Paper at the conference: New Roles and Missions of Museums

Taipei: INTERCOM (International Committee on Management), November 2-4

Available at http://www.intercom.museum/documents/3-5chen.pdf

A new communication model in the natural history museum

CHEN Hui Chuan, HO Chuan Kun & HO Ming Chyuan

Abstract
It is a discourse to argue that how a new communication model, the instigating model, is
practiced in the natural history museum of the 21st century. The variety of communication
theories are suggested in practice in natural history museum since 1968. From ‘the museum as
a communication system and implications for museum education’ to ‘museum exhibitions as
communication media to convey ideas’, the communication models have shifted obviously.
Hooper-Greenhill used the metaphor of the modernist museum, the educational model (curator-
centered); and the metaphor of post-museum, the interpretative model (visitor-centered), to
describe those differences. Three models are compared in this study. Since the first two models
concern only on the learning value in the museum, no matter what the perspective was used to
develop the exhibition. This study argues that the understanding of learning process and
meaning-making are the core values of the new communication model. This new instigating
model develops the exhibition in a natural history museum from a memetic view, the
perspectives of learning involve an infection process of meme. The meme's host could be
anyone relevant to exhibition. The instigator of signal could be anything: object, artifact or text,
graphic design, specimen etc. It is the responsibility of the museum designer to create the
variety of experience aspects to instigate the active selection of culture evolution and to remove
the gap between hosts of memes. A special exhibit on Bat Legend is used as a trial ballon to
highlight the applicability of our new communication model in the natural history museum.

Key Words: communication model, natural history, museum exhibition, meme

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A new communication model in the natural history museum

Introduction ecomuseum and community-based museum

From the aspect of museum sustenance, and demonstrated the examples of the “new”
Neil Kolter and Philip Kolter claimed some museum paradigm. A new role of museum
viewpoints of marketing at the end of the 20th has emerged within a postindustrial, post-
century that all new museums have to face up modern society, after a collapse of a
today: 1. museum mission and identity; 2. distinction between culture and commerce.
building an audience; 3. attracting financial Deirdre Stam (1993) has demonstrated the
resources. A growing number of museums new museology in the point of “informed
today are reinventing themselves to adapt to muse” and stated “new museologists offer
changing anticipation by the revolution of less tangible metaphors to suggest purpose:
organization, exhibition design, programs, and the museum can be a forum or a dialogue
services. In the beginning of the 21st century, between curators and the public; or even a
museums in Taiwan are going to face up to a public access system where visitors can
more immediately challenge, the shift of the assemble their own experiences.” The visitor's
government organization to public experience becomes, paradoxically, the more
cooperation. Visitors in museums shift the role tangible entity, to wit, the product of the
to customers than as students. How to museum. This view implies that the primary
compete with other culture industries product of the museum is then not the
becomes a problem today. preservation and display of the artifact but
If a revolutionary idea of exhibition design rather the information to be derived by the
can be addressed, it might be the first step for public from the museum.
the museum to cope with the more full-scale To function as the answer for the
interaction relevant to the social and question of “what is the utility of The New
economic revolution externally and internally. Museology for museum practice,” Deirdre
From ‘the museum as a communication Stam concluded that museums must
system and implications for museum develop these techniques as follows:
education’ to ‘museum exhibitions as • new methods for attempting understanding
communication media to convey ideas’ , the of society and audience;
communication models have been shifted • new ways of testing visitors' needs and
obviously. New communication model should responses;
be invented to create a more practical • new organizational structures and
relationship among all relevant stakeholders management approaches to deal with new
of exhibition. To solve the problems coming and dynamic functional relationships;
from those challenges in the natural history • new ways to evaluate ‘productivity’ ;
museum of 21st century, a new • new communication patterns;
communication model of exhibition design is • new approaches to information
addressed in this discourse. A case study is management and utilization.
demonstrated for a new perspective of In the beginning of the 21st century,
exhibition design in museum practice. information is not the only primary economic
offering anymore. An alternative and distinct
1. New role of museum in the age of economic offering, “experience,” provides the
experience economy key to future economic growth. The age of
Moira G. Simpson pointed out that the past experience economy is emerging.
30 years have seen significant changes in the When experiences are as a fourth
field of museology, perhaps none as economic offering, after the other offerings of
significant as the development of the
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materials, goods, services, experiences are
as distinct from services as services are from
goods. Experiences are events that engage
individuals in a personal way. As an
experience may engage customers, Pine and
Gilmore considered two dimensions of the
most important, as depicted in two axes (Fig.
1); one is absorption vs. immersion, and the
other is passive vs. active participation.
The coupling of these dimensions defines
the four “realms” of an experience-
entertainment, education, escape, and Fig. 1 The experience realms depicted by Pine and
aestheticism. In The Experience Economy, Gilmore
CIRCLEtDegree of Design and Orchestration of Visitor Expenence
they pointed out that the wide range of
satisfying experiences is the minimal
requirement for visitors, a surprise
manipulated by the experience and
transformation would be the end achievement.
The satisfying visitor experiences in nine
Smithsonian museums have been explored by
Pekarik, et al. and were classified into four
categories: object experiences, cognitive
experiences, introspective experiences, and
social experiences. It may be the
VERTICAL AXIStLevel & Depth of Expenence Dimensions
of the
characteristic experience in traditional
Museum-going Experience
museums. Fig. 2 A designed museum-going experience outlined by
Neil Kotler and Philip Kotler also identify Neil Kotler and Philip Kotler
the museum product with multiple
experiences of museum-going, which include responses. The experiences as the
recreation, sociability, learning, an aesthetic revolutionary product in museums cause the
experience, a celebrative experience, and an developing model of exhibition design to shift.
enchanting experience. They eventually
outlined three dimensions of a designed 2. New perspectives of exhibition design
museum-going experience and represented To be expected or viewed as a loyal
three strategies to serve the marketing role of producer, designers have to play a straight
the museums (Fig. 2). First strategy is neutral bridge between the curator/transmitter
“improving the museum-going experience” ; and the visitor/receiver in the old perspectives
second is “community service” ; and third is of the exhibition. In the traditional model of
“market repositioning toward entertainment.” exhibition development, curators assembled
Those dimensions roughly are corresponding the objects or specimens, established the
to the distinction among “audience goals,” conceptual framework, and wrote the text and
“product goals,” and labels of exhibition. The designer then
“organizational/competitive goals.” packaged the curatorial material in 3D form,
The effort of the museum exhibition is usually embodying the curator's vision.
evaluated inevitably by all kinds of visitors'

