

9.D.3. Integration "software" specially designed for the equipment specified in 9.A.6.

Nature and Purpose: Integration software specially designed for the equipment specified in 9.A.6. is
used to integrate gyroscopes, accelerometers and inertial or stable platform assemblies that are used in
9-27


non‐guidance applications (such as satellite tracking antennae, video cameras, etc.) into UAV or rocket
system guidance and control applications.

Method of Operation: Higher‐quality inertial guidance instruments such as gyroscopes, accelerometers
and sufficiently ruggedized stable platforms used to steady camera platforms, guide drilling
mechanisms, etc. may be used as core rocket system and UAV guidance system components with the
application of appropriate integration software. This software is similar to the inertial measurement unit
software designed for specific flight vehicle guidance applications. It is written and tested using the
same test and calibration equipment as that used for the more specialized guidance system hardware.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is used solely
to support UAV and rocket system navigation.

•China •France Other Uses: Elements of integrated flight instrument
•Germany •India systems (radar, laser systems and direction finding

•Israel •Italy equipment) are all used in civil and military aircraft to
•Japan •Norway augment inertial navigation systems. Software used to
•Pakistan •Russian Federation test, calibrate and align these instruments is found in civil
•South Africa •Spain and military aircraft test and repair facilities.
•Ukraine •United Kingdom Appearance (as manufactured): Typically this software
•United States takes the form of a computer program stored on printed,
magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard
Global production disks, compact discs and documents can contain this
software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents
containing this software are indistinguishable from any
other storage media. Only labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the
software is run on the appropriate computer. This software, including the documentation, can be
transmitted over a computer network.
9.D.4. Integration "software" , designed or modified for the 'integrated navigation systems'
specified in 9.A.7.
Note:
A common form of integration "software" employs Kalman filtering.

Nature and Purpose: Integration software, designed or modified for the integrated navigation systems
specified in 9.A.7. integrates the outputs of inertial measurement instruments and other external
sensors into a system that provides information used by the flight computer to continuously compute
altitude, position and velocity information. Kalman filtering is a software procedure that estimates a
9-28


vehicle’s position and velocity in time based on the known performance of the flight vehicle and then
periodically updates that estimate using filtered information provided by other guidance system
components. The filter used in rocket system or UAV flight navigation evaluates the position information
signals to eliminate random or erroneous measurements (noise) from other integrated navigation
system instruments.

Method of Operation: Rocket system or UAV flight software can be written or modified to incorporate
this integrating software. It is initially tested using the same test and calibration equipment as that used
for the more specialized guidance system hardware and proven using a series of flight tests.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is used to support highly accurate UAV and rocket system
navigation.

Other Uses: This software may also be used to support civil and military aircraft guidance systems.

printed, magnetic or other media. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable


9.E. Technology
Nature and Purpose: Rocket system or UAV guidance system technology resolves very complicated
dynamic control problems. Missile and guidance engineers must know all the physical aspects of the
devices used to produce accurate navigation. This knowledge is usually gained through a series of
computer modeling, bench testing and flight testing exercises. Integrating diverse navigation tools such
as an autopilot, gyro‐stabilized platforms and other active components such as radar, laser or GPS is a
complex task. Developing test and production equipment to support this activity is equally challenging.
The designer must know as completely as possible the precise characteristics of the devices that will be
tested and interconnected on the test bench in order to develop the required simulation software.
Production managers may design and construct guidance system production and integration equipment
9-29


based on the final designs determined in the laboratories. Much of the technology needed to complete
these tasks comes only with experience.

Method of Operation: Early in a development
program, design integration technology is
•Argentina •Australia often manifested in a computer program that
•Brazil •China models the airframe and the propulsion,
•Denmark •France guidance and control systems of the vehicle.
•Germany •India The software simulates guidance system
•Israel •Italy behavior in all expected flight regimes and
•Japan •Russian Federation predicts theoretical performance. The
•South Korea •Sweden designer can change the subsystem
•Switzerland •Ukraine parameters, rerun the simulation and choose
those parameters that give the best
performance. Later in the development
program “hardware‐in‐the‐loop” simulations
may be used where actual guidance
Global production components and subsystems are connected
together on a test bench. The computer
simulates the flight environment and any
hardware missing from the simulation.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This technology
is used to provide and improve rocket system and UAV guidance system performance and accuracy.
Equally important is the requirement to design, develop, produce and use ground test and checkout
equipment and software.

Other Uses: This technology may also be used to manufacture components used to accurately point
parabolic antennae, stabilize video cameras for long‐range photography (including ballistic missile test
range instrumentation), and other civilian and military purposes.


9-30


Flight Control
Category II – Item 10: Flight Control
10- 1


Item 10 – Flight Control
10.A.1. Hydraulic, mechanical, electro‐optical, or electromechanical flight control systems (including

fly‐by‐wire systems) designed or modified for the systems in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: The flight control system provides and controls the steering mechanisms needed
for a missile to achieve stable flight and execute subsequent maneuvers without losing stability. It
normally receives steering commands from the guidance set, mission computer or integrated flight
instrumentation system.

The flight control system includes the actuators to move control surfaces, aim nozzles, control flows and
activate thrusters. It also includes sensors to detect changes in attitude, rate of change of attitude,
speed, altitude, throttle setting, air temperature and air
pressure. These sensor outputs are often shared by other
mechanisms in the missile. The flight control system is
distributed throughout the missile and sometimes
•Australia •Austria overlaps with portions of other systems.
•Belgium •Brazil
•Canada •China Information transmitted from the sensors to the flight
•Czech Republic •Egypt control computer and to the actuators is either analog or
•France •Germany digital and may be routed by electrical wires (fly‐by‐wire).
•Greece •Hungary State‐of‐the‐art systems may use optical fibers (fly‐by‐
•India •Israel light) to provide digital communication between the flight
•Italy •Japan control components. Optical connections are lighter in
•Norway •Portugal weight and greatly reduce susceptibility to the effects of
•Romania •Russian Federation electromagnetic pulse, electromagnetic interference, and
•South Africa •South Korea lightning.
•Turkey •United Kingdom Method of Operation: When UAVs, including cruise
•United States missiles, need to maneuver (turn, climb, etc.), the
integrated flight instrumentation system commands a
change in heading or altitude. The flight control system
Global production sets the actuators on control surfaces to introduce pitch,
roll, and/or yaw; holds those settings until the orientation
has changed; and then resets the actuators to maintain
the new profile. Flight control systems often work in
conjunction with a gyrostabilizer or automatic pilot
(autopilot), which determines the control surface motions
necessary to achieve the desired maneuvers. Autopilots also continuously compensate for
environmental disturbances. Rocket systems may also use flight control systems that operate similarly,

10- 2


but rockets use thrust vector control and sometimes small steering jets to change direction. Some
rocket systems also use aerodynamic fins while in the atmosphere.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight control systems are required to achieve stable flight and execute
maneuvers without losing stability. These systems are usually tailored to the flight characteristics and
mission profile of the rocket system or UAV and thus tend to be system‐specific. Most rocket systems
and UAVs use these systems.

Other Uses: Components used in missile flight control systems may also be used in military and civilian
aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): The flight control system is not a single integral unit; it is distributed
throughout the missile. The flight control system parts most likely to be encountered include the
actuators, electronic assemblies, specialized cables and some sensors.

Appearance (as packaged): Aerodynamic control surfaces and actuators are fairly robust pieces of
equipment. Typical packaging includes wooden crates and cardboard or wooden boxes. They are
securely attached to the shipping container to avoid movement and probably packed in foam shaped
like the part. The sensors used in flight control systems are often more delicate and are normally
individually wrapped and secured in a shock‐resistant box or crate. They are often wrapped in a
moisture‐proof bag.
10.A.2. Attitude control equipment designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Attitude control is different from
•China •France guidance. Guidance centers on the assurance that a
•Germany •India vehicle reaches a predetermined position at a given time.
•Israel •Italy Attitude control makes sure that the airframe has a
•Japan •Russian Federation certain orientation in space at given times. There are
•United Kingdom•United States three fundamental methods of controlling the attitude of
a flight vehicle: use of aerodynamic forces (wings),
deflecting the thrust of the main rocket engine and the
use of auxiliary thrust‐producing devices.
Global production
Method of Operation: The actuators used to move a
UAV’s aerodynamic control surfaces can either be rotary
or linear. A rotary actuator can be powered by an electric
motor and responds proportionally to an input command.
The actuator is part of a closed‐loop control system,
which includes an amplifier and a method for sensing the position of the actuator. The mechanical
output of the actuator is either a hub that can accept a control surface shaft or a shaft onto which a
surface can be mounted. An actuator for thrust vector control (TVC) used on rockets, including space
launch vehicles, is shown in Figure 1. A linear actuator used to control the pitch of rotor blades on UAVs
10- 3


is shown in Figure 2. Sometimes an actuator must not only be capable of rotating the control surface
into a significant aerodynamic force but also supporting the entire mass of the surface during high‐
acceleration launches and maneuvers. Linear actuators are connected to control surfaces through
mechanical linkages that convert the linear actuator motion to an angular control surface motion. These
actuators are powered by an electric motor, pressurized gas or hydraulic fluid.

Figure 1: An electromechanical thrust vector Figure 2: A linear actuator used to position the pitch of rotor
control system, with linear actuator and blades on a tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle and designed
associated electronics box, used on rockets, to operate under extreme environmental and endurance
including space launch vehicles. (Moog, Inc) conditions. (Moog, Inc)

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: UAV fins and rudders are used to correct inaccuracies in the flight path
that are detected by the guidance system or to initiate steering commands to a new course heading or
altitude. Rocket system thrust vector control devices are used for the same purposes.

Other Uses: Components used in UAV and rocket system flight
control systems may also be used in military and civilian aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Flight control system components
are distributed throughout the missile. Sensors, amplifiers and other
components are housed in sealed boxes. Actuators are collocated or
integrally manufactured with a flight control surface. The actuators

used to move a UAV’s aerodynamic control surfaces, including for
cruise missiles, can either be rotary or linear.

Appearance (as packaged): Aerodynamic control surfaces and
Figure 3: An electromechanical actuators are fairly robust pieces of equipment. Typical packaging
flight control actuator for a tail fin includes wooden crates and cardboard or wooden boxes. They are
of a small missile. (Daimler Benz securely attached to the shipping container to avoid movement and
Aerospace)
probably packed in foam shaped like the part. The sensors used in
flight control systems are often more delicate and are normally individually wrapped and secured in a
shock‐resistant box or crate. They are often wrapped in a moisture‐proof bag.

10- 4


10.A.3. Flight control servo valves designed or modified for the systems in 10.A.1. or 10.A.2., and
designed or modified to operate in a vibration environment greater than 10 g rms between 20 Hz
and 2 kHz.
Note:
Systems, equipment or valves specified in 10.A. may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or
satellite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.

Nature and Purpose: The flight control system provides and controls the steering mechanisms needed
for a UAV to achieve stable flight and execute subsequent maneuvers without losing stability. It
normally receives steering commands from the guidance set, mission computer, or integrated flight
instrumentation system.

The flight control system includes the actuators to move control surfaces, aim nozzles, control flows and
activate thrusters. It also includes sensors to detect changes in attitude, rate of change of attitude,
speed, altitude, throttle setting, air temperature, and air pressure. These sensor outputs are often
shared by other mechanisms in the missile. The flight control system is distributed throughout the
missile and sometimes overlaps with portions of other systems.

Information transmitted from the sensors to the flight control computer and to the actuators is either
analog or digital and may be routed by electrical wires (fly‐by‐wire). State‐of‐the‐art systems may use
optical fibers (fly‐by‐light) to provide digital
communication between the flight control components.
Optical connections are lighter in weight and greatly
•China •France reduce susceptibility to the effects of electromagnetic
•Israel •Japan pulse, electromagnetic interference and lightning.
•United Kingdom Method of Operation: When UAVs need to maneuver
(turn, climb, etc.), the integrated flight instrumentation
•United States
system commands a change in heading or altitude. The
flight control system sets the actuators on control
surfaces to introduce pitch, roll, and/or yaw; holds those
Global production settings until the orientation has changed; and then
resets the actuators to maintain the new profile. Flight
control systems often work in conjunction with a
gyrostabilizer or automatic pilot (autopilot), which
determines the control surface motions necessary to
achieve the desired maneuvers. Autopilots also
continuously compensate for environmental
disturbances. Rocket systems may also use flight control systems that operate similarly, but rocket
systems use thrust vector control and sometimes small steering jets to change direction. Some rocket
systems also use aerodynamic fins while in the atmosphere.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight control systems are required to achieve stable missile flight and
execute maneuvers without losing stability. These systems are usually tailored to the flight
10- 5


characteristics and mission profile of the missile and thus tend to be missile‐specific. Most missiles use
these systems.

Other Uses: Components used in missile flight control systems may also be used in military and civilian
aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Servo valves used in flight control systems may be constructed from
stainless steel and have mounting swivels at either end. Hydraulic and electrical connections will be
found on the side of the device. Position indicators provide feedback signals to the flight computer and
may be available through a separate electrical connector.

Appearance (as packaged): Flight control servo valves are fairly robust pieces of equipment but they
have sensitive position indicator mechanisms attached or built into the case. Typical packaging includes
cardboard or wooden boxes. They are securely attached to the shipping container to avoid movement
and probably packed in foam shaped like the part. They are often wrapped in a moisture‐proof bag.
10.B.1. Test, calibration, and alignment equipment specially designed for equipment specified in
10.A.

Nature and Purpose: Flight control system test, calibration and alignment equipment includes the
specialized jigs and fixtures necessary to mechanically support and to provide power and electric test
signals to sensor electronics and actuator subsystem components. These pieces of test equipment may
also be used to support actuator and other subcomponent‐level calibration, alignment, functional, and
operational testing. They take the form of test stands and benches using either water or some other
fluid as a stimulant or using the hydraulic fluids or propellants that will be employed during operational
use.

Method of Operation: Test section computers provide simulated steering and correction signals to units
of the flight control system under test conditions and record the resulting actuator or control surface
motion. Each subsystem can be evaluated for accuracy of motion as well as rate of change and
maximum frequency response. Test stations often contain equipment that is used to confirm the
aerodynamic control surface alignment to null and commanded positions.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight control systems are tuned circuits that use feedback information
from actuators or other sensors. Test equipment detailed in this section not only test, calibrate, and
align control surfaces relative to input signals, but also capture the output data used to calibrate and
characterize an actuator’s performance. These data are used in the flight program to define individual
actuator response and performance features.

Other Uses: This test equipment may also be used to test, align and calibrate flight control equipment
used in military and civilian aircraft.

10- 6


Appearance (as manufactured): Flight control test equipment looks like standard laboratory apparatus
found in larger universities or aerospace industries, such as wind tunnels, electronic test benches, laser
calibration devices, hydraulic or hydrodynamic test benches, etc. The equipment will consist of
electronic test equipment, possibly computer controlled, electric and possibly hydraulic power supplies
and rigid mechanical equipment to mount flight control actuators and control surfaces. Calibration
points and alignment fixtures may be incorporated into these mountings.

Appearance (as packaged): New equipment or replacement spare parts are shipped separately in crates
or protected on pallets for onsite assembly. They will be securely fastened to the crate to restrain
motion and prevent damage. Smaller jigs may be individually crated or palletized for shipment. Test
equipment is usually fragile and is so marked. It will include computer equipment, test stations, and
corresponding support and interface components. There may be hydraulic pressurization systems and
precision alignment fixtures included with the assemblies. Larger items may be palletized or crated in
large wooden or metal crates, while smaller items will be in cardboard or wooden boxes.
10.C. Materials

None.
10.D. Software
10.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 10.A. or
10.B.
Note:
"Software" specified in 10.D.1. may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satellite or in
quantities appropriate for replacement parts of manned aircraft.
Nature and Purpose: Flight software used in UAVs and rocket systems provides control and steering
commands sent to the flight control system actuators. These actuators then change the position of UAV
control surfaces or alter the rocket thrust vector or aerodynamic surfaces to modify the flight trajectory.
Other software is used to test, calibrate, align, and maintain the flight control system sensors and
instruments and the actuator hardware.

Method of Operation: Flight control system software tells the flight controller (the “brains” of the
system) how to interpret and translate the information supplied from the guidance sensors into steering
commands to individual flight control actuators. These commands correct the vehicle’s flight trajectory
after a position error is detected. They may also be used to steer the vehicle to a new flight heading
following the course and trajectory information stored in the main flight computer. Other types of
10- 7


ground support software are used in laboratory and maintenance facilities to test the sensor and
actuator hardware or to calibrate and maintain the system after one or more parts have been replaced.
Computers connected to test‐bench equipment provide appropriate simulation signals to a flight control
sensor device and measures its output. The sensor output is also provided to the control actuator and
the test equipment measure its output. Lasers or other high‐quality measuring tools are used to
determine the degree of alignment of the control surface to design specifications. The repair technician
can then make adjustments to bring the equipment to
design tolerances.
•Australia •Austria
•Belgium •Brazil Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight control system
•Bulgaria •Canada software is loaded into the UAV or rocket system flight
•China •Czech Republic computer memory and is usually a functional part of the
•Egypt •France flight software. It is used during flight to monitor the
•Germany •Greece position and trajectory supplied by the guidance system.
•Hungary •India The flight computer issues steering commands, after
•Israel •Italy evaluating this data with preprogrammed information, to
•Japan •Norway individual flight control actuators to correct any detected
•Portugal •Romania position errors.
•South Africa •South Korea Other Uses: Software used in UAV and rocket flight
•Sweden •Switzerland control systems may also be used in military and civilian
•Taiwan •Turkey aircraft. The ground support software may also be used in
•United Kingdom•United States these industries to test and maintain aircraft and rocket
control systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): This software takes the
Global production form of a computer program stored on printed, magnetic,
optical or other media. Any common media – including
magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks,
compact discs and documents – can contain this software
and data.

10.E. Technology
10.E.1. Design "technology" for integration of air vehicle fuselage, propulsion system and lifting control
surfaces, designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.2., to optimise aerodynamic
performance throughout the flight regime of an unmanned aerial vehicle.

10- 8


Nature and Purpose: Stable and controlled flight is a very complicated dynamic control problem. Solving
it requires in‐depth knowledge of all subsystems and their interactions over all flight regimes. This
knowledge is normally generated by wind tunnel testing, computer modeling to simulate vehicle
performance, and a detailed flight test program. Design integration technology enables missile designers
to size, configure, and optimize all the subsystems; to take into account their often‐complicated
interactions; and thereby to minimize errors. Thus, this technology decreases the time to design, test
and produce a missile and may also support efforts to improve missile performance.

Method of Operation: Design integration technology is a specially designed computer program used
early in the missile development program that models the airframe, the propulsion, guidance and
control systems of the vehicle. The designer can change the flight control subsystem parameters, rerun
the simulation, and choose those parameters that give the best performance. Later in the development
program, “hardware‐in‐the‐loop” simulations may be used that integrate flight control subsystems
together on a test bench. The computer is used to simulate the flight environment. Other test
equipment, such as wind tunnels, may be used to replicate flight conditions as part of the simulations.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Design integration technology is used to design and integrate flight
control systems found in both commercial and military aircraft.

Other Uses: Some “technology” used to design, manufacture and test UAVs may have functionality in

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically UAV design integration technology takes the form of a
computer program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media – including
magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact disks and documents – can contain this
software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact disks and
documents containing design integration technology are indistinguishable from any other storage
the appropriate computer. This technology, including the documentation, can be transmitted over a
computer network. Other design integration technology consists of training and hands‐on experience at
foreign technology centers, for instance at instrumented wind tunnels.

10.E.2. Design "technology" for integration of the flight control, guidance, and propulsion data into a
flight management system, designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.1., for
optimisation of rocket system trajectory.

Nature and Purpose: The technology needed to control rocket system flight is complicated and involves
a great number of complex variables that must be resolved. Not only must designers possess in‐depth
knowledge of the missile flight control subsystems and their interactions, they must also determine
techniques to solve control problems that involve high velocities and altitudes. This knowledge also
comes from computer modeling, wind tunnel testing and a detailed flight test program. Each of these
10- 9


procedures involves increasing costs and time. As a result, many countries attempt to acquire the
needed technology from foreign sources to reduce the time and cost of the integration program.

Method of Operation: Technical assistance is available in many forms. Technical assistance may consist
of instruction provided by a person or organizations experienced with developing flight control systems
for rocket systems who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the development or production site. A
country may receive technical assistance from one or more foreign entities that possess the design and
development facilities needed to provide hands‐on experience to grow the desired technology.
Technical assistance may also come in the form of assistance in procuring for machines, equipment and
materials.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, technical assistance required to develop and build
rocket flight control systems are used only for those purposes. Sounding rockets used in weather
research, with minor adjustments, can be converted to ballistic missiles, and the technology used in
ballistic missiles and in sounding rockets is essentially the same.

Other Uses: This technology has limited to nonexistent application apart from the science of rockets.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, rocket design integration technology takes the form of a
computer program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media – including
magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact disks and documents – can contain this
software and data.

computer network. Other design integration technology consists of training and hands‐on experience at
foreign technology centers, for instance at instrumented wind tunnels.
10.E.3. "Technology", in accordance with the General Tchnology Note, for the "development",

Nature and Purpose: Development software uses information borne of experimentation that has been
translated into computer code. The goal is to reduce the time and expense needed to design and
develop a missile and the associated production facilities. This simulation software models the
mathematical representation of the propulsion, flight control guidance system, and other important
subsystems to determine initial flight system development concepts. Other software is used to define
the automated production and control system requirements, designs and processes. Much of the know‐
how needed to build and refine this software can be acquired from countries that have this technology,
reducing further the time and expense of developing and refining this software.

Method of Operation: Design integration technology is a computer program used early in a
development program that models the airframe and the propulsion, guidance and control systems of

10-10


the vehicle. The software simulates vehicle behavior in all expected flight regimes and predicts
theoretical performance. The designer can change the subsystem parameters, rerun the simulation, and
choose those parameters that give the best performance. Later in the development program,
“hardware‐in‐the‐loop” simulations may be used where actual subsystems are connected together on a
test bench, and the computer simulates the flight environment and any hardware missing from the
simulation. Some test equipment, such as wind tunnels, may be used to replicate actual flight conditions
as part of the simulations. This technique finds real‐world effects of hardware interactions, which may
be difficult to detect or hard to simulate. For example, the U.S. space shuttle was never flight‐tested in
its final configuration. Although numerous components and subsystems were extensively tested, the
shuttle flew with a crew the first time it was launched—an event extremely unlikely without this
technology.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Though not an absolute requirement, modern missiles use design
integration technology to shorten development time, decrease costs and validate and improve
performance.

Other Uses: Similar design integration technology is used to design and integrate systems found in
commercial and military aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, design integration technology takes the form of a computer
program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media – including magnetic
tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact disks and documents – can contain this software and
data.

computer network.
10-11


Avionics
Category II – Item 11: Avionics
11- 1



Notes:
1. Equipment specified in 11.A. includes the following:
a. Terrain contour mapping equipment;
b. Scene mapping and correlation (both digital and analogue) equipment;
c. Doppler navigation radar equipment;
d. Passive interferometer equipment;
e. Imaging sensor equipment (both active and passive);
2. Item 11 equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satellite or in quantities
appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.
11.A.1. Radar and laser radar systems, including altimeters, designed or modified for use in the
systems specified in 1.A.
Technical Note:
Laser radar systems embody specialised transmission, scanning, receiving and signal processing
techniques for utilisation of lasers for echo ranging, direction finding and discrimination of targets by
location, radial speed and body reflection characteristics.

