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Effects and Mechanisms of Tapering in Maximizing Muscular Strength

Article  in  Strength and conditioning journal · April 2015

DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000125

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Effects and Mechanisms
of Tapering in Maximizing
Muscular Strength
Hayden Pritchard, BSc,1,3 Justin Keogh, PhD,2,3,4 Matthew Barnes, PhD,5 and
Michael McGuigan, PhD, CSCS*D3
1
Department of Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universal College of Learning, Palmerston
North, New Zealand; 2Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia;
3
Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand;
4
Cluster for Health Improvement, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine
Coast, Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia; and 5School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand

ABSTRACT can produce (4,30). Improvements in these methods affect maximal

maximal strength are of utmost impor- strength, and the mechanisms contrib-
TAPERING FOR MAXIMAL
tance for performance in strength-based uting to the adaptations in maximal
STRENGTH REQUIRES REDUC-
sports, such as powerlifting and strong- strength through tapering. Many
TIONS IN TRAINING LOAD TO coaches are uncertain of the taper
man, where the ability to produce max-
RECOVER FROM THE FATIGUE OF phase of training, with trial and error
imal force is a primary goal (15,30,42).
TRAINING. IT IS PERFORMED often relied on rather than scientifi-
Improvements in strength, specific to
BEFORE IMPORTANT COMPETI- sporting movements, have also been cally proven strategies (29). This infor-
TIONS TO ALLOW OPTIMAL PER- shown to enhance the performance of mation will be of use to coaches and
FORMANCE AT SPECIFIC EVENTS. other athletes, even in sports that are practitioners to optimize athletes’ per-
REDUCTIONS IN TRAINING VOLUME, primarily aerobically based (5,21,37). formances in strength-based sports or
WITH MAINTAINED OR SMALL IN- Athletes target certain competitions as sports where strength may help
CREASES IN TRAINING INTENSITY, major events where the aim is to per- improve an athlete’s performance,
SEEM MOST EFFECTIVE FOR form at their peak, which is achieved reducing the need for extensive trial
IMPROVING MUSCULAR STRENGTH. through a taper (34). Tapering is a reduc- and error. Appropriate publications
TRAINING CESSATION MAY ALSO tion in training load to recover from the were found by searching through the
PLAY A ROLE, WITH LESS THAN 1 fatigue of training, and it is performed EBSCO Host and Google Scholar da-
WEEK BEING OPTIMAL FOR PER- before important competitions to allow tabases. Key words used in searches
FORMANCE MAINTENANCE, AND optimal performance at specific events included the following: tapering, peak-
2–4 DAYS APPEARING TO BE OPTI- (6,29,31). It is important, therefore, that ing, detraining, muscular strength,
MAL FOR ENHANCED MAXIMAL athletes and coaches know how to max- maximal strength, performance, mus-
MUSCULAR STRENGTH. IMPROVED imize strength for key events by taper- cle fiber types, cross-sectional area,
and various combinations of these
PERFORMANCE MAY BE RELATED ing correctly. Many studies and reviews
words. Effect sizes (ES) were calcu-
TO MORE COMPLETE MUSCLE have been written on tapering; how-
lated (where possible) to determine
RECOVERY, GREATER NEURAL ever, there is still limited research avail-
the magnitude of changes observed
ACTIVATION, AND AN ENHANCED able specifically related to maximal
within studies (13). Hopkins scale for
ANABOLIC ENVIRONMENT. strength, with the majority regarding
determining the magnitude of ES was
endurance performance (6,20,22,29,41)
used when describing these changes
and some maximal power (7,12).
(23); there are: trivial 0–0.2, small
The aim of this review is to bring
INTRODUCTION together what is currently known
KEY WORDS:
aximal muscular strength is about tapering for maximal strength,

M defined as the maximal force

a muscle, or group of muscles,
to demonstrate the methods of taper-
ing currently used in research, how
maximal strength; performance; recovery;
rest; sport; taper; training

