THE

FORMATION
THE FORMATION GUIDE
PILOT’S KNOWLEDGE GUIDE
Adapted for all Aircraft - see Appendix D for Your Specific
Aircraft Formation Procedures!

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Version 1.2
The Formation Guide Basic Maneuvers: Two-Ship 2-1

CHAPTER TWO
Basic Maneuvers: Two-Ship Close Formation
2.1 Introduction requires minimal airspace, provides good visual communi-
This chapter will describe two ship formation fundamen- cation between Lead and Wing, and presents a neat sym-
tals and walk through basic maneuvers from engine start to metrical appearance for aerial demonstrations.
shut down. The principal target for this guide are low wing,
bubble canopy, tandem seat reciprocating and turbine air- The disadvantages include less maneuverability than single
craft. Some maneuvers as described here, such as those for ship flight, requires near constant power adjustments by
echelon turns, may not be applicable to non-bubble canopy the wingman, is fatiguing if conducted for long periods and
and/or high wing aircraft. Please consult a qualified instruc- inhibits proper lookout doctrine.
tor for specific guidance with such aircraft in your organiza-
tion. 2.4 The Fingertip Position
This section will walk you through the design of a typical
2.2 Formation Organizational Terminology two ship formation. The principals here apply equally to
Let’s begin by defining the basic organizational structure of four ship formations.
all formation flight.

2.2.1 The Flight

Simply put, any group of more than one aircraft is called a
30
“flight.” A flight may consist of two aircraft, 16 aircraft or 116
aircraft all flying with respect to one another and under the
direction of on designated Flight Leader.
3

2.2.2 The Element

Flights of more than two aircraft are organized by “ele-
ments.” An element consists of a Leader and a Wingman.
The two-ship element is the basic building block of all for-
mation flying. There are never more than two aircraft in an
element. For instance, a flight of four aircraft is made up of
two elements; a flight of six is made up of three elements, Figure 2.1 Basic Fingertip Formation Position
and so on.
2.4.1 The Bearing Line
2.3 Defining Fingertip Formation The bearing line originates at the lead aircraft’s nose and ex-
The basic fingertip formation position, also commonly re- tends aft at a set angle. The nose of each aircraft in the flight
ferred to as “parade” or “close” formation, will form the ba- is aligned to this imaginary line. The angle of the bearing line
sis for much of your training in FAST. Fingertip reflects a will be determined for each type aircraft or group and, in
“welded wing” position, in which the wingman mirrors the general, is approximately 30° or 45°. The USAF commonly
movements of his/her lead. For purposes of two ship forma- uses a 30 degree bearing line while the US Navy often em-
tion covered in this guide, Parade, Close and Fingertip are ploys a 45 degree line. Most, but not all, FAST signatories
interchangeable terms reflecting the basic position reflected use a 45 degree bearing line.
in Figure 2.1.
NOTE
Fingertip formation is so named because this configuration Based on the exact positioning of the wingman
resembles the fingertips of your hand, when viewed from along a 30 degree bearing line, there may be some
above. During your four ship training, your flight will con- nose to tail overlap. However, all wingmen fly a
sist of two elements of two aircraft each making up a “Finger slightly stepped-down position in relation to their
Four” configuration as covered in chapter five of this guide. lead aircraft and nose to tail separation is not a re-
quirement of parade formation.
2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
Fingertip is often used for flight in traffic patterns, congest-
ed airspace and in flight demonstrations. However, all pilots When properly positioned along this bearing line, aircraft
must respect both the advantages and disadvantages inher- will avoid wingtip overlap as depicted in figure 2.1. The two
ent when choosing to operating in this configuration. main factors that then determine which angle is best for a
given aircraft fleet are cockpit visibility and Symmetry.
The advantages in flying in parade formation are that it
CHAPTER TWO
 2-2 • Basic Maneuvers: Two-Ship The Formation Guide

2.4.1.1 Cockpit visibility 2.4.2.2 Vertical Separation

Much of your communication in formation will be through An additional reference will provide stack-down, or vertical
the use of hand signals between wingman and lead. As the clearance. The amount of step down may vary between air-
wing aircraft moves aft due to a larger bearing line angle (45 craft groups. Again, consult your clinic instructors for type
degrees), nose to tail separation will increase, while ease of specific guidance and visual references.
cockpit visibility may decrease.
2.4.2.3 Sightline Use With Dissimilar Aircraft
2.4.1.2 Formation Symmetry It is important to understand that sightlines established
The second consideration is symmetry—does the flight look for one aircraft may not work for another, “dissimilar”, type
balanced and pleasing to the eye when viewed by specta- aircraft, as each has unique dimensions. Flight Leads will
tors? Each fleet type will balance these two factors in decid- need to cover each aircraft’s unique sight-lines as part of the
ing their “standard” bearing line for fingertip formation. briefing to insure aircraft are positioned accurately along the
desired bearing line. For demonstration purposes, you may
2.4.2 Use of Sightlines in Fingertip Formation position both aircraft on the ramp with 36 inches of wing-
With the desired bearing line angle set, next we need to de- tip separation as depicted in figure 2.1 and determine useful
termine how we can precisely position the wingman aircraft sightlines for positioning on the bearing line in flight.
to insure minimum lateral (wingtip) separation is main-
tained with adequate step down for safe formation flight. 2.5 Station Keeping in Formation
Finally, it is time to get to the nuts and bolts of formation.
Maintaining position, or “station keeping,” is very challeng-

45
ing skill to master and, in the beginning, will demand your
full attention at all times. The procedures and techniques
covered here will allow you to remain in a precise position
at all times in formation.

2.5.1 Maintaining The Fingertip Position

As mentioned, your Instructor will point out the sightline
references that apply to your aircraft. Do not stare at one
reference. Look at the whole aircraft and clear through your
Lead. Scanning from reference to reference will help you de-
tect small changes in position.

The wingman must be constantly alert for needed correc-

tions to position. By making small corrections early, the rel-
ative motion between aircraft remains small. If deviations
are allowed to develop, required corrections become larger,
and the possibility of over-correcting becomes greater.