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A new communication model in the natural history museum

Afterwards, educators prepared interpretative paradigms that guide disciplined inquiry.

materials that could help visitors make sense Silverman stated, “the concept of meaning
of the exhibition experience. However, usually making is generating excitement within the
a curator's true affections were aimed at other museum community. Providing an approach
scholars, leaving a majority of visitors in the to understanding visitor experiences, the
dark. In the challenging times of the 1960s paradigm illuminates the visitor's active role in
and 1970s, the curator as the voice of creating meaning of a museum experience
authority was one of the first to be challenged. through the context he/she brings, influenced
As Kathleen McLean stated that the dynamics by the factors of self-identity, companions,
of dialogue in the new age of exhibition design and leisure motivations.” Jay Rounds
will be urged inevitably by the societies of addressed that meaning-making paradigm,
which they are a part. The developing model which differs from the cultural-transmission
of exhibition design inevitably will be shifted paradigm in some critical ways, asserts a
by the new perspectives of the museum radically-different view of the output of the
paradigm. exhibit experience-from facts successfully
Eilean Hooper-Greenhill used “new transferred to meaning constructed in the
research paradigm: marginalizing the mind of visitors.
museum” as the subtitle of a paragraph. And George E. Hein further clarified that “all of
stated, “a new approach to museum audience discussions of constructivism include meaning
research is becoming established which is making; but meaning making does not
pushed forward partly by those who wish to necessarily imply constructivism.” Hein also
democratize the museum, and partly by the described the constructivist museum in the
general cultural shift towards postmodernism considerations below, e.g. connections to the
and postcolonialism.” Part of this cultural shift familiar, learning modalities, collaborations,
is seen in the reworking of concepts of social interaction, and intellectual challenge,
education and learning. She suggested that etc.
museum communicate on site through a In the perspectives of “exhibitions as
range of methods which includes exhibitions communicative media,” museum exhibitions
of many different types, functions, sizes and are products of research, organized and
approaches to interpretation. Different designed to convey ideas. Flora Kaplan
audiences need different provisions, and pointed that an exhibition that communicates
thought should be given as to how different must educate and excite the mind and the
types of exhibition or display can be used to senses; when communication is optimal it
attract different sections of the public. Popular creates an ‘affect’ among spectators and
blockbuster and the small-scale exhibitions of audiences. Exhibitions generally utilize the
a local adult education group can serve this same basic elements to tell the stories: they
concept without any contradiction. In the employ objects either made and used by
viewpoint of Hooper- Greenhill, the exhibition human beings or drawn from the natural
is a piece of the holistic approach to museum world; they require texts, most often in the
communication and is the educational media form of label, wall panels, headlines and
to serve the ‘ real ’ people, the subgroup of banners; and they incorporate other graphic
audiences. elements, such as photographs, maps, charts
The paradigm of meaning making in and drawings. In addition, they use lighting,
museums was concerned in the 1990s; in the museum “furniture” -cases, platforms, walls-
meanwhile, the paradigm of constructivism and architectural elements that must protect
was emerging to challenge the other the objects shown, enhance viewing