72 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
0.2–0.6, moderate 0.6–1.2, large magnitude but shorter duration than strength. Ten strength-trained athletes
1.2–2.0, and very large .2.0. fitness after-effects, which tend to have performed 2 weeks of regular training
a smaller magnitude but a greater dura- followed by 1 week of reduced training,
TAPERING tion (8). As fatigue dissipates, perfor- where volume was reduced by z50%
Optimal performance in competition is mance increases can be realized, as with no changes in intensity. When
vital; months or years of training cul- the positive performance contributions split into 2 groups, it was seen that
minate at 1 point, with the outcome of the fitness after-effects are not over- the 5 stronger Finnish national power-
determining the success or failure of shadowed by the negative performance lifting competitors showed a statisti-
ones efforts. Tapering is the final step contributions from the fatigue after- cally significant increase (by 8.3%) in
in a training program, implemented in effects. Too much rest, however, could leg extensor peak force during a maxi-
the last few weeks before competition be detrimental, as the fitness after- mal voluntary isometric contraction
and has the potential to make or break effects may be reduced resulting in de- (MVIC) after the taper with a moderate
a program. Mujika and Padilla (32) training (32). The balancing act during ES of 0.61, whereas the weaker athletes
defined tapering as “a progressive non- a taper is to ensure fatigue is minimized showed a slight decrease (23.6%; ES,
linear reduction of the training load while fitness is maximized (29). 20.28). This study showed that well-
during a variable period of time, in an trained strength athletes can improve
attempt to reduce the physiological EFFECTS OF TAPERING ON their isometric strength with a step
and psychological stress of daily train- MAXIMAL STRENGTH taper of only 1 week’s duration.
ing and optimize sports performance.” Tapering can be performed in several Coutts et al. (11) also investigated
This definition illustrates the major role different ways, with 4 main types being a 1-week step taper in 7 well-trained
tapering plays to reduce stress, or described and applied previously (33). athletes (state-level rugby league play-
fatigue, while improving fitness to These are step taper, linear taper, expo- ers) after 6 weeks of periodized training
achieve optimal performance. nential decay (slow decay), and expo- (to induce overreaching). This study
The fitness-fatigue model (8), as illus- nential taper (fast decay). The step involved reductions in both volume
trated in the Figure, is a representation taper is a nonprogressive drop in train- (z30–40%) and intensity (z35%), as
of the mechanism of how the taper is ing load that occurs at once and re- well as training of other fitness compo-
thought to improve performance. mains unchanged at a reduced level. nents. Statistically significant increases
This model proposes that after a train- The linear taper is a progressive reduc- were seen in maximal low-velocity iso-
ing session, there are 2 resulting after- tion in training load that occurs in a lin- kinetic torque for the knee extensors
effects—1 positive, fitness, and 1 ear fashion. An exponential taper is (45.6%) and flexors (15.6%) compared
negative, fatigue. Fitness after-effects progressive and can occur with a fast with the pretaper values, with very large
may be changes, such as improved or slow time constant of decay, with (3.85) and moderate (0.90) ES, respec-
neuromuscular efficiency and hyper- the training load remaining higher dur- tively. However, compared with pre-
trophy, whereas fatigue after-effects ing the slow decay taper (33). So far, no training, there were no statistically
may be changes, such as muscle dam- studies have compared the effects of significant improvements, with only
age, accumulation of metabolic waste different styles of tapering on the the knee extensors showing a higher
products, or disruption to hormonal expression of maximal strength, as var- value (7.6%; ES, 0.34), whereas knee
balance, for example. Performance ious styles of tapering have been used flexor strength decreased (210.6%;
within this model can be considered across studies to date. Table 1 shows ES, 20.36). Also not statistically signif-
the sum of the positive after-effects of a summary of the studies on tapering. icant, were the small increases in 3 rep-
fitness with the sum of the negative Häkkinen et al. (18) performed one of etition maximum (RM) on the bench
after-effects of fatigue removed. Fatigue the earliest studies looking at the ef- press (5.2%; ES, 0.32) and squat (7.2%;
after-effects are usually of a greater fects of a 1-week step taper on maximal ES, 0.53) compared with pretaper val-
ues. When compared with the pretrain-
ing values, no change was seen in bench
press performance and the squat
showed only trivial, non–statistically
significant improvements (1.6%; ES,
0.11). These results suggest that after 6
weeks of overreaching (intensified, or
harder than usual training) 1 week of
tapering allows for improvements in
strength; however, this may not be
a long-enough taper to fully overcome
Figure. Fitness-fatigue model. the effects of accumulated fatigue.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 73

74

Tapering for Maximal Strength

Table 1
Effects of tapering on muscular strength
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Study: Author Subjects Training history Performance Training Taper Type of taper Change in Change in performance
tests for duration duration (d) loading versus pretaper value
maximal before taper (% change, effect size)
strength (d) —[[ 5 statistically
significant change; [ 5
non–statistically
significant change