Motion will occur along all three axes. In general, fore and
Figure 2.2 Use of Sightlines in Parade Formation
aft spacing is controlled with use of the throttle; vertical
position is maintained with the elevator. Lateral spacing is
To accomplish this task in-flight, the wingman will use controlled with coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder.
easily recognizable visual references, termed “sightlines” This is a simplified way of dividing up the control inputs
on the lead (reference) aircraft to accurately triangulate and corrections.
position (see Figure 2.2). This tool is used by all formation
pilots from the Blue Angeles to the Trojan Horsemen, and Seldom, though, is it that easy. Most of the time, correc-
will make the job of station-keeping much simpler. Your in- tions will have to be combined. For instance, if you are low
structor pilot will point out several sightlines for you to use and apply back pressure to move up into position, you will
in your training. likely fall behind unless you add power to maintain your
airspeed.
2.4.2.1 Bearing Line and Lateral Separation
Ideally, the sight-lines should provide at least two points of Being behind the fingertip bearing line is referred to as being
reference on Lead to fix the wingman’s position along the “sucked,” while being ahead of the line is called “acute” (see
bearing line. One sets the angle itself, while the other sets fig. 2.3). When out of position, correct first to the fingertip
how far “down” (or “out”) the bearing line the wingman bearing line. That way, your relative motion to the lead air-
must position his/her aircraft to produce the required mini- craft will always have the same appearance. The only excep-
mum wingtip separation. See figure 2.2 tion to this rule is if you are too close to Lead (at or
CHAPTER TWO
The Formation Guide Basic Maneuvers: Two-Ship • 2-3

ing out of the bank. We will dissect specific examples.

2.5.1.1.1 Turns into the Wingman

Acute Let’s take the case where you are #2 on Lead’s right side.
Lead begins a smooth roll to the right. Match Lead’s roll rate
#1
and bank angle. At the same time, you will need to descend
to maintain vertical position. This descent will increase
your airspeed, causing you to get ahead of Lead, unless you
coordinate with a power reduction. This effect will be com-
Sucked pounded by the fact that, on the inside of the turn, you are
flying a smaller turn circle and will therefore travel a shorter
distance than Lead.
Figure 2.3 Deviation From Bearing Line

near wing tip overlap). In this case you should first obtain Once Lead stops rolling and is stabilized in the bank, you
more lateral spacing, and then correct to the bearing line. will have to stop the descent and adjust power to stay in
The next most critical error to correct for is vertical position position. These are the individual control inputs explained;
and, finally, correct for lateral spacing by moving along the now how is it really done? As soon as Lead starts to roll to-
bearing line toward/away from lead as the situation war- wards you, simultaneously reduce power, roll with Lead
rants. and apply forward pressure to stay in position. See fig. 2.5.

Your instructor will have you practice exercises that help

increase your judgment and teach you the corrections re- #1
quired to get you back into position. Always keep these
points in mind:

• Relax! Just as in basic flying, you must feel what

the a plane is telling you. Tension leads to over-
controlling, which can cause oscillations that are
tough to stop #2
• Trim the airplane. Being out of trim increases
fatigue
• Try resting your flight control arm on something
stationary—like your leg, in aircraft with sticks.
• Rest your other hand on either the base of the Figure 2.4 Turn In To The Wingman
throttle quadrant, if your aircraft is so equipped, or
adjacent to the prop lever, to gage movement and 2.5.1.1.2 Turns Away from the Wingman
reduce over-controlling. Now let’s look at the case where Lead turns away from you.
• Crosscheck, but do not fixate on, your sight-line In fingertip right, Lead starts a left turn. You will have to
reference points—look at the whole aircraft and climb and roll to stay in position on the wing. This will re-
clear through your Lead. quire back pressure to move up vertically, and also a sizable
• Fly coordinated rudder and ailerons at all times power addition lest you lose airspeed and fall behind. Keep
in mind, you are also on the outside of the turn flying a larger
turn circle, and thus must increase airspeed slightly to keep
2.5.1.1 Maneuvering In Fingertip Formation with Lead. See fig. 2.6
Your “wing work”, or fingertip training, will include turns
up to 45 degrees of bank. All station keeping principals 2.5.1.1.3 Common Errors In Maneuvering
used in straight and level apply to maneuvering flight. During “turns away”, it is common for new formation pilots
to react too slow to Lead maneuvering. As Lead rolls in to a
When Lead rolls into a turn, it will immediately put you 30 degree bank turn, the student may be a little slow to roll,
out of position unless you anticipate and make the required which will create excessive lateral distance from Lead as he/
control inputs. The wingman maintains the same relative she turns away from the wingman. Thus, the wingman may
position while rolling into and out of bank. This means that quickly find him/her in an aft (sucked) and low position.
besides rolling with Lead, you have to move vertically to
stay in position. This in turn requires a power change. All In this position, with the Wingman wide, low and behind
this happens while Lead is rolling into the turn, but the cor- Lead, full throttle/power may be required to catch up. With
rections must be taken out when Lead stops rolling and is time the Wingman will catch back up with Lead—generally
established in the bank. The effects are reversed when roll- about the time Lead decides to roll out! To avoid this scenar-
CHAPTER TWO
 2-4 • Basic Maneuvers: Two-Ship The Formation Guide

time for engine warm-up and/or completion of pre-taxi

checks. If you are not ready for taxi at the time of check in,
#2 inform Lead. If using visual signals, when Lead looks at you,
give a “thumbs up” if you are ready to taxi. After the flight
checks in, Lead will call for taxi clearance, as necessary.