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and enclose exhibition space. Qualities of in North America by Cameron in the late
color and texture attach to all these elements. 1960s. Cameron's emphasis on objects as the
Sound, seating and the media of film, video, medium of museum communication was
slide projection, computers and simulation challenged. Knez and Wright proposed that
may also be added. Live elements often range putting across ideas (intellectual cognition)
from planting to performance-dancers, actors was the primary function of museum
and scholars, as well as lectures and docents. communication, at least in science museums,
This communicative media actually is and their suggestions led to the modifications
represented as an assemblage that consists in the basic communications model.
of those “so-called” basic elements. The process of communication has evolved
Although the perspectives obviously shift from the development of a simple model to
among those emerging paradigms, the something more complex. The initial simple
characteristic of exhibition design never has a description of the process of communication
distinguishing definition. All concerns of the was based on the idea of one person sending
communication model are exclusively relevant a message to another, perhaps over the
to the curator/transmitter and the visitor/ telephone. Distinctions were made at the
receiver, or the relationship between them in beginning of the process between the source
the position of power. It seems that the and the transmitter, and at the end of the
exhibition has no interpretation involving the process between the receiver and the
designer. It is a paradoxical viewpoint to destination. Following up the communication
ignore designers and their influences in the model of Shannon and Weaver, the
communication model, if we expect a creative knowledge should be effectively received by
design would be a surprise to achieve and to visitors. All of the design problems should
win the satisfaction of the visitors' experience. focus on the decrease of noise or the increase
of channel (Fig. 3). The model can be applied
to a museum educational exhibition (Fig. 4). In
I. Theories and methodologies 1. this instance the “noise” which interferes with
Communication theories and learning the message might include anything from
approaches crowds to visitor fatigue or others.
‘The educational role of the museum’ is not The influence of the model of
only a book title of Hooper-Greenhill but also communication on approaches to exhibition
the proper duty of all museums. She used production is discussed by Roger Miles who
three words: education, interpretation and points out how this linear understanding of the
communication, to catch on to what this communication process is mirrored in the
means. Museums should be the informal or linear process of making exhibition (Fig. 5).
lifelong learning place is the unalterable However, Miles proposes a very different
viewpoint, especially in natural history and approach to exhibition which is much more
science museums. flexible and makes use of extensive research
Traditionally, the taxonomy of educational at all stages of the process, including market
objectives by Benjamin Bloom used in the research before the process begins, trying-
objective model with the setting of out of exhibits during production and
predetermined goals and the methods of summative evaluation after the exhibition
formative and summative evaluation. opens.
However, the visitor is completely different Hooper-Greenhill identified two broad
from the student. The simple communication approaches to conceptualizing
model was introduced to the museum world
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 Fig. 3 The Shannon and Weaver communication model

source transmitter channel receiver ------ ► destination

Noise

Fig. 4 The Shannon and Weaver model applied to exhibition

Fig. 5 The simple communications model adapted as a way of understanding the exhibition process. The
move from curator to designer to educator takes place in time.

communication: the transmission model and

the cultural model. The transmission model, a
geographical metaphor is used. It is clear that
a realist and positivist epistemology and a
behaviorist learning theory underpin this
model (Fig 3). The cultural approach to
understanding communication: based on the
constructivist paradigm, communication is
understood as a cultural process of
negotiating meaning, which produces “reality”
through symbolic systems such as texts,
object, artworks, maps, models and
Fig. 6 The model d
museums. It is the ritual or cultural view. The Eilean Hooper- Green
view proposes that “reality” has no finite cultural approach to
identity, but is brought into experience, is communication: ba
constrructivist paradigm
produced, through communication. Reality is
defined within negotiated frameworks or
“interpretative communication” (Fig. 6). an alternative approach of goal-free
Stephen Bitgood made a lot of contribution evaluation for a communication model. The
to the effective exhibit and judged the success evaluations are more open-ended and explore
of an exhibit in two ways-visitor measures possible consequences rather than the
and/or critical appraisal by experts. Visitor predetermined expectations of goal- oriented
measures include behavior, knowledge, and evaluation.
affection. Stopping (attracting power) and Hein summarized the education theories in
viewing time (holding power) are used as two four theories of teaching are located in
indices of behavioral measurement usually. different quadrants (Fig. 7): pedagogy for
Bicknell also worked didactic/expository education, stimulus-
response education, discovery learning and
constructivism.