Nature and Purpose: Radars and laser radars are sophisticated active sensor systems that can be used
for reconnaissance, target homing, or guidance in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), especially cruise
missiles. These systems include Laser Detection and Ranging (LADAR) and Light Detection and Ranging
(LIDAR) technologies. These terms are often used interchangeably and generically can be used to refer
to devices that use laser energy to establish a range or to image an object. Radar scene‐matching
correlators have been used in UAVs and ballistic missiles. Radar and laser altimeters are somewhat less
sophisticated devices used for navigation and terrain avoidance in cruise missiles and weapon fuzing in
cruise and ballistic missiles. In recent years, significant technological improvements have occurred in
transmitters, receivers, antennas, and electronic processing.

Method of Operation: Radar, LADAR, and LIDAR systems operate similarly. They emit a pulse of
electromagnetic energy and detect the energy reflected to them from the terrain or target below.
Distance is computed as a product of half the elapsed time between signal transmission and reception,
and the speed of light. The direction of the target or terrain is given by the angle between the two
pulses. The image of the terrain or target thereby created can be compared with stored images, and
missile course can be altered as needed.

Radar and laser altimeters operate similarly, but measure only the distance from the missile to the
11- 2


ground. Such altimeters make precise measurements of distance above ground to help low flying
missiles avoid terrain and, when compared with elevation maps, can be used as navigation aids. Radar
altimeters may also be used in altitude fusing of ballistic missiles.

Doppler navigation systems operate like radar altimeters, but compare the frequencies, not the transit
time, of the transmitted beams and the returned energy. The change in frequency (a Doppler shift) is a
result of missile movement relative to the ground and can be directly converted to missile velocity.
Multiple antennas can measure missile velocity in any direction if they receive enough returned energy.
This velocity information can be used to correct for accumulated guidance errors.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These systems are used in
cruise missiles as sensors for target discrimination,
homing, and warhead fuzing. They are also used as
•Austria •China navigation aids for keeping the missile on a prescribed
•France •Germany flight path and at certain flight altitudes. Such sensors can
•India •Israel also be used for terminal guidance or fuzing of ballistic
•Italy •Japan missiles.
•Norway •Russian Federation
•South Africa •South Korea Other Uses: Radar and Doppler navigation systems are
•Sweden •Taiwan used on military and commercial aircraft and ships for
•United Kingdom•United States navigation, weather detection, and collision avoidance.
Radar altimeters are commonly used for numerous
purposes such as determining height above the terrain on
many types of aircraft. LIDARs have been used for
Global production atmospheric measurements, oceanographic studies, and
smokestack emissions studies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Radar systems for
missiles and UAVs (seekers or sensors) are normally
designed as a single assembly consisting of an antenna
subassembly located at one end of the system and the supporting power, control, and processing
subassemblies located in one or more (separate but connected) housings. The antenna subassembly is
normally a circular or oblong radiating and receiving, beam‐forming element linked to both a power
amplifier and waveguides, normally rectangular tubing that couples the signal from the amplifier to the
radiating element. Antennas are either flat or parabolic and must be sized to fit within the missile
diameter. The antennas are fixed in electronically scanning systems or gimbaled in mechanical scanning
systems. The antenna‐mounting features and support structure are strong enough to maintain stability
and accuracy in the presence of substantial accelerations caused by launch, turbulence, and
maneuvering.

The shape and weight of the support structure and ancillary equipment housings vary greatly from
system to system, but may have some features peculiar to missile applications. For example, to help
reduce missile cross‐sectional area and improve cooling, the equipment boxes may have one or more
cylindrical or conical surfaces and may have mounting features to ensure good contact with the missile
skin or provide for coolant flow rather than external fins for air‐cooling.

Radar altimeters are generally much smaller than radar seekers or other sensors with fixed, surface‐
11- 3


mounted transmitter and receiver antennas. These antennas, which must point toward the ground, are
usually flat, rectangular, or circular plates with a mounting surface conforming to the exterior of the
missile. The power‐ and signal‐processing requirements are significantly less than those for radar seeker
systems. The transmitter and receiver are normally enclosed within one box connected to the antenna
by a coaxial cable. This subassembly usually has a volume of less than 0.05 m3 and does not require
external cooling. A typical Doppler system consisting of a receiver/transmitter/antenna assembly
typically occupies 0.007 m3, weighs less than 5 kg, and requires about 12 watts of power.

LADAR and LIDAR systems differ from radar systems in that they use the much shorter visible‐light and
IR wavelengths respectively. They are easily distinguished by the external appearance of an optical lens
or window. Systems operating at longer IR wavelengths have an optical port that may appear to be
metallic. Like radar antennas, the optical unit of the system is fixed or movable, and it may be mounted
separately. Construction is heavy, with rugged mounts. In general, all of these systems have mounting
surfaces that are unpainted but coated with a conductive anti‐corrosion film. The electrical grounding of
all avionics chassis is vital to survival in hostile electromagnetic environments.

Appearance (as packaged): Although these systems are built to survive normal missile handling and
storage, and severe flight environments, they must be carefully packaged to ensure that unusual
stresses are not imposed by the shipping container and its environments. Because the antenna structure
and drive systems are especially sensitive, they are well protected. The systems are sealed in an air‐tight
enclosure and shipped in cushioned containers. A wide range of outer containers may be used including
metal drums, wooden boxes, and composite or metal cases.
11.A.2. Passive sensors for determining bearings to specific electromagnetic sources (direction
finding equipment) or terrain characteristics, designed or modified for use in the systems specified in
1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Direction‐finding systems provide a vehicle with bearing information (angular
orientation) to known sources of electromagnetic
radiation emanating from ground‐based transmitters.
Terrain and target characteristics may be determined by
•Australia •China
imaging systems, typically a visible or infrared (IR)

camera. These systems are passive because they receive
•India •Israel
but do not transmit energy; thus, missiles using them are
•Italy •Japan
much less likely to be detected. Both systems are used
•Norway •Russian Federation
for UAV guidance and as payload sensors, and in some
•South Africa •South Korea
cases have been used for terminal guidance of ballistic
•Sweden •Taiwan
missiles.

Method of Operation: Direction‐finding equipment uses
passive sensors to receive electromagnetic radiation from
Global production ground transmitters at various known points. For
example, comparing the relative transit times of the
signals from two or more sites allows the computer on
the missile to determine its location and heading. This
11- 4


information is used by the integrated flight instrumentation system to follow the preprogrammed flight
plan. An anti‐radiation homing seeker guides the missile to the target by processing the received radar
energy from a single emitter.

Imaging sensors may use terrain characteristics to navigate. The optical assembly consists of one or
more lenses of fixed or variable focal length, an image intensifier, and a photosensitive array for
converting the scene into a digital map. This assembly
operates in the visible or IR wavelengths. Visible light
systems using a high‐intensity flash illuminator at
night thus become semi‐active sensors. The sensors
collect images of ground scenes at predetermined
points along a preprogrammed flight path. The images
are digitized and compared to stored scenes of the
same locations. Differences between the two scenes
are converted into a position error used to correct
vehicle heading. Alternatively, image sensors can be
used in man‐in‐the‐loop guidance where the image of
the target area is relayed to a person who actually flies
the vehicle. The operator can either guide the UAV to
impact or lock the missile on the target after which
Figure 1: An infrared imaging sensor for a UAV (top) the missile homes autonomously to impact.
and its associated electronics. (LFK‐GmbH)
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Inertial guidance
systems updated by imaging systems can be used to guide cruise missiles with extraordinary accuracy or
for terminal guidance of ballistic missiles. Direction finding equipment can be used to guide UAVs and
for ballistic missile terminal guidance.

Other Uses: Direction‐finding systems are used in
aircraft, ships, and land vehicles. Image sensors are
used in many tactical military systems for ordnance
delivery, particularly from aircraft. Imaging sensor
technology (sensors and algorithms) is also used
extensively in robotics and photography. Imaging
systems built for cruise missiles, however, usually
have no commercial applications.

Appearance (as manufactured): Direction finders
consist of three assemblies: an antenna or antenna
array, a receiver, and processing equipment. The
antenna is a forward‐looking parabolic dish, or a flat
panel such as a phased array, usually mounted on a
gimbaled assembly and sized for installation in the
vehicle structure. The receiver is a small, low power Figure 2: A passive imaging sensor is a high‐
assembly with connectors for power and signal performance UAV infrared system that can
outputs, and one or more coaxial antenna connectors. accommodate up to six sensors. (Northrop
Grumman)
The signal processing equipment can be integral to
other electronics or resident in its own electronics box. The appearance of such signal processing
11- 5


electronics varies greatly and may reflect manufacturer preferences rather than the functional purpose
of the equipment. The size of the signal processing equipment ranges from a few centimeters to tens of
centimeters on a side.

Imaging sensors consist of a lens and a visible or IR sensor, or camera. They are used with an electronic
assembly consisting of a power supply and control and processing electronics, as shown in Figure 1.
Another IR camera is shown in Figure 2. Visible‐light sensors are recognizable by the optical lens or
window. The optical port of IR light sensors may appear metallic. The flash unit has a large optical
window covering a reflector and glass tube.

Imaging sensors may be either fixed or movable, and they may be mounted separately from the rest of
the terrain‐mapping equipment. The optics mounting features and supporting structure are robust in
order to maintain stability and accuracy in the presence of large accelerations during launch, turbulence,
and maneuvering. The surface of the unit close to the lens may be shaped to fit the contour of the
bottom of the missile because the lens must look at the ground during flight.

Appearance (as packaged): The antennas and optical elements may have special protective packaging
because of their sensitivity to shock. These elements are sealed in airtight, moisture‐proof enclosures
and shipped in cushioned containers. In turn, these packages are shipped in a variety of containers,
including metal drums, wooden boxes, or specialized composite or metal cases.
11.A.3. Receiving equipment for Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS; e.g. GPS, GLONASS
or Galileo), having any of the following characteristics, and specially designed components
therfor:
a. Designed or modified for use in systems specified in 1.A.; or
b. Designed or modified for airborne applications and having any of the following:
1. Capable of providing navigation information at speeds in excess of 600 m/s;
2. Employing decryption, designed or modified for military or governmental services, to
gain access to GNSS secure signal/data; or
3. Being specially designed to employ anti‐jam features (e.g. null steering antenna or
electronically steerable antenna) to function in an environment of active or passive
countermeasures.
Note:
11.A.3.b.2. and 11.A.3.b.3. do not control equipment designed for commercial, civil or 'Safety of
Life' (e.g. data integrity, flight safety) GNSS services.

Nature and Purpose: GNSS receivers are small electronic units with power and antenna connections
used to provide very accurate vehicle position and velocity information. GNSS receivers are one of three
core GNSS components, the others being satellites orbiting the earth, and ground control and
monitoring stations. The GLONASS, the Global Positioning System (GPS), and Galileo are examples of
GNSS, all based on a constellation of active satellites which continuously transmit signals to receivers on
earth.

11- 6


Method of Operation: GPS receivers detect radio signals
•China •France transmitted from GPS satellites orbiting the earth in
•Germany •Israel precisely known orbits. These radio signals identify the
•Japan •Russian Federation satellite and contain an accurate time reference. The
•South Africa •United Kingdom receiver determines its position and velocity by measuring
•United States the signal delay among four or more satellites
simultaneously and calculating the results on the basis of
their locations and other information contained in the
Global signal. GLONASS and Galileo operate in much the same way
as GPS. Combined GPS/GLONASS/Galileo receivers may
production also be used.

Typical Missile‐
Related Uses:
Military‐grade and commercially available GNSS receivers
designed or modified for the systems described in 1.A. are
used in integrated flight instrumentation systems or
sophisticated integrated navigation systems to provide very
accurate positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) solutions to
UAVs, including cruise missiles. Specially designed receivers
can also be used in rocket systems to supplement or update
the guidance set and increase accuracy.

Other Uses: Although the GPS system was originally designed
for military purposes, GNSS receivers have a range of Figure 3: This GPS‐inertial navigation system
is designed to provide reliable and accurate
applications. GNSS receivers are used in commercial aviation positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) for
and other transportation systems, disaster relief and critical launch and re‐entry vehicles.
emergency services, surveying and mapping. (Northrop Grumman)
Figure 4: Left: a Global Positioning System receiver/processor unit with its patch antenna. (Sextant Avionique) Right:
a Global Positioning System receiver/processor unit. (Litton Guidance & Control Systems)

Appearance (as manufactured): GNSS receivers are small, often just a few centimeters on a side, and
11- 7


quite light, often weighing less than 1 kg. GNSS receivers of MTCR concern cannot always be visually
distinguished from uncontrolled GNSS receivers because the altitude and velocity limits are
implemented in firmware within the microcircuits. Determination of whether a given GNSS receiver is
MTCR‐controlled is best made on the basis of the receiver model, serial number, and associated
documentation. GNSS receivers are also available as part of a complete guidance package, as shown in
Figure 3.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging is typical for small, expensive electronics items. Military‐grade
items are very well packaged to protect against moisture from prolonged periods of storage.
11.A.4. Electronic assemblies and components, designed or modified for use in the systems specified
in 1.A. or 19.A. and specially designed for military use and operation at temperatures in excess of
125OC.

Nature and Purpose: The limited space on rocket systems and UAVs requires the design and
manufacture of small yet very capable (high power and density) systems. If the electronics can be
designed to withstand high temperatures, then weight from materials otherwise required for cooling
can be avoided. Electronic assemblies and components used in such situations result from extensive
design and testing efforts to ensure reliability when used in high‐temperature environments. The
underlying purpose of rugged, heat‐tolerant electronic items is to ensure weapons system performance
and reliability while minimizing weight and space.

Specialized equipment provides enhanced navigation performance to existing airframes.

Terrain‐contour‐mapping equipment (TERCOM) combines radar altimeter measurements with digitized
terrain mapping data installed in the missile guidance system.

Scene mapping and correlation use optical sensors to gather terrain information that is then compared
with digital imagery stored in the flight computer.

Doppler navigation radar equipment uses the Doppler Effect to track ground features at periodic rates
to determine the velocity of the airframe, including side drift. Often, Doppler radar information is used
to update inertial navigation information to the guidance computer.

Passive interferometer equipment utilizes a digital scene matching area correlator (DSMAC) to allow a
UAV to navigate to its target by comparing images captured by a video camera in the flight vehicle with
digitized gray scale images stored in the flight computer. Because of memory limitations in the flight
computer, only images of the immediate target are stored. This system is activated once the primary
guidance system navigates the UAV to the target area.

Imaging sensor equipment can be divided into two categories, active and passive. Active imaging
sensors require a signal emitted by the sensor to operate. Active sensors receive and process the
reflected signals. Examples of active imaging sensor equipment include synthetic aperture radars (SAR)
or imaging laser radars. Passive imaging sensors receive signals emitted or reflected by objects in the
environment. Examples of passive imaging sensors include optical arrays sensitive to the visible, infrared
11- 8


or ultraviolet spectra. In most cases, the data from imaging sensors is used to correct guidance errors by
correlating the image with pre‐stored target images and feeding position errors back to the guidance
and control software.

Method of Operation: Military electronic assemblies and components typically run on batteries and
operate much like other electronics. However, a greater margin against failure is designed into them,
and their improved reliability has been confirmed by temperature‐cycle testing and accelerated‐age
testing.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Heat‐tolerant electronics are used in guidance computers, inertial
navigation systems, and re‐entry vehicles in ballistic missiles. They are also useful in radars, computers,
and seeker systems on UAVs.

Other Uses: Electronic assemblies and components have virtually unlimited uses in all types of military
aircraft and other military systems. The same types of assemblies with similar specifications are often
used in commercial aircraft and marine vessels.

Appearance (as manufactured): Electronic assemblies are usually small and lightweight, measuring a
few centimeters in length on a side and a few grams in weight. The components of these assemblies
resemble those used in a wide variety of commercial applications. However, electronic assemblies used
in military applications are often hermetically sealed in metal or ceramic cases, not in the transparent
plastic digital image processors (DIPs) used to contain commercial assemblies. Exceptions are high‐
performance processors such as the quad digital signal processor (DSP) (see Figure 6) in a multi‐chip
module package, which include stacked, high‐density memory chips for exceptional speed and memory
capacity. The presence of such high cost devices suggests a possible military use; however, some
assemblies may look more conventional such as that shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: a UAV electronics box. (AAI Corporation) Figure 6: Digital signal processor with the lid
removed. The size is 5 cm to 7.5 cm on each side.
(MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex
Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))

Electronic assemblies for military use are often designed to dissipate heat. In some assemblies, the
integral heat sinks are supplemented by water cooling. Cable interfaces feature rugged circular
connectors or small bolt‐on connectors with shielded cables. The electronics are typically mounted
11- 9


within an outer radio frequency (RF) shield (Faraday cage), which may be hermetically sealed or vented
to the ambient pressure. Pressurized vessels are sometimes used for missiles and UAVs which must
operate at high altitude in order to help conduct heat to the case and the heat sink mounting. Cases are
made mainly of aluminum, with exposed metal surfaces painted or treated with corrosion‐resistant
materials such as nickel plating.

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic assemblies and components are usually shipped in plastic bags
marked to designate an electrostatic sensitive device, cushioned in rubber foam or bubble wrap for
shock protection, and shipped inside cardboard boxes or, for loads over 20 kg, wooden crates.

None.
11.C. Materials

None.
11.D. Software
11.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 11.A.1.,
11.A.2. or 11.A.4.

Nature and Purpose: UAV radar, laser and IR laser radar systems use software to interpret and translate
reflected signals into reconnaissance, target homing or guidance information (using terrain‐matching
techniques). Direction‐finding equipment uses navigation software to determine (upon receipt of two or
more navigation beacons) a vehicle’s location and heading. Automated navigation systems can use this
equipment and preprogrammed flight plans to guide a flight vehicle to its target area. Imaging sensors
may then use terrain‐mapping techniques to guide it or its weapon to its target. Doppler radar systems
are used in UAVs to determine velocity and may be used in ballistic missiles if the Doppler systems can
receive enough reflected energy. UAV or ballistic missile flight software is used to initiate and control
vehicle flight, steer the airframe to the target and then release the weapon accurately to strike its
target.

11-10


Method of Operation: The avionics suite of sensors, integrators and computers form a series of
redundant systems that result in highly accurate UAV navigation. Each of these sensors collect specific
information from active ground signals (homing beacons) and passive sources (radar reflections from
known, charted objects) and provide navigation signals to a flight computer that augments inertial
guidance system sources. Missile guidance software is used to interpret this sensor data and decide
what corrections to the missile flight path are required. These software functions are all integral to the
onboard flight program.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These devices are used to support UAV and ballistic missile navigation.

Other Uses: Radar, laser systems and direction‐finding equipment are all used in civil and military
aircraft to augment inertial navigation systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically radar system software, software used with passive sensors
and flight software suitable for 1.A. systems take the form of computer programs stored on printed,
magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media—including magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents—can contain this software and data.

11.D.2. "Software" specially designed for the "use" of equipment specified in 11.A.3.

Nature and Purpose: GNSS software processes satellite signals into position information that is then
used in the guidance systems of rocket systems or UAVs. Processing may also include the decrypting
algorithms that allow the receiver to gain access to more accurate military positioning information.

Method of Operation: Ruggedized GNSS receivers may be installed in rocket systems or in UAVs. GNSS
software solves algorithms involving these signals and derives accurate position and velocity
information. This software is usually an integral part of the onboard flight software.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The GNSS receiver may be used to augment inertial instrument‐provided
position and velocity data, or it may serve as the primary source for this information.

Other Uses: GNSS software is specialized and is designed to operate within specific GNSS receivers.
Civilian grade (less accurate) systems could be upgraded to military compliant systems (position
accuracy <6 meters in any direction, more accurate velocity information) by decoding the more precise
satellite timing information.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically GNSS software takes the form of a computer program stored
on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media – including magnetic tape, floppy
disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents – can contain this software and data. GPS
11- 11


receivers of MTCR concern cannot always be visually distinguished from uncontrolled GPS receivers
because the altitude and velocity algorithms are implemented in firmware or software.

11.E. Technology
11.E.1. Design "technology" for protection of avionics and electrical subsystems against
Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) hazards from external
sources, as follows:
a. Design “technology” for shielding systems;
b. Design “technology” for the configuration of hardened electrical circuits and subsystems;
c. Design "technology" for determination of hardening criteria for the above.
"production" or "use" of equipment or "software" specified in 11.A. or 11.D.

Nature and Purpose: EMP and EMI technology is used to
•China •France
enhance the survival of systems in environments that
have intense manmade RF noise, particularly RF noise
caused by detonating nuclear weapons. The technology
uses at least three approaches, often simultaneously: it
configures sensitive circuits in order to minimize
Global production
interference; it encloses circuits in conductive boxes;

and it protects input/output (I/O) wires by surge‐
suppression devices, commonly just inside the
conductive box.

Although the technology used to protect circuits from
EMP and EMI is common and unremarkable, determining requirements and implementing them are
difficult and sophisticated problems. Circuit topologies, suppression‐device usage, weapon‐effects‐
prediction models and criteria generation can be investigated by interactive computer programs, which
receive weapon and system parameters and use them to assess threat environments such as fields and
current levels.

Method of Operation: EMP and EMI protection is generally passive. RF enclosures dissipate RF energy as
electrical currents in the conductive outer surface. Care is taken with lids and doors to ensure that fields
11-12


cannot leak into an enclosure; metal gaskets and
screens are typically used to seal such openings. I/O
suppression devices simply short electric fields to
ground or provide high impedance (i.e., electrical
opposition) by RF chokes and filters. However, some
suppression devices like Zener diodes, transorbs,
spark gaps and metal oxide varistors change their
impedance at certain voltage or current levels.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: EMP and EMI design
technology is used in ballistic missiles to protect the
guidance set and electronic equipment in the re‐entry
vehicle from the EMP and EMI effects from nearby
nuclear detonations. It is also used to protect
pyrotechnic devices such as stage‐separation systems
from premature ignition. This technology can be used
in UAVs, but they generally need only be protected
against lower levels of EMP and EMI encountered at
considerable distance from nuclear blasts or other
sources of interference.

Other Uses: EMP and EMI design technology is used Figure 7: A selection of electromagnetic interface
suppression devices. (Sabritec)
in satellites, some military aircraft and some weapons
systems. Similar EMI technology is used in the design
of some commercial electronic systems such as shortwave radios and stereo equipment to reduce or
prevent interference from other electrical devices. Surge‐suppression devices for lightning strikes on
power supplies and cords are another example
of EMP/EMI protection.

Appearance (as manufactured): Such design
technology can take the form of technical
assistance, including training and consulting
services. Technology can also take the form of
blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae,
engineering designs and specifications, and
manuals and instructions written or recorded
on other media or devices such as disk, tape
and read‐only memories.

Some design technology is conveyed by the
equipment itself. Assemblies are RF‐shielded in
metal enclosures, usually aluminum. For very
lightweight applications, durable composite or
rugged plastic boxes are used with a thin
coating of metal for RF shielding. The coating is
Figure 8: Electromagnetic interference / electromagnetic usually aluminum, often on the inside surface of
pulse electronics module. (Sabritec) the box. Exposed metal surfaces are often
11- 13


painted or treated with corrosion‐resistant materials such as nickel plating. Some EMI suppression
devices are shown in Figure 7. An EMI/EMP electronics module is shown in Figure 8. The electronics are
protected by the aluminum perimeter that serves as an RF Faraday cage when hermetically sealed by
the mating modules and cover. The aluminum surface beneath the circuit board serves as an RF
partition of the internal modules. The bolt pattern for the cover is spaced every few centimeters to
prevent gaps in the closure and to maintain even pressure on an RF gasket that may be soft metal,
metal‐filled gasket, metal spring or wire mesh. EMI/EMP electronics may take on almost any shape to fit
space constraints.