#1 2.6.2 Taxi
The formation then taxis out, assuming proper position
when pulling out of the parking area. Taxi position for the
wingman is two ship-lengths behind Lead when taxiing
staggered. Increase the spacing to four ship-lengths when
taxing directly behind Lead. Tailwheel aircraft should taxi
Figure 2.5 Turn Away From The Wingman
no closer than 4 ship lengths if S-turning is required for for-
io, make positive inputs as soon as Lead rolls. Add power, ward visibility.
stay right with Lead’s roll, and ease on up to stay in position.
Lead should taxi at the speed that allows the wingman to
If you add too much power initially, it is easy to correct by attain proper spacing. As a wingman, match Lead’s configu-
taking a little off. However, it is difficult to catch back up if ration. Lead and Wing will inspect each other for proper
you are shy with the power and fall behind. Once Lead reach- configuration and any abnormalities prior to takeoff. Con-
es his/her desired bank angle and stops his/her roll, ease off tinue this inspection throughout the sortie and into the
the back pressure, stabilize your bank, and adjust power to chocks. This is the starting point for mutual support.
maintain position. Anticipate Lead’s roll out of the bank.
Lead’s rolling out of the left turn will have the same effect as 2.6.3 End of the Runway Lineup
rolling into a right turn—it is just a turn into the wingman. Upon reaching the run-up block, #2 should stop parallel
with the flight lead. When #2 is ready for engine run-up,
2.6 Formation Ground Procedures he/she will signal Lead with a “thumbs up.” Lead will signal
With the formation briefing complete, the pilots will for the run-up and both flight members will initiate their
move to their aircraft to prepare for engine start. From this run-up procedures and complete their pre-take-off checks.
moment on, teamwork and effective communication is vital When #2 is ready for takeoff, he/she will pass a “thumbs
to the safety of all pilots in the flight. up” to Lead.

2.6.1 Formation Engine Start and Taxi

If the aircraft are parked together, Lead will provide a visual
signal for engine start; if parked separately, he/she will use
a pre-briefed starting time or radio call. All aircrews should
monitor the current automated weather information (ATIS
or AWOS) prior to start/taxiing. If you are late arriving at
the aircraft, do not omit items on your preflight or rush en-

18
gine starting procedures. Be expeditious, yet thorough, dur-
ing preflight so you’re ready when the flight lead needs you
to be ready. If delays occur, inform the flight lead as soon as #1 #2
possible but not later than the pre-briefed check-in time. In-
form Lead of any difficulties that may delay your departure.

2.6.1.1 Wing Aircraft Configuration

Unless briefed differently, the Wingman’s aircraft will be Figure 2.6 End Of Runway Line Up
configured for flight with navigation lights and anti-col- 2.7 Formation Takeoff Procedures
lision beacon on and transponder in standby for two-ship There are two basic formation takeoff procedures, “interval”
formation. The Flight Lead will normally keep his/her anti- and “element”. While both procedures may have all flight
collision/rotating beacon off to preclude being a visual dis- aircraft lined up on the runway together, element takeoffs
traction for the Wingman. Lead will carry the transponder involve releasing brakes together in two ship and remain-
code for the flight and set equipment accordingly. ing in close formation throughout rotation and lift off. In-
terval takeoffs will employ a briefed amount of separation
2.6.1.2 Check-In between aircraft from initial brake release, rejoining during
Engine start and check-in procedures will be as briefed by climb out. Minimum suggested time between interval take-
the flight lead in accordance with Chapter One. Normally,
the Flight Lead will check in the flight after allowing some offs is six (6) seconds (Chapter 6)

CHAPTER TWO
The Formation Guide Two Ship Rejoins 3-1

CHAPTER THREE
Two Ship Rejoins

Typical Rejoin Sight Picture irrelevant. Aspect angle values range from 0° to 180˚. A wing-
man at lead’s six o’clock position would be at 0˚ AA, at lead’s
3.1 Introduction three or nine o’clock the wingman would be at 90˚ AA, and
One of the most critical skills of every formation pilot is if the wingman is directly off lead’s nose, the AA would be
the execution of a safe and expeditious rejoin. Whether 180˚. (figure 3.3)
assembling after individual departures, or reforming on lead
after an inadvertent breakout, sound rejoin skills will serve 3.2.3 Heading Crossing Angle/Angle Off
you well during every formation mission. Heading Crossing Angle (HCA) is the relative nose position
of two aircraft. The angular distance between the longitu-
Unless otherwise noted, all concepts presented here are dinal axis of the wingman and the longitudinal axis of the
equally applicable to propeller and turbine powered aircraft. leader. This concept is dependant on the aircraft’s heading.
However, some supporting images may not reflect accurate HCA is also known as Angle Off. (figure 3.3)
visual references for your aircraft. Consult an experienced
Formation Instructor or Flight lead for further guidance. 3.2.4 Turn Circle
The circular flight path created by a maneuvering aircraft.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE The size of the Turn Circle is often measured in reference
When teaching formation rejoins, consult Fluid to the aircraft’s turn radius, which will change with veloc-
Maneuvering Exercises contained here and in chapter ity, bank angle and/or load factor. To rejoin successfully, the
four. The use of exercises such as Offset Trail and wingman must be capable of maneuvering inside lead’s turn
Extended Trail may assist your student’s mastery of circle. (figure 3.2)
the concepts presented here.
3.2.5 Turn Radius (Tr)
The distance between an aircraft’s flight path and the center
3.2 Concepts and Terminology of the turn circle. An aircraft traveling at 110 KTAS using 30
degrees of bank and 1.2 Gs, will produce a turn radius of ap-
The following are several concepts and terms that are
proximately 1850 feet. (figure 3.2)
critical to understanding the formation rejoin.

3.2.1 Three-Nine Line (3/9 Line)

An extension of the aircraft’s lateral axis. The wingman
must remain aft of lead’s 3/9 line during all formation flying
unless specifically assigned the lead or number 1 position.
(figure 3.1)

3.2.2 Aspect Angle (AA)

Angle between lead’s longitudinal axis and the line-of-
3/9 Line
sight to the wingman. The angle is measured from lead’s six
o’clock to the Wing’s position. The wingman’s heading is Figure 3.1 The 3/9 Line
CHAPTER THREE
 3-2 • Two-Ship Rejoins The Formation Guide

such as the other aircraft in formation.

3.2.10 Line of Sight (LOS) Rate

60
Turn Radius

POM

Figure 3.2 Aircraft Turn Circle and Turn Radius

3.2.6 Turn Rate

Rate of change in heading, normally expressed in degrees per
second. As the rate of turn is increased through an increase
in angle of bank and/or load factor (G), the turn radius, and Figure 3.4 Plane Of Motion (POM)
thus the aircraft’s turn circle, decrease. The rate of movement of an object, such as another air-
craft, across the canopy. When overtaking another aircraft
3.2.7 Plane of Motion (POM) through lead pursuit and/or airspeed advantage, an aft LOS
An imaginary plane defined by an aircraft’s actual flight path rate will be observed. Likewise, if falling behind due to lag
through the sky. Based on bank angle and load factor (G), an pursuit or airspeed disadvantage, a forward LOS rate will be
aircraft’s POM may be horizontal, vertical or any degree in- observed. The LOS rate provides a valuable clue to the wing-
between. Reference figure 3.5 for an aircraft at 60 degrees of man in recognizing and controlling closure during the rejoin
bank and 2.0 G, resulting in a level POM. Figure 3.4 (figure 3.5, 3.6, 3.7. 3.8).