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A new communication model in the natural history museum

Knowledge exists outside the learner

communication is all about.” In Aunger's
viewpoint, he described communication
through four approaches: mechanical,
Didactic,
Expository El Discovery inferential, evolutionary and coevolutionary.
Incremental
r
k Learner Mechanical approach is devoted to
learning, 4 ^
Learning Theory
added bit by constructs communication among agents without
bit T
Stimulus-
E3 Constructivism
w knowledge
intelligence, such as machines. It is based on
Response 0 the mathematical model of communication, as
ca ■
epitomized in the work of Chaude Shannon
All knowledge is constructed by the learner personally or socially
and William Weaver during the 1940s, and is
not directly relevant to memetics. The
Fig. 7 Four domains of Hein's education theories
mechanical approach thus sees
Kelman compared the objective model and communication largely as a process of finding
the responsive model to be used in evaluation the optimal coding system to compensate for
of exhibition. The skill of the ethnographic “noise” problem.
research used in order to produce a complete Inferential approach sees communication
picture of the learning process. Kelman used as the mutual negotiation of meaning. Single
the Hein matrix to gather a mass of detailed events of information exchange, exemplified
information as so- called naturalistic or by dialogue between a sender-receiver pair,
responsive model. This model eliminated the are standard focus of both the Mechanical and
tunnel vision effect in the objective model. the inferential theories.
Responsive evaluation is advocated by Stake, Evolutionary approach is devoted to
focuses attention on program activities rather describing the evolution of signaling
than program intent. behaviors. The theory holds that
communication is a specialized behavior
2. Communication approaches in memetic
involving the broadcast of information. It is a
view
question of dialogue versus dissemination.
Communication approaches in memetic
Single events of information exchange,
view is an alternative view to be worthy of
exemplified by dialogue between a sender-
attention. As in Dawkins's original formulation,
receiver pair, are the standard focus of both
memes are passed on by imitation. The
the mechanical and the inferential theories.
Oxford English Dictionary defines a meme as
Dissemination suggests that the sender
“An element of a culture that may be
tosses signals out into environment, hoping to
considered to be passed on by non-genetic
find one or more receivers. It is a metaphor of
means, especially imitation.” Memes have
message-passing story used to explain both
been variously suggested to exist as “an idea
biological and culture evolution.
in someone's head,” “a repeatable piece of
If the receiver's response to this
behavior like a spoken word,” or “embodied in
information is also in the sender's interest, the
the form of artifacts, like wheels.” Memes are
ability to emit that cue will also improve.
the replicators and tend to increase in number
Communication can even become an arms
whenever they have the chance.
race between the sender (to deceive) and the
Replicators transmit information, as Robert
receiver (to decipher). The transformation,
Aunger says, “the idea that social
distortions, and losses of information typical of
communication involves the replication of
social transmission are to be explained not
information forces us to reconceptualize what
just as side effects of “jumping the gap”
between brains but as the normal

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consequence of “dueling” communication scarcity of bat specimens and objects of bat
itself. motif in the museum collection. It is a
Coevolutionary approach emphasized that successful cooperation of different parties that
a consequence of successful communication included the museum staff, the freelance
can be the replication of the information architect, the photographer of art objects, the
conveyed. Communication is explicitly linked craftsmen of exhibits, the volunteers of the
to large-scale of social phenomena such as specialist, the Bat Association of Taiwan, etc.
cultural change through a physical Each party made the contribution and the
consequence of communication by dyads: the interpretation for their work equally and freely.
replication of information. It is involved not A case study of developing model of
merely as a sender and a receiver, but also as exhibition design in the perspectives of new
a channel and a message. communication theory, in memetics view, was
The major claim of coevolutionary explored. The entire design process of
approach is that communication museum exhibition includes theme orientation,
simultaneously involves the sender and team planning, content developing, 3D &
receiver in two different relationships: first, as graphic design, exhibits design and evaluation
conspecifics with potentially divergent genetic etc. Using the system of random sampling:
and social interests, but also as potential each subject was selected when the first
hosts to a more or less robust, parasitic visitor crossed the entrance threshold at a
replicator with its own revolutionary interests. predetermined time, with a total of 100
The coevolutionary theory thus suggests an subjects selected.
additional relationship between sender and The methods of tracking and recording
receiver than that of cooperators or visitor behaviors/conversation were
competitors: they also share an infection. conducted. A more open-end questionnaire
Signals are patterned streams of particles after a request was recorded as a preliminary
flowing through a channel. In Aunger's view, study, and the interview of four docents for
signals are not interactors; nor are they this exhibition was recorded, too.
phenotypes, instead they are what he will call
“instigator.” The arrival of a signal in a brain II. Case study: Bat Legend exhibition 1.
brings an influx of energy and information, Results and discussions of the exhibition
sparking the crucial change in local area. The venue of Bat Legend consists of six
Artifact, whose primary function is to serve as sections A-F (Fig.8). The various options of
a signal template, can be called a the visiting route are allowed in the venue, the
communicative artifact. entrance and the exit shared the same door.
Most visitors (51%) follow the route of turning
3. Methods of case study - Tracking study right. (Table 1) Only 84% of subjects
& interview completed the entire route and accepted the
The exhibition: Lucky Animals vs. Night interview.
Monsters - the Bat Legend as a traveling
exhibition was planned and fabricated during
January 2004-February 2005; exhibited during
February-December 2005, in the National
Museum of Natural Science, Taichung,
Taiwan. This theme was schemed out for the
richness of biodiversity and cultural diversity.
The only problem is the
A new communication model in the natural history museum