Appearance (as packaged): Technology in forms such as reports, data and criteria‐generating programs
may be packaged in oversized business envelopes or in ordinary computer electronic media mass
distribution packages. Electronic EMP/EMI assemblies are typically shipped with rubber foam or bubble‐
wrap shock protection in cardboard or, if they weigh more than 20 kg, in wooden boxes. They are
occasionally shipped in electrostatic‐sensitive device (ESD) marked plastic bags even though they are not
ESD‐sensitive.

11-14


Launch Support
Category II – Item 12: Launch Support
12- 1


12.A.1. Apparatus and devices, designed or modified for the handling, control, activation and
launching of the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1., or 19.A.2.

Nature and Purpose: Apparatus and devices include launch pad facilities, gantries, block houses,
underground launch silos, handling equipment, systems test and check‐out equipment, fueling
equipment, alignment equipment and command‐ and‐
control equipment. Some of this equipment is relatively
simple, such as concrete launch pads. Other items –
such as the sophisticated launch pads and gantry‐type
launch facilities used for modern space launch vehicles
(SLVs) – are far more complex. The determining factor
for inclusion under 12.A.1. is whether the item is
designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A.,
19.A.1., or 19.A.2.

Method of Operation: The type of equipment used
during ballistic missile launching depends on the nature
by which the missile is delivered to the launch site. In
most approaches, the missile is delivered to the site by
a truck, a train, or, at a launch pad, a dolly. The missile
is then positioned either by special erectors built for
the site and the missile, or by a crane attached to a
permanent gantry. At silos, missiles are positioned by a
crane on the transporter, which lowers the missile into
the silo; alternatively, missile stages are lowered by
crane or winch into the silo and assembled within the
silo (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: A silo liner being lifted into place for Complete rocket guidance systems are often aligned
installation into a missile silo at a launch complex and calibrated by compasses and/or surveying
under construction. (The Boeing Company)
equipment. This alignment operation may be
performed initially and then regularly updated prior to launch. Many guidance systems are capable of
self‐alignment by sensing earth rotation. Prior to launch, target data and flight profile are loaded into
the guidance system. Subsystem performance is verified by electrical and software testing equipment
attached to the missile by cables from the control center. Missiles maintained on alert are verified
12- 2


continuously. When the status of all responses is verified as satisfactory, the vehicle is ready for launch,
and the launch sequence is executed on command. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), particularly cruise
missiles, are typically designed for multiple launch platforms (with standardized interfaces).

Figure 2: A launch pad with a space shuttle on a mobile launcher Figure 3: Minimal launch pad with a
platform prior to launch. (NASA) gantry and connections to a complete
rocket system. (MTCR Equipment,
Software and Technology Annex
Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Launch support equipment is required to prepare and launch missiles.
Some of these devices (guidance systems and command and control equipment) continue to monitor
and control the missile throughout all or portions
•Australia •Argentina of the flight profile.
•Brazil •China
•France •Germany Other Uses: Hydraulic systems, control electronics,
•India •Iran computers, tanks and pipes, and communications
•Israel •Italy equipment required for missile launching are
•Japan •Netherlands similar, if not identical, to those required for
•North Korea •Pakistan numerous other purposes. Transportation,
•Russian Federation handling, erection equipment, and targeting and
•South Korea •Sweden test algorithms are often unique to each missile,
•Taiwan •United Kingdom with no other uses. Silo‐based launch support
•United States equipment is often unique, designed specifically
for ballistic missile launch and has no commercial
uses.

Global production Appearance (as manufactured): Launch pad
facilities for modern space launch vehicles (SLVs)
are extremely large and complex, consisting of
separate vehicle assembly buildings, large tracked
12- 3


vehicles (mobile launch platforms) to transport space vehicles from assembly points to the launch pad,
and fixed service towers (see Figure 2).

Pads for the launch of smaller systems can have a concrete apron, a relatively small stand upon which
the missile is placed, and a gantry made of steel‐beams. Launch pads intended for military operations
usually lack propellant storage, pumping, or handling facilities; these operations are conducted from
tank and pumper trucks. They also lack permanent launch command, control, and system checkout
equipment; again, these operations are conducted by equipment in trucks.

Appearance (as packaged): The sheer size of launch pads, gantries, and silos dictates that such
apparatus is usually built on site and rarely shipped assembled. Consistent with their size and weight,
the electronic components and consoles are wrapped and sealed in padding to protect them from shock
and moisture during transport and storage, and then packed separately in boxes or crates. The
electronic equipment used in some small‐ to medium‐sized launch control shelters is often installed in
the shelter, and the whole shelter is mounted on a palette for transport. Some launch support electronic
equipment is portable and has been reduced to the size of a suitcase.
12.A.2. Vehicles designed or modified for the transport, handling, control, activation and launching
of the systems specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Rockets and UAVs covered in 1.A.
•Australia •Brazil have been launched from trucks, trains, aircraft, ships,
•China •Egypt and submarines. With the exception of larger and more
•France •Germany powerful UAVs capable of autonomous take‐off, most
•India •Iran rocket and missile launches (including launches from
•Iraq •Israel fixed sites) require vehicles, especially for transport and
•Italy •Japan handling.
•Pakistan •Russian Federation Vehicles modified to carry, erect, and launch missiles are
•South Korea •Spain distinctive because they generally have no other
•Syria •Ukraine practical use. Some of these vehicles, referred to as
•United Kingdom•United States Transporter‐Erector‐Launchers (TELs), provide a mobile
launch platform independent of permanent launch
facilities. Alternatively, missiles may be carried and
launched from (mobile) erector‐launchers (ELs or MELs),
which are often towed by trucks known as prime movers.
Global production Vehicles modified to carry command‐and‐control
equipment needed to activate, target, and control
rockets or UAVs are also distinctive. Item 12.A.2. controls
the vehicle, including onboard equipment, some of
which would be controlled under Item 12.A.1. if removed from the vehicle.

Method of Operation: TELs and other mobile launchers perform the same preparation and launch
functions as do the launch support facilities covered in 12.A.1. A TEL is usually loaded with its rocket or
12- 4


UAV by crane (which may be part of the TEL) at a staging area. The TEL transports the rocket or UAV to
the launch site, where it erects it to launch position. Some missiles are fueled at this point by separate
tanker and pumping trucks; others may be transported already fueled. The launch crew makes electrical
connections with the vehicle and ensures that all subsystems are ready for launch. Targeting or flight
plan information is loaded, and the guidance system is aligned and calibrated prior to launch.

Figure 4: Above: Eight axle and four axle TELs
carrying intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs;
foreground) and intermediate range ballistic
missiles (IRBMs). (Via Chinese Internet)
Figure 5: Top right: A surface launched cruise missile
carrier. (Via Chinese Internet)
Figure 6: Right: A ground control vehicle (vehicle,
left) is capable of handling a range of UAV systems.
(AAI Corporation)

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Complete rocket systems and UAVs require vehicles designed or modified
for the system, such as TELs and/or associated command‐and‐control and support vehicles.

Other Uses: These vehicles, their hydraulic systems, control electronics, and computers and
communications equipment, are generally derived from a wide variety of commercial and military
equipment.

Appearance (as manufactured): The distinguishing feature of TELs designed for ballistic missiles is the
presence of an erection mechanism capable of lifting the missile to a vertical position. The vehicle may
be tracked, but most are large vehicles about the size of a tractor‐trailer or lorry, with 3 to 8 axles and
rubber tires. Examples of these types of vehicles are shown in Figure 4.

TELs or MELs designed for UAVs are characterized by their relative simplicity and the presence of a
launch structure (such as a rail or canister), which is sometimes inclined for launch. The launch structure
can vary greatly in size and weight, depending on the UAVs to be launched. Launch structures can be as
12- 5


small as 2 to 3 m for hydraulic‐assisted or rocket‐assisted launchers of UAVs. Similar launch structures
may be mounted on a tracked or wheeled vehicle (see Figure 5). An example of a command‐and‐control
truck that might accompany TELs and MELs is shown in Figure 6.

Appearance (as packaged): The launch rails and erection mechanisms used on TELs or MELs are
generally integrated into the vehicle or trailer chassis. As a result, these devices are placed in their
normal stowed position on the mobile vehicle or trailer when packaged for shipment from the
production facility. The vehicles are driven, towed, or shipped by rail to the user facility. Other vehicles
will be packaged similarly to other military or commercial vehicles.


Figure 7: Left: an erector launcher detached from its prime mover. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex
Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)). Top right: a transporter erector launcher for a large, Category II cruise missile. (MTCR
Equipment, Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)). Bottom right: Erector launcher for a
rocket‐assisted UAV and its associated command‐and control van. (Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical)

Figure 8: Left: A pneumatic UAV launcher. Right: Command‐and‐control vehicles suitable for launching missiles from fixed
or mobile locations. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))
12- 6


12.A.3. Gravity meters (gravimeters), gravity gradiometers, and specially designed components
therefor, designed or modified for airborne or marine use, and having a static or operational accuracy
of 7 x 10–6 m/s2 (0.7 milligal) or better, with a time to steady‐state registration of two minutes or less,
usable for systems specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Gravity meters and gravity
gradiometers make very accurate measurements of the
• Relative Gravity Meters magnitude of the force of gravity at various locations.
• Canada These data are used to create detailed maps of the
• China earth’s gravitational field for several kilometers around a
• Germany ballistic missile launch site because local variations in
• Russian Federation gravity can cause inaccuracies in inertial guidance unless
• United States accounted for in the missile guidance software.
• Gravity Gradiometers Airplanes, helicopters, ships, and submarines outfitted
• United States with gravity meters can make gravity maps at sea.
Airplanes and helicopters outfitted with gravity meters
can make gravity maps over mountainous terrain.
Gravity gradiometers can also be used as sensors in
Global production guidance systems to improve accuracy.

Method of Operation: The methods of operation vary
with the different types of equipment. Some accurately
measure the fall time of a dropped mass; others use a
set of pendulous electromagnetic force rebalance accelerometers that rotate on a carousel. Some are
operated with the airplane, ship, or submarine in motion, and others are lowered to the surface of the
land or sea floor to take a measurement. Systems designed to operate on a moving platform such as a
ship or airplane need inertial navigation quality gyros and accelerometers for two‐axis stabilization of
the sensor platform. Systems designed to be lowered to the surface of the land or sea floor need only be
self‐leveling.

Gravity gradiometers use a set of very high quality accelerometers on a precision rotating turntable. As
the accelerometers rotate in a horizontal plane, they detect the subtle gravity differences about the
perimeter of the turntable. The difference between the average readings taken on the east and west
sides of the turntable, divided by the diameter of the turntable, yields the longitudinal gravity gradient.

Similarly, the difference between the average readings taken on the north and south sides of the
turntable, divided by the diameter of the turntable, yields the latitudinal gravity gradient. Use of
multiple accelerometers reduces the effect of individual accelerometer scale factor drift, and rotating
the accelerometers about the perimeter virtually eliminates the effect of bias drift.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Gravity maps for several to hundreds of kilometers in the area of ballistic
missile launch sites are required for highly accurate systems. Airborne gravity meters can be used to
map a large area of rough terrain or open sea adjacent to mountain roads or other areas where mobile
missiles might operate. Ship or submarine‐borne gravity meters are used to map the gravitational
attraction beneath the sea to facilitate increased accuracy of ballistic missiles launched from submarines
12- 7


or from land installations near the coast. Because the effects of gravity variations in the launch area are
rather small, gravity maps are primarily useful for ballistic
missile systems that are already very accurate. Gravity
gradiometers may be useful for UAV guidance, perhaps over
water or other featureless terrain.

Other Uses: Gravity meters and gravity gradiometers are
used in petroleum and mineral resource exploration, civil
engineering, geophysical mapping, geotechnical and
archaeological exploration, groundwater and environmental
studies, tectonic research, volcanology research, and
geothermal research. Gravity gradiometers are used as
navigation aids on submarines.
Figure 9: This automated gravity meter is one
of the most precise, rugged and lightweight Appearance (as manufactured): Gravity meters and gravity
gravity meters. Under normal conditions, it gradiometers are high quality, sensitive electronic and
can be leveled for mGal readings within 30
seconds, and has a drift rate of less than 0.5
mechanical instruments. Gravity meter appearance ranges
mGals per month when mature. (ZLS widely because companies build them differently for
Corporation) different purposes. Systems fully integrated into a single case
may be as small as 25 cm x 32 cm x 32 cm and weigh as little as 6 kg (with battery) (See Figure 9).
Systems with separate cases may be as large as a cubic meter and weigh 350 kg; these large systems are
modular and may be packaged in more than one
container for shipping. The sensor unit of air‐sea gravity
meters – designed specifically for marine and airborne
applications (see Figure 10) – is difficult to specify since
it is dependent on the characteristics of the vessel, the
conditions at sea, and navigational accuracy (typically
around 1 mGal). Systems such as these are MTCR
controlled if they meet the performance criteria
specified in 12.A.3.

Electronic and mechanical components are enclosed in
either hard plastic or metal cases. Some systems have
the instrument and control panel contained in the same
case; other systems have the instruments separated
from the control panels. The cases typically have visible
Figure 10: A dynamic meter; the full digital control
electronic or mechanical control panels, pads, rotating system of the meter enhances overall system
control knobs, toggle‐ and push‐ switches, and accuracy by eliminating gain and offset drifts
connections for external electronic and computer inherent in analogue electronics. (ZLS Corporation)
cables.

Some have screens for observing the data collected in either digital or analog form; some have ports for
printing hard copies of the data. Most have removable access panels. Batteries may be supplied to
operate the system. Some systems have built‐in computers and software. Some gravity meters are built
to be lowered by a cable to the ground and operated from a helicopter. Others are built to be lowered
to the sea floor by a ship or submarine.

12- 8


Appearance (as packaged): Because the systems are very sensitive and expensive, they are packaged
and shipped in rigid containers, which include formed plastic, plastic popcorn, plastic bubble wrap, or
other materials designed to protect them from shock. The shipping containers usually have warning
labels such as ‘fragile’, ‘handle with care’, or ‘sensitive instruments’.
12.A.4. Telemetry and telecontrol equipment, including ground equipment, designed or modified
for systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Notes:
1. 12.A.4. does not control equipment designed or modified for manned aircraft or satellites.
2.12.A.4. does not control ground based equipment designed or modified for terrestrial or marine
applications.
3.12.A.4. does not control equipment designed for commercial, civil or 'Safety of Life' (e.g. data
integrity, flight safety) GNSS services.

Nature and Purpose: Telemetry equipment involves
•China sensors, transmitters, and receivers that send in‐flight
•France information on rocket or UAV performance to the ground.
•India These devices allow engineers to monitor a vehicle’s flight,
•Russian Federation performance, and determine the causes of any failure.
•United Kingdom Such equipment is used extensively during rocket and UAV
•United States flight testing. During flight tests, telemetry is normally
collected throughout the entire flight. Telecontrol
equipment that uses various sensors, receivers, and
Global transmitters may be used to remotely control missiles or
commercial UAVs during powered flight. However, many operational
ballistic missiles and cruise missiles fly autonomously (that
production
is, without any telecontrol).

Method of Operation: Telemetry equipment installed in
developmental rockets and UAVs monitor the important flight parameters (acceleration, vibration,
control surface settings, pressures, temperatures, flow
rates, valve positions, power/voltage, etc.) and transmit
these data to one or more ground control stations. The
receiver decodes the data, displays them, and records
them for playback and analysis later. Most operations are
set up inside a building with an external antenna
connection. If gimbaled, this antenna can pivot in three
axes to track the rocket system or UAV in flight. Many
ground stations, either fixed or mobile, may be required
along the flight path.
Figure 11: Some telemetry transmitters are
designed to withstand harsh operating
Typical telecontrol systems are different for rocket and environments requiring compact and rugged
UAV systems. Rockets using command guidance are package. (AMP)
12- 9


usually tracked by radar near the launch site. Flight path data are processed to compare the actual and
desired trajectory. If deviations occur, steering commands are sent from the ground station by radio to a
receiver in the rocket system, which implements the commands to bring it on track. This command loop
is maintained until the engines are turned off; the rest of the flight is ballistic unless the missile uses
aerodynamic control surfaces. Telecontrol for UAVs is often implemented by a “man‐in‐the‐loop”
concept. A sensor (such as a TV) in the UAV transmits a visual image to the
ground control station. A human pilot views this image and sends steering
commands to the vehicle over the data link.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Telemetering is important in the verification
of performance during flight tests for both rockets and UAVs. Without such
data, flight testing can be lengthy and expensive requiring many more
flight tests. Telecontrol is frequently used for UAV applications. Telecontrol
is rarely used in operational ballistic or cruise missiles that carry weapons
because the data link is vulnerable to jamming or disruption.

Other Uses: Similar telemetry equipment is used to test commercial and
military aircraft. It is also used in industry to collect data from remote sites
Figure 12: A Large telemetry
and from chemical or other plants with a hazardous environment. It is also
antenna system designed for
UAVs and flight test centers. used in robotic land vehicles that must operate in hazardous
(Chelton Antennas) environments.

Appearance (as manufactured): Telemetering equipment installed on flight vehicles is contained in
small metal boxes with power, cable, and antenna connections,
and have few distinctive features (see Figure 11). The most
notable Telemetering equipment at the ground site is the
telemetry receiving antenna. They are often large parabolic
dishes that can rotate in two dimensions, as shown in Figure 12
(sometimes as large as a 60 ft dish mounted on a 38 ft high
steel tower). Electronic equipment used at the ground site to
demodulate, read, record, interpret, and display the telemetry
looks like most rack‐mounted scientific equipment or
computers with few distinguishing features.

Telecontrol equipment installed in UAVs permits Figure 13: A large SATCOM military
communication between the UAV and the ground station. Like antenna designed for major command
telemetry equipment, this equipment is housed in metal boxes posts and mobile command posts, and
suitable for communications with UAVs.
with power, cabling, and antenna connections, all (General Dynamics)
unremarkable in appearance. Some UAVs communicate to
their ground site by way of satellites and require special ground‐based SATCOM antennas (see Figure
13).

Appearance (as packaged): Because of the sensitivity of the electronics, telemetry equipment is usually
shipped in cushioned cardboard or wooden containers. Some containers may have labels indicating the
need for careful handling. Usually the equipment is sealed in plastic to protect the electronics from
moisture and electrostatic discharges. Large assemblies of equipment such as integrated telecontrol
stations will be disassembled and shipped in separate containers.
12-10


Figure14: Top left: A SATCOM antenna installed in a UAV (General Atomics Aeronautical). Top right: A commercial
satellite transceiver with streamlined antenna. (Racal Avionics). Bottom right: A portable flight controller console for
a UAV (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005)). Bottom left: A
commercial system with a mechanically steered antenna (streamlining not shown. (Racal Avionics)


Figure15: Representative ground‐site telemetry receiving and processing equipment. (In‐Snec)

12-11


12.A.5. Precision tracking systems, usable for systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. as
follows:
a. Tracking systems which use a code translator installed on the rocket or unmanned aerial vehicle
in conjunction with either surface or airborne references or navigation satellite systems to provide
real‐time measurements of in‐flight position and velocity;
b. Range instrumentation radars including associated optical/infrared trackers with all of the
following capabilities:
1. Angular resolution better than 1.5 mrad;
2. Range of 30 km or greater with a range resolution better than 10 m rms; and
3. Velocity resolution better than 3 m/s.

Nature and Purpose: Precision tracking systems produce accurate records of rocket system trajectory or
UAV flight path. Engineers use these data to help determine vehicle performance and the causes of any
vehicle failure. Range safety engineers also use these data to monitor the missile flight path. If the
missile veers into an unsafe trajectory, it is
destroyed. Precision tracking systems can
be used in conjunction with, or as an
•China •France alternative to, telemetry equipment, which
•Germany •Israel sends back data on vehicle acceleration
•India •Japan time history, from which missile trajectory
•Pakistan •Russian Federation can be reconstructed.
•South Africa •Switzerland
•United Kingdom •United States Method of Operation: Code translators
installed on a rocket or UAV process signals
received from ground or satellite
transmitters. Those signals carry timing
Global production data that allow the code translator to
determine the distance to each transmitter.
These data are sent back to the ground site
on a different downlink frequency. Because
the transmitters are in known locations, the
ground site can accurately determine
missile position and velocity. These data can be displayed in real time or recorded on magnetic disc or
tape.

Range instrumentation radars are also used to determine missile position and velocity. Usually a radar
with a wide field‐of‐view is used to track the approximate vehicle location, which is then used to aim
radars with a narrow field‐of‐view, optical trackers, or infrared trackers capable of determining missile
angle, range, and velocity with the required precision. These data are recorded as they occur, along with
an ongoing record of the time. A variation on this approach is to install in the flight vehicle a small
transmitter that broadcasts or a transponder that receives and re‐broadcasts at the radar operating
frequency and thereby provides a beacon that allows the radar to track the vehicle more easily.

12-12


No matter how the data are collected, to be useful, information on time and position must be
interpreted. Post‐flight data processing may take place anywhere, but it is often conducted in the
telemetry data processing center where real‐time data are received and recorded. These recorded data
are read, filtered, and processed. The processed tracking data are then re‐recorded on disk or tape for
further analysis or output plotting.

The post‐flight and recorded data processing software typically consist of mathematical filtering
software routines that process the previously recorded data in order to provide a smooth estimate of
the vehicle trajectory. This processing software is used both to provide the estimated vehicle position
data for periods of time when a real‐time data outage may have occurred and to perform filtering in
order to get the best estimate of the trajectory. Many different types of mathematical filter
implementations are used, varying from the simplest such as a straight‐line interpolation between data
points, to more sophisticated polynomial‐based filtering such as spline‐fit filtering. Some filtering
routines also use Kalman filtering to post‐process these data, although the Kalman filtering is normally
used for real‐time tracking applications because of its ability to use simplified matrix manipulations to
arrive at tracking solutions.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Precision tracking systems and range instrumentation radars are helpful
during the testing phase of the flight program to determine whether the missile is traveling along the
predicted trajectory and to monitor missile flight for any anomalies. Such information is used to
evaluate and improve the performance of numerous subsystems. The software that processes post‐
flight recorded data and thereby helps determine vehicle position throughout missile flight path is
essential to interpretation of those flight data.


Figure 16: A mobile phased‐array Figure 16: A mobile laser missile‐ Figure18: An electro‐optical laser
missile tracking radar. (MTCR tracking system. (Contraves) tracking system. (BAE Systems)
Equipment, Software and
Technology Annex Handbook,
Third Edition (May 2005))

Other Uses: These systems can be used to support commercial and military aircraft testing and the
development of weapons, including artillery and small rockets. Industry uses post‐processing of data to
evaluate events after the fact, such as race car performance.

Appearance (as manufactured): Precision tracking systems and range instrumentation radars look like
ground‐based portions of telemetering and telecontrol equipment. They include familiar dish‐type
radars as shown in Figures 12 and 13, as well as phased‐array radars, which are characterized by their
12-13


flat (rather than dish) surface (see Figure 16). Also used are optical devices that look like telescopes,
large robotic binoculars and laser tracking systems that resemble optical instruments (see Figure 18).