3.2.8 In-Plane
When a wingman orients his/her turn circle in the same
plane of motion as lead, he/she is in-plane. Recall echelon
turns from chapter two as a familiar example of two aircraft
maneuvering in the same plane or, “in-plane”. If the wing-
man is not maneuvering in the same plane as lead, the pilot
is “out-of-plane.” All basic formation rejoins are performed
level and in-plane (i.e no vertical maneuvering required).

3.2.9 Line of Sight (LOS)

A line from the pilot’s eye to the object the pilot is viewing,
Figure 3.5 Positive Closure Creates Aft Los Rate

Flight Paths

Angle Off
Aspect Angle HCA

Figure 3.3 Aspect Angle and Angle Off

CHAPTER THREE
The Formation Guide Two-Ship Rejoins • 3-3

Figure 3.6 Lead Pursuit and Aft LOS Rate Figure 3.8 Lag Pursuit and Forward LOS Rate

3.2.11 Pure Pursuit

The path a wingman’s aircraft will follow it flies directly
at the lead aircraft. lead’s aircraft will remain stationary in
your canopy (no LOS rate). Note that in pure pursuit, head-
ing crossing angle equals aspect angle. (figure 3.7)

3.2.12 Lead Pursuit

The flight path a wingman’s aircraft will follow if he/she
flies toward an imaginary point in front of the lead aircraft.
This results in a situation where the wingman is “cutting
off” lead. Uncorrected, lead pursuit will result in the wing-
man moving in front of the lead aircraft. During maneuver-
ing (turning), pulling lead pursuit results in the wingman
flying a smaller turn circle than lead, and thereby closing
the interval, or creating closure, with lead. You can modu-
late the effect of your lead pursuit by choosing an aim point
nearer or farther away from lead’s nose––nearer resulting in
a less aggressive cut off. When you initiate a lead pursuit
curve there will be distinct visual cues to include an aft LOS
rate and increasing aspect angle. (figure 3.6)

3.2.13 Lag Pursuit

The path a wingman’s aircraft will follow if he/she flies to-
ward an imaginary point aft of the lead aircraft. Left uncor-
rected, lag pursuit will result in the wingman flying aft of
the lead aircraft. During maneuvering flight, lag pursuit is
achieved when the wingman’s nose position and flight path
are on an arc outside of the curve flown by lead. This results
Figure 3.7 Pure Pursuit Picture in a situation where the wingman is flying a larger circle

CHAPTER THREE
 3-4 • Two-Ship Rejoins

than lead and is thereby increasing the interval with lead.

In lag pursuit the visual cues will be forward LOS rate, de-
creasing aspect angle and increasing heading crossing angle. #1
Lag can also be modulated—an aim point farther aft of lead’s
tail will result in more accelerated separation. (figure 3.7)

3.2.14 Closure (Vc)

The rate of change in the range between two aircraft. Vc
(pronounced V sub c) can be either positive or negative. 45 45
Positive closure will occur if the wingman has excessive
speed or is flying lead pursuit, and is magnified if he/she is
doing both. Negative closure will occur if the wingman has
lesser airspeed or is flying lag pursuit, and is also magnified #1 #1
if he/she is doing both. The term “overtake” is used in this
guide to reflect closure based on an airspeed advantage be-
tween the lead or wingman.
Figure 3.9 Offset Trail
3.3 Offset Trail Exercise
The offset trail exercise is a two ship, non-aerobatic, in- 3.3.2 Set up and entry
plane exercise designed to provide the new formation The Flight Lead will initiate the exercise with a radio call;
student practical application of lead, lag and pure pursuit “Raven 2 go offset trail”. This may be initiated from fingertip,
curves and demonstrate their effect on aspect angle, HCA route or close trail. The wingman will acknowledge with
and closure. Offset trail will demonstrate the critical skills full call sign and maneuver to a perch position up to
required to master the formation rejoin, demonstrating approximately 45 degrees left of right of lead with at least 500
the concept of the overshoot and provide in-plane closure to 1000 feet separation and vertical spacing. As a technique,
control techniques that create the foundation for the more place lead within one wingspan of the horizon. Airspeed
advanced Extended Trail presented in section two of this should approximate that used during rejoin training and
guide. lead’s power should remain set.

Pursuit
Curve
Aspect
Angle: HCA: Closure:
LOS
Rate:
INSTRUCTORS’ NOTE
Two ship Offset Trail may be utilized in teaching
Lead: Increasing Decreasing Increasing Aft in-plane use of pursuit curves to control closure and
range in lieu of the more dynamic Extended Trail
Lag: Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Forward
with new formation students.
Pure: N/A N/A Increasing N/A

Table 3.1 Pursuit Curve Relationship Chart 3.3.3 Execution

With number 2 in the perch position, lead will commence a
The offset trail exercise allows the formation instructor
constant rate turn using approximately 30 degrees of bank
to modify the exercise as he/she sees fit to teach the inter-
into the wingman. At 45 degrees AA and near co-altitude,
relationship between pursuit curves and changes in range,
this picture will momentarily reflect the desired aspect for
aspect and closure with two aircraft operating in-plane.
the rejoin. The wingman is free to maneuver as required to
Use of power and drag devices may also be introduced to
maintain a position inside the 45 degrees aspect limit as
demonstrate their effect on closure control.
the range closes to 100 feet which will approximate route
formation.
3.3.1 Offset Trail Parameters
The offset trail envelope is a maximum of 45 degrees aspect
This initial perch position places the wingman well inside
angle left or right of lead’s six o’clock and 100 to 1000 feet
lead’s turn circle and approximates the terminal phase of
or more aft of lead with slight stack down (20 to 30 feet).
the turning rejoin. The wingman’s task is to control closure
It is a fluid position in that the wingman may change sides
by managing aspect, overtake and heading crossing angle
to employ proper pursuit curves to manage range, closure
in order too safely reduce range to route interval or about
and aspect. As the name implies, the wingman should not
75 - 100 feet. See the rejoin section for further discussion on
remain in the lead’s six o’clock position except to transition
managing aspect angle.
left or right. See figure 4.4.
As briefed by the instructor, the wingman may utilize power
as required to manage airspeed. There is no requirement for
fixed power in offset trail for the wingman unless demanded
by the instructor, as the ultimate objective is for the student
CHAPTER THREE
The Formation Guide Two-Ship Rejoins • 3-5

