Ancient History of AP PDF
Ancient History of AP PDF
Ancient History of AP PDF
Pages
CHAPTER I —INTRODUCTION
1. Sources of History of Andhras till 1565 A.D. 1 5
2 Aryanization of the Andhra country and its condition
in the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods 6-8
CHAPTER VII —THE AGE OF THE MUSUNURl CHIEFS AND THE REDDIS
1. The Musunuri Chiefs 165172
2. The Reddis of Kondavidu and Rajahmundry 172180
3 The relations between the Reddis and the Reyas
of Vijayanagara 180187
ILLUSTRATIONS
Introduction
Just like ancient Indian history, the history of the Andhras
is still in the formative stage. Though the available source
material is vast, it is incomplete and at the same time diverse
in nature and variety. In the last 70 years, yeomen service
was rendered by eminent scholars and organisations in recover
ing the records of the past with sustained effort and in re
constructing the history of the Andhras with judicious nature.
Of course, the work is still going on.
The source material for the writing of ancient and medieval
Andhra history can conveniently be classified under (i) archaeo
logy including epigraphs and numismatics apart from monu
ments and other ancient relics, (ii) literature, native as well
as foreign, and (iii) foreign notices.
2 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES.
LITERARY SOURCES.
The literary sources for ancient and medieval Andhra
history may be divided into indigenous and foreign. Early
references to the Andhras were found in indigenous literature
which includes sriti and smriti works like the Aitareya Brahmana,
4 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
the Epics, the Puranas, the early Buddhist and Jain works.
Gunadhya's Brhatkatha, Hala's Gathasaptasati and Vatsyayana's
Kamasutras reflected the social and cultural life of the Sata
vahana period. Mention was made to the details of the
RashtrakutaEastern Chalukya conflicts in poet Pampa's Gade
yuddha and Vikramarjuna Vijaya, both Kannada Kavyas, His
torical data relating to the Kakatiya, Reddi and Vijayanagara
times was obtained from the Sanskrit and Telugu literary
works dedicated by poets and scholars to their royal and
princely patrons. Purely literary works and quasihistorical
kavyas like Prataparudra Yasobhushanam, Siddheswara Chan
tramu, Somadevarajiyamu, Saluvabhyudayamu, Rayavachakamu,
Rangarajacharitra and others, after being purged of all exag
gerations, provided some solid historical information relating
to the deeds of the kings, princes and potentates. The Kalaj
nanas and Vamsavalis also rendered help in the reconstruction
of history.
Apart from these works, some glorified popular ballads
like the 'Siege of Bobbili' and ballads relating to Sarvaya Papadu
and others threw light on the courage, heroism and reckless
valour of the local heroes of different Andhra regions. Another
interesting source of historical information relates to the
'Kaifiyats', These were local revenue records maintained by
village karnams during the medieval and later periods relating
to details of the village lands, their nature, ownership, and
payable tax etc. Changes in the political set up, revenue
assessment and life of the village were faithfully recorded in
these village annals which are of great value now as sources
of historical information. Colonel Colin Mackenzie and sub
sequently C.P. Brown, the two Britishers, rendered yeomen
service in getting these records collected and copied. These
local chronicles provided valuable historical material especially
from the age of the Vijayanagara Rayas to the British period.
In the Indian Muslim historical writings of the medieval
period, only passing references to the events in Andhra were
made. For example. Allauddin Khilji's invasions of Andnra
were referred as part of his southern conquests in Amir Khusru's
Persian works especially in his TarikhiAlai. Isami gave an
Introduction 5
part of the Nanda empire. Commercially also the South began
to grow in importance for the sake of its diamond and gold
mines, peart and chank fisheries and numerous opulent marts'.
(Kautilya).
The low bom and unpopular Nandas were overthrown by
Chandragupta Maurya with Kautilya's assistance about 322 B.C.