The precision tracking system hardware (transponders) carried aboard rockets or UAVs are generally
very small electronics enclosures that vary from 800 cm3 to 2,500 cm3. They are generally solid,
environmentally sealed enclosures with external power and antenna connectors. The only subelement
of these transponders is the antenna element, which is normally located on the external surface of the
rocket or UAV.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of its sensitivity to shock, the electronic equipment is usually
shipped in cushioned containers. Some may have labels indicating the need for careful handling. This
equipment is usually sealed in plastic to protect it from moisture and electrostatic discharge. The larger
radars, optical trackers, and laser trackers are shipped disassembled in wooden crates and assembled
onsite and all optics are protected with environmental covers.

12.A.6. Thermal batteries designed or modified for the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Note:
Item 12.A.6. does not control thermal batteries specially designed for rocket systems or unmanned
aerial vehicles that are not capable of a "range" equal to or greater than 300 km.
Technical Note:
Thermal batteries are single use batteries that contain a solid non‐conducting inorganic salt as the
electrolyte. These batteries incorporate a pyrolytic material that, when ignited, melts the
electrolyte and activates the battery.

Nature and Purpose: Correct battery function is a crucial component in meeting the mission
requirements of complete delivery systems. Thermal batteries, which are self‐contained, hermetically
sealed, electrochemical power sources, have a number of characteristics that make them especially
resistant to harsh operating environments, and as such they are very well suited to meet the demands
of many military requirements. These characteristics include: a capacity to remain dormant with a long
shelf life of greater than 20 years, without degradation in
performance and at the same time retaining the ability to
activate and discharge their power instantaneously;
•China performance at extreme temperatures (ranging from ‐65 °F
•France to +221 °F); high current density for high power
•India applications; high reliability; and low maintenance and
•Israel storage costs.
•United States
Method of Operation: Thermal batteries are composed of
Global a series of cells (known as the cell stack), each having an
anode, electrolyte, cathode and heating mass. The
production electrolyte remains solid until activation, and the cells
remain completely inert during battery storage. This
12-14


property of inactivated storage has the double benefit of avoiding deterioration of the active materials
during storage, while at the same time eliminating the loss of capacity due to self‐discharge until the
battery is called into use.

There are two types of thermal battery design that
provide varying mechanisms for battery activation. One
uses a fuse strip along the edge of heat pellets to initiate
heating of the electrolyte. The fuse strip is typically fired
by an electrical igniter by application of electric current
through it. The second design uses a center hole in the
middle of the battery stack into which the high‐energy
electrical igniter fires a mixture of hot gases and
incandescent particles. The latter design allows much
faster activation times (tens of milliseconds vs. hundreds
of milliseconds for the edge‐strip design). Battery
activation can also be accomplished by a percussion
Figure 17: A group terminal battery. (ASB
primer, similar to a shotgun shell.
Group)
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Thermal batteries are used
in applications that require the immediate delivery of high power, such as providing power to the
electrical activation systems in space launch vehicle systems and missiles, powering electronically
operated guidance systems in missiles, air defense and telemetry systems. They are the primary source
of electrical power for a range of missiles as well
as nuclear weapons. The growing electricity
requirements in these systems due to increasing
electronic functionality in advanced and modern
missiles will increase the demand for thermal
batteries in these types of application.

Other Uses: Thermal Batteries have utility in a
range of other applications, both military and
civilian. They provide electric power for mines
and guided artillery, and are also used as energy
sources for industrial purposes (such as drilling
Figure 20: A selection of thermal batteries designed for a
platforms and surveillance systems). They also can range of military applications. (HBL Power Systems)
be applied to the electric vehicle market. The
main barrier to the widespread use of thermal batteries outside specific military applications is that they
are economically unviable. Almost all thermal batteries are for one‐time use, and rechargeable thermal
batteries are highly inefficient (owing to the high energy loss due to thermal isolation and the long start‐
up time required to reach optimum operating temperature).

Appearance (as manufactured): Thermal Batteries are manufactured in vacuum sealed steel housings.
They are relatively small in size, ranging from around 3.5 cm to 17.5 cm in breadth and 6 cm to 22 cm in
height. Weight ranges from around 200 g to 1.2 kg (see Figure 20).

Appearance (as packaged): Thermal Batteries are shipped in metal or plastic crates or in padded
cardboard boxes.
12-15



None.

12.C. Materials

None.
12.D. Software
12.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 12.A.1.

Nature and Purpose: Missile ground support and checkout software is used to monitor the readiness
condition of the rocket or UAV prior to launch. This software is installed on one or more pieces of
ground support equipment and may be
tailored to monitor a single missile subsystem,
such as the guidance system. Often, this
•Argentina •Belarus
software contains the secure codes that lock
•Brazil •Canada
out unauthorized persons from launching the

•China •France
missile without proper credentials, as well as
•Germany •Iran
code that initiates launch and monitors
•Israel •Italy
terminal countdown until first‐stage ignition.

Method of Operation: Ground support and
checkout software is loaded in the rocket or
UAV ground support equipment. This
•United States
software manages ground hardware that is
electrically connected to the rocket or UAV
through various umbilical connections to
collect missile status signals. Upon receipt of a
Global production launch order, the software may contain codes
that authenticate the launch order, and if
proper, initiate and monitor the rocket/UAV
launch sequence. If properly designed, the
software provides the operator with launch
12-16


countdown status that is useful if the system malfunctions and the launch fails prior to first stage
ignition. Technical analysis of the system indications will allow prompt recovery and a subsequent re‐
launch attempt.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is used to monitor missile systems prior to launch. Other
versions may be used to initiate and monitor launch until first‐stage ignition.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, missile ground support and checkout software takes the form
of a computer program stored on printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media—
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents—can contain

12.D.2. "Software" which processes post‐flight, recorded data, enabling determination of vehicle
position throughout its flight path, specially designed or modified for systems specified in 1.A.,
19.A.1. or 19.A.2.

Nature and Purpose: Post‐flight data processing may take place anywhere, but it is often conducted in
the telemetry data processing center, where real‐time data are received and recorded. These recorded
data are read, filtered and processed. The processed tracking data are then rerecorded on disk or tape
for further analysis or output plotting.

The post‐flight and recorded data processing software typically consists of mathematical filtering
software routines that process the previously recorded data in order to provide a smooth estimate of
the vehicle trajectory. This processing software is used both to provide the estimated vehicle position
data for periods of time when a real‐time data outage may have occurred and to perform filtering in
order to get the best estimate of the trajectory. Many different types of mathematical filter
implementations are used, varying from the simplest such as a straight‐line interpolation between data
points, to more sophisticated polynomial‐based filtering such as spline‐fit filtering. Some filtering
routines also use Kalman filtering to post‐process these data, although the Kalman filtering is normally
used for real‐time tracking applications because of its ability to use simplified matrix manipulations to
arrive at tracking solutions.

Method of Operation: Flight‐test range facilities transmit flight data and range tracking data to a central
processing facility. The processing facility contains high‐speed computers that convert this data and, in
some instances, combine individual ground sensor and flight instrument data telemetered from the
airframe to synthesize performance information.
12-17


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Flight‐test data is
used to support rocket system performance and
•Belarus •China
accuracy evaluation. It is also used to evaluate
•France •India
UAV flight performance.
•Israel •Italy

•Pakistan •Sweden
Other Uses: The equipment used to support
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom
rocket and UAV flight‐test evaluations is also
•United States
used to evaluate civil and military aircraft
performance.

Global production Appearance (as manufactured): Typically,
software that processes missile post‐flight,
recorded information that is used to determine
the test flight trajectory takes the form of a
computer program stored on printed, magnetic,
optical or other media. Any common media—
including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents—can contain

12.D.3. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 12.A.4. or
12.A.5., usable for systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Nature and Purpose: Software described in this section is
•Australia •Belarus used to collect flight data that is broadcast to ground
•Canada •China stations (telemetered) for analysis.
•India •Israel Method of Operation: This software is used to collect in‐
•Italy •Japan flight system and performance information (usually from
•Pakistan •Russian Federation the flight computer) and to compress and modulate the
•Sweden •Switzerland data into a data stream that is then broadcast to ground‐
•Ukraine •United Kingdom based receivers. Other software in these ground stations
•United States takes the received data stream, decompresses the data,
and converts them into performance information.
System engineers then analyze the information to
evaluate system performance.
Global production
Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This software is solely
designed to collect, process and display rocket or UAV
12-18


flight performance information that missile engineers analyze to determine system performance. It is
central to rocket or UAV flight‐test evaluation.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically, software that collects and processes missile telemetry takes
the form of a computer program stored on printed magnetic, optical or other media. Any common
media—including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable hard disks, compact discs and documents—
can contain this software and data.


12.E. Technology

Nature and Purpose: Launch support technology is knowledge or data necessary to develop and operate
launch support equipment and its associated software. The purpose of launch support technology is to
establish or enhance the development, production and use of launch support and checkout equipment,
and to control (initiate or deny) and monitor rocket or UAV launches. Technology, in this section, includes
the knowledge to operate and develop launch support equipment and its associated software as well as
the ability to understand the telemetry data produced.

Method of Operation: Launch support technology is available in many forms. It may consist of
instruction provided by a person or organization experienced with developing ground control and
checkout or telemetry systems for rockets or UAVs who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the
development or production site. A country may receive technical assistance on the design and
development of ground support or telemetry equipment through training supplied by or in another
country. Any manuals and materials received during training may qualify as technical data. A country
may also receive procurement assistance for the needed technical equipment, machines or materials
either by provision of the items or in the form of guidance as to what equipment should be procured.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This technology is used primarily to develop, produce and use missile
ground support and checkout software, launch control and monitor software, launch support equipment
12-19


that uses this software, and to collect, transmit, receive and process missile performance information
using telemetry equipment and support software.

Other Uses: N/A.


12-20


Computers
Category II – Item 13: Computers
13-1


13.A.1. Analogue computers, digital computers or digital differential analysers, deisgned or

modified for use in the systems specified in 1.A., having any of the following characteristics:
a. Rated for continuous operation at temperatures from below ‐45OC to above plus +550C; or
b. Designed as ruggedised or "radiation hardened".
Note:
Item 13. equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satellite or in quantities
appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.

Nature and Purpose: Complete rocket systems and UAVs controlled in 1.A. use at least one computer,
primarily in the guidance set, integrated flight instrument system or integrated navigation system. The
guidance computer calculates missile velocity and position information from onboard sensors, using the
data gathered for comparison with the defined missile flight path and trajectory, and sending steering
commands to correct any detected errors. Computers may also provide time references for the missile
and give cut‐off commands to the propulsion system and arming commands to the weapons payload at
the appropriate flight times. Mission computers may also be used to store and execute preprogrammed
flight profiles.

•Canada •China Method of Operation: Onboard analog or digital
•France •Germany computers rapidly integrate the equations of motion for
•India •Israel missile flight and compute the magnitude and duration of
•Italy •Japan the commands necessary to maintain the missile flight
path. The computers receive electrical signals from
•North Korea •Russian Federation
•South Africa •South Korea onboard sensors, perform the appropriate calculations,
•Sweden •Taiwan and send command signals to the various missile systems
•Ukraine •United Kingdom to try to match the preprogrammed flight path. These
•United States computer systems are powered by batteries (typically 28
V) and use connecting cables to interface with the
sensors and control systems.

Global production Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Most complete rocket
systems and UAVs (including cruise missiles) have at least
one ruggedized digital computer for navigation and
control computations and digital integration of Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU) data. Many also use analog
computers to provide closed loop control of analog servos for IMU gimbals and for flight control surface
stabilization. The computer must be able to operate at the temperature extremes experienced by
ballistic missiles traveling through space, High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) UAVs, or cruise missiles
13-2


carried on external pylons at high altitude. Missiles require ruggedized computers to handle the
vibrations and shocks of missile flight, and missiles designed to survive and operate in nuclear
environments require radiation‐hardened computers.

Other Uses: Ruggedized computers have several military and commercial applications. Most military and
civilian aircraft, tactical missiles, and spacecraft require ruggedized computers that operate within the
temperature extremes defined in the MTCR Annex. Long‐lifetime spacecraft and satellites stationed in
or near the radiation belts also have requirements for radiation hardening, but those requirements may
be somewhat lower than the Annex specification.

Figure 1: A mission computer for Figure 2: Another mission computer Figure 3: A radiation‐hardened

multiple platforms. Its compact size for multiple platforms, this one is electronics assembly with liquid
makes it ideal for the confined space designed for use in harsh aerospace cooling. (The Charles Stark
on some UAVs. (Curtiss Wright and military applications. (Curtiss Draper Laboratory, Inc.)
Embedded Computing Controls) Wright Embedded Computing
Controls)

Appearance (as manufactured): Computers configured for missiles and UAVs are usually housed in
metal enclosures with integral heat sinks to dissipate heat generated by high operating speeds. They are
also compact in size and designed to fit into space‐constrained environments. Two examples of
ruggedized multi‐mission computers designed for aerospace and military applications are seen in Figures
1 and 2. Within such assemblies are a wide variety of ordinary looking electronic parts with wide use in
commercial applications.

A distinguishing characteristic (although not unique to military use) is hermetically sealed metal and
ceramic components as opposed to more common plastic components found in commercial electronic
(see Figure 3). The cable interfaces feature rugged, circular connectors or small bolt‐on connectors with
shielded cables. The electronics are typically within an outer radio frequency (RF) Faraday cage
enclosure, which may be hermetically sealed or vented to the ambient pressure. Pressurized vessels are
used to help conduct heat to the case and heat‐sink mounting of missiles and UAVs, which operate at
high altitude. For applications requiring lightweight assemblies, the computers can be packaged in
rugged plastic containers with metal coatings inside the plastic covers for RF shielding.

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic computer assemblies and parts typically weigh less than 25 kg.
They are packaged in plastic bags, placed inside cardboard boxes, and packed in rubber foam or bubble
wrap shock protection; box labels typically indicate the contents as electrostatic sensitive devices. Larger
units integrated into a larger system and over 25 kg may be packed in metal or wooden boxes.
13-3



None.
13.C. Materials

None.
13.D. Software

None.

13.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment specified in 13.A.

Nature and Purpose: The technology described in this section is that necessary to develop, produce and
use ruggedized computers in ballistic missiles and in UAV systems, including cruise missiles.

of instruction in a classroom on or near the development or production site and provided by a person or
organization experienced in developing ruggedized computers for rocket systems or UAVs. A country
may receive this technical assistance from one or more foreign entities that possess the facilities needed
to provide hands‐on experience to design and develop the desired technology. Assistance may also
include guidance as to what parts or components to procure or help in procuring them.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The technology included in this section is used to provide digital or analog
computers designed to operate within a rocket system or UAV to complete navigation and control
computations and digital integration of IMU data. Rocket systems and UAVs also use analog computers
13-4


to provide closed loop control of analog servos for IMU gimbals and for flight control surface
stabilization.



13-5


Category II – Item 14: Analogue to Digital Converters
Analogue to Digital
Converters
14-1


14.A.1. Analogue‐to‐digital converters, usable in the systems specified in 1.A., having any of the
following characteristics:
a. Designed to meet military specifications for ruggedised equipment; or
b. Designed or modified for military use and being any of the following types:
1. Analogue‐to‐digital converter "microcircuits", which are"radiation‐hardened" or have
all of the following characteristics:
a. Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or more when coded in the
binary system;
b. Rated for operation in the temperature range from below ‐54O C to above
+125O C; and
c. Hermetically sealed; or
2. Electrical input type analogue‐to‐digital converter printed circuit boards or modules,
having all of the following characteristics:

a. Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or more when coded in the
binary system;
b. Rated for operation in the temperature range from below ‐45O C to
above +55O C; and
c. Incorporating "microcircuits" specified in 14.A.1.b.1.

Nature and Purpose: Analog‐to‐digital converters (ADCs) are electronic devices for converting an analog
signal, which is a continuously varying voltage, to a digital signal, which consists of discrete voltages
representing a pattern of “1s” and “0s” (binary data). These converters allow the analog outputs of
various devices such as sensors, accelerometers, and gyros to be understandable to digital devices, such
as digital signal processors (DSPs) and computers.

Method of Operation: In its simplest form, an ADC is a voltmeter with a binary “word” as its output. The
longer the word (i.e., the more “bits” per word), the more accurately the input voltage can be
represented. For example, an 8‐bit word representing a voltage range of zero to one volt provides 256
discrete values. With one word assigned to zero, this results in 255 increments of just over 3.92 mV each.
Increments of 3.92 mV limit the theoretical accuracy to plus or minus 1.96 mV or 0.196 %. Raising the
frequency at which an ADC can update the output word to reflect rapid changes in the input voltage
allows the ADC to convert input signals with high‐frequency content. Manufacturers use one of several
different circuit design approaches to make the conversion.

Most ADCs are designed to have a linear input‐to‐output relationship. However, in more elaborate
14-2


schemes, input voltages are mapped to digital values according to calibration data previously taken from
the analog instrument to which the ADC is mated. This
mapping allows the ADC to compensate for
nonlinearities in the analog measurement.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Any missile using a digital
computer requires ADCs. The ADCs need to work over
the temperature range specified above and be
hermetically sealed if, like ballistic missiles, they are
flown exo‐atmospherically.

Other Uses: ADCs are in widespread use, with
ruggedized parts common in all aircraft, automobile Figure 1: An analog‐to‐digital converter used
electronic ignition systems, and engine sensors. Other primarily in radar signal analysis. (Datel)
commercial applications include a variety of sensor
systems, electronic cameras, medical imaging systems, and radios. Long‐durations spacecraft and
satellites stationed in or near the radiation belts require radiation‐hardened ADCs, which operate over
the temperature extremes indicated. Although the space application requirements are about five times
lower than the Annex specification, such systems often
use MTCR‐controlled ADCs.
•Israel •Japan Appearance (as manufactured): Military ADC
•Russian Federation •Sweden components are hermetically sealed metal packages in
•United Kingdom •United States order to ensure operation in adverse environment
extremes and to dissipate the heat associated with
processing data at high data rates from sensors.
Aluminum is the primary metal used for ADC board
Global production frames, structures, and heat sinks. ADCs can range from
a few centimeters to about 0.3 m or more on a side and
weigh from 100 g up to 25 kg. Their package density
approaches one‐third the density of aluminum.

Integrated ADC assemblies consist of a wide variety of
electronic parts that are not readily distinguishable from
those used in commercial applications. ADCs may be made
of discrete electronic components and resemble other
military electronics (see Figures 1 and 2), and military and
commercial‐grade discrete ADCs differ externally only in part
number. Radiation‐hardened ADCs are often packaged on a
single printed integrated circuit (IC) board ideal for use in
ballistic missiles. These devices have special design features
to make them rugged and resilient to missile environments.
Although ADC circuit boards are similar to those for DSPs,
they include linear ICs and discrete circuits for buffer
Figure 2: Typical analog‐‐to‐digital
amplifiers, multiplexing, or signal conditioning (filters, converter/digital signal processor board. (MTCR
voltage limiting, etc.). As a result, a larger portion of the Equipment, Software and Technology Annex
ADC circuit board is made up of discrete components Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))
14-3


(resistors, capacitors, diodes, operational amplifiers, etc.). Printed circuit boards are fiberglass‐epoxy with
copper heat sinks and traces. Electronics parts are in special metal cases (mostly copper‐nickel) with
aluminum or gold bond wires and silicon substrates.

Appearance (as packaged): ADC printed circuit board assemblies and modules weigh less than 25 kg.
They are encased in plastic bags that are marked to indicate electrostatic sensitive devices, and they are
packed in rubber foam or bubble wrap for shock protection inside cardboard boxes.

None.
14.C. Materials

None.
14.D. Software

None.
14.E. Technology

Nature and Purpose: The “technology” described in Item 14 is the knowledge and experience necessary
to develop, produce and use ruggedized analog‐to‐digital converters in ballistic missiles and in UAV
systems, to include cruise missiles. Blueprints, schematics or engineering drawings, are also included in
this item.

of instruction provided by a person or organizations experienced with developing ruggedized analog‐to‐
14-4


digital converters for ballistic missiles or UAVs that acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the
development or production site. A country may receive this technical assistance from one or more
foreign entities that possess the design and development facilities needed to provide hands‐on
experience to develop the desired technology. A country may also receive procurement assistance in the
form of either the provision of needed technical items or in the identification of those items to procure.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This technology is used to provide analog‐to‐digital converters designed to
operate within a ballistic missile or UAV to allow the analog outputs of various devices such as sensors,
accelerometers and gyros to be understandable to digital devices, such as digital signal processors and
flight computers.

Other Uses: The technology is used in other industries. ADCs are common in all aircraft, automobile
electronic ignition systems and engine sensors. Other commercial applications include a variety of sensor
systems, electronic cameras and radios.



14-5


Category II – Item 15: Test Facilities and Equipment
Test Facilities and Equipment
15- 1


None.
Technical Note:
In Item 15.B. 'bare table' means a flat table, or surface, with no fixture of fittings.
15.B.1. Vibration test equipment, usable for the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. or
the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A., and components therefor, as follows:
a. Vibration test systems employing feedback or closed loop techniques and incorporating a
digital controller, capable of vibrating a system at an acceleration equal to or greater than 10 g

rms between 20 Hz and 2 kHz while imparting forces equal to or greater than 50 kN, measured
'bare table';
b. Digital controllers, combined with specially designed vibration test "software", with a ‘real‐
time control bandwidth’ greater than 5 kHz and designed for use with vibration test systems
specified in 15.B.1.a.;
Technical Note:
‘Real‐time control bandwidth’ is defined as the maximum rate at which a controller can execute
complete cycles of sampling, processing data and transmitting control signals.
c. Vibration thrusters (shaker units), with or without associated amplifiers, capable of

imparting a force equal to or greater than 50 kN, measured 'bare table', and usable in
vibration test systems specified in 15.B.1.a.;
d. Test piece support structures and electronic units designed to combine multiple shaker units
into a complete shaker system capable of providing an effective combined force equal to or
greater than 50 kN, measured 'bare table', and usable in vibration test systems specified in
15.B.1.a.
Technical Note:
Vibration test systems incorporating a digital controller are those systems, the functions of
which are, partly or entirely, automatically controlled by stored and digitally coded electrical
signals.
15- 2


Nature and Purpose: Vibration test systems of this type
are large and powerful equipment for simulating the
flight vibrations and shocks that rockets, unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) and their payloads experience
during launch, stage separation, and normal flight.
Missiles and their subsystems are tested to determine
their elastic modes, frequencies, and sensitivities to
vibration and shock. This information is used to improve
missile design and to qualify systems, subsystems, and
components as flight‐worthy. Sometimes they are used
in quality assurance testing to detect poor connections
and loose components.
Figure 1: Vibration testing of a laser altimeter
A typical vibration test system includes a vibration system. (NASA)
shaker unit, or thruster, to vibrate test articles attached
to it; a power amplifier or other source of power to drive the shaker; a controller to command the
power amplifier according to the desired vibration frequency and amplitude test profile; and an air‐ or
liquid‐cooling system for the shaker and amplifier.

Method of Operation: Vibration test systems use mechanical thrusters that usually operate on an
electromagnetic drive principle like that of an audio loudspeaker, except that they are much larger and
drive a massive test item rather than a delicate speaker cone. The digital controllers regulate complex
vibration patterns with frequency content of controlled amplitude throughout the 20 Hz to 2,000 Hz
range. These patterns are designed to simulate the
vibration frequencies and amplitudes expected during
the mission, including simulation of vibration bursts or
shocks. The output from these controllers must be
greatly amplified to drive the thrusters. Hydraulic‐ and
pneumatic‐based vibration systems, although capable
of the vibration testing of items of MTCR concern, are
not generally capable of meeting the above
performance specifications.