Figure 3.10 Rejoin Sight Picture

to understand and control the inter-relationship of power all times.
(airspeed) and pursuit (angles) in the management of range,
closure and aspect. If the student aircraft is equipped with The instructor can quickly reposition the student aircraft
speed brakes, the instructor may choose to use this exercise back to the perch position (45 AA at the desired range 500
to properly teach their use as well. However, the student to 1000 feet or more) by requesting lead to roll out while
should not depend on excessive power changes or drag momentarily transferring aircraft control from student to
devices when use of pursuit curves will provide the required instructor. Likewise, the exercise can continue with lead
correction. maneuvering as desired to present varied angles to the
wingman.
INSTRUCTORS’ NOTE
Instructor’s may brief the student to “lock the CAUTION
throttle” as desired to teach proper employment For turbine powered aircraft equipped with speed
of pursuit curves without use of throttle or speed brakes, to control closure with power, use the speed
brake during Offset Trail as needed. brake after the power has been reduced (generally
to no less than 80-85% rpm). This results in less
spool up time required, critical with aircraft that
The student should timely recognize when the range to experience excessive lag between increased power
lead is approaching the 100 foot safety limit and employ lag selection and actual power delivery.
pursuit to move to the outside of lead’s turn, insuring nose to
tail separation at all times. This approximates the overshoot
maneuver used to control excessive closure taught later The desired learning objectives have been met when the
during his/her rejoin phase of training. student has demonstrated practical application of aspect
angle management and closure control using pursuit curves,
With the Flight Lead continuing his/her constant bank as well as effective use of power (airspeed control) and drag
turn, the wingman should expeditiously move back to lead devices if so equipped.
pursuit on the inside of lead’s turn to prevent excessive range
from developing. Slight stack down should be maintained at Normally, number 2 initiates termination of the exercise

High Aspect (60) Moderate Aspect (45) Low Aspect (30)

Figure 3.11 Visual Recognition of Changing Aspect

CHAPTER THREE
 3-6 • Two-Ship Rejoins The Formation Guide

with a radio call; “Raven 2, request terminate”. The Flight been previously briefed, immediately hold up the number of
Lead will then direct a rejoin or proceed with the next fingers to indicate the desired interval between aircraft in
seconds, generally 4 to 5 seconds (for a more thorough dis-
INSTRUCTORS’ NOTE cussion on selecting rejoin interval, see “Turn Circle Geom-
Offset Trail is a very versatile exercise; if the student etry”, Section 3.7). With acknowledgment from the wing-
is ready for greater exercise complexity in angles man, clear carefully in the desired direction and begin a turn
presented, the Flight Lead should fly variable left away from number 2, using 45° to 60° of bank and sufficient
and right level turns up to 45 degrees of bank with G to establish/maintain the desired airspeed. Fly a level turn
the student managing range, closure and aspect. unless slight climbs or descents are needed for energy. Roll
out after approximately 180 degrees of turn or as needed for
airspace orientation. Insure power is set to maintain briefed
exercise or profile event. rejoin airspeed as required.

3.4 Formation Rejoins Wingman

Using the concepts presented in section 3.2, the proficient Acknowledge the pitchout signal with a head nod. As soon
wingman is capable of safely and expeditiously closing with as lead turns away, clear ahead, then in the direction of turn.
another aircraft to regain the parade formation position. With the preceding aircraft in sight, wait the specified in-
The rejoin is the mark of an accomplished formation pilot. terval, and make a matching turn, clearing carefully for traf-
A rejoin is performed as either a turning (sect. 3.4.3) or fic. After initiating the pitchout, set power to achieve and
straight ahead maneuver (sect. 3.4.4). maintain briefed rejoin airspeed as needed.

Basic rejoin training will be conducted from a trail position Approaching the rollout, modulate bank and back pressure
using either the pitchout or take spacing maneuver (covered to fall directly behind lead with lead on the horizon. This is
below). an excellent opportunity to make a quick scan of the instru-
ments and fuel to ensure all is well. Call in when level and
3.4.1 Pitchout stabilized behind lead, “Raven 2’s in”.
The pitchout, introduced in chapter 2 in the overhead re-
covery, is also used to create in-trail spacing for fluid ma- 3.4.2 Take Spacing Maneuver
neuvering exercises (chapter 4) and rejoin training (fig 3.9). The take spacing maneuver is an alternate method used to
put number two in trail when a pitchout is not practical or
desired. While the pitchout is universally applicable to both
two ship and four ship training, the following maneuver is
limited to two ship only. There are no hand or aircraft sig-
nals for initiating the take spacing maneuver.

Lead
Direct number 2 to take spacing with a radio call, “Raven 2,
#2 take spacing”. After the wingman acknowledges with call
sign, lead may accelerate, if able, to expedite the maneuver.
If an interval and airspeed were not briefed for the maneu-
ver to follow, or a specific interval is desired, provide this
information in the initial radio call. When number 2 calls in
position, reset power and commence maneuvering.

Wingman
#1 Acknowledge lead’s instruction to take spacing with full
call sign, reduce power and/or use speed brakes to move
#1 #2 aft. Once clear of lead, you may use s-turns behind and be-
low lead’s prop/jet wash to expedite the maneuver, using

Figure 3.12 The Pitchout to Trail

INSTRUCTOR NOTE
During training, both student and instructor in the
wingman’s aircraft must be capable of maintaining
Lead visual with lead’s aircraft at all times.
Signal number 2 for the pitchout using an index finger point-
ing skyward, in a rotating motion. Unless the interval has
CHAPTER THREE
The Formation Guide Two-Ship Rejoins • 3-7

Figure 3.13 Misaligned Turn Circles Geometry Exercise

INSTRUCTOR NOTE
Reference chapter four, Fluid Maneuvering, for
additional in-flight exercises.