Chtourou n 5 21 men Recreationally active MVIC of knee 84 14 One-step [ intensity [ MVIC of knee
et al. (9) extention taper extension (data not
available)
Y volume
Coutts et al. n 5 7 men State-level rugby 3RM BP and SQ, 42 7 One-step Y intensity [ 3RM BP (5.2%, 0.32)
(11) league players LVIC of knee taper
extention and
flexion
Y volume [ 3RM SQ (7.2%, 0.53)
[[ LVIC knee extension
(45.6%, 3.85)
[[ LVIC knee flexion
(15.6%, 0.90)
Gibala et al. n 5 8 men $1-yr resistance LVIC and MVIC of 21 10 Progressive 4 intensity [ LVIC of elbow flex
(16) training elbow flexion (linear) (2.8%, 0.11)
Y volume [[ MVIC elbow flexion
(6.8%, 0.35)
Hakkinen n 5 10 men 5 (group A) national MVIC of leg 14 7 One-step 4 intensity Group A: [[ MVIC of
et al. (18) champions or extension taper leg extension (8.3%,
medalists and 5 0.61)
(group B) strength
trained (5–10 yrs)
noncompetitive
Y volume Group B: Y MVIC of leg
extension (23.6%,
0.28)
Izquierdo n 5 11 men National level Basque 1RM BP and SQ 112 28 Progressive [ intensity [[ 1RM BP (2%)
et al. (25) ball players
 Longer duration step tapers have also

RM 5 repetition maximum; SQ 5 back squat; volume 5 training volume, that is sets 3 reps; for changes in training volume and intensity, 4 5 unchanged; Y 5 decreased; [ 5 increased.
BP 5 bench press; intensity 5 percentage of 1RM used in training; LP 5 leg press; LVIC 5 low-velocity isokinetic concentric contraction; MVIC 5 maximal voluntary isometric contraction;
MVIC LP (2.7%, 1.00);
been investigated. Zaras et al. (43) had

Heavy-load taper—[
Y 1RM LP (22.8%,
Light-load taper—[
13 well-trained competitive throwers

MVIC LP (14.5%,
3.00); [ 1RM LP
[[ 1RM SQ (3%)

(7 males, 6 females) perform 2-week

(4.6%, 0.15)
tapers, both a light-load and a heavy-
load taper, after 12 or 15 weeks of train-
0.12)

ing. All participants performed both

tapers and the training length before
the taper was assigned in a counterbal-
anced fashion. Training involved resis-
taper—Y

taper—Y
Heavy-load
intensity

intensity
1RM); Y

1RM); Y
tance training, throws, and plyometric
(to 30%

(to 85%
Light-load
Y volume

volume

volume
training. Light-load tapering (LT) used
30% of 1RM, whereas the heavy-load
tapering (HT) used 85% of 1RM.
During both tapers maximal speed of
movement was emphasized. Nonstat-
One-step

istically significant improvements were

taper

made in peak force during MVIC on

a leg press in both groups, with greater
increases after HT (14.5%; ES, 3.00)
than LT (2.7%; ES, 1.00). 1RM leg
14

press showed non–statistically signifi-

cant improvements in the HT (4.6%;
ES, 0.15), whereas non–statistically sig-
nificant decreases occurred with LT
(22.8%; ES, 20.12). These results sug-
(continued )

MVIC LP and 1RM 84 or 105

gest that greater improvements in

Table 1

strength are made when volume is

dropped but intensity is kept high dur-
ing a taper.
Chtourou et al. (9) also performed
a 2-week step taper, with recreationally
active participants after 12 weeks of
training. Participants were placed in
LP

morning (n 5 10) and evening (n 5

11) training groups and testing
Throwing training and
competition 4.6 (SD

occurred at both time points. This

study was focused on whether the time
ES calculated using SD of the initial value before taper.

of day for training influenced the

6 1.5) yrs

response to the taper if testing

occurred at a different time of day.
Tapering resulted in a weekly drop in
training volume of z50%, with
increased intensity (from 10RM to
n 5 13 (7 men,

8RM). After the taper, participants

6 women)

showed statistically significant im-

provements in performance at both
testing times (morning and evening)
regardless of training time of day when
compared with pretraining variables.
Improvements occurred after the taper
Zaras et al.

but were non–statistically significant

compared with pretaper results. How-
(43)