The armatures of two or more thrusters may be joined
together with a test equipment support structure to
Figure 2: A thruster being prepared to vibration‐test obtain the required vibration levels. These structures
a missile. (Unholtz‐Dickie) must be both strong and light. Electronic units are
needed to control multiple thrusters in a synchronous
manner. They accept commands from the digital controller and relay them to multiple amplifiers, each
driving one of the thrusters.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: All rockets and UAVs are subjected to vibration and shock during transport
and flight. If vibration and shock are properly understood, flight vehicles can be made stronger and
lighter because safety margins can be reduced. Use of such equipment also helps avoid costly test flight
failures.

Other Uses: Vibration test systems are used to test other military and commercial equipment and
15- 3


products such as aircraft parts. Vibration testing is done on numerous other consumer goods, but MTCR‐
controlled vibration test systems are much more powerful and expensive than those needed for less
demanding applications.

Appearance (as manufactured): MTCR‐controlled vibration test systems are large devices that occupy a
roughly 3 m x 3 m floor area. Details on the components are given below.

Digital controllers and specially designed vibration test software: The digital controller is approximately
the same size as the system unit for a personal computer (PC), 0.5 m wide x 0.5 m deep x 0.25 m high. In
some cases, the controller is an electronic device small enough to be rack mounted above the power
amplifier. In others, a computer is used, complete with
monitors and customized interface cards for connection to
the power amplifier. Controllers require special purpose
vibration control software. Manufacturers of vibration test
systems are now offering PC‐based software that integrates
the functions for test system control, data recording, and
data analysis.

Thrusters (shaker units): An MTCR‐controlled thruster
usually has a very heavy, U‐shaped, cast‐steel base with
thick flanges for securely attaching it to the floor. It
measures about 1.3 m on a side and weighs several metric
tons. The cylindrical or drum‐like steel shaker housing,
about 1 m in length and diameter, is hung between the

vertical sides of the base. These vertical sides usually have
trunnions (pivots) that allow the shaker housing to be
rotated to change the thrust direction. Figure 1 shows a
satellite laser altimeter undergoing a vibration test. Figure 3
shows a core booster in a vibration test rig.

The part of the thruster that shakes the test item is a round
metal armature emerging from one end of the shaker
housing. The armature is drilled in a pattern of holes for
bolts used to attach the test item. A rubber diaphragm
between the armature plate and the thruster housing body
is often used to seal the inner workings.
Figure 3: A core first‐stage booster in a

vibration test rig. (Krunichev Space Center) The thruster system may include an accessory slip table (see
Figure 4), which is often made of magnesium to minimize
weight. It supports the weight of the test article on an oil film or air bearing above the slip table base,
which is often made of granite. To use the slip table, the thruster itself is pivoted on its trunnions until
the axis of motion of its armature is horizontal. The armature is then attached to the side edge of the
slip table in order to vibrate the unit under test in either horizontal axis. Such a slip table assembly has
the same size and weight as the thruster assembly itself, and both may be mounted on a common base.

15- 4


Power amplifier: The power amplifier for an
MTCR‐controlled electrodynamic vibration test
system occupies one or more full racks (each
0.5 m wide x 0.75 m deep x 2 m high) of
electronic power control equipment. The
electric input power required to drive such a
system is about 60 kW to 80 kW. The power
draw is so large that it must be hard‐wired to
the building electrical supply; it cannot use a
standard electrical cord and plug.

Cooling: Because the thruster and amplifier give
off about one‐half of their input electrical
power as heat, cooling by forced air or
Figure 4: An example of a thruster with slip table. (Kingdom
circulating liquid coolant is required. The fan for Pty Ltd)
air‐cooling a typical installation measures 1.5 m
x 0.5 m x 0.8 m and weighs 200 kg to 250 kg. Liquid cooling circulates cooling water through the test
system and into a cooling tower or a radiator equipped with electric fans. Either liquid‐cooling system is
at least as large as the air‐cooling fan. Alternatively, a continuous supply of site water can be simply run
through the cooling system and drained away.

Support structures: Test equipment support
•China •France structures used with such vibration test
•Germany •Netherlands equipment are custom‐made assemblies, which
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom measure as much as 3 m x 3 m x 3 m or more,
•United States depending upon the test unit, and weigh as much
as 5 tons to 10 tons. Electronic units designed to
combine multiple thruster units into a complete
Global production thruster system range from an ordinary PC
equipped with multiple, special internal interface
cards, each controlling a single thruster unit, to
one or more racks of custom‐built electronic
equipment. Recent trends in vibration testing
increasingly use PC‐based systems because they
provide flexibility at low cost. Because specialized vibration system control interface cards are installed
within the PCs, it may not be evident from external examination that the PCs are MTCR‐controlled.

Appearance (as packaged): With the exception of the system controller, which is typically the same size
as a personal computer and can be packaged for shipping in typical PC packaging, the components of a
vibration test system of MTCR concern are so large and heavy that they must be packaged in custom‐
built wooden crates of extremely robust construction.
15- 5


15.B.2: Wind‐tunnels for speeds of Mach 0.9 or more, usable for the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.
or the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.
Nature and Purpose: Wind tunnels are large enclosures in which air is circulated or blown through a test
section containing a replica of the rocket or UAV. They are used to measure the aerodynamic
performance of the airframe design during a
simulated flight through the atmosphere.
Instrumentation in the test section gathers data on
vehicle lift and drag, stability and control, engine
inlet and exhaust configuration, thermal effects,
and infrared signature. Wind tunnels are of either
the continuous‐flow (e.g., closed‐circuit) or the
blow‐down (e.g., shock tube) type and measure
aerodynamic parameters for long or short
duration, respectively.

Method of Operation: A continuous‐flow wind
tunnel uses a large, electrically driven fan
compressor to move air through the tunnel
Figure 5: A hypersonic wind tunnel capable of equaling
entrance cone to achieve the desired Mach number Mach 5 to test flight conditions for launch vehicles.
in the throat, or test, section. After it leaves the (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd)
test section, this air moves through a diffuser and

then circulates back through the fan to create a continuous flow of air past the test object. A blow‐down
wind tunnel stores air or other gas in a large reservoir under high pressure, releases it through a control
valve into the tunnel entrance cone and on to the test section, and then exhausts it through a diffuser
into the atmosphere.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Wind tunnels
capable of exceeding Mach 0.9 are used to test
rockets, supersonic UAVs, and reentry vehicles.
For high‐speed flight, generally above Mach 3,
heat transfer tests may be conducted. High‐
enthalpy, continuous‐flow tunnels, or shock
tubes, are needed to produce wind speeds
beyond Mach 5 for testing long‐range ballistic
missiles (see Figure 5).

Other Uses: Wind tunnels are used in designing
supersonic aircraft.

Figure 6: A large wind tunnel facility. (NASA)
Appearance (as manufactured): Wind tunnels are
usually large facilities with several buildings
housing the test section, compressors, data acquisition systems, and power supplies (see Figure 6). A
continuous‐flow wind tunnel suitable for testing full size missiles is usually 50 m to 100 m in length and
25 m to 50 m in width, with diffusers 10 m to 15 m in diameter. A tunnel to test small‐scale models may
15- 6


be much smaller in diameter. The larger‐size wind tunnel
is generally laid out in a horizontal oval 10 to 20 times the
•Canada •China
length of the test section length and 5 to 10 times its
width. The tubular sections of the tunnel are generally
•Japan •India
made of steel plates welded together to form the circuit,
•Netherlands •Russian Federation
which is supported from the outside by steel I‐beams.
Some wind tunnels use adjustable nozzle sections to vary
•United States
the characteristics of the airflow.

The test section, located on one side of the tunnel, often
Global production has large access doors so that test objects can be moved
into and out of the wind tunnel and mounted on the test
support. The test section may have windows for
observing supersonic air flow around the missile with
special Schlieren photographic recording devices (or
other non‐intrusive flow visualization devices). The test
section usually has an associated operations building that
houses the controls and data collection instrumentation, and may handle the insertion, positioning, or
removal of test objects. Testing of full size missiles in continuous‐flow wind tunnels produces the most
accurate results but requires high power (on the order of
200,000 hp) to move the large volumes of air at flight
speeds.

The blow‐down tunnel stores air or other gases under
high pressure in large tanks or cylinders. An air duct
sealed by a large valve or diaphragm connects the tanks
to the tunnel entrance cone and test section. The tunnel
walls are generally made of relatively thick steel and are
sometimes coated with insulation because of the high
temperatures generated by very high wind speeds. A
large compressor is used to pump air under pressure into
the tanks before each test. Figure 7: Test objects in test section of a
hypersonic wind tunnel. (MTCR Equipment,
Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third
Appearance (as packaged): Because wind tunnels and Edition (May 2005))
their associated operations buildings are very large
structures, they are seldom, if ever, shipped in their assembled state. Individual components like the
compressor motor, fan blades, corner turning vanes, complete test section or test section walls, viewing
windows, and control and instrumentation panels are crated or mounted on heavy pallets for shipping.
The main tunnel walls are generally shipped as structural components to be assembled together at the
facility location.

15- 7


15.B.3. Test benches/stands, usable for the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. or the
subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A., which have the capacity to handle solid or liquid propellant
rockets, motors or engines having a thrust greater than 68 kN, or which are capable of simultaneously
measuring the three axial thrust components.

Nature and Purpose: Test benches and test stands for testing rocket systems, solid rocket motors, and
liquid rocket engines of more than 68 kN of thrust are large rigid structures. They securely hold test
items being operated at full power in order to
collect performance data on critical parameters.
These data support design development and
•China •France confirm design integrity and performance. Liquid
•Germany •Netherlands rocket engines are sometimes tested in test stands
to verify performance before delivery.
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom

•United States
Method of Operation: The test item is mounted on
the test bench or test stand. Sensors are
Global production positioned and checked. Personnel are cleared
from the test area, and data are collected while
the rocket is operated at full power.

Solid rocket motors are usually tested horizontally,
and liquid rocket engines are usually tested

vertically. Sensors measure pressures, propellant flow rates, forces, event timing, vibrations,
displacements, and temperatures. Solid propellant rocket motors run to exhaustion; by contrast, liquid
rocket engines and hybrid rocket motors can be throttled or shut down. Post‐test inspections are
conducted, and data are analyzed.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Test benches and stands
are essential equipment in the development phase of a
missile program. Liquid rocket engine test stands are
also used for full‐scale testing of engine components
such as turbopumps.

Other Uses: Similar, though often smaller, horizontal
test benches and stands are used to test jet engines,
including for use in UAVs.

Appearance (as manufactured): A horizontal solid
propellant rocket motor test stand (see Figure 8) Figure 8: The load measurement system on the test
generally consists of a dolly, thrust cup, load cell, thrust stand of a solid rocket motor. (ATK)
block, and instrumentation. The solid rocket motor is first secured horizontally on a movable dolly and
locked down. Larger motors are often connected to a frame, which is then inserted into the thrust‐cup;
smaller motors are often inserted directly into the thrust‐cup. The thrust‐cup is mated to a load cell,
which measures the three axial thrust components, and the load‐cell is mounted on a large concrete
15- 8


vertical block or metal frame called the thrust block, which absorbs the forward force as the motor is
being fired. Instrumentation connected to the load cell sends data to a blockhouse containing recording
equipment. The entire assembly is usually outdoors but may be either partially or totally enclosed in a
concrete building or a trench.

Most liquid propellant rocket engines use
vertical test stands, large gantry‐type
structures made of steel beams and girders
(see Figure 9). The liquid rocket engine is
attached to load cells, which measure the
three axial thrust components; these data are
sent to a block house for recording. Run
tanks carrying the propellants, the flame
bucket, and usually a concrete apron that
directs the exhaust away from the test stand
Figure 9: A vertical test Figure 10: A solid propellant are also parts of the installation.
stand designed for testing rocket motor on a test stand.
liquid propulsion rocket (Avio SpA)
engines. (Interorbital
Appearance (as packaged): Rocket test
) benches and stands are seldom shipped as
assembled structures. Instead, their materials and components are shipped separately and assembled at
the test site. A review of the design drawings and fabrication or assembly instructions can identify the
intended use of the construction materials and components.


15- 9


15.B.4. Environmental chambers as follows, usable for the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A.
or the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.:
a. Environmental chambers capable of simulating all the following flight conditions:
1. Having any of the following:
a. Altitude equal to or greater than 15 km; or
b. Temperature range from below ‐50OC to above 125OC; and
2. Incorporating, or designed or modified to incorporate, a shaker unit or other
vibration test equipment to produce vibration environments equal to or greater
than 10 g rms, measured 'bare table', between 20 Hz and 2 kHz imparting forces
equal to or greater than 5 kN;
Technical Notes:
1. Item 15.B.4.a.2. describes systems that are capable of generating a vibration environment
with a single wave (e.g. a sine wave) and systems capable of generating a broad band
random vibration (i.e. power spectrum).
2. In Item 15.B.4.a.2., designed or modified means the environmental chamber provides
appropriate interfaces (e.g. sealing devices) to incorporate a shaker unit or other vibration
test equipment as specified in this Item.
b. Environmental chambers capable of simulating all of the following flight conditions:

1. Acoustic environments at an overall sound pressure level of 140 dB or greater
(referenced to 2 x 10‐5 N/m2) or with a total rated acoustic power output of 4 kW or
greater; and
2. Any of the following:
a. Altitude equal to or greater than 15 km; or
b. Temperature range from below ‐50OC to above 125OC.

Nature and Purpose: Environmental testing in ground facilities exposes components, subsystems, and
entire vehicles to the low pressures, high and low temperatures, vibrations, and acoustics of powered
flight in order to measure the responses. The data generated are used to confirm or correct designs and
thereby ensure flight worthiness.

Method of Operation: High altitude is simulated by sealing test objects into rugged pressure chambers
that are then evacuated with vacuum pumps. Flight temperatures are simulated inside thermally
insulated chambers equipped with heaters and refrigeration equipment. MTCR‐controlled temperature
chambers must also be equipped to replicate specific vibration or acoustic environments. Vibration
equipment are motor‐driven tables capable of providing amplitude‐frequency spectra to the levels
stated above and replicating the range of vibrations experienced by a component, subsystem, or system
during powered flight. Acoustic chambers use a combination of electrostatically or electromagnetically
15-10


driven horns, like loudspeakers, to provide a spectrum of sound pressures like those generated by
rocket motor exhaust and very high‐speed aerodynamic
flight.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Altitude tests are used to
investigate engine performance, heat transfer, altitude
ignition, nozzle development, and propellant dynamics
phenomena. Simultaneous temperature‐vibration and
temperature‐acoustic tests are used to subject missile
hardware to high‐fidelity flight environments to develop
technology and qualify missiles for flight. Such testing is not
required for basic missile programs, but is necessary for
advanced development. This equipment can also decrease
the cost of a flight test program, but some of this equipment,
particularly the large environmental chambers, can be quite
expensive.

Other Uses: High‐altitude and simultaneous temperature‐
vibration and temperature‐acoustic testing is routinely done
on satellites, tactical missiles, and aircraft components.

Appearance (as manufactured): Environmental pressure
chambers are rugged, usually metal, airtight, cylindrical
Figure 11: A full scale solid rocket engine
chambers with bulged or hemispherical ends to withstand the being tested at simulated high altitude.
external pressure of one atmosphere (plus safety margin). (AEDC)
They often have thick glass or acrylic viewing ports. An access
panel or door at one end is used to insert and
remove test items. They are often linked to large
vacuum pumps that evacuate the chamber. Their
•Canada •China size is a function of the items to be tested; thus,
•France •Germany they can range from less than a meter to tens of
•India •Israel meters on a side. They are usually supported by
•Italy •Japan numerous buildings housing pumps, power, data
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom collection, and operations. Figure 11 shows an
•United States interior view of a solid rocket motor being tested
at simulated altitude.

Temperature chambers are thermally insulated
Global production chambers or rooms with heating and cooling
equipment. MTCR‐controlled temperature
chambers have provisions for vibration or acoustic
testing at various temperatures encountered in
flight.

Temperature chambers for vibration testing contain a powerful device to shake test items. This device,
known as a thruster or shaker, usually has a round, flat, steel table, which may have predrilled/tapped
mounting locations for attaching test articles. Table motion is often driven by a cylindrical, variable‐
15-11


speed linear electric motor. Depending on the size of the items tested, these tables range from tens to
thousands of kilograms in weight. Environmental chambers controlled under this item can simulate
flight conditions of 10 g rms or more from 20 Hz to 2,000 Hz, impart forces of 5 kN or greater, and have
operating temperatures of at least –50 °C to +125 °C. Figure 12 shows a combined
environmental/vibration test apparatus.

Temperature chambers for acoustic testing are large rooms
with acoustic horns mounted in the walls. The horns
themselves are monotonic (operate at one frequency) and
range in length from several centimeters for high‐frequency
horns to 1 m for low‐frequency horns, with corresponding
exit area, or mouth, sizes. Acoustic testing usually requires
that the chamber be lined with very coarsely corrugated
(often conic‐shaped), soft, porous, sound‐absorbing
material.

Appearance (as packaged): External pressure chambers vary
Figure 13: A vibration and environmental test in size, but they are usually very large and constructed
apparatus configuration. (TUV Rheinland)
onsite. Large MTCR‐controlled temperature chambers may
be shipped as prefabricated panels of construction
materials. The assembly instructions or
construction plans can help identify intended use.
Smaller temperature chambers are shipped much
like a common refrigerator. Dynamic test tables in a
partially assembled state are shipped in simple
wooden crates, usually with some internal
contouring and cushioning for the parts. The
shipping containers of these rugged pieces of
equipment are not likely to have any special
handling markings. Acoustic horns are shipped in
metal canisters or wooden crates. Because the
driver diaphragms in these horns are sensitive
components, shipping containers may have special Figure 12: A controlled environmental chamber with
handling markings. vibration capability. (RMS Dynamic Test Systems)

15.B.5. Accelerators capable of delivering electromagnetic radiation produced by bremsstrahlung

from accelerated electrons of 2 MeV or greater, and equipment containing those accelerators, usable
for the systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. or the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.
Note:
15.B.5. does not control equipment specially designed for medical purposes.

15-12


Nature and Purpose: MTCR‐controlled accelerators are of three basic types: linear radio frequency (RF)
accelerators (linac), flash X‐ray machines, and mechanically charged, high‐voltage electrostatic
accelerators (Van de Graaff type). Their primary use is to create X‐rays capable of penetrating missile
parts (such as solid propellant rocket motors) so that X‐ray photographs can be made of their interiors.
Other uses for energetic X‐rays include simulating nuclear weapon effects and stop‐action X‐ray
photography of very high‐ speed events like explosions and impacts.

Method of Operation: The accelerators of most interest are the linac type. They accelerate a beam or
cluster of electrons to speeds approaching the speed of light by passing them through cavities charged
with an electric potential (voltage) supplied by an RF
generator. Because the effect of these cavities is
additive, total electron energies of millions of
•China •Germany electron volts (MeV) can be obtained from relatively
•India •Japan small devices. This energetic beam of electrons exits
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom the linac and strikes a target (usually a dense metal
•United States such as tungsten). The electrons give off X‐ray
radiation as they are decelerated inside the target;
this phenomenon is called “bremsstrahlung,”
Global production German for braking radiation. The X‐rays pass
through the object and are recorded on film or,
increasingly, in electronic sensors that immediately
display the picture on a computer screen. A Van de
Graaff accelerator normally creates a large
electrostatic potential by mechanically driving a
vulcanized rubber belt or insulating string of
polished metallic beads on an insulating surface. The targets used to stop the electrons in the
electrostatic generators are metal foil like that used in linear accelerators. Most flash X‐ray machines
operate by charging a very large bank of capacitors to high voltage and then suddenly discharging them.
Like the linac, the resulting electron current strikes a heavy metal target and creates X‐rays.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: One of the most important uses of linacs is to produce X‐rays for non‐
destructive testing of solid rocket motors. They are used to find cracks and voids in the propellant grain,
cracks and incomplete welds in the case, or incomplete bonds to the insulation or interior lining. Such X‐
ray equipment can be used to inspect most missile components such as structural members, welds,
nozzles, and turbopump parts. Linacs are also used to investigate nuclear radiation effects of missile
electronics and to test equipment and parts for radiation hardness. These are also the primary uses of
large flash X‐ray machines. Van de Graaff accelerators are not usually used for these purposes because
of their size and low beam current (and thus low X‐ray) output.

Other Uses: Industrial microwave, accelerator‐ based, high‐energy X‐ray machines have been routinely
used for a wide variety of industrial applications for more than 30 years. These applications include
defect‐detection of large castings and welded assemblies used in automotive, shipbuilding, aerospace,
and power production component manufacturing. These machines also are used in large security
systems for detection of contraband or explosives in container shipments. Similar technology is
employed in the production of machines used to treat cancer.

15-13


Appearance (as manufactured): The most commonly used 2+ MeV accelerator is the linac, as shown in
Figure 14, because of its small size and ruggedness. These X‐ray machines consist of five major parts: the
accelerator, the X‐ray head, the RF amplifiers or modulators, a control console, and a water pump
cabinet. The box‐like structure of Figure 14 contains the accelerator and the X‐ray head.

The source of the X‐rays is the X‐ray head. It is connected to the RF modulator by means of a waveguide,
which is a rectangular rigid or semi‐rigid conduit or cable. The accelerator portion of the X‐ray head is a
tube or pipe with semicircular disks on alternating sides along its length. This assembly may be in the
center of a larger diameter electromagnet. The modulator or RF amplifier, which supplies RF energy to
the acceleration tube, is often in a separate cabinet. This energy is normally coupled through a
rectangular waveguide or, less frequently, a coaxial cable. The modulator operates at a frequency
corresponding to the accelerating structure, normally in the 1 GHz to 3 GHz range. The other supporting
components are the control system and the water‐cooling
system. These systems control and cool the accelerator to
keep it within a narrow range of operating temperatures.
Typical dimensions for the X‐ray head, modulator cabinet, and
control console are shown in Table 1.

X‐rays produced by MTCR‐controlled accelerators are
energetic enough to require lead shielding several
centimeters thick. These accelerators are often shipped
without shielding since the shielding can be readily
manufactured and installed by the recipient. Often an
unshielded system is placed inside a shielded building.
Figure 14: Typical linac X‐ray system. (Varian
Associates)
The other type of accelerator for use in high‐energy X‐ray
generation is a mechanically driven Van de Graaff type
generator. These systems are much larger than linear accelerators and more difficult to position, and
thus are not normally used for radiography. They consist of a high‐voltage power supply capable of
generating electrostatic potentials of 2 MeV or more, an acceleration tube made of highly polished
nickel, and a control console. The power supply and the acceleration tube are usually integral parts.
They are contained within a high‐pressure tank made of thick‐walled steel, which when operational,
contains a high dielectric gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or pure nitrogen at a pressure of several
atmospheres. Unlike the linear accelerators, which are small enough to be rotated around the piece
being X‐rayed, the very large electrostatic accelerators remain stationary, and the test piece is moved as
needed to achieve the desired relative positioning. Typical dimensions of a Van de Graaff system are
given in Table 2.

15-14


Table 1: Typical Linac Dimensions
X‐ray Head Modulator Cabinet Control Console
Height 0.5 m 1.0 m 0.2 m
Width 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.3 m
Depth 1.0 m 1.0 m 0.3 m
Weight 200 kg 300 kg 3 kg

Table 2: Typical Dimensions for a Van de Graff system
Pressure Vessel Control Console
Length 2.5 m 0.2 m
Diameter 1.0 m
Width 0.2 m
Weight 1,200 kg 2 kg

Flash X‐ray equipment varies in size from a desktop unit to huge systems that require special buildings. A
typical unit used for inspection of solid rocket motor propellant grains is shown in Figure 15.