90 AA
120 AA

45 AA
1200 Ft.
150 AA

30 AA

2100 Ft. Center of #1

00 AA Turn Circle

1200 Ft.
1200 Ft. 1200 Ft.

2100 Ft. Center of #2

Turn Circle

6 Seconds in Trail
at 117 KTAS

In this example, trailing 6 seconds at 110 KIAS/117 KTAS at 3000 feet msl, number 2 will be approximately 1200 feet in trail
with number 1 and within lead’s turn radius. Both aircraft should simultaneously establish a 30° bank turn in the specified
direction, each generating turn circles with a turn radius (Tr) of just over 2100 feet. Pilots in both aircraft should note how
closure, range, and angle off/HCA remain constant, while the wingman will observe an aft LOS rate as his/her nose continues
to generate more lead pursuit and increasing aspect purely through the geometry of misaligned turn circles. To correct aspect,
number two will have to reduce bank angle (lag) as required to prevent a 3-9 overshoot as depicted in figure 3.17.

CHAPTER THREE
 3-8 • Two-Ship Rejoins The Formation Guide

caution to keep lead in sight. When approaching the pre- creases, thus slowing the rejoin process. Alternatively, if the
briefed in-trail interval, set power to avoid sliding farther aft vertical stabilizer moves aft of the outboard wing tip, aspect
and call “Raven 2’s in.” angle is increasing and closure is increasing. Excessive clo-
sure will complicate the rejoin process and possibly lead to
3.4.3 Turning Rejoin an overshoot (covered later).
Turning rejoins may be required due to breakouts, prac-
tice lost wingman, lost sight situations, interval departures Aspect angle is controlled by changing your pursuit curve
(chapter two) and to rejoin the flight after terminating Flu- (lead/lag) in relation to lead. Vary your pursuit curve with
id Maneuvering Exercises (chapter four). During two ship bank angle. Shallow your bank (less lead pursuit) to de-
formation, number 2 always rejoins to the inside of the turn crease aspect angle and increase the bank angle (more lead
unless briefed or cleared by the flight lead. pursuit) to increase aspect angle.

Lead During the initial turn to establish lead pursuit, as lead’s ver-
With the pitchout complete and the wingman having called tical stab approaches the wingtip (moderate aspect), reduce
in position, initiate the rejoin with a wing rock in the de- bank to capture this visual reference, and then employ small
sired turn direction using up to 60° of bank. Then establish adjustments to bank angle to maintain this as you close on
a level, 30˚ bank turn for training. If rejoin airspeed has not lead. In a proper rejoin, HCA/Angle Off is low and there is
been briefed, or if you are not within 10 knots (10% for high- no LOS rate as range decreases between wingman and lead.
performance props and jets) of the briefed rejoin airspeed, Lead should appear slightly above the horizon throughout
make a radio call announcing the airspeed. Hold speed, alti- the rejoin. Avoid the common tendency to descend during
tude and bank angle constant throughout the rejoin. the rejoin. This will complicate your approach and slow the
rejoin.
Monitor the rejoin, dividing your attention between clearing
for the flight, maintaining a stable platform, and analyzing The critical stage of the rejoin begins approximately at 500
the wingman’s altitude, aspect, and closure. If you perceive feet from Number 1. Inside 300-500 feet, the normal finger-
an unsafe situation developing at anytime, take positive ac- tip references will become visible. Begin decreasing closure
tion immediately to prevent a midair collision. with a power reduction and/or speed brake, as necessary.
As range decreases inside approximately 100-200 feet (ap-
Wingman proaching route spacing), the vertical stabilizer will appear
When lead enters his/her rejoin turn, begin a turn in the to move aft of the outside wingtip as the aircraft grows in
same direction, pulling lead pursuit to intercept a moderate your canopy. With nearly co-airspeed and aligned fuselages
aspect angle as depicted in figure 3.11. Use power to gain (no angle off), there should be no LOS rate in your canopy.
an airspeed/closure advantage. Normally 10% above briefed
rejoin airspeed is adequate. Monitor bank and overtake closely during the last few hun-
dred feet to ensure aspect and closure are under control.
Plan to stabilize in route (2-4 ship widths) with slight posi-
CAUTION
tive closure, but approximately co-airspeed with number 1
Avoid too much lead pursuit early in the rejoin
and then move into fingertip at a controlled rate.
(excessive aspect) because the correction for
excessive aspect is often an equally large correction
Approaching route interval, the following are some indica-
to lag pursuit. Performed too late, this correction
tors of a successful, and safe, rejoin:
will result in excessive heading crossing angle in
close proximity to lead and a possible overshoot or
ŪŪ Your fuselage and bank angle are nearly aligned
breakout situation.
with lead’s and the LOS rate is near zero (no fore/
aft movement on the canopy).
Set approximately 10-20 feet of vertical step down. As a
technique, keep lead’s lower wingtip on or near the horizon ŪŪ You are slightly below lead with moderate aspect.
(for most low wing aircraft).
ŪŪ Your closure is slightly positive with airspeed
Referencing Figure 3.11, notice how the relationship of the matching lead’s.
vertical stabilizer and the outboard wing changes in the
three depictions between high aspect, moderate (desired), ŪŪ Your closure is such that you could stop the rejoin
and low aspect. These visual references approximate 60°, in route, as required.
45° and 30° AA respectively.
ŪŪ For turning rejoins from 5 seconds in trail, the goal
If lead’s vertical stabilizer moves toward the wing root dur- is for number 2 to be joined up within 180° of turn.
ing the rejoin, aspect angle is decreasing and closure de- If rejoining to the outside of the turn, pass below and at
Chapter Three
The Formation Guide Two-Ship Rejoins • 3-9

least one ship-length behind lead. Maintain enough posi-

tive closure (about 10-15 knots) to facilitate this move to
the outside. Stabilize in route echelon on the outside and
then move into close (fingertip) at a controlled rate - rejoin
complete!