ever, no information was given on the

magnitude of improvements. This

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 75

Tapering for Maximal Strength

study also shows that a 2-week taper is progressive lowering of training vol- nervous system are likely to be respon-
able to improve performance when ume while intensity was increasing. sible for performance changes. Several
volume is reduced and intensity Specifically, training at 90–95% of studies have investigated potential
kept high. 1RM (3–4RM) during the taper, for mechanisms (11,16,18,25,43).
Reviews on tapering for endurance 2–3 sets of 2–3 repetitions for all exer- Changes in the musculature may
training indicate that progressive cises; compared with 85–90% of 1RM be influenced by alterations in the
tapers may be most effective for per- (z5RM) for 3 sets of 2–4 repetitions hormonal or biochemical profile of an
formance improvements (6,33). Cur- for all exercises immediately before the individual. Testosterone and growth
rently, there have only been 2 studies tapering period. The taper resulted in hormone are anabolic hormones known
investigating the effects of a progressive statistically significant improvements to enhance anabolic processes and pro-
taper on maximal strength, with both in 1RM bench press (2%) and half tein synthesis within the body, whereas
showing promising results. Gibala et al. squat (3%), no changes were observed cortisol is released in response to stress
(16) performed a 10-day progressive in the control group. These data and is catabolic, the ratio of the testos-
(linear) taper, which followed after 3 showed that a longer duration progres- terone to cortisol therefore can be used
sive taper that reduces volume and
weeks of training by 8 resistance- to provide some indication of whether
increases intensity is able to improve
trained (.1 year) participants. Taper- the body is in an anabolic or catabolic
performance in dynamic multijoint
ing was compared against complete state (28). Coutts et al. (11) noted that
compound exercises.
rest (detraining), and all participants the testosterone to cortisol ratio had sta-
completed both conditions in a coun- The literature reviewed in this article tistically significant decreases during the
terbalanced fashion. Overall during the seems to indicate that tapering is effec- 6-week overload training period, and
10 day progressive taper training vol- tive at increasing measures of maximal there was no statistically significant
ume was reduced by 72% (reducing the strength (11,16,18,25). This has been change after the taper (also, no statisti-
number of sets each training day), but shown to occur during both 1-step cally significant changes were observed
the intensity of training remained and progressive tapers, with no studies in either testosterone or cortisol). Crea-
unchanged. After the taper, statistically yet to directly compare types of taper- tine kinase, which is a biochemical
significant improvements occurred in ing to determine the optimal method. marker associated with muscle damage
peak torque during MVIC of the As various measures of strength and (10), was seen by Coutts et al. (11) to
elbow flexors (6.8%; ES, 0.35) and many training methods have been fol- have statistically significant increases
non–statistically significant improve- lowed, practitioners should be cautious after training and was then significantly
ments in maximal low-velocity isoki- with drawing definitive conclusions. reduced during a 7-day taper. Low levels
netic peak torque of the elbow However, there seems to be a trend of plasma glutamine, high levels of glu-
extensor force also occurred (2.8%; that maintaining or increasing training tamate, and a decreased glutamine to
ES, 0.11) compared with baseline. intensity during the taper has greater glutamate ratio have been associated
However, maximal low-velocity isoki- benefits when compared with studies, with a state of overtraining (35,36).
netic peak torque of the elbow flexors which reduce the intensity (16,18,25). Coutts et al. (11) found that plasma
had statistically significant higher values In all studies, volume was reduced (by glutamate showed statistically signifi-
2 (4.3%; ES, 0.18), 4 (7.7%; ES, 0.31), 6 30–70%, through reduced training fre- cant elevations and the glutamine
(4.9%; ES, 0.20), and 8 (3.2%; ES, 0.13) quency or training session volume) to glutamate ratio showed statistically
days into the taper. MVIC peak torque which, if intensity is maintained or significant decreases after the training
also had statistically significant higher increased, is essential to reduce training period; after the taper, these changes
values 2 (5.3%; ES, 0.27), 4 (4.1%; ES, load. Therefore, it may be hypothe- reversed. However, no statistically sig-
0.21), 6 (7.5%; ES, 0.38), and 8 (6.1%; ES, sized that a taper that maintains or nificant changes were seen in glutamine
0.31) days into the taper. These results increases training intensity while concentration throughout the study.
show that a short-duration progressive decreasing training volume is most Taken together, these changes may
taper in which volume is reduced but effective for enhancing maximal indicate that although an anabolic hor-
intensity kept high is able to improve strength. More research directly com- monal profile was not produced, muscle
strength of the elbow flexors, and can paring methods of tapering for maxi- recovery was still able to take place dur-
so do in as little as 2 days. mal strength is required to confirm this. ing the 1-week tapering period.
Izquierdo et al. (25) performed MECHANISMS OF TAPERING ON Izquierdo et al. (25) measured hor-
a 4-week taper after 16 weeks of resis- MAXIMAL STRENGTH monal changes during their 4-week
tance training in 11 national Basque Maximal muscular strength mainte- progressive taper after 16 weeks of resis-
ball players. This study also had 2 fur- nance or improvements that occur tance training. No statistically signifi-
ther groups involved, these were a com- during a taper must be the result cant changes were seen at any time
plete rest (n 5 14) and a control group of physiological changes. Specific during the study for total testosterone,
(n 5 21). The taper involved changes within the muscular and/or free testosterone, cortisol, or growth