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 Table 1 The visitor tracking result of bat exhibition Venue route options
Percentage (Total subjects =100)
Route 1: Entrance-A-B-C-D-E-F-C-Exit 51%
Route 2: Entrance-B-A-C-D-E-F-C-Exit 25%
Route 3:Various or incomplete routes excluded route1&2 24%

VERTICAL AXIS: Level & Depth of Experience

Fig. 9 The experience aspects of the Bat Legend exhibition
relevant to the model of museum-going experience
outlined by Neil Kotler and Philip Kotler

Fig. 8 The layout of the Bat Legend exhibition, each section

(A-F marked by different colors) was installed to present the
aspects of experience

Language

MYTH
III SIGN
Culebre

a. Chinese culture of bat myth b. Western cultural of bat myth

Fig.10 Poetic aspect: the second-order semiological system of Roland Barthes in “Myth today,” used for bat myth in
Chinese culture (a) and Western cultural (b)

Each section consists of panels and content (Table 2). The complicated and
specimen/objects/exhibits. Panels consist of multidisciplinary aspects of experience create
subtitle, text and image (or extra specimen/ a wide-ranging idea of design to instigate the
model). Each item of exhibition is created and various responses of the visitors (Fig. 9).
involved in more than two aspects of Those aspects of experiences are
experience but not complied with the as follows,
hierarchy or structure of the textbook's

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 A new communication model in the natural history museum

Table 2 Description List of Exhibit Items

Aspect Main Title Panel Mark Item Content

Title Theme Title Lucky Animals vs. Night Monsters— the Bat
p/ae A1
Poem Panel Legend Poem : Myth and Magic of the Bat ____
ae (A) A2 Fiber Art Lucky (Bat) Symbol Wall
ae Introduction A3 Fiber Art Bat Figures
p/ae A4 Glass Art Bats in Art Form (Western vs.Eastern Symbol)
P1-2 Subtitle: Lucky Animal or Evil Symbol ?
ae/au B1-B7 Multimedia Montage A Variety of Portrait and Behavior of the Bat
/n/p
Panel
Light Box Video/ 3D
Image Video/ Image
(B) Glass/ TV Screen
Bat Images Specimen
au/n P3 Subtitle: The Origin of Order Chiroptera (Bats) &
Bat Fossil
au/n P4 Subtitle: Order Chiroptera of the
au/n P5 World Subtitle: Order Chiroptera of

au/n P6 Taiwan
Subtitle: Insects Predator
Subtitle: Insects Gleaner
au/n P7 Subtitle: Bird-eating Bats
Subtitle: Frog-eating Bats
Subtitle: Fish-eating Bats
au/n P8 Subtitle: Nectar-eating Bats
Subtitle: Fruit-eating Bats
au/n
P9 Subtitle: Vampire Bat
au/n/i
C1 Object All related to Bats for pollination or seed-
& (C)
dispersal, Product: Tequila, Cloves, Nuts, Sisal
Fiber, Herb Medicine, etc.
Key Roles in
Imitation of Fruit: Banana, Mango, Peach, Guava,
Ecosystems
Papaya etc.
3D Model of Bat Portrait
C2 Object
Mount Specimen and Bone Specimen of Bat
au/i C3 Specimen
Replica of Bone Specimen of Bat
Show Case
C4 Video of Bat Life
au/n AVSet
Subtitle: Bats vs. Economics
au/n
P10 Subtitle: Long-nosed Bats vs. Agaves
au/n
P11 Subtitle: Bats vs. Fruits
au/n
P12 Subtitle: Bats vs. Productions
au/n
P13
au/n Specimen Subtitle: Bat’s Echolocation
Object
au/n Subtitle: Seeing with Ear!

au/n P14-18 Subtitle: Nose vs. Ear & 3D Model of Bat Ear

au/n Subtitle: Biosonar & Specimen: Dolphin Skull

(D)
Subsistence
i/s D1 Hands-on Exhibit Modified Bat “Sound” (5 Species)
P19 Subtitle: Hibernation & Heterotherm
au/n
P20 Subtitle: Migration & Aggregation
au/n
Subtitle: Courting/ Subtitle: Mating/
P21-24
au/n Subtitle: Breeding/ Subtitle: Nursing ______
 i/s E1-E4 Hands-on Exhibit
Diorama of Roost: Caves/Heliconia Leaf/
Foliage/Tree Hollow
(E) Roost
au/n P25 Subtitle: Caves & Crevices Subtitle: Foliage &
au/n P26 Hollows
au F1 Flying Animals: Bird, Flying Squirrel, Flying Fox
Display Specimen
au/ae F2 Images or Objects of Bat Motif in Architecture or the
(F) Magic
Artifacts Show Case Other Materials
Flapper
i/ae F3 3D Image Film Montage Image: Flying Behavior of the Bat