Turn
MANEUVERING
AIRSPACE AFT Circle
OF THE 3/9 LINE

Figure 3.14 Maneuvering Airspace During Rejoins

As mentioned, the size of the turn circle is based on bank
angle, load factor and true airspeed. To calculate your
approximate true airspeed for any altitude, use an average
increase of 2% of indicated airspeed per thousand feet of
altitude; although not exact, it will be close enough for
Image 3.2 F-16 Maneuvering Inside F-4 Turn Circle planning purposes.
3.4.3.1 Mastering Turn Circle Geometry
To successfully rejoin, you must position your aircraft in- Due to the geometry of the 180 degree turn, a 5 second
side lead’s turn circle and aft of his/her 3/9 line (see figure pitchout will result in approximately a 10 second in-trail
3.12). Because of this, one of the first things the wingman interval. In other words, pitchout interval nearly doubles
must determine at the start of a rejoin is his/her position the resultant in-trail interval. As demonstrated in Table 3.2
relative to lead’s turn circle. above, for the typical operating regime of such aircraft as the
T-34 and CJ-6, a 5 second pitchout interval would place the
3.4.3.1.1 Estimating Range to Lead’s Turn Circle wingman at/near lead’s turn circle (approximately within
The following turn radius charts are no wind approximations lead’s turn radius, see figure 3.14). This is not the case for the
for aircraft operating at typical airspeeds and altitudes for higher airspeeds and altitudes commonly utilized by turbine
both radial and turbine aircraft. They provide a perspective aircraft, as reflected in Table 3.3. There is no requirement for
of the size of the turn circle in relation to pitchout interval. a set in-trail interval when practicing turning rejoins, this
Speed: 110 KIAS / 117 KTAS Altitude: 3000 MSL TR: 2100 feet information is provided for reference only!

Pitchout Interval: In-Trail Distance At Roll Out: This analysis will be critical as you progress to rejoining
from the number 4 flight position where intervals between
3 Seconds 1200 Feet wingman and lead can be significant.
As you can see in the photo above left, there are two turn cir-
5 Seconds 1950 Feet
cles to consider in a turning rejoin—the lead pilot’s and the
TR

7 Seconds 3300 Feet wingman’s (see also figure 3.15 and 3.16). While the lead’s
turn circle will be near static as he/she strives to maintain
Turn Radius Calculated at 30 Degrees AOB and 1.2 G a constant airspeed, bank angle and load factor during the
Table 3.2 Interval vs. Turn Radius at 110 KIAS rejoin, the wingman has total control over both the size and
location of theirs. The size is determined by aircraft velocity,
Speed: 220 KIAS / 264 KTAS Altitude: 10000 MSL TR: 7500 feet bank angle, and load factor, while the location is established
at the initiation of the wingman’s turn. Where the wing-
Pitchout Interval: In-Trail Distance At Roll Out: man initiates his/her turn, or turn circle, is a critical compo-
nent in the successful rejoin.
3 Seconds 2600 Feet

5 Seconds 4400 Feet When the flight Leader initiates his/her turn to begin the re-
join, there are distinct visual references the wingman can use
TR

7 Seconds 6200 Feet to assist in judging relative position to lead’s turn circle. In
general, when inside of lead’s turn circle, lead’s turn results
Turn Radius Calculated at 30 Degrees AOB and 1.2 G
in a relatively moderate increasing aspect angle change, but
Table 3.3 Interval vs. Turn Radius at 220 KIAS a rapidly increasing LOS rate moving across your canopy.
Reference figure 3.15. This phenomenon is due to the close
CHAPTER THREE
 3-10 • Two-Ship Rejoins The Formation Guide

from the lead aircraft; farther away and the effect of rapidly
changing aspect and minimal LOS rate is amplified.

Based on how far outside of lead’s turn circle, the wingman

may be forced to continue straight ahead and accelerate as
required. As number 2 closes on lead and begins to roll in to
effect a rejoin, he/she may need to follow with a moderate
lag maneuver to accurately enter the leaders turn circle, aft
of lead’s 3-9 line as depicted in Figure 3-17.

#1 3

1
#2

Figure 3.15 LOS Rate Inside Lead’s Turn Circle

Figure 3.17 Lagging in to the Turn Circle

In summary, to rejoin on another aircraft, you must maneu-

ver within their turn circle and aft of the 3/9 line. As a visual
reference, if lead’s turn results in an increasing aspect angle
and a relatively slow LOS rate confined near the center of the
windscreen, the wingman knows the range may be outside
of lead’s turn circle and an immediate lead turn would result
in excessive aspect and possible 3/9 line overshoot. How-
ever, if lead’s turn results in a relatively moderate aspect
angle change and a rapidly increasing aft LOS rate across
the canopy, the wingman knows he/she is on or inside lead’s
turn circle. Use varying degrees of lead and lag to position
your aircraft at the desired aspect angle.

3.4.3.2 Turning Rejoin Overshoot

The purpose of an overshoot is to safely correct overtake due
to excessive airspeed, aspect and/or angle off. If the situation
warrants, there is nothing wrong with overshooting and
you should not delay or hesitate, reference figure 3.18.

Lead
Figure 3.16 LOS Rate Outside Lead’s Turn Circle During an overshoot, provide a stable platform for the wing-
man. However, if safety is a factor, take positive action to
proximity and the relative motion of the two aircraft. prevent a midair collision.
In comparison, if number 2 is outside lead’s turn circle, he/ Wingman
she will see lead’s aspect angle increase rapidly, but with An overshoot may be caused by excessive closure, excessive
minimal canopy LOS rate, primarily confined near the cen- aspect angle, large heading crossing angle, or a combination
ter of the windscreen as depicted in figure 3.16. The degree of these factors. The overshoot is not uncommon in training
of this visual reference is based largely on your distance and should not come as a surprise at the end of the rejoin,
CHAPTER THREE
The Formation Guide Two-Ship Rejoins • 3-11

Not this position

X
WARNING
Use caution not to pass directly beneath Lead
when moving back to the inside.
Do Not go higher
than the echelon position
Avoid Use Of
Lead
Excessive
(Above the Horizon)
Back Pressure