Appearance (as packaged): Linear accelerators are packaged for shipment in crates or boxes. They may
appear as three separate cabinets. The X‐ray head and modulator normally come from the same vendor.
The cooling system and the control system can be purchased separately.

The packaging uses foam, Styrofoam, or other shock‐attenuating fill to protect the modulator from
excessive vibration and shock. The equipment may be labeled with X‐ray caution labels, RF field signs,
and possibly labels indicating high‐
voltage. The system may be heavier
than lower‐energy systems because
of the amount of lead shielding, if
shipped with shielding installed,
required to shield personnel from
penetrating X‐rays.

The electrostatic accelerators are
much larger. The high‐voltage supply
and the acceleration tube are
shipped together inside the pressure
vessel. Because of its weight, the
Figure 15: A 2.3MeV flash X‐ray unit used for inspecting solid rocket pressure vessel is most likely shipped
motors. (MTCR Equipment, Software and Technology Annex Handbook,
in a crate made for fork‐lift handling.
The unit is not likely to be shipped in
operational condition and usually has additional packing material inside the pressure vessel to support
the high‐voltage supply and acceleration column.
15-15


15.C. Materials
None.
15.D. Software
15.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the "use" of equipment specified in 15.B. usable
for testing systems specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. or subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.

Nature and Purpose: Software used in ballistic missile and UAV test facilities is specifically designed to
operate specialized test equipment and to record the results of the test for later analysis. Specifically,
software used to operate vibration test systems provides appropriate signals to digital controllers that
simulate the vibrations associated with ballistic missile powered flight. This signal can be varied over a
range of frequencies and amplitudes, and the response of the test article, such as a flight computer, is
recorded by the computer system. Other software collects wind tunnel data during instrumented
airframe tests. Computerized systems can record wind speed and the resulting lift, drag, stability,
thermal effects and infrared signature data generated by the test article. Solid propellant rocket motor
and liquid propellant rocket engine test software collect information
from instrumented motor and engine components while the
motor/engine is tested. Test results include startup transient and
operating pressures, motor case deformations, thermal data and
motor/engine performance data among other readings. All this data is
analyzed to evaluate rocket subsystem performance and design
suitability.

Method of Operation: A typical vibration test system includes a vibration
shaker unit, or thruster, to vibrate test articles attached to it; a power
amplifier or other source of power to drive the shaker; a controller to
command the power amplifier according to the desired vibration
frequency and amplitude test profile; and an air‐ or liquid‐cooling system
Figure 6: A desktop computer
for the shaker and amplifier. The test article is securely mounted onto with customized interface
the vibration table fixture and sensors and other instrumentation cards and software. (Unholtz‐
pickoffs are mounted to the device. Other signal cables are attached to Dickie)
record any internal electrical responses or signal changes that may occur
during the test. The operator inputs vibration frequency and the amplitude information to the computer
controller which then translates this input into signals sent to the power amplifier which controls the
shaker table.

15-16


Software used to support wind tunnel and solid propellant rocket motor or liquid propellant rocket
engine test firings collects data from instrumentation systems and sensors mounted on the test article.
This software may have built‐in analytic capabilities to assist the missile engineer evaluate the results of
the test.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This type of software controls test equipment that simulates the
environment a ballistic missile or UAV will experience in flight without having to consume a missile or
UAV for test. The application of sound ground testing procedures on flight systems reduces the time and
cost of developing these subsystems.

Other Uses: This type of software is available to other industries. Vibration test stations and wind
tunnels are used to test other military and civilian products, such as aircraft. The same software,
perhaps with minor modifications, is used to control the operation of these pieces of test equipment
and to monitor the results from the test articles.


computer. This technology, including the documentation, is capable of being transmitted electronically
15.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment or "software" specified in 15.B. or 15.D.

Nature and Purpose: “Technology” is the provision of significant aid or assistance to a country engaged
in developing ballistic missiles or UAVs and the equipment needed to produce these items without
outside assistance. The technology to develop test stations used to produce ballistic missiles or UAVs
involves thorough understanding of the flight system that will be tested and its expected response.
Experience is also required to design and build the test platform precise enough to accurately simulate
the environment. A country could develop the test software over time as it gained information based on
experiments. As used in this section blueprints or engineering drawings detailing how to manufacture or
operate these larger pieces of missile‐related test equipment obviously would be critical technology.
Transferring computer testing and analysis software also represent transfers of MTCR‐controlled
technology.

of instruction provided by a person experienced in one or more controlled subjects such as large
15-17


vibration test equipment or liquid propellant rocket engine test cells, who acts as a trainer in a
classroom on or near the production site. A country may receive technical assistance from one or more
consulting services that specialize in a particular production skill. A country may receive procurement
assistance either in the form of the provision of technical equipment, machines, or materials, or in the
form of assistance in determining the item needed for the program. Finally, a country may receive
technical assistance by sending students to other countries possessing the technology to attend training
and practice the skills necessary to build and operate the required systems.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, technical assistance required to build and operate
ballistic missile or UAV test equipment are used only for those purposes. Space launch vehicles and
sounding rockets used in weather research are, with minor adjustments, ballistic missiles, and the
technology used in ballistic missiles and in space launch vehicles or sounding rockets is essentially the
same.

Other Uses: Civil and military aircraft may use scaled down versions of this technology.


15-18


Category II – Item 16: Modelling‐Simulation and Design Integration
Modelling‐Simulation and
Design Integration
16-1


16.A.1. Specially designed hybrid (combined analogue/digital) computers for modelling, simulation,
or design integration of systems specified in 1.A. or in the subsystems specified in 2.A.
Note:
This control only applies when the equipment is supplied with "software" specified in 16.D.1.

Nature and Purpose: Modelling, simulation, and design integration software tools provide low‐cost
mechanisms for planning and optimizing ultimately high‐cost space and military missions and
operations. In permitting the designer to build and fly rocket systems and unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) using computers, numerous design
changes and flight environments can be
•Australia •Brazil investigated and tested using these tools,
•Canada •China thereby avoiding the expense of building, testing,
•France •Germany and redesigning actual hardware. This modelling
•India •Israel capability dramatically decreases the cost and
•Italy •Japan time required to develop a rocket or UAV.
•Norway •Russian Federation Various computer‐generated codes have a critical
•South Africa •South Korea role in designing a missile with desired
•Sweden •Ukraine performance capability, especially for longer
•United Kingdom •United States range missiles. Using a full library of software
models to validate performance in the design
stage leads to missiles with the most appropriate,
mission related trade‐offs, including range and
payload capabilities.
Global production
Hybrid computers combine analog and digital
components to exploit the advantages of each.
They are useful in situations in which data rates
are extremely high and the signal‐to‐noise ratio is
low, such as focal plane arrays in advanced sensors. These conditions may be stressing to purely digital
computers because such computers cannot always keep up with the data stream, and the low signal
strength sometimes does not create the clear “1” or “0” required by a digital device. Thus, analog
circuitry is sometimes used to collect and process the output of the sensor before digitizing the data.

Method of Operation: Most missile design software models represent the physics of missile operation
to test the structural characteristics of missiles and components (see Figures 1 and 2). Modern
16-2


aerodynamic models may offer a highly accurate treatment of flows internal and external to the missile
and can be tailored to the specific missile geometry under evaluation.

Thermodynamic models predict both the frictional heating and chemical reactions involved in missile
propulsion and thermal protection, and the resulting flow of heat into critical missile components.
Applications of finite element models in designing missile structures are now common, as are
applications of models combining guidance hardware and missile controls to test performance. Once
designed, subsystem hardware is frequently tested by means of hardware‐in‐the‐loop simulators. These
simulators may range from straightforward
actuation of mechanical linkages on a rocket
nozzle during simulated test firing to highly
sophisticated laboratory assemblies involving the
measurement of the responses of complex
subsystems such as guidance and control.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Missile design
software may be applied in a variety of ways
during the early phases of the design process.
Modelling and simulations can be used: to define
and test the parameters and functions of sensors
and other communications equipment, as well as
Figure 1: Modelling and simulation software has been weapons payload; and to create and define
used to analyze the structure of rocket engines and multiple configurations, thrust capabilities,
components, satellite thrusters, propellant tanks and aerodynamic flight loads, structural requirements,
antenna. (EADS) thermal insulation requirements, and the guidance
or control requirements of candidate design concepts, or models. Subsystem hardware designs based on
these models are performance tested, often with simulation software in‐the‐loop, to validate their
capabilities and to refine the models to make them more design specific. The computer then combines
these design‐specific models in order to represent an integrated rocket or UAV system in flight and to
confirm its design capabilities before actual flight testing. This modelling approach eliminates much of
the need for expensive iterative flight testing.

Other Uses: Many of the more fundamental software models used in rocket systems or UAV design are
commonly used commercially. Structural
modelling techniques are used in
designing trucks, buildings and other
infrastructure, particularly to test their
durability and structures. Thermodynamic
codes are used in satellite and power
plant design. Flight motion computers
have wide applications for pilot training
and other flight simulators.

Appearance (as manufactured): Software
for missile design is physically
indistinguishable from commercial Figure 2: A computational model used for a simulation of a missile
software. It is contained on the same impact. (Sandia National Laboratories)
16-3


computer disks or CD‐ROMs, etc. Missile analog/hybrid computers are custom electronics generally
smaller than a breadbox. Flight motion computers are cabinets with commercial standard electronics
racks. Missile software and specialized flight dynamics models can also be loaded on a pure digital, real‐
time computer (flight emulator). Real‐time models can be used to replace the test article hardware in
the loop.

Appearance (as packaged): Custom electronics like analog/hybrid computers may be packaged in a
variety of ways, including trunk containers used for shipping sensitive instruments and computer
monitors. Flight motion computers are generally shipped like other electronic equipment. Other flight
simulator hardware, including flight motion tables, may be packed in wooden crates for shipment.
Models and real‐time software look like any other software product and are packaged in cardboard
boxes, possibly in shrink wrap (if commercial/new) or on unmarked standard transfer media, such as
floppy disks, CD‐ ROMs, or ¼ inch magnetic tape cartridges.


None.
16.C. Materials

None.
16.D. Software
16.D.1. "Software" specially designed for modelling, simulation, or design integration of the systems
specified in 1.A. or the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.
Technical Note:
The modelling includes in particular the aerodynamic and thermodynamic analysis of the systems.
Nature and Purpose: Numerous design changes and flight environments can be investigated by using
modelling, simulation and design‐integration software, thereby reducing the expense of building, testing
and redesigning actual hardware. This modelling capability dramatically decreases the cost and time
required to develop a rocket or UAV. Computer‐based models play a critical role in designing a rocket or
UAV with desired range‐payload performance capability. This is especially true when designing longer‐
16-4


range ballistic missiles. Using a full library of software models to validate performance in the design
stage leads to missiles with the most appropriate mission‐related trade‐offs, including range and
payload capabilities.

Method of Operation: Most missile‐design software models represent the physics of missile operation.
Modern aerodynamic models offer a highly accurate treatment of flows internal and external to the
missile and can be tailored to the specific missile geometry under evaluation. Thermodynamic models
predict both the frictional heating and chemical reactions involved in thermal protection and missile
propulsion, and the resulting flow of heat into critical missile components. Finite‐element models are
now commonly used to design missile structures, as are models that combine guidance system
hardware and missile flight control assemblies to test system level performance. An example of the
output of a missile structure model is shown in Figure 2 above.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Missile design software may be applied early in the design process to
define overall configuration, thrust capabilities, aerodynamic flight loads, structural requirements,
thermal insulation requirements and the guidance or control requirements of candidate design
concepts, or models. Subsystem hardware designs based on these models are tested, often with
simulation software in‐the‐loop, to validate their capabilities and to refine the models to make them
more design‐specific.

Other Uses: Many of the more effective software models used to design rocket systems or UAVs are
commonly used commercially. A popular
structural model, NASTRAN, is used to design
•Australia •Canada trucks and to build bridges. Thermodynamic
•China •France codes such as SINDA are used to design satellites
•Germany •India and power plants.
•Israel •Italy
•Japan •Russian Federation Appearance (as manufactured): Software for
•South Africa •South Korea missile design is physically indistinguishable
•Sweden •Switzerland from commercial software. It is contained on the
•United Kingdom •United States same type of computer disks or CD‐ROMs, etc.
used for other software. Alternatively, missile
software and specialized flight dynamics models
can be loaded on a pure digital, real‐time
Global production computer (flight emulator). Real‐time models
can be used to replace the test article hardware
in the loop.

Appearance (as packaged): Models and real‐
time software look like any other software
product and are packaged in cardboard boxes,
possibly in shrink wrap (if commercial/new) or on unmarked standard transfer media, such as floppy
disks, CD‐ROMs, or 1/4”magnetic tape cartridges.

Additional Information: High‐speed digital computers based on industry bus standard definitions, such
as Virtual Machine Europa (VME), Multibus and Futurebus+, provide considerable leverage for
developing real‐time missile flight software. These commercial standards are fast enough to support
16-5


real‐time missile performance simulations. The flight motion computer is the essential integrator that
makes these commercial computers useful as emulators supporting missile software development and
testing. Flight motion computers use specialized operating system software that enables them to act as
simulation controllers and flight performance data loggers.
16.E. Technology
Nature and Purpose: Modelling, simulation and design integration technology is the knowledge or data
necessary to design the software and computers needed to develop, model and perform nondestructive
testing on missile or UAV systems or components. Modelling software involves sophisticated
understanding of the physical domain being simulated. A designer must have thorough knowledge of
the missile system or subsystem and then be able to convert knowledge of this subject into a computer
model. The accuracy of the model will improve as the designer gains experience through real‐world
experimentation and testing.

Method of Operation: Modelling, simulation and design integration technology is available in many
forms. Technical assistance may consist of instruction provided by a person experienced in writing or
modifying existing lower quality modelling, design or flight simulation software into that which will
support rocket system or UAV design work, who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the
production site. A country may receive technical assistance from one or more consulting services that
specialize in modelling or design software. Finally, a country may receive technical assistance by sending
students to other countries possessing the technology to attend training and practice the skills
necessary to build and operate the required systems. Any manuals and materials received during
training may qualify as technical data.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exception, the technology required to develop rocket or UAV
modelling or design software is used only for those purposes. Sounding rockets used in weather
research are, with minor adjustments, ballistic missiles, and the modelling and design technology used
in ballistic missiles and in sounding rockets is essentially the same. UAV designers may use derivatives of
civil or military aircraft design and modelling software.

Other Uses: UAV designers may use scaled‐down versions of the design and modelling software used in
the civil and military aircraft industries.



16-6


Stealth
Category II – Item 17: Stealth
17- 1


17.A.1. Devices for reduced observables such as radar reflectivity, ultraviolet/infrared signatures and
acoustic sigantures (i.e. stealth technology), for applications usable for the systems specified in 1.A. or
19.A. or the subsystems specified in 2.A. or 20.A.
Nature and Purpose: The need to protect missiles from detection, interception and destruction has led to
the development of technologies to reduce their observables; when reduced observables are a primary
design goal for a new vehicle, they are often referred to generically as “stealth” technology. Reflections
and emissions are reduced or tailored through the use of carefully designed shapes and special materials.
Other devices such as low‐probability‐intercept radar may be used. The objective is to make the object
difficult to detect.

Method of Operation: Emissions and reflections are acoustic or electromagnetic in nature. Emissions are
held to a minimum by any of a wide range of techniques such as frequency staggering, vibration isolation,
shielding, masking, directing, and dampening.

Electromagnetic emissions and reflections occur in numerous frequency bands, including microwave
(radar), infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet bands. Because a vehicle’s signature varies significantly
between and even within frequency bands, different methods must be applied across the spectrum.
Emissions and reflections can be directed away from the observer and/or reduced in amplitude or altered
in frequency response with the aid of carefully selected shapes and materials. This reduction is achieved
by shaping, material, or devices for controlled emissions, reflectance, absorption, and second surfaces
(added insulators and reflectors). These
techniques or devices either conceal or
disguise the true nature of the object from
the observer or allow the vehicle to be
detectable only at certain angles and for

brief intervals, thereby delaying or
avoiding detection and engagement.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Stealth
Figure 1: An image of a vehicle presumed to be a low observable
technology is used to make ballistic
UAV, taxing on a runway. (Aviation Week) missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),
including cruise missiles, and their payloads
more difficult to detect, track, identify, and engage by defensive weapon systems. Most design elements
of these systems are subject to treatment with stealth technology, including its basic shape, its structural
components, its surfaces and leading edges, and its inlets and openings.

17- 2


Other Uses: Most of the materials used for signature control were originally developed for military aircraft
and are found on both fixed‐ and rotary‐wing systems. Radar absorbent materials are also widely used in
test facilities for radars. Modified versions of the materials and treatment techniques are found on some
ships, submarines, and ground combat and tactical vehicles. Emission control materials technology also is
used to control temperatures in satellites. Several devices can be used with communication gear to reduce
detectability. There are commercial uses for some of
the low cost, low performance materials for reducing
•Brazil •China electromagnetic interference and for reducing solar
•France •Germany loading.
•Greece •Israel
•Italy •Japan Appearance (as manufactured): Typical devices that
•Netherlands •Russian Federation result in reduced‐observable treatments include, but
•South Africa •Sweden are not limited to, the following categories:

•Taiwan •United Kingdom
There are two kinds of conductive fillers: conductive
•United States
fibers, which look like very light whiskers 2 mm to 6 mm
long, are made of carbon, metals, or conductive‐
material coated glass fibers; and conductive‐material
Global production coated particles, which may look like colored sand.

Small cell foams, both open and closed, are painted, or
loaded, with absorbing inks and paints. These foams
resemble flexible foam rubber sheets or air conditioning
filters. They can be single‐layered or noticeably multi‐
layered, with glue lines separating the strata. A ground plane, if applied, can consist of a metallic paint, a
metallic sheet (aluminum foil or metalized thin plastic), or undetectable sprayed inks. Some
manufacturers may mark the front of these foams with lettering saying “front” or with serial numbers if
the ground plane is not obvious. Some foam may contain composite fiber to make them more rigid or
even structural. Four such foams are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Four radar absorbing material foams, clockwise from upper left: low‐dielectric foam (epoxy); lightweight lossy
foam (urethane); sprayable lightweight foam (urethane); and thermoplastic foam (polytherimide). (MTCR Equipment,
Software and Technology Annex Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))

Resistive Cards (R‐Cards) consist of a sheet of fiber paper or very thin plastic (see Figure 3) covered with a
continuous coat of a conductive ink, paint, or extremely thin metallic film. The surface electrical resistivity
of the coating may be constant or may vary continuously in one or two directions. The conductive ink
versions are likely to be dark gray to black. The metallic coated versions may vary in color depending on
both the specific metals used and the thicknesses involved, but black, yellow, green, and gold tints are
common.

17- 3


Loaded ceramic spray tiles are sprayed‐on
and fired ceramic coatings heavily loaded
with electrically conductive fillers or
ferromagnetic particles. They are likely to
range from dark gray to black in color.
Depending on the specific filler and
surface‐sealing glaze used, they may
range from smooth to abrasive in surface
texture. Sprayed‐on coatings may range
from a few millimeters to tens of Figure 3: Kapton polymide film (left) is often used in the manufacture
centimeters in thickness. of resistive cards, such as that on the right. (Kapton film image credit:
PSG Ltd)

Absorbing honeycomb is a lightweight composite with open cells normally 3 mm to 12 mm in diameter
and 25 mm to 150 mm maximum thickness. It is treated with partially conductive inks, paints, or fibers.
The honeycomb core may be shipped without being loaded, in
which case it might be indistinguishable from materials used
solely for structural purposes. The conductive inks and paints for
subsequent loading are likely to come from an entirely different
source than the core itself. Absorbing honeycomb is shown in
Figure 4.

Appearance (as packaged): Absorbing fibers vary from 2 mm to
6 mm in length and are usually packaged in plastic bags, vials, or
jars. Their weight depends on the materials used. Fibers shipped
before being chopped to their functional length may be in the
form of conventional spools of textile fibers or in bundles 1 m to
2 m in length and 2 cm to 10 cm in diameter.

Foams come in sheets usually no larger than 1 m x 1 m, ranging
from 6 mm to 200 mm in thickness, and weighing less than 40 g
Figure 4: Absorbing Honeycomb has a
per square meter. They are packaged in cardboard boxes.
variety of applications in defense and
aerospace, including stealth. (Supracor)
R‐Cards are packaged in an envelope or box with a nonabrasive
paper sheet between each card. Larger quantities may be shipped in rolls from 0.2 m to 1 m in length and
15 cm in diameter, inside desiccated tubes, or in cardboard boxes.

Loaded ceramic spay tiles are usually bubble wrapped and packaged in cardboard boxes.

Absorbing honeycomb is shipped in cardboard boxes.

17- 4


17.B.1. Systems, specially designed for radar cross section measurement, usable for the systems
specified in 1.A., 19.A.1. or 19.A.2. or the subsystems specified in 2.A.
Nature and Purpose: Radar cross section (RCS)

measurement equipment has been developed to
•France •Germany evaluate, tailor, and reduce the RCS of missile systems
•Israel •Japan in order to reduce detectability by air defense radars.
•Russian Federation •South Korea RCS measurement equipment can be used in either
•Sweden •United Kingdom indoor or outdoor ranges. Many of the ranges are
•United States usable for both military and commercial purposes. RCS
measurement equipment can be used for evaluating
material samples, missile components, scale models of
missiles, and actual rocket systems or UAVs.
Global production
Method of Operation: An object under test, often
called the target, is positioned or suspended in a test
area with a few or no other objects in order to minimize
sources of extraneous radar scattering. The target is
then illuminated repeatedly by radar over a select range
of radar frequencies of known amplitude, and the reflections are measured. The resulting data are
evaluated, and radar reflectivity of the target as a function of frequency and viewing angle is determined.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: This equipment is necessary to determine, tailor, and reduce the radar
signature of a rocket, UAV, or payload. These measurement systems also assess computer‐modeled
performance and ascertain whether the missiles have the desired reduced and tailored observables.
Certain RCS equipment is used to characterize radar‐absorbing materials.

Other Uses: RCS measurement systems can be used to determine the radar signature of any air, sea or
land military vehicle. The measurements provide information that aids in tailoring or reducing the RCS.
Indoor RCS measurement ranges can be adapted to measure antenna performance patterns for various
commercial applications such as cell phones, automobile antennas, and satellite dishes.

Appearance (as manufactured): The basic elements of an indoor RCS test range (an example is shown in
Figure 5) are radar source equipment, dual reflectors, target support devices, and bidirectional arches.

Radar Source Equipment: RF Equipment is a rack‐mounted collection of electronic equipment that, when
assembled, occupies the space of a filing cabinet and is used in all types of RCS measurement systems.
Up/down converters with feed horns provide radar illumination. To provide a wide range of frequencies,
the conical feed horns vary in diameter from 1 cm to 100 cm in internal width. The feed horn length is
generally two and a half times the internal width. They are metal lined and have provisions for attaching a
17- 5


coaxial cable or waveguide on the rear end. In RCS measurement systems, radar feed sources can be
replaced by a radar source from a commercial radar system (e.g., marine radar). Network analyzers can
measure absorption and reflection, and are commonly used commercially to develop antennas and
electromagnetic interference shielding materials. RF cabling is low‐loss coaxial cabling and is required for
connecting the components. These cables vary in length but are normally 1 cm to 2 cm in diameter and
have a metal mesh outer surface.