au/n Dreams for P27-30

Flying
Subtitle: Flight Hypotheses Subtitle: True Flyer

i/s
Subtitle: Upside down
3D Model of the Bat Pollinating Matisia Flower as
F4 Furniture Θ the Part of Furniture
au/n Tactics for P31-34 Subtitle: Bat vs. Flower I -Hearing the Honey
Surviving
Subtitle: Bat vs. Flower II -Perfect Partner Subtitle:
Bat vs. Predator—Endangered Status Subtitle: Bat
vs. Prey—Bat-Detecting Ears
Fig. 11 The exhibits of aesthetic aspect

a. The fiber art marked as A2 b. The glass art marked as A4

Fig. 12 The exhibits of narrative aspect

-(

a. Text panel marked as P1-2 b. The image and video panel marked as B4-B7

l· -e
-

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 A new communication model in the natural history museum

Fig. 13 The exhibits of authentic aspect

a. The bat specimen marked as C3 in the floor plan b. The object of bat motif marked as F2

Fig. 14 The exhibits of social Fig. 15 The exhibits of imitation aspect

aspect

a. The statue of bat (30x) marked as C2

b. A diorama of the bats in the roost marked as E3

a. Hands-on exhibit of bat roost b. Leisure furniture of

marked as E4 bat motif marked as F4

poetic aspect (p): poem, proverb, legend artificial fruit and bat roost, etc (Fig. 15).
and tale of literature, semiotic context (Fig. The feedback from the visitor study and
10); the interview of docents indicated that this
aesthetic aspect (ae): objects related to exhibition is very attractive, especially in two
bat motif, the work of fiber art, glass craft, features: the surprising feeling about the
visual art and furniture design (Fig. 11); diversity of bat and that some bats are so
narrative aspect (n): text, image and audio- good-looking enough to overthrow the
visual media (Fig. 12); stereotype of bat/vampire (38% in Table 3
authentic aspect (au): bat fossil, mounted and 70% in Table 4), and the variety of
specimen, objects and symbols related to bat experience aspects to satisfy the visitors (the
motif, bat images of portrait and ecological responses of section A, B, and C, in Table 3).
behavior, products (e.g. Tequila) of everyday The increasing proportion of the aesthetic
life related to the topic of the ecological key aspect is much more than the other
role of bat (Fig. 13); exhibitions in natural history/science
social aspect (s): sensory and kinetic museums appreciated and emphasized (70%
hands-on exhibit, leisure furniture (Fig.14); in Table 4). Some visitors further took the
imitation aspect (i): magnified 3D model of picture of the exhibit of glass art (Fig. 11b)
small bat and full size 3D model of big bat,
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A new communication model in the natural history museum

Table 3 The visitor interview result of bat exhibition

Rejecter of interview
Subject of interview Percentage (Total subjects=100)
84% 16%
Location of the Most
Satisfactory Items Surprised Items Precious Items Unsatisfactory Items

Section of Venue
A 29% 28% 17% 0%
B 38% 26% 10% 4%
C 22% 19% 43% 10%
D 6% 8% 3% 11%
E 6% 5% 2% 0%
F 13% 9% 15% 9%
Panels 0% 0% 0% 4%
no comment 0% 5% 7% 47%

Note: The ansewrs from some subjects are multiple choices in different.

Table 4 The visitor interview result of bat exhibition

Percentage (Total subjects

Summarized perspectives of most satifactory/ surprised/ precious items
=100)

The satisfaction and surprise came from the variety of bat. 49%

Aesthetic of bat images and art exhibits/objects 70%

Creativity of art exhibits 32%

Authentication of bat specimens and art objects 52%

Narration in panels and in the video 24%

Comfortable seat of bat pollination motif 10%

Summarized perspectives of unsatisfactory items

Venue area B: too dark Venue area D: too crowded Bat specimen in venue 22%
area C: too ugly Venue area F: too many panels

Panels: too many 15%

and got a replica of exhibit from the same model. It isbased upon a culture-centered
craft workshop to keep a concrete memory. In criterion in experience aspects. The
the authentic aspect, to see the real thing is preliminary result indicated that design
still very important and is the only purpose of approach of creating a variety of experience
a museum visit for some people. (Bat aspects made a big contribution to the
specimen marked as C3, 43% in Table 3 and participation of cultural diversity and bio-
52% in Table 4) diversity for visitors in the natural history
museum. It also offered the pluralistic and
2. The characteristics of instigating model creative vision for the designer.
The Bat Legend Exhibition appropriated As a new theory of how we think, memetics
the innovative communication theory from is a very inventing concept linked to cultural
memetics for a revolutionary developing study. It is the culture analogue to the study of
model of exhibition design, the instigating how disease-causing pathogens are

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A new communication model in the natural history museum