Roll wings level and pass

Once the decision is at least two-ship lengths
made to abort the behind and below lead.
rejoin, perform an Use power as required
overshoot
Figure 3.18 Overshoot remain behind the 3/9 line and no higher than the
but should be a planned event based on timely recognition echelon position.
of excessive closure. There are several definitive clues lead- ŪŪ Move back inside of lead’s turn, being careful not
ing up to an overshoot situation: to pass under lead during the execution of this
maneuver.
ŪŪ Rapid closure, unaffected by idle power and/or
speed brakes. The greater your overtake (excessive airspeed) when ex-
ŪŪ Excessive HCA/Angle Off in close proximity to ecuting the overshoot, the wider to the outside you must go
lead. to prevent moving forward of lead’s 3/9 line. If you are out-
ŪŪ Recognition for the need to significantly increase side lead, in route position, you can complete the rejoin by
bank angle and/or “G” in close proximity to lead executing a normal cross-under. If you are outside and well
to salvage the rejoin. Termed “going belly up”. aft of lead, you should cross back to the inside of the turn,
ŪŪ Recognition of an uncomfortably rate of closure; an reacquire the normal turning rejoin references, and complete
exponentially growing feeling of panic. the rejoin. Your instructor will demo the overshoot and al-
ŪŪ lead directs an overshoot. low you to practice this critical maneuver (figure 3.18).

3.4.4 Straight-Ahead Rejoins

WARNING Lead
When overshooting straight ahead, there is a ten- Make a radio call or rock your wings to initiate a straight-
dency to move the control stick in the direction ahead rejoin. Set power to maintain the briefed rejoin air-
you are looking; that is, toward lead. If uncorrect- speed or call the rejoin airspeed on the radio if not within 10
ed, this action may cause your aircraft to “drift” knots of the briefed speed.
toward Lead, creating a dangerous situation and
requiring a break out. Monitor the rejoin, dividing your attention between clear-
ing for the flight, maintaining a stable platform, and analyz-
If you experience any of the above conditions, you will have ing the wingman’s altitude, aspect, and closure. If you must
to execute an overshoot. Take the following action: turn after initiating the straight-ahead rejoin, announce this
to number 2 and be alert for an overshoot situation.
ŪŪ Abandon the rejoin no later than route position.
(the rejoin must be stabilized by route position) Wingman
ŪŪ Call the overshoot on the radio. Rejoin to the left side unless briefed otherwise. Set the pow-
ŪŪ Level the wings while keeping lead in sight—pass er to establish the same minimum closure as in a turning re-
below and behind lead with at least two ship- join (recommend 10% above briefed rejoin airspeed). When
lengths nose-to-tail separation. initiating the rejoin from beyond 500 feet aft, establish pure
ŪŪ Continue to the outside of lead’s turn circle but pursuit at lead’s low, six o’clock position. Remain slightly

CHAPTER THREE
 3-12 • Two-Ship Rejoins The Formation Guide

below lead (lead on or just above the horizon) at all times to If these criteria are not met, regardless of the degree of over-
avoid lead’s wake turbulence. shoot, a break-out is mandatory.

When you have closed to approximately 500 feet, aircraft If breaking out from a straight-ahead rejoin, maintain ad-
details will become visible—bank slightly away from lead to equate lateral separation by turning slightly away from lead
establish an offset, two to four ship-widths out from lead’s and announcing the break out (“Raven 2 breaking out”).
wingtip (the route position). This offset will give you an Call blind in accordance with Chapter 1 of this guide if vi-
oblique view of lead, making depth perception and closure sual is lost. Lead may assign a heading to fly or request you
easier to judge. Decrease overtake with a power reduction roll out to expedite reforming the flight. With lead’s permis-
and/or speed brakes and plan to arrive in route position at sion, resume the rejoin when lead begins to move forward of
the same airspeed as lead. If your rejoin is stabilized, move your aircraft.
into the fingertip position.
If continuing the rejoin, as lead begins to move forward in
As a technique to avoid large and excessive throttle move- your canopy, anticipate the need to increase power and/or
ments as you close in during the rejoin, reduce power in pro- retract the speed brakes to achieve co-airspeed (no LOS
portion to lead’s LOS rate such that a slow LOS rate will re- rate) and prevent excessive aft movement.
sult in a gradual power reduction while a fast LOS rate will
result in a rapid power reduction. It will take some practice 3.5 Summary
to learn your aircraft’s deceleration rate. Having a solid understanding of how to control closure
though management of aspect angle and airspeed are the
If your closure rate is excessive during a straight-ahead re- keys to the rejoin. The concepts covered in this chapter are
join, reduce power to idle and use speed brakes as neces- critical to your success as a safe formation pilot and should
sary to slow your overtake. Avoid relying on slips or skids be mastered to a safe level before moving on to four ship
to control closure - always strive to fly coordinated in close formation. Jot down any notes and questions for your flight
proximity to another aircraft in formation! instructor in the following space.

If lead must initiate a turn during a straight-ahead rejoin,

transition to a turning rejoin and be alert for an overshoot
situation, as you may suddenly have excessive closure be-
cause of angle (aspect) and airspeed differences.

3.4.4.1 Straight-Ahead Overshoots

Lead
Provide a stable platform for the wingman throughout the
rejoin. During straight-ahead rejoins, 3/9 line overshoots are
not uncommon and must be anticipated. If the overshoot
is minor, within one plane length, and under control, the
rejoin may continue. However, do not delay directing the
wingman to break out or take other positive action if safety
is compromised. If a break out occurs due to an excessive
3/9 line overshoot, the wingman will likely lose sight of you.
In this situation, you must be directive in safely reforming
the flight (request the wingman roll out on a desired head-
ing, etc.)

Wingman
A straight-ahead rejoin with excessive closure results in a
pure airspeed overshoot. Use idle power and speed brakes
as necessary, as soon as excessive overtake is recognized. A
small (within one ship-width), controllable, 3/9 line over-
shoot with a parallel or divergent vector is easily manage-
able and can still allow an effective rejoin if:

ŪŪ Visual contact is maintained.

ŪŪ Flight paths are not convergent
ŪŪ Number 2 remains in route interval with the overshoot
arrested (no aft LOS rate).
CHAPTER THREE