Dual Reflectors: Cassegrain measurement systems use two large plates or dishes of different dimensions
as reflectors; they can be circular, elliptical, or rectangular. The plates may have calibration marks on
several portions of the surfaces and may be painted. Reflectors may be assembled from pieces and may
have rolled or serrated edges. For measuring the RCS of a typical cruise missile, the two reflectors are 2 cm
to 5 cm in thickness, and their major axes are 4 m and 5 m in
length. These reflectors create a measurement “sweet spot” 2
m in diameter. This type of system is almost invariably used
for indoor measurements. It should be noted that a
measurement system could be devised using a single
reflector.

Target Support Devices: These devices hold the target off the
floor or ground and in the radar illumination; they need to be
as imperceptible to radar as possible. Styrofoam columns,
metal blades coated with radar absorbing material (RAM),
and puppet strings from overhead mounts are common
methods of supporting and suspending targets to be
measured. The Styrofoam columns may range from 2 m in
height and 0.5 m in diameter to 5 m in height and 2 m in
diameter. Their horizontal cross‐section may be round (with
Figure 5: A target missile in the Bistatic or without taper), square, triangular, or diamond‐shaped. The
Anechoic Chamber (BAC) RCS measurement metal blades, or pylons, may range from 2 m to 40 m in length
compact range. (U.S. Navy)
and be 5 cm x 30 cm at the top; short pylons are 50 cm x 90
cm at the bottom, and tall pylons are 2 m x 8 m at the
bottom. Both Styrofoam columns and pylons can be mounted on a mechanism that tilts them forward.
Rotating interfaces can also turn the Styrofoam column and target. Sets of three to five Styrofoam
columns mounted on a common turntable can be used to support and rotate a target. Some pylons also
have a rotating interface with the target at the top.

Bidirectional Arches: Another approach to measuring missile RCS is to use a bidirectional arch, which can
be made out of plywood, fiberglass, or metal. An electric motor drive system is used to relocate the feed
horns along the arch. Custom cabling links the arch to a control computer (normally a PC with a keyboard
and monitor) and the feed controls. A test article, with its surface perpendicular to the plane defined by
the arch, is placed at the center of the arch. The articles are typically 0.3 m to 1.0 m on a side. The
calibration reference is a flat, smooth metal plate the same size as the test article.

Appearance (as manufactured): Transmission/reflection tunnel RCS measurement systems look like large,
sheet metal, air vent ducting. They have two matching metal feed horns with coaxial cabling or
waveguides leading to the radar source and detector measurement electronics. They are controlled by a
computer that looks like any PC with a keyboard and a monitor. There may be radar‐absorbing foam
17- 6


(normally medium blue or black in color and spiked on the surface) inserted in portions of the ducting.
Direct illumination indoor systems and bounce range outdoor systems use conventionally shaped,
parabolic radar reflectors ranging in size from a few centimeters up to 10 m in diameter.

Appearance (as packaged): Radar ranges are seldom shipped as one piece; rather, they are assembled
onsite from many components. There are no unique packaging requirements for this equipment beyond
those of the industry standard for rack‐mounted electronics and commercial computer components. Some
of the components (such as the Cassegrain reflectors) can be fairly large and require special crates.
Styrofoam target supports are delicate and must be packaged to prevent denting.
17.C. Materials
17.C.1. Materials for reduced observables such as radar reflectivity, ultraviolet/infrared signatures
and acoustic signatures (i.e. stealth technology) for applications usable for the systems specified in
1.A. or 19.A. or the subsystems specified in 2.A.
Notes:
1. 17.C.1. includes structural materials and coatings (including paints), specially designed for reduced
or tailored reflectivity or emissivity in the microwave, infrared or ultraviolet spectra.
2. 17.C.1. does not control coatings (including paints) when specially used for thermal control of
satellites.
Nature and Purpose: The need to protect ballistic missiles and UAVs from detection and destruction has
led to the development of technologies to reduce their observables through the use of carefully designed
special materials to absorb radar energy or shield or mask the vehicle from the radar energy or other
detection systems that may be in use. The objective is to make the missile or UAV difficult to detect.

Method of Operation: Emissions are also held to a minimum by other techniques, such as shielding,
masking, directing and dampening. Emissions and reflections can be affected with the aid of carefully
selected materials applied to the airframe. This reduction is achieved by shaping material for controlled
emissions, reflectance, absorption and second surfaces (added insulators and reflectors).These techniques
or devices either conceal or disguise the true nature of the object from the detection devices or allow the
vehicle to be detectable only at certain angles and for brief intervals.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Stealth technology is used to make ballistic missiles, UAVs (including cruise
missiles) and their payloads more difficult for defensive weapon systems to detect, track, identify and
engage. Most design elements of a missile are subject to treatment with stealth technology, including its
basic shape, its structural components, its surfaces and leading edges and its inlets and openings.

Other Uses: Most of the materials used for signature control were originally developed for military aircraft
and are found on both fixed‐ and rotary‐wing systems. Modified versions of the materials and treatment
techniques are found on some ships, submarines and ground vehicles. Emission control materials
17- 7


technology also is used to control temperature in satellites. There are commercial uses for some of the
low‐cost, lower performance materials for reducing electromagnetic interference and for reducing solar
loading.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical materials for reduced‐observable treatments include, but are not
limited to, the following categories:

Sprays include conductive inks or paints, normally containing silver, copper, zinc, bronze, or gold as the
base ingredient. They appear black, metallic gray, copper, bronze, or gold in color.

Magnetic Radar Absorbing Material (commonly known as Mag RAM) as applied to vehicles, may appear in
forms such as surface coverings, molded edges, or gap fillers. It consists
of very fine grained ferromagnetic or ferrite particles suspended in a
variety of rubber, paint, or plastic resin binders. It may be applied as
sprays, sheets, molded or machined parts, or putties. Because of the
general colors of typical binders and ferromagnetic particles, the natural
colors of Mag RAM range from light gray or brown to nearly black (see
Figure 6); however, with additional pigments added for other reasons
(e.g., visual camouflage or manufacturing/maintenance‐aid coding),
almost any color is possible. Thin films of plastic or paper material may
Figure 6: Custom engineered cover one or both sides of sheets for identification coding or maintaining
epoxy resin Mag RAM. (MSM pre‐application surface cleanliness. Sheet thickness may range from less
Industries)
than a millimeter to several centimeters. The density of the material is
likely to range from 50 % to 75 % of solid iron.

Transparent Radar Absorbent Material (T‐RAM) looks like sheet polycarbonate. It is normally 75 % to 85 %
transparent in the visible spectrum. Absorbing materials can vary from fibers or spheres spread
throughout the material to thin coatings, which look like yellow/green metallic window tinting.

Infrared (IR) Treatments usually consist of paints and coatings. Often these coatings are customized to
tailor reflectance and/or radiation of IR energy. Because of the wide spectrum (0.8 microns to 14.0
microns wavelength) of IR energy and the variety of applications, IR coatings may either be reflective (low
emissivity) or designed to absorb (high emissivity). Coatings used for IR treatment include specially
designed military paints in camouflage colors or commercial paints designed to reflect solar heat. Some of
these products have a noticeable metal content in the paint/binder due to the IR pigments used. Others
are designed to have high emissivity and as such, contain pigments that absorb IR. These high emissivity
coatings contain carbon‐based or other highly emissive particle‐based pigments (normally nearly black). In
either case, these IR pigments are sometimes shipped separately from the paint/binder.

Appearance (as packaged): Spray paints and inks are generally shipped in standard‐size cans. The cans
may be in boxes containing desiccants, or the pigments and binders may be shipped separately. Pigments
are shipped in jars, plastic bags or cans, and the binders are shipped in cans or drums. Most are highly
toxic or caustic materials until applied and cured.

Mag RAM may be shipped in sheets, uncured slurries and finished parts, or in raw material form (particles,
binder and polymerization‐activator all shipped separately).The particles would most likely be shipped in a
very fine powder or short fiber form but possibly also immersed in a hydrophobic fluid to prevent rusting.
17- 8


It may be shipped in sheets up to a few meters in length and width. Sheet thickness may range from less
than a millimeter up to tens of centimeters. It may be shipped several layers deep on flat pallets or as a
rolled sheet inside a cardboard tube. If shipped as formed parts, it may be in rectangular cardboard or
wooden boxes as large as 0.1 m x 0.1 m x 2.0 m or as small as 20 cm x 20 cm x 20 cm.

T‐RAM is packaged like sheet polycarbonate or like a window or canopy part. It can have an adhesive
protective paper applied to the outside. If shipped in smaller pieces, it would be boxed.

IR thermal paints and coatings are usually packaged in cans like any paint product. IR paint pigments can
be packaged in cans, vials or plastic bags.
17.D. Software
17.D.1. "Software" specially designed for reduced observables such as radar reflectivity,
ultraviolet/infrared signatures and acoustic signatures (i.e. stealth technology), for applications usable
in the systems specified in 1.A. or 19.A. or the subsystems specified in 2.A.
Note:
17.D.1. includes "software" designed for analysis of signature reduction.
Nature and Purpose: Designing and producing materials for, and systems with, signature reduction
normally requires software and databases for analyzing these materials and systems. Software and
databases specially designed for analysis of signature reduction are controlled. These databases and
software will include data or functions essential to analysis of the signature reduction capability of
systems and materials.

Method of Operation: Because emissions and reflections may take many forms such as acoustic, radio
frequency, or infrared energy, software and/or databases containing information or methodologies
specially designed for analysis of emissions and reflectance (signatures) are used to evaluate materials for
their signature reducing properties. Similarly, software and databases may be used to analyze systems in
order to determine effectiveness of the materials and devices already incorporated as well as to
determine what areas need improvement.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: These items are used to analyze airframe shape and materials for ballistic
missile and UAV, including cruise missiles, applications in order to select signature reducing treatments or
identify hot spots (potential areas for improvement). Similarly, these items may be used to evaluate the
signature of systems, quantify performance of designs and material choices in systems, and evaluate areas
for improvement.

Other Uses: Similar items may be used to analyze signature reduction on many military articles – including
ground vehicles, manned aircraft, and ships – as well as analysis of effectiveness of energy‐management
17- 9


systems for satellites and homes. Additionally, passive and active detectors used for security alarm
systems also may require analysis using similar technologies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Software for signature reduction design tools may be packaged on floppy
discs, tapes, and compact discs. Alternatively, a computer network can be used to distribute software and
its documentation electronically.

Appearance (as packaged): Software on floppy discs, tapes, and compact discs will be packaged in any of a
wide variety of packets, pouches, mailers, or boxes. Software may also be packed with related hardware.

Additional Information: Each spectrum has its own specific design software. Most countries and defense
contractors have developed computer codes for one‐, two‐ or three‐dimensional analysis and design
optimization. In radio frequency (RF)/radar spectrum, any code that can model antennas or radomes can
be modified and used as a radar cross section tool. As a rule of thumb, any software code name that
includes the letters SIG, RF or RCS, should be regarded as suspect RCS code. Basic codes that run on
personal computers can give good fundamental design guidance. When exotic materials and complex
shapes come into play, supercomputers and specially designed codes are required.

The key elements of RCS design codes involve the ability to define a vehicle surface profile within an
adequate margin (which can be as small as 1/20 of a wavelength of the highest frequency of interest); the
ability to represent very small elements of the surface as vectors; and the ability to handle the four real
and complex terms associated with magnetic permeability and electrical permittivity. These items indicate
the value of general purpose codes and machines capable
of rapidly inverting and manipulating very large matrices
of numbers.
•Israel •Italy IR thermal codes are less readily available or mature, but
•Japan •Russian Federation there are commercial codes available that can be used or
•South Korea •Sweden modified for military applications. These codes include
•United Kingdom those used for thermal quality control. As in RF, a code
•United States capable of vector representation of the size and
orientation of surface elements is a critical starting point.
Codes estimating the atmospheric transmission of IR
Global production radiation at different altitudes, seasons and types of
gaseous environments are used in the design process.

Codes for determining heat transfer in aircraft are
essential. Codes for determining plume temperature from
the volume of combustion products passing through the
tailpipe and expanding and dissipating in the atmosphere
are typically involved. (This plume modeling often involves engine deck codes but goes beyond their use
for determining propulsion performance.) Codes that use material emissivity and bidirectional reflection
coefficients of materials as inputs may indicate their potential use in IR signature control design.

17-10


17.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment, materials or "software" specified in 17.A., 17.B., 17.C. or 17.D.
Note:
17.E.1. includes databases specially designed for analysis of signature reduction.

Nature and Purpose: Stealth technology is a relatively new science and not widespread. Technology, as
used in this section, is the provision of significant aid or assistance to a country engaged in developing the
means to reduce the signatures of UAVs and possibly ballistic missiles. As used in this section, transferring
specialty coatings such as T‐RAM, Mag RAM, conductive fibers or other low‐observable materials
obviously would be critical transfers, as would transferring the technology to produce such materials.
Providing a country with the technology to produce RCS test equipment or information needed to
construct an RCS test range would be a transfer of controlled technical information.

Method of Operation: Technical assistance is available in many forms. Technical assistance may consist of
instruction provided by a person experienced in one or more controlled subjects, such as low‐observable
technology, who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the production site. A country may receive
technical assistance from one or more consulting services that specialize in a particular production skill. A
country may also receive technical assistance with procurement of technical equipment, machines or
material, or in the identification of companies and materials to acquire. Finally, a country may receive
technical assistance by sending students to other countries possessing the technology to attend training
and practice the skills necessary to build the required systems.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: With limited exceptions, technical assistance required to build stealth‐
material‐producing equipment and test facilities are used only for those purposes.

Other Uses: N/A


17-11


Category II – Item 18: Nuclear Effects Protection
Nuclear Effects Protection
18-1


18.A.1. "Radiation Hardened" "microcircuits" usable in protecting rocket systems and unmanned
aerial vehicles against nuclear effects (e.g. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), X‐rays, combined blast and
thermal effects), and usable for the systems specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Space and sub‐space environments
•France •Israel
require specialized technologies that eliminate the risks
of exposure to ionizing radiation in the form of gamma
•Sweden •United Kingdom
and X‐rays. Ionizing radiation causes two critical
•United States
challenges for microcircuits that can impact their ability
to perform sensitive yet critical functions. The first relates
Global to the build‐up of a permanent electrical charge in a
production circuit, which disrupts its ability to respond or causes it to
fail completely. The scale of this build‐up depends on the
extent to which the circuit is exposed to radiation. The
second problem relates to excess flow of electrical
current in a circuit, which disrupts or in some cases
destroys the circuit. This effect depends on how quickly
the radiation is delivered to the circuit (dose rate). One way to protect circuits from such effects is to
make microcircuits intrinsically resistant to the total dose of ionizing radiation, a process known as
‘hardening’.

Method of Operation: Hardened microcircuits are similar
in operation and appearance to regular microcircuits, but
they are made of materials and by processes and
techniques that resist accumulating excess electrical
charge and improve performance in radiation‐intense
environments. Improved oxide insulating layers, increased
material purity, decreased porosity, and sometimes
polishing of the insulating layers are all used to reduce the
charge‐holding tendencies of the circuit. These techniques
greatly increase the cost of a hardened microcircuit and
Figure 1: A radiation hardened application
also tend to lower digital operating rates. specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designed for
high reliability and radiation‐intense
applications. (Aeroflex)
18-2


Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Radiation‐hardened microcircuits are used in ballistic missiles intended to
operate in a nuclear environment. Protecting unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from ionizing radiation is
generally not required because they are usually more vulnerable to blast over‐pressure, which would
impact a UAV at greater distances from a nuclear explosion than would radiation.

Other Uses: Radiation‐hardened devices are used in spacecraft for long‐duration missions, including
military, telecommunications, scientific and
meteorological satellites, space stations, and planetary
probes. Hardened microcircuits are also used in high‐
radiation environments such as nuclear reactor safety;
instrumentation, control, and robotics systems; and high‐
energy physics accelerator instrumentation, detectors,
control, and safety systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): Hardened electronic
component devices and their assemblies are typically
mounted in hermetically sealed metal or ceramic
packages with surface‐mounted devices common in high‐ Figure 2: A radiation hardened motor driver
density assemblies. They look like commercial devices, designed for radiation‐intense military and
aerospace applications. (Aeroflex)
but they may have part numbers identifying them as
hardened.

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic assemblies and components are typically shipped in plastic bags
marked to designate an electrostatic sensitive device. They are cushioned in rubber foam or bubble
wrap for shock protection and packed inside cardboard boxes.
18.A.2. 'Detectors' specially designed or modified to protect rocket systems and unmanned aerial
vehicles against nuclear effects (e.g. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), X‐rays, combined blast and
thermal effects), and usable for the systems specified in 1.A.
Technical Note:
A ´detector´ is defined as a mechanical, electrical, optical or chemical device that automatically
identifies and records, or registers a stimulus such as an environmental change in pressure or
temperature, an electrical or electromagnetic signal or radiation from a radioactive material. This
includes devices that sense by one time operation or failure.

Nature and purpose: As noted above, one mechanism to protect circuits in harsh and nuclear intense
operating environments is to make microcircuits intrinsically resistant to the total dose of ionizing
radiation. Another technique is to use radiation detectors capable of sensing radiation dose rates in
these environments, and/or recognizing and registering environmental changes resulting from nuclear
events. These detectors subsequently turn off the circuit power or trigger protection devices that
respond to these conditions.

18-3


Method of operation: Radiation detectors are relatively simple devices that sense an increase in current
caused by radiation. If the radiation level reaches and surpasses a critical threshold, the detectors issue
a control signal to protection circuitry. The protection mechanism either shunts currents away from
sensitive devices or turns off the equipment to avoid burn‐out. The detectors usually have a test input to
activate the detector during construction or maintenance activities to verify operation. They must
usually be able to withstand radiation effects (e.g. they must be re‐usable), and must have the capacity
to issue protection commands immediately before damage occurs in the microcircuits.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: As with hardened microcircuits, radiation detectors are used in space
launch vehicles and ballistic missiles intended to operate
in the nuclear‐intense space and sub‐space
environments. Protecting unmanned air vehicles (UAVs)
from ionizing radiation is generally not required because
they are usually more vulnerable to blast overpressure,
which would impact a UAV at greater distances from a
nuclear explosion than radiation.

Other uses: Radiation detectors are used in the same
high‐reliability applications and nuclear‐intense
environments as hardened microcircuits. These include
long‐duration military, telecommunications, and scientific
missions. They are also critical electronic components on
meteorological satellites, space stations, and planetary
Figure 3: A radiation‐hardened detector. (U.S. Air probes. Detectors are also used in nuclear reactor safety
Force) applications; instrumentation, control, and robotics
systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): Radiation detector circuits may consume about a dozen square
centimeters of circuit board space. Alternatively, the detector can be a single microcircuit with external
select components as shown in Figure 3.

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic assemblies and components are typically shipped in plastic bags
marked to designate an electrostatic sensitive device. They are cushioned in rubber foam or bubble
wrap for shock protection and packed inside cardboard boxes.
18.A.3. Radomes designed to withstand a combined thermal shock greater than 4.184 x 106 J/m2
accompanied by a peak over pressure of greater than 50 kPa, usable in protecting rocket systems
and unmanned aerial vehicles against nuclear effects (e.g. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), X‐rays,
combined blast and thermal effects), and usable for the systems specified in 1.A.

Nature and Purpose: Radomes are non‐metallic structures that protect antennas from the environment
while allowing transmission of radio frequency signals with minimal signal loss and distortion. They are
usually made of an insulating material such as ceramics or silicon phenolic. The criteria outlined in
18.A.3. limit concern to radomes intended to survive a severe heat and pressure environment.
18-4


Method of Operation: Radome materials are selected for their strength and signal transparency in the
frequency bands of interest throughout the expected temperature range. They are usually shaped to
enhance the aerodynamic performance of the vehicle and to avoid undue disturbances of the signal
from prismatic, or lens, effects. Correctly designed radomes allow the enclosed antenna to transmit and
receive signals through the radome with minimal distortions.
Figure 4: Left: a selection of aerodynamic radomes (Northrop Grumman). Right: radomes similar to those that might be
used to protect RV seekers on reentry. (American Technology & Research Industries)

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The nuclear environments envisaged in Item 18 limit the missile‐related
uses of these radomes to some cruise missiles and to the Re‐entry Vehicles (RVs) carried by short‐ to
intermediate‐range ballistic missiles. One use of such radomes is to protect guidance seekers installed in
the nose of RVs as they guide the RVs to their targets. Longer‐range missiles reenter the atmosphere too
fast for nose mounted radomes to survive. For
these RVs, radomes (windows) may be located
further back on the RV body. These radomes are
•Russian Federation •United Kingdom not generally needed for UAVs because most UAVs
•United States cannot survive the specified nuclear effects. In any
case, radomes also can be hardened to the specified
nuclear effects to protect antennas at missile silos
Global production or command posts designed to survive nuclear
attack.

Other Uses: These radomes have few (if any)
commercial uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): Radomes used to
protect nose‐mounted sensors in RVs are conical in shape, as shown in Figure 4. They range in size
depending on the size of the RV to which they are attached, and can be as small as 30 cm, and as large
as 2 m or more in diameter and length. The materials are basically dielectrics in solid laminates or
18-5


sandwiched foam formed as a single, one‐piece molded radome. A thin wall, dielectric space frame
(DSF) radome, usually 0.1 cm or less in thickness, may be used for small antennas. A solid laminate‐wall
DSF radome typically is 0.25 cm in thickness. For two‐layer, sandwich DSF radomes, a foam layer is
added to the inside of the thin wall radome. The foam thickness is chosen primarily for thermal
insulation and resistance to thermal shock loads of 100 cal per cm2. A composite sandwich, foam‐core
wall radome is the most expensive design and provides the strength to withstand peak over‐pressure
loads greater than 50 kPa. A sandwiched foam‐core wall is one‐quarter wavelength thick for the highest
radio frequency signal.

Appearance (as packaged): Radomes are shipped in wooden crates that have contour braces within
them to support their thin wall structure. Radomes have closure frames mounted on their aft flanges to
maintain structural rigidity in transit and are wrapped in polyethylene bags. Crates can use either
formed wooden bulkheads for contour bracing or polyurethane, foamed in place, to support the
radome.
None.
18.C. Materials

None.
18.D. Software

None.
18.E. Technology

Nature and Purpose: Nuclear effects protection “technology” is the knowledge or data needed to
increase the survivability of the electronic systems in ballistic missiles and UAVs in nuclear environments
18-6


while they are en‐route to a target or when they may be exposed to these environments while stored.
The tools derived from this science allow these systems to be used after this exposure.

Method of Operation: Nuclear effects protection “technology” is available in many forms. “Technical
assistance” may consist of instruction provided by a person or organizations experienced with
developing radiation‐hardened microcircuits or nuclear‐event (X‐ray, EMP, thermal effects) detectors
suitable for ballistic missiles and who acts as a trainer in a classroom on or near the development or
production site. A country may receive “technical assistance” from one or more foreign entities that
possess the design and development facilities needed to provide hands‐on experience to develop or
operate the desired technology. A country may also receive procurement assistance in the form of help
in obtaining the equipment, machinery and materials or guidance as to what items should be acquired.
Any manuals and materials received during training may qualify as “technical data”.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The “technology” included in this section is used to protect electronic
components used within a ballistic missile from the effects of nuclear detonation.

Other Uses: Nuclear effects protection “technology” is used in other industries that specialize in
nuclear‐hardened equipment. Advanced countries have incorporated nuclear‐hardening technologies in
their armed forces’ military communications systems.