(A) Educational model

Visitor survey (Front-end Formative
evaluation) evaluation

Brief of content/ Exhibit/Media/

Object/Storyline Graphic design

Authentication Taxonomy of
& Authority educational objectives

Holding & Attracting power in exhibit items

Criteria (summative and goal-oriented evaluation)
of effectiveness
Transmission model of communication

(B) Interpretative model

Visitor survey Formative
(Front-end evaluation) evaluation
Criteria
of mutual beliefs
and values Brief of content/ Exhibit/Media/
Object/Storyline Graphic design

Meaning Multiple channels

negotiation
in culture construction
Signal-instigators interaction
Evaluation Matrix in communication channels

Brief of content/ Exhibit/Media/

Object/Storyline Graphic design
Curator

Meaning Variety of
negotiation experience aspects

Criteria of
Evaluation Matrix in experience aspects
culture
(qualitative, naturalistic or interactive methods)
selection

Evolutionary & Coevolutionary approaches of

communication model
people

| principle meme infection loop information

►
process transmission loop

product

Conceptual Developmental Functional Assessment Phase

Phase Phase Phase
evaluation
gathering

gathering
operational

terminating
planning

production
stage

stage

stage

stage
idea

idea

Exhibition project model (illustrated by Dean, David, 1994)

(responsive and goal-free evaluation)
Culture model of communication

(C) Instigating model

Fig. 16 The diagram comparison among three developing models of exhibition design

diffused through population. This surviving in society, by the force of meme infection.
process of meme is displayed in our everyday The most interesting feedback from the
life and we call it popular culture. Therefore if evaluation of visitors is to know that some
the wide-ranging visitor's experiences can be visitors visited the venue repeatedly and
created as the instigators in popular culture, made the replicas of exhibit. The visitor
all related stakeholders of the museum duplicated the exhibit. It is an evidence of
include not only the visitors, but the curator, meme infection.
and the designer, may be entangled together The exhibition project model of David Dean
in the evolutionary and coevolutionary culture illustrated the design developing process as

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A new communication model in the natural history museum

Table 5 The Comparison of critical elements among three developing models of exhibition
design
Critical Element Exhibition Developing Model

Educational model Interpretative model Instigating model

Principle of exhibition design
Key concept
Education Learning Evolution of culture
Curator-centered Visitor-centered criterion Culture-centered criterion
criterion
Metaphor Education tools in
the metaphor of modernist Communication media in the Communication instigator in the
museum metaphor of post-museum metaphor of meme or mine viruses
Communication
theory Culture model of Evolutionary & Co-evolutionary
Transmission model of communication based on approaches of communication in
communication based on constructivist paradigm memesCfeye view
scientific paradigm.
Evaluation
criteria Effectiveness Culture Selection
Shared Beliefs and Value
The predetermined
objectives usually included A selection process goes on in
the Cognitive Domain, the All parties work together to social groups. Ideas compete
Affective Domain and the produce a shared interpretation; among themselves for the righl to
Psychomotor Domain. beliefs and values are shared. occupy the mental niche thal is
Process of consultation and devoted to the description or
collaboration with visitors and explanation of some phenomenon.
stakeholders will be in place.
Evaluation Responsive and goal-free
methods evaluation Ethnographic research (gualitative,
naturalistic and interactive
Formative & Summative methods)
(goal-oriented) evaluation
People of exhibition design
Designer The decorator or catalyst The interpreter for the The creator for the
for the exhibition exhibition signal-instigator
To structure the exhibition To improve the channels and To created the
according to the textbook of media of experience aspects of
discipline and to improve the communication for each variety and to instigate
noise which interferes with the subgroup or construct of society the active selection of
message To construct a situation that culture evolution.
allows and encourages learning To remove the gap
________________________ between hosts of memes.

the sender vs. The sender (curator) offers Active receivers construct their The sender and the
the receiver authentication and authority of experiences in museum. All receiver both are not
information and treats the participants (curator, design only competitors and
receiver (visitor) as the passive visitor, and stakeholder) work cooperators in the
or reactive receiver. together in the process of construction of
negotiating meaning. evolutionary culture, but
also share the infection
of meme (replication
unit).
Visitor/viewer General and homogeneous Heterogeneous subgroup in Potential host of meme
audience different constructions (real (as metaphor of mind
people) __________________ virus)________________
Process of exhibition design
Characterized as a chain of phases in an interaction of learning an infection of meme
teaching (with extra loop of meme
infection)