76 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

hormone. However, insulin-like growth Nervous system changes may play activities still occur. It is also com-
factor-1 (IGF-1) remained decreased a major role in increased maximal monly referred to as detraining.
(compared with pretraining) during strength after a taper (19). Häkkinen Strictly speaking, short-term cessation
the taper, and IGF-binding protein-3 et al. (18) observed statistically signifi- is not true detraining, because in some
(IGFBP-3) had further statistically sig- cant increases in the average maximum cases, it can result in improved perfor-
nificant increases after the taper. IGF-1 integrated electromyography (for 3 mance (32) and therefore can be clas-
is known to increase protein synthesis in quadriceps muscles together) together sified as a type of tapering. In contrast,
strength training and so enhance mus- with the increased MVIC peak force detraining is defined as a loss of
cular hypertrophy (28); therefore, a sus- for the competitive powerlifters under- training-induced adaptations after
tained decrease may indicate that taking 1 week of reduced tapering; training cessation and so results in de-
protein synthesis is still suboptimal dur- however, this was not seen for the non- creases in performance (32). Training
ing the taper. However, IGFBP-3 is competitive lifters. This finding sug- cessation can only be differentiated by
involved in regulating the availability gests that in well-trained athletes, the length of time someone ceases to
of IGF’s and extends the circulation of a 7-day period of reduced training train; improved or maintained perfor-
IGF’s within the body (28). These may improve neural activation and is mance is only seen with short dura-
changes did not occur in the detraining associated with improvements in force tions because training adaptations can
group who showed decreases in perfor- output. No statistically significant be maintained. Table 2 shows a sum-
mance, so it may be hypothesized that changes in motor unit activation (using mary of the studies discussed in the
even with decreases in IGF-1, the in- the interpolated twitch technique), following section.
creases in IGFBP-3 may play a role in time to peak torque or maximum rate
improving performance, potentially of torque development were found by EFFECTS OF TRAINING
through other growth hormone metab- Gibala et al. (16) after a 10-day taper, CESSATION ON MAXIMAL
olites or pulsatile releases of growth suggesting minimal or no contribution STRENGTH
hormone not measured in this study. of the nervous system to their results. When training cessation has occurred
However, they concluded that motor for no more than a week improve-
Changes in muscle architecture or mus- unit activation may have been too ments, or maintenance, in maximal
cle mass may have potential to play insensitive to detect neural changes strength have often been observed.
a role in improving performance during and that integrated electromyography Anderson and Cattanach (3) found
the taper, as these have been shown to may have been a better technique to small (combined mean of 4.9%) and
improve performance after periods of use. Results from these 2 studies are non–statistically significant improve-
resistance training (14). Izquierdo et al. inconclusive; more research is needed ments in 1RM bench press and squat
(25) noted that tapering participants to determine whether improved neural strength when 41 track and field ath-
maintained statistically significant reduc- activation plays some role in improved letes (22 men, 19 women) had 2–7 days
tions in body fat levels during a 4-week performance after a taper. off training after a 5-week strength
taper, whereas those who simply stop- training program. This study showed
ped training did not. This was not seen More research is needed to determine
the mechanisms responsible for that 1RM strength can be maintained
for a 1-week taper (18); however, this when only a short period of time is
improved maximal strength after
time frame is likely too short for changes taken off training in trained athletes.
a taper, with very limited data cur-
in body composition to occur. Zaras Weiss et al. (39) also investigated the
rently available. However, it seems
et al. (43) observed no changes in muscle effects of short-duration training cessa-
that hormonal and neuromuscular
architecture (vastus lateralis thickness, tion, between 2 and 5 days, and its
changes are minimal during short-
pennation angle, or fascicle); however, effects on strength in the 1RM heel
duration tapers and that recovery of
the 2-week time frame to observe such raise and maximal low-velocity isoki-
damaged muscle fibers may play
changes was probably too short given netic torque of the plantar flexors.
a larger role in performance improve-
that such changes have usually been Fifty-four untrained participants were
ments. Maintenance of muscle mass
observed after extended periods of train- involved in the study and before train-
during the taper along with repaired
ing (1,27). They did, however, observe ing cessation had completed 8 weeks of
muscle may be 1 explanation for
that an increased lean body mass from resistance training of the plantar flex-
improved performance. However,
the training period was maintained, dur- ors. It was observed that all durations
because of the lack of research in this
ing both LTand HT. These observations of complete rest had only trivial ES
area, it is difficult to draw any clear
suggest that tapering allows for mainte- conclusions. except for 1RM heel raise strength at
nance of increased lean mass gained 3 and 4 days of training cessation,
from prior training, but a taper period which had a small ES (0.30 and 0.38,
is likely too short a time period to have TRAINING CESSATION respectively). These results again
direct effects on muscle architecture or Training cessation occurs when train- showed strength can be maintained
increases in muscle mass. ing completely ceases but regular daily with short periods of training cessation,