18-7


Category II – Item 19: Other Complete Delivery Systems
Other Complete Delivery
Systems
19- 1


19.A.1. Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launch vehicles, and
sounding rockets), not specified in 1.A.1., capable of a "range" equal to or greater than 300 km.
Nature and Purpose: Complete rocket systems captured under 19.A.1. are similar in most respects to
those covered by 1.A.1.; however, the absence of a requirement to have a payload carrying capability of
500 kg or more means that these systems are smaller in
size than those in 1.A.1.

•Australia •Brazil Evaluation of systems covered under this Item must take
•Bulgaria •China into account the ability to trade off payload and range.
•Czech Republic •Egypt This inherent capability may differ significantly from

•France •Germany manufacturers’ specifications or intended operational
•India •Iran concept.
•Israel •Italy
•Japan •Libya These systems are MTCR‐controlled because of their
•North Korea •Pakistan suitability for delivering chemical and biological
•Russian Federation •South Africa weapons, which are not constrained to substantial
•South Korea •Spain minimal weights as nuclear weapons are by critical mass.
Method of operation: These systems operate in
precisely the same manner as larger rocket systems, and
usually consist of the four basic elements (a payload or
Global production warhead, a propulsion system, a guidance and control
system, and an overall structure). Ballistic missiles in this
category have the same operating characteristics as
larger items detailed in 1.A.1.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Ballistic missiles are used to deliver a weapons payload to a defined
target. Space launch vehicles and sounding rockets are used to place satellites in orbit or to gather
scientific data in the upper atmosphere, respectively.

Other uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Complete rocket systems in this category are very similar in appearance
to those in 1.A.1., but on a smaller scale. They are large, long, narrow cylinders which, when assembled,
typically have dimensions of at least 5 m in length, 0.5 m in diameter, and at least a 1,500 kg weight with
19- 2


a full load of propellant. Figure 1 provides a representative example of a sounding rocket covered by
19.A.1.

Appearance (as packaged): The major components of rocket systems are usually shipped in crates or
sealed metal containers to an assembly facility near the launch location, where they are assembled,
tested for their operational readiness. Exceptions
include mobile ballistic missiles, which can be fully
assembled and stored in a horizontal position in a
mobile transporter‐erector‐launcher (TEL) and
moved to the launch point when required.

Figure 1: A large Category II sounding rocket, capable of
delivering a 250 kg payload to a range of 400 km. The
rocket’s solid propellant motor, with steel casing, is
surrounded by four honeycomb tail fins with titanium
alloy leading edges. (JAXA)
19.A.2. Complete unmanned aerial vehicle systems (including cruise missile systems, target drones
and reconnaissance drones), not specified in 1.A.2., capable of a "range" equal to or greater than 300
km.

Nature and Purpose: UAVs covered by Item 19.A.2. are far more diverse in nature than those in Item
1.A.2. owing to the absence of a payload carrying capability requirement of 500 kg. This category of UAV
consequently includes a number of smaller long range endurance and Medium Altitude Long Endurance
(MALE) UAVS that have far lower maximum take‐off weights (ranging between less than 50 kg and 1,500
kg) than the large High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) systems that meet the criteria in 1.A.2.

Evaluation of systems covered under this Item must take into account the ability to trade off payload
and range. This inherent capability may differ significantly from manufacturers’ specifications or
intended operational concept. These systems are MTCR‐controlled because of their suitability for
delivering chemical and biological weapons, which are not constrained to substantial minimal weights as
nuclear weapons are by critical mass

As with larger MTCR Category I UAV systems, UAVs covered by 19.A.2. are air‐breathing vehicles
powered by small turbine or internal combustion engines that drive either free or ducted propellers.
Long range, endurance and MALE UAVS have typical operating altitudes of between 5,000 m and 8,000
m, and maximum endurance of between 12 hrs and 48 hrs.

Cruise missiles are distinguished from most other UAVs by their use as weapon delivery platforms and
by flight trajectories that often minimize their vulnerability to defenses. Further, cruise missiles do not
have any designed recovery means (e.g., landing gear, parachutes, etc.). Cruise missiles can fly at almost
any speed, but they are usually powered by small jet engines that typically operate at high subsonic
speeds (less than 900 km/hr). A Category II anti‐ship cruise missile is shown in Figure 2.
19- 3


Method of operation: As with other UAVs described in 1.A.2., those systems covered by 19.A.2.
comprise an air vehicle component (usually equipped with several types of payloads, including sensor
equipments) complete with avionics and data links, as well as a ground control component. One of the
key differences between these Category II UAVs and the larger Category I UAVS is that their broader
range of sizes and lighter weights allows
for an equally broad range of launch
options. Many MALE UAVs are launched
and recovered via conventional wheeled
take‐off and landing, while a number of
smaller UAVs can be launched using
pneumatic or elastic catapults (see Figure
3), and boosters. Many of these small
systems can also be man‐portable.

Cruise missiles in this category operate
exactly as those detailed in 1.A.2.: most
contain a sensor system that guides them
towards their targets by using terrain
features or target signatures. Cruise Figure 2: A category II anti‐ship cruise missile. (MTCR Equipment,
missiles increasingly use inertial Software and Technology Handbook, Third Edition (May 2005))
navigation systems, updated by satellite navigation receivers in addition to, or instead of, terrain‐aided
navigation systems to guide them to the vicinity of the target. These missiles can be launched from
Transporter‐Erector‐Launchers (TELs), as well as from ships, submarines or aircraft.

Typical Missile‐related uses: UAVs described by this Item are capable of delivering a payload of less
than 500 kg to a range equal to or greater than 300 km.

Other uses: Payloads can include multi‐mission systems, including intelligence, surveillance and
reconnaissance (ISR) equipment and weapons. Smaller UAVs are more likely to be used exclusively for
ISR missions and scientific research.

Appearance (as manufactured): Complete UAV systems controlled under this item are characterized by
a wide variety of shapes and features. It is more common for the aircraft to have a fixed‐wing and air‐
breathing propulsion.

New versions of unmanned rotary‐wing aircraft are designed to achieve ranges beyond 300 km. Purpose
built UAVs typically exhibit a conical shape, sometimes with a bulbous area near the front end or nose of
the fuselage. Complete UAV systems controlled under this item also may include manned aircraft that
are modified to fly autonomously as optionally piloted vehicles. Such systems also usually retain a
cockpit, which is empty or filled with electronic equipment or payload during flight. Larger UAVs covered
by 19.A.2. have several features in common with those in 1.A.2., which might include mid‐mounted
wings with large spans, cylindrical fuselages with pronounced bulges or domes above the nose, rear‐
mounted engines, V or inverted V tails, and fully retractable landing gear. Cruise missiles in this category
are very similar in appearance to those in 1.A.2.

Appearance (as packaged): Category II UAVs, including cruise missiles, are manufactured in components
or sections at different locations and by different manufacturers, and assembled at a military site or a
19- 4


civilian production facility. UAVs described by this Item may be packaged as complete units, or they may
be separated at break points and packaged using the same procedures and materials as the UAVs
described in 1.A.2.
Figure 3: A medium‐range endurance UAV. Despite its small size, this elastic catapult‐launched UAV is capable of
carrying a 1 kg payload (IR and digital cameras) to a range of 400 km. (Aerovision Vehiculos Aereos, SL)
19.A.3: Complete unmanned aerial vehicle systems, not specified in 1.A.2. or 19.A.2., having all of
the following:
a. Having any of the following:
1. An autonomous flight control and navigation capability; or
2. Capability of controlled flight out of the direct vision range involving a human
operator; and
b. Having any of the following:
1. Incorporating an aerosol dispensing system/mechanism with a capacity greater than
20 litres; or
2. Designed or modified to incorporate an aerosol dispensing system/mechanism with a
capacity greater than 20 litres.
Note:
Item 19.A.3. does not control model aircraft, specially designed for recreational or competition
purposes
Technical Notes:
1. An aerosol consists of particulate or liquids other than fuel components, by‐products or additives,
as part of the "payload" to be dispersed in the atmosphere. Examples of aerosols include pesticides
for crop dusting and dry chemicals for cloud seeding.
2. An aerosol dispensing system/mechanism contains all those devices (mechanical, electrical,
hydraulic, etc.), which are necessary for storage and dispersion of an aerosol into the atmosphere.
This includes the possibility of aerosol injection into the combustion exhaust vapour and into the
propeller slip stream.
19- 5


Nature and Purpose: Item 19.A.3. covers UAVs
equipped with or designed to carry an aerosol
dispensing system with a capacity exceeding 20
liters, and an autonomous flight control or
navigation capability or the ability to sustain
controlled flight beyond the line of sight of a human
operator.

Method of operation: The UAV system can be based
on an aircraft purpose‐built for unmanned flight. The
UAV system also can be a modification of a manned
aircraft, either fixed‐wing or helicopter. Depending on Figure 4: A Modular Aerial Spray System, used for
the UAV’s means of takeoff, the aircraft can be pesticide application, can use a setting called ultra‐low
hidden and launched from a variety of locations, volume and specialized spray boom nozzles such as
including rugged airstrips, maritime vessels or those shown here to spread one half to an ounce of
chemical over an acre. (U.S. Air Force)
standard airports. The UAV system can be controlled
by an onboard navigation system, which can fly a pre‐
programmed route following waypoints. Alternatively, the course of the UAV system can be adjusted in‐
flight with commands from a ground‐based system, or relayed via an onboard data link from another
platform. Meanwhile, an onboard flight control system maintains the UAV system in controlled flight,
adjusting the control surfaces to maintain the system’s desired flight path.

Biological warfare (BW) agents can be weaponized by conversion into aerosols. An aerosol is defined
under this item as particulates or liquids other than fuel components, by‐products or additives that are
part of the UAV system’s payload to be dispersed into
the atmosphere. Such aerosols can include pesticides
used to protect crops from insects and dry chemicals
•Australia •Brazil
sprayed into the atmosphere to seed the formation of
•Bulgaria •China
clouds. At minimum, a spray system contains a tank to
•Czech Republic •Egypt
store the aerosols, a pump to flow the aerosols to the
spray nozzle and the nozzle itself to emit the aerosol
•India •Iran
cloud.
•Iraq •Israel

•Italy •Japan
Typical missile related uses: The dispersal of BW or
chemical agent using an aerosolized cloud is the most
effective means of dissemination.
•South Africa •South Korea

•Sweden •Syria
UAV flight trajectories, including those of cruise
•Ukraine •UAE
missiles, are suitable for dispensing biological and
chemical agents, as the missile can be preprogrammed
to fly over a selected target and dispense the agents
from the warhead bay over a period of time from a low
altitude.
Global production
Other uses: A UAV described in this Item could be used
in agricultural and pest control industries.

19- 6


Appearance (as manufactured): UAVs incorporating aerosols dispenser(s) or modified to be able to
carry such systems take a variety of forms. Range and payload capacities vary, and they can be either
fixed‐wing or rotary‐wing. Complete UAV systems controlled under this item may also include manned
aircraft that are modified to fly autonomously. Such aircraft also usually retain a cockpit, which is empty
or filled with electronic equipment or payload during
flight.

The majority of known systems for conducting
autonomous aerial spraying are helicopter‐based. These
vertical take‐off and landing (VTOL) UAVs are designed
for agricultural purposes, spraying crops with pesticides
or fertilizer. Systems in this category are often
characterized by having one or more payload tanks
externally mounted, either on the belly or on the sides of
the aircraft; and spraybars and/or a cone nozzle. These
aircraft can also be fitted with observational payloads,
including TV and IR cameras and other sensors. Rotary‐
wing UAVs designed for agricultural spraying tend to
Figure 5: A rotary‐wing UAV designed with have a reduced mission radius, range, and endurance,
chemical tanks and spraybars for agricultural due to command and control limitations and intended
purposes. (Yamaha)
mission of the aircraft, which stipulates proximity
spraying. Typically they cannot operate for more than a few hours and at distances further than a couple
of miles, however longer‐range designs are possible in this category.

Aerosol delivery UAVs on fixed wing platforms could be designed as either UAVs fitted with tanks and
dispersion devices, or as aircraft designed for piloted spraying purposes outfitted with autonomous
control systems. These could have either internal or external tanks, and spraying systems mounted to
the belly, nose, tail, or wings of the craft.

Appearance (as packaged): UAV systems controlled under this Item may be packaged for shipment as
described in Item 1.A.2. These UAVs are often packaged as several separate components and
subsystems, and assembled together when needed for operation. The subsystems could include
avionics, data links, ground station and a launch and recovery system. Components could include
elements of the fuselage, wings, control surfaces and landing gear. Some UAV systems also incorporate
skids for landing, with catapults used as the launching mechanism. Tankage and spray apparatus may be
packed in wooden crates and shipped separately.

None.
19- 7


19.C. Materials

None.
19.D. Software
19.D.1. "Software" which coordinates the function of more than one subsystem specially designed or
modified for "use" in the systems specified in 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Nature and Purpose: The software described in this Item has the same nature and purpose as that
described in Item 1.D.2.

Method of Operation: The software described in this Item has the same method of operation as that

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The software described in this Item has the same missile‐related uses as
the software described in Item 1.D.2.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): The software described in this Item has the same appearance as that

documents containing software that controls more than one subsystem and that is specially designed or
modified for use in systems specified in 19.A. are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only
labeling and accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software is run on the
appropriate computer. This software and documentation can be transmitted over a computer network.

Additional Information: Typically, there would be no flight software in small rocket systems which are
unguided, spin‐stabilized, “point and shoot” systems. A two‐dimensional/three degree‐of‐freedom
trajectory simulation code might be loaded into the launch console or might be used to prepare firing
tables.
19- 8


19.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment specified in 19.A.1. or 19.A.2.
Nature and Purpose: The technology described in this Item has the same nature and purpose as the
technology described in Item 1.E.1.

Method of Operation: The technology described in this Item has the same method of operation as the
technology described in Item 1.E.1.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The technology described in this Item has the same typical missile‐related
uses as the technology described in Item 1.E.1.

Other Uses: N/A


19- 9


Category II – Item 20: Other Complete Subsystems
Other Complete Subsystems
20-1


20.A.1. Complete subsystems as follows:

a. Individual rocket stages, not specified in 2.A.1., usable in systems specified in 19.A.;
b. Solid propellant rocket motors or liquid propellant rocket engines, not specified in 2.A.1., usable
in systems specified in 19.A., having a total impulse capacity equal to or greater than 8.41 x 105 Ns,
but less than 1.1 x 106 Ns.

Nature and Purpose: Complete subsystems
(including solid rocket stages and solid / liquid
•Brazil •China
propellant rocket motors) used in systems falling
•Egypt •France
under 19.A. are similar in most respects to those
•Germany •India
items controlled by 2.A.1. The critical difference is
•Iran •Israel
determined by the absence of a requirement to
•Italy •Japan have a payload carrying capability of 500 kg or
more in the systems controlled by 19.A. The

•South Korea •Ukraine smaller size of these systems dictates that their
•United Kingdom subsystem components and propulsion systems
•United States are likewise smaller in size and less powerful than
those controlled by 2.A.1.

Liquid propellant rocket engines meeting the
Global production criteria outlined in 20.A.1.b. are relatively rare.
They tend to be either large propulsion engines
with a total impulse capacity exceeding the Item
2.A.1. criteria or small reaction control engines
designed to adjust a space vehicle’s trajectory
outside of the atmosphere. While these small reaction control engines operate at low thrust, they
typically have long burn rates (up to and exceeding 2,000 seconds), and consequently they too can
exceed the impulse allowed under Item 20.A.1.b.

Method of operation: Rocket stages generally consist of a structure, an engine / motor, solid or liquid
propellant, and a control system. As with their larger equivalents, multi‐stage rocket systems discard
lower stages as they burn up their propellant.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: Rocket stages controlled by 20.A.1. are necessary and vital components of
the rocket systems of which they are a part. They are also used in missile testing and development. Solid
propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant engines provide the thrust to accelarate the system to
the required velocity.
20-2


Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Like their larger counterparts controlled by 2.A.1., Individual rocket
stages controlled by 20.A.1. are cylinders ranging from 3 m to 10 m in length and 0.2 m to 2 m in
diameter. These cylinders are manufactured from robust sheet steel, composite materials (fibers or
resins), or a combination of both.

Solid propellant rocket motors are cylindircal tubes with oval or circular domes at both ends for
attachment of the igniter and nozzle, respectively (see Figure 1). Nozzles are usually attached prior to
shipment. The size and dimensions of these motors depends on their purpose. Those shown in Figure 1
have a diamater of 0.7 m and a length of 1.2 m.

Appearance (as packaged): Rocket stages are shipped in purpose‐built steel or wooden containers or
crates. Solid rocket motors are usually shipped in steel or aluminium containers or wooden crates.

Figure 1: Left: A reaction control engine; Bottom left: a
stack of solid propellant rocket motors controlled under
Category II. Motors on the left of that photo are large
enough to be controlled under Item 2, Category I. Below:
A side view of a shipping container containing four
Category II solid propellant rocket motors. (MTCR
Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex Handbook,

20-3


Figure 2: On the left is a category II rocket motor which has been used as the apogee motor in a range of applications.
On the right, is a similar category II motor that was developed as an apogee motor. (ATK)
20.B.1. "Production facilities" specially designed for the subsystems specified in 20.A.

Nature and Purpose: The “production facilities” described in this Item have the same nature and
purpose as those for the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant
rocket engines described in Item 2.B.1.

Method of Operation: The “production facilities” described in this Item employ the same methods of
operation as those for the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The components and assemblies manufactured at these facilities are used
to build and test items listed in 20.A.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Item 20.B.1. production facilities and equipment for the complete
stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant rocket engines are similar to those
described in Item 2.B.1. The facilities and equipment described in this Item may be indistinguishable
from those designed to produce larger rocket stages or liquid propellant rocket engines. However, they
may be smaller in size. Production facilities and equipment for individual rocket stages and motors
controlled by 20.A.1. are similar to those discussed in 2.A.1., and in most cases will be indistinguishable
from those for larger items.

20-4


Appearance (as packaged): The facilities and equipment described in this Item may be packaged using
the same procedures and materials as those described in Item 2.B.1. for the complete stages and solid
propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant rocket engines.
20.B.2. "Production equipment" specially designed for the subsystems specified in 20.A.

Nature and Purpose: The “production equipment” described in this Item has the same nature and
purpose as that for the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant rocket
engines described in Item 2.B.2.

Method of Operation: The “production equipment” described in this Item employs the same methods
of operation as those for the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The components and assemblies produced using the equipment described
in this Item are used to build and test items listed in 20.A.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Item 20.B.2. “production equipment” is similar to the equipment for
the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant rocket engines described
in Item 2.B.2. The equipment described in this Item may be indistinguishable from that designed to
produce larger rocket stages or liquid propellant rocket engines. However, it may be smaller in size.

Appearance (as packaged): The “production equipment” described in this Item may be packaged using
the same procedures and materials as those described in Item 2.B.2. for the complete stages and solid
propellant rocket motors and liquid propellant rocket engines.
20.C. Materials
None.
20.D. Software
20.D.1. "Software" specially designed or modified for the systems specified in 20.B.1.
20-5


Nature and Purpose: The “software” described in this Item has the same nature and purpose as that

Method of Operation: The “software” described in this Item employs the same method of operation as
that described in Item 2.D.1.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The “software” described in this Item has the same missile‐related uses as
that described in Item 2.D.1. for the complete stages and solid propellant rocket motors and liquid
propellant rocket engines.

Other Uses: N/A

printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media—including magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents—can contain this software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): The “software” described in this Item has the same packaging appearance as
that described in Item 2.D.
20.D.2. "Software", not specified in 2.D.2., specially designed or modified for the "use" of rocket
motors or engines specified in 20.A.1.b.

Nature and Purpose: The “software” described in this Item has the same nature and purpose as that

Method of Operation: The “software” described in this Item employs the same method of operation as

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The “software” described in this Item has the same missile‐related uses as
the software described in Item 2.D.2.

Other Uses: N/A

printed, magnetic, optical or other media. Any common media – including magnetic tape, floppy disks,
removable hard disks, compact discs and documents – can contain this software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): The “software” described in this Item has the same packaging appearance as
20-6


20.E. Technology
"production" or "use" of equipment specified in 20.A., 20.B. or 20.D.

Nature and Purpose: The “technology” described in this Item has the same nature and purpose as the
“technology” described in Item 2.E.1.

Method of Operation: The “technology” described in this Item has the same method of operation as the
“technology” described in Item 2.E.1.

Typical Missile‐Related Uses: The “technology” described in this Item has the same missile‐related uses
as the “technology” described in Item 2.E.1.

Other Uses: N/A




20-7

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Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex Handbook – 2010

1.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components

•United Kingdom •United States guided, however); and (4) an overall structure that

Nature and Purpose: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are

Figure 7: An operational cruise missile on its checkout stand, periods of time. Consequently, many UAVs are

1.B. Test and Production Equipment

Nature and Purpose: Specially designed

in the missile’s computer and is tested prior to

2.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components

2.A.1: Complete subsystems usable in the systems specified in 1.A., as follows:

Nature and Purpose: A rocket stage generally consists

Method of Operation: The many different types of RV electronic equipment operate much the same as

Nature and Purpose: Solid propellant rocket motors

•China •France mechanical devices that keep missile payloads (weapons)

2.B. Test and Production Equipment

•Argentina •Brazil Nature and Purpose: Subsystem production facilities are

•Ukraine •United Kingdom feedback signal which is then used to modify the correction

3.A.1. Turbojet and turbofan engines, as follows;

3.A.2. Ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet/'combined cycle engines', including devices to regulate

•Germany •India of a rocket engine. High‐pressure tanks or turbopumps force

Nature and Purpose: Radial ball bearings produced to high

variable pitch type, which relies on a self‐contained

3.B. Test and Production Equipment

3.B.3. Flow‐forming machines, and specially designed components therefor, which:

•Austria •Belgium equipment.

•Sweden •Switzerland case insulation.

4.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components

4.B. Test and Production Equipment

4.B.3. Equipment as follows, and specially designed components therefor:

Nature and Purpose: Batch mixers are powerful

Nature and Purpose: Fluid energy mills use

4.C.1.: Composite and composite modified double base propellants.

4.C.2. Fuel Substances as follows:

10. Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine nitrate;

4.C.3. Oxidizers/Fuels as follows:

4.C.4. Oxidiser Substances as follows:

4.C.5. Polymeric Substances as follows:

4.C.6. Other propellant additives and agents as follows:

4.C.6.b. Curing reaction catalysts as follows:

4.C.6.c. Burning rate modifiers as follows:

•Russian Federation similar in appearance to Catocene. Ferrocenes have

4.C.6 .d. Esters and plasticisers as follows:

6.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components

Nature and Purpose: Carbon‐carbon is a composite of carbon

6.B. Test and Production Equipment

Nature and Purpose: Tape‐laying machines

6.B.1.c. Multi‐directional, multi‐dimensional weaving machines or interlacing machines, including

6.B.2. Nozzles specially designed for the processes referred to in 6.E.3.

6.B.3. Isostatic presses having all of the following characteristics:

application in the design of prosthetic limbs and surgical

c. Blocks having a size of 120 mm x 120 mm x 50 mm or greater.

temperature increases from room temperature to 2,700 °C.

6.C.6. Silicon‐carbide materials as follows:

of high temperature, high power, and high

Nature and Purpose: Maraging steel is a

9.A. Equipment, Assemblies and Components

a. 'Scale factor' 'repeatability' less (better) than 1250 ppm; and

accelerometer measurements are mechanized at the

9.B. Test and Production Equipment

the threshold accuracy shown or better:

9.B.2. Equipment as follows:

3. Having any of the following characteristics:

Controlled motion simulators and rate

9.D.2. Integration "software" for the equipment specified in 9.A.1.