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sequential arrangement of conceptual phase, coming from the other cultural and/or
development phase, function phase and commercial organizations. Considering the
assessment phase. This model and four influence of constructivism became the
elements of design, “people” , e.g. curator, popular perspective around 1989, the
exhibition designer and visitor (i.e. concerns of learning process gradually
viewer/audience); “product” , e.g. theme of dominated. The interpretative perspectives
content, exhibit, and experience, etc.; from the marginal and various subgroups of
“process” , e.g. team-working, interaction or the visitor (real people) were encouraged to
transmission among different parties of be accommodated in museums.
people, etc.; “principle” , e.g. communication Hooper-Greenhill used the metaphor of the
theories, methods and criteria of evaluation, modernist museum, the educational model
etc., are the illustrative foci of three (curator-centered); and the metaphor of the
developing models (Fig. 16, Table 5). post-museum, the interpretative model
Two loops around the instigating model, (visitor-centered), to describe those
one for information transmission, the other for differences. The democratic considerations
meme infection, this distinguishing character change the hierarchy concept in exhibition
makes up a variety of aspects i.e. poetic, content and the communication chain in team
aesthetic, narrative, authentic, social, and work. The content meaning is negotiated
imitation aspect, etc. The various aspects of between the curator and the designer in the
each exhibit will be created and selected as interpretative model. The feedback loop of
the instigator of the meme. Those ideas information transmission between the curator
(meme) compete among themselves for the and the visitor is considered as the active
right to occupy the mental niche that is participation of cultural society. The meaning-
devoted to the description or explanation of making in museum is shifting from the
some phenomenon. It will be the more curator-centered (educational model) point to
interesting and more active experience of the visitor-centered (interpretative model)
museum going. Afterwards, the result will point.
construct the criteria of culture selection that Three models are compared in this study.
the process goes on in social groups. This study argues that the understanding of
In this instigating model, the position of the learning process and meaning-making are
power, the definition of message, and the the core values of a new communication
boundary of academic disciplines all are model. The first two models concern only the
blurred. Every visitor can have the learning value in the museum, no matter what
experience-making of museum-going and
the perspective was used to develop the
might be inspired by some new ideas. The
exhibition. The designer only technically
exhibition serves the culture coevolution more
played a part to improve the communicative
than the pedagogy in society. The memetics
channels or media which were assumed is
how to interact with visitors should be
detached from the content or the knowledge
explored by the ethnographic research
value. Both models ignored the participation
comprehensively.
of the communicative channels and media
which would be the interpretative participants
III. Conclusion
Natural history/science museums in evolutionary culture. This viewpoint shrinks
conventionally are considered as the informal the vision of designer and takes away the
educational place before the crises emerging chance of involving into the interesting culture
in “new” museum age and the competition of technology.
A new communication model in the natural history museum
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 This new instigate model (culture- instigate the active selection of culture
centered) develops the exhibition in a natural evolution and to remove the gap between
history museum from a memetic view; the hosts of memes. This viewpoint reinvents the
perspectives of learning involve an infection vision of the designer in exhibition design and
process of meme. The meme's host could be instigates the active involvement of exhibition
anyone relevant to the exhibition. The design in cultural progress. The problem
instigator of signal could be anything: object, solving in the instigating model may be more
artifact or text, graphic design, specimen etc. interesting and creative more than the noise
It is the responsibility of the museum designer removing in the model of Shannon and
to create the variety of experience aspects to Weaver.

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About the author

Ms. Hui-Chuan Chen 1 has worked as an assistant curator for 15 years at Exhibition Department of National Museum
of Natural Science. She has completed more than twenty projects of museum exhibition and a few research projects of
museum exhibition planning & design. She has attended the international design conferences on the topics such as
exhibition design. Her internship for the study of museum exhibition evaluation was in Natural History Museum, London.
She has received the research grant from National Endowment for Culture and Art for the study of conservation in
museum exhibition in USA. She has received both of B.S. and M.S. in biology and now is a Ph.D. student at the
Graduate School of Design in National Yunlin University of Science and Technology.
Dr. Chuan-Kun Ho 2 Education: 1) 1985, PhD of Anthropology, Washington State University, USA. 2)1977, Master of
Anthropology, Washington State University, USA. 3)1971, Bachelor of Anthropology, Department of Anthropology,
National Taiwan University, Taiwan, ROC. Professional Experience: 1) 1998-presernt, Professor, Department of History,
National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan, ROC. 2)1998-presernt, Professor, Department of History, Tunghai University,
Taichung, Taiwan, ROC. 3)1998-present, Curator and Chair, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural
Science, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC. 4)1996-presernt, Professor, Graduate Institute of Anthropology, National Tsing Hua
University, Taiwan, ROC.
Dr. Ming-Chyuan Ho 3 has worked in his field for 26 years, for reputable companies like SAMPO Technology
Corporation, which manufactures electronic products for international markets. Additionally, he has spent twelve years
as the director of various departments and centers, including his current position as dean of the College of Design at
National Yunlin University of Science & Technology, and as the President of Chinese Institute of Design. While teaching
at the university, he has been working closely with the industry and completed more than forty design and research
projects. Dr. Ho is the author of numerous publications for various academic journals of design, and has attended more
than seventy design conferences on topics such as new product R & D, user interface design, creative craft design, as
well as design strategy and management. He received both of his M. F. A. and Ph.D. in design from the University of
Kansas.

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