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 77

78

Tapering for Maximal Strength

Table 2
Effects of short-term training cessation on muscular strength
VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

Study: Author Subjects Training history Performance tests Training duration Duration of training Change in performance
for maximal before training cessation (d) versus pre training cessation
strength cessation (d) value (% change, effect size)
—[[ 5 statistically
significant change; [ 5 non–
statistically significant change
Anderson and n 5 41 (22 men, 19 NCAA Division I 1RM BP and SQ 35 2, 4, or 7—randomly [ 1RM BP and SQ—combined
Cattanach (3) women) track and field assigned, mean of 4.9% improvement
athletes distribution not for all groups and lifts
given
Gibala et al. (16) n 5 8 men $1-yr resistance LVIC and MVIC of 21 10 YY LVIC of elbow flexion
training elbow flexion (28.1%, 0.34)
Y MVIC of elbow flexion
(21.9%, 0.13)
Hortobagyi et al. n 5 12 men Strength trained for 1RM BP and SQ, 0—stopped regular 14 Y 1RM BP (21.7%, 0.12)
(24) 8.1 (SD 6 1.61) MVIC of knee training for study
yrs; 4 powerlifters, extension and
8 Division 1 flexion, LVIC of
American football knee extension
players and flexion
Y 1RM SQ (20.9%, 0.05)
Y MVIC knee extension (27%)
Y LVIC knee extension
(22.3%)
4 MVIC and LVIC knee flexion
(data not available)
Izquierdo et al. (25) n 5 14 men National level 1RM BP and SQ 112 28 YY 1RM BP (29%)
Basque ball
players
YY 1RM SQ (26%)
Terzis et al. (38) n 5 11 men Physical education 1RM BP, SQ and LP 98 28 Y 1RM BP (24.3%)
students
Y 1RM LP (25.7%)
Y 1RM SQ (23.9%)
 and perhaps, 4 days of training cessa-

Note, 4 d rest was significantly

1RM HR: 2 [ (0.10); 3 [ (0.30);

LVIC: 2 Y (20.07); 3 [ (0.15); 4

2 (n 5 8), 3 (n 5 5), 4 1RM BP: 2 [ (0.15); 3 [ (0.08); 4

LVIBP: 2 [ (0.12); 3 Y (20.11); 4

BP 5 bench press; HR 5 heel raise; LP 5 leg press; LVIC 5 low-velocity isokinetic concentric contraction; MVIC 5 maximal voluntary isometric contraction; RM 5 repetition maximum; SQ 5
higher than 2 and 5 d, no
tion may be beneficial for maximal
strength expression in untrained
4 [[ (0.38); 5 [ (0.09)

participants.

[ (0.19); 5 [ (0.08)

[ (0.03); 5 [ (0.07)

[ (0.26); 5 [ (0.07)
other conditions
A follow-up study was conducted by
Weiss et al. (40) using more ecologi-
cally valid strength measures of
a 1RM bench press and maximal
low-velocity isokinetic force of the
bench press with 25 strength-trained
participants. Almost all variables again,
regardless of condition, had trivial ES
(n 5 13), or 5

after training cessation periods. The

(n 5 5), or 5
(n 5 14), 4

only exception to this was the maximal

2 (n 5 13), 3

(n 5 14)

low-velocity isokinetic force of the

(n 5 7)

bench press at 4 days of training

cessation (ES 5 0.26); however,
1RM bench press did not show this
same trend. Again, it was seen that
training cessation for short durations
had minimal impact on maximal
56

28

strength expression, but perhaps, 4

days off training may have a greater
positive impact on maximal strength
as seen by the small ES observed.
Training cessation for 2–7 days seems
(continued )
Table 2

to have no negative impact on perfor-

plantar flexors
1RM HR, LVIC of

1RM BP, LVIC BP

mance, allowing for maintenance of

performance and potentially small
improvements.
Longer durations of training cessation
are less likely to have positive effect
with detraining a more likely outcome.
$1.5 yrs strength

Gibala et al. (16) had 8 resistance-

trained (.1 year) participants com-
plete 10 days of training cessation after
Sedentary

trained

3 weeks of resistance training. After 10

days of training cessation, maximal
ES calculated using SD of the initial value before taper.

low-velocity isokinetic peak torque of

the elbow flexors showed statistically
significant reductions (28.1%; ES,
0.34) and MVIC peak torque of the
elbow flexors was also reduced
n 5 54 men

n 5 25 men

(21.9%; ES, 0.13); however, this was

not statistically significant. Measures
were also taken every 2 days during
training cessation. Maximal low-
velocity isokinetic peak torque of the
elbow flexors showed statistically sig-
Weiss et al. (39)

Weiss et al. (40)

nificant increases after 2 days (4.7%;

ES, 0.21), and non–statistically signifi-
back squat.

cant increases after 4 days (1.7%; ES,

0.07) of training cessation, while all
other time points showed reductions.
MVIC peak torque was nearly identical

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 79

Tapering for Maximal Strength

at 2 (0.1%; ES, 0.01) and 6 (0.2%; ES, (26%) performance. Together, these indicate the body is in an enhanced state
0.01) days of training cessation. At 4 2 studies show that training cessation of tissue remodeling and repair after 2
days of training cessation, there was of 4 weeks is enough to cause reduc- weeks of training cessation; however,
a small non–statistically significant tions in strength performance. maximal strength performance was only
increase in MVIC peak torque (1.3%; With more than 4 weeks of training maintained within this study. After 4
ES, 0.09). All other time points showed cessation, only significant reductions weeks of detraining, Izquierdo et al.
non–statistically significant reductions are seen, clearly showing these dura- (25) observed no statistically significant
in MVIC peak torque. These results tions to simply be detraining. Reduc- changes in total testosterone, free testos-
show that in trained participants, 10 tions back to pretraining values have terone, growth hormone, or cortisol. A
days of training cessation of the elbow been observed in previously untrained tendency (p 5 0.07) for elevated IGF-1
flexors reduces maximal strength, but participants who ceased training for 3 was observed, which may indicate
2–6 days off training may allow for im- months after an initial 3-month training reduced stress of training and an
provements or maintenance of maxi- period (where MVIC peak force of the enhanced anabolic environment. How-
mal strength. Hortobagyi et al. (24) knee extensors showed statistically sig- ever, this study did not show favorable
had 12 strength-trained athletes nificant increases by 16.7%) (2). Follow- changes in other anabolic hormones,
(8.1 6 SD 1.61 years of resistance train- ing 10–18 weeks of training with 12 such as growth hormone, and perfor-
ing experience) cease their regular weeks of training cessation resulted in mance also decreased.
training for a 14-day period. Small re- a statistically significant reduction of Hortobagyi et al. (24) also reported
ductions were seen in 1RM bench 68% in MVIC peak force of the knee non–statistically significant decreases
press (21.7%; ES, 0.12), 1RM squat extensors (17). in peak surface electromyography activ-
(20.9%; ES, 0.05), MVIC peak force ity (28.4–12.7%) of the vastus lateralis
Short durations of training cessation
of the knee extensors (27%), and max- after 14 days of training cessation.
have been shown to maintain or produce
imal low-velocity isokinetic concentric Gibala et al. (16) saw no statistically
small improvements in maximal strength
torque peak force of the knee extensors and could be used as part of a taper. It significant changes in motor unit activa-
(22.3%), however none of these values seems that 2–6 days of training cessation tion (using the interpolated twitch tech-
were statistically significant. The knee is most likely to result in improved per- nique), time to peak torque, or
flexors showed no statistically signifi- formance or will allow for maintained maximum rate of torque development
cant changes for either MVIC peak strength (3,16,39,40); however, 10–14 after 10 days of training cessation, indi-
force or maximal low-velocity isoki- days of training cessation results in small cating no change or reductions in neu-
netic concentric peak force. Such re- reductions in performance (16,24). One romuscular activation. In addition,
sults demonstrate that 2 weeks of month or more of training cessation will Hortobagyi et al. (24) found that type I
training cessation may be enough to result in significant decreases in strength and II fiber areas decreased, but this was
cause reductions in performance. performance and is not advised as only statistically significant for the 6.4%
As training cessation continues for up a method of tapering (2,17,25,38). (ES, 20.30) decrease in type II fiber area
to 4 weeks, the magnitude of detrain- and not the 5.2% (ES, 20.26) decrease in
ing effects is increased. Terzis et al. (38) MECHANISMS OF TRAINING type I fiber area. Terzis et al. (38) also
had 11 physical education students CESSATION ON MAXIMAL observed a statistically significant
perform 14 weeks of resistance training STRENGTH decrease in the cross-sectional area of
followed by 4 weeks of detraining. As with the mechanisms of tapering type II fibers (IIA and IIX) by 10–12%
After statistically significant improve- and regular training, the major physio- after 4 weeks of training cessation. These
ments in strength during the training logical changes resulting in changes in results indicate that type II fibers reduce
period (22.1–32.9%), non–statistically maximal strength from training cessa- in size after training cessation, with
significant reductions occurred in all tion are most likely to occur from greater losses seen after longer durations
1RM values after the 4-week period changes in the muscular and/or ner- of training cessation. Kadi et al. (26) have
of training cessation; 1RM bench press vous system (14). Several studies have shown that the number of satellite cells
(24.2%), leg press (25.7%), and squat looked at these mechanisms. remains elevated at 3, 10, and 60 days of
(23.9%). Izquierdo et al. (25) per- Hortobagyi et al. (24) noted changes in training cessation after 3 months of
formed 4 weeks of training cessation several anabolic hormones and other heavy resistance training in previously
after 16 weeks of resistance training biochemical markers after 14 days of untrained participants. This indicates
in 14 national Basque ball players. This training cessation with growth hor- that the muscle is in a state of, or capable
study also included a taper (n 5 11) mone, testosterone, and the testosterone of, growth or repair at these times after
and a control group (n 5 21). Four to cortisol ratio showing statistically sig- training cessation.
weeks of training cessation resulted in nificant increases, whereas cortisol and Hortobagyi et al. (24) found no statis-
statistically significant reductions in creatine kinase showed statistically sig- tically significant changes in body mass
1RM bench press (29%) and squat nificant decreases. These results may or body fat percentage after 14 days of

80 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2015

training cessation; however, body fat Step and progressive tapers have both athlete has been undergoing a heavy
percentage did show a small and been shown to be effective following training load. However, practitioners
non–statistically significant increase differing training methods before the should ensure a taper duration of at
(2.6%). Terzis et al. (38) also found no tapering period. Reductions in train- least 1 week and no more than 4
statistically significant changes in body ing volume (by 30–70%, through weeks using a step or progressive
mass, fat-free mass, or body fat reduced training frequency or training taper. Reductions in training load
percentage after 4 weeks of training session volume) with maintained or should come primarily from total
cessation; again, although a small small increases in training intensity training volume. Reductions of 30–
(non–statistically significant) increase seem to be most effective for improve- 70% seem to be effective; this can be
was seen in body fat percentage ments in maximal muscular strength. reduced through decreasing individ-
(3.0%), which was mirrored by a small The optimal magnitude of such ual training session’s volume and/or
reduction in fat-free mass (20.9%). changes is not clear; more research reducing the frequency of training.
These results suggest that a small is needed to determine this. Training Intensity of resistance training should
decrease in lean mass may be associ- cessation may also be able to play be either maintained at the pretaper
ated with the small decreases in perfor- a role in enhancing maximal strength, level or slightly increased. Training
mance seen within these studies. with less than 1 week of training ces- should cease at least 2 days before
Given that few studies have looked into sation being optimal for performance the targeted competition/event but
each of these many areas, it is difficult maintenance, and 2–4 days appearing no more than 1 week prior (Table 3).
to draw conclusions on the mecha- to be optimal for enhanced maximal
nisms for changes in maximal strength muscular strength. Improved perfor- Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
performance during periods of training mance may be related to more The authors report no conflicts of interest
cessation. Although it seems that when complete muscle recovery/repair, and no source of funding.
training ceases for a short duration, the greater neural activation (with main-
body is in a better hormonal state for tained muscle mass) and maybe an
repair and growth. There is also a lack enhanced anabolic environment. Hayden
of studies investigating these changes Further research is required to gain Pritchard is
within the first week of training cessa- a more complete understanding of a Lecturer in the
tion, which is when positive changes in optimal tapering for expression of Department of
performance are most likely to occur. maximal muscular strength, particularly, Exercise & Sport
Neural activation of the muscles may in the areas of optimal type of taper, the Science, Faculty
be reduced or unchanged, which would magnitudes of volume and intensity of Health Scien-
result in decreased performance, but it changes during the taper, and mecha- ces at the Uni-
is not known whether this may be nisms causing enhanced strength. versal College of Learning, Palmerston
enhanced during the first week of train- North, New Zealand; and PhD student
ing cessation when performance im- in the Department of Sport & Recrea-
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS tion, Faculty of Health and Environ-
provements are seen; further research Given that training before a taper can
is needed. mental Sciences, Auckland University of
differ significantly, recommendations Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
will need to be adapted by practi-
CONCLUSIONS tioners and greater reductions in
Tapering is an effective strategy to training load (and perhaps longer Justin Keogh is
enhance maximal muscular strength. taper durations) implemented if an an Associate
Professor at the
Faculty of Health
Sciences and
Table 3 Medicine at
Tapering recommendations for maximal strength Bond University,
Taper variable Recommendation Queensland,
Australia; and Adjunct Associate Pro-
Type Step or progressive fessor at the Sports Performance Research
Length 1–4 wk Institute New Zealand, Auckland Uni-
versity of Technology, Auckland, New
Volume Decrease by 30–70% Zealand; and Cluster for Health
Intensity Maintain or slightly increase Improvement, Faculty of Science, Health,
Education and Engineering, University
Training frequency Maintain or reduce to attain volume reductions
of the Sunshine Coast.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 81

Tapering for Maximal Strength

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