This founder of the Mauryan rule, who established his sway
over the entire north, pushed forward his conquests to the
south. "Jaina references in literature and epigraphs associating
his name with Sravana Belgola in Mysore (Karnataka) may
be accepted as proof of his acquisition of this part of the
Peninsula as well'. During this period, the Kalingas and the
Andhras were powerful forces to reckon with. According to
Magasthenes, the Andhras possessed numerous villages, 30
fortified towns and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry
and 1,000 elephants. It is well known that Kalinga was con
quered by Asoka after a terrible war. No other conquest is
attributed to this ruler. However the provenance of his Edicts
prove that the country upto the river Pennar in South was
included in his empire. So it may be concluded that in all
probability the rest of Deccan was earlier conquered by Asoka's
grandfather, Chandragupta. "Beyond the Pennar lay the in
dependent Chola, Pandya, Keralaputra and Satiyaputra states.
The Nanda and Mauryan imperialism influenced enormously
the lives of the Deccan people. A uniform administrative system
based upon Aryan polity came into vogue. The ideas of the
people were gradually moulded in the cast of Vedic, Jain and
Buddhist creeds. Asoka's missionary activities resulted in the
establishment of the Chetyavada school of Buddhism at
Amaravati The prevalence of Asoka's edicts in the Deccan
and South indicates the widespread literacy among the people.
With Asoka's death, the disruptive forces were let loose
The weakness of his successors, the insubordination of vassal
sates, the disloyalty of ambitious ministers and the aggression
of foreign foes led to the loss of overlordship of Magadha on
the Deccan, The progress of Aryanization was checked for
the time being. The Satavahanas soon appeared on the scene
in Deccan.
CHAPTER
The Satavahanas
2. !t is true that inscriptions and coins do not refer to the
Satavahanas as Andhras. Generally rulers give the names of
their dynasties and not the racial affinity. For example, the
rulers of the PostSatavahana dynasties like Ikshvaku, Pallava,
Salankayana, Vishnukundin and even Reddi, which ruled over
Andhra did not claim themselves in their inscriptions as Andhras.
But there is no denying the fact that they were Andhras. The
Nasik and Karle inscriptions refer to Nahapana's dynastic name
(Kshaharata) and not his race (SakaPahlava known from
other sources). Similarly the Kanheri inscription refers to
Rudradaman's dynasty (Kardamaka) and not his race (Saka).
Hence Satavahana is the name of the family (Kula). They
might have been part and parcel of the Andhra race.
3. No doubt, Telugu is the language of the Andhras and it
had its origins probably in the Desi of first century A.D.
However the use of Prakrit might be the custom of that period.
It was used in inscriptions not simply by the Satavahanas, but
also by their predecessor Asoka, their contemporaries Sungas
and their successors Ikshvakus and early Pallavas. Even the
Buddhists also wrote books in Prakrit which was perhaps the
language of the masses.
4. It is true the Puranas refer to them either as Andhras or
Andhrabhrityas but not as Satavahanas. The term 'Andhra
bhritya' need not be interpreted as 'the servants of the Andhras
(as Dr. Suktankar did). It may mean the Andhras that were
servants'. Further K.P. Jayaswal suggested that when the
12 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
VIDARBHA ORIGIN
was on the strength of two other inscriptions. One is the
Nasik inscription of Bala Sri, wherein Gautamiputra Satakarni
was described as 'the Lord of Bervakata'. Mirashi identified
Benakata with the region on either side of the Wainganga. The
other inscription is Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription, where
in mention was made that Kharavela marched westwards,
heedless of Satakarni, upto Kannabenna. According to Mirashi,
Kannabenna is identical with the Kanner near Nagapur. Since
Satakarni's dominions ware mentioned to be in the west of
Kalinga, Vidarbha wherein Kanner flows must have been the
original home of the Satavahanas.
MAHARASHTRA ORIGIN
ANDHRA ORIGIN
The theory that the eastern part of Deccan, i.e. Andhradesa
was the homeland of the Satavahanas, is championed by
16 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
hundred early coins near the village Kotitingala on the eastern
side of the hillock called Munulagutta on the right bank of
the river Godavari in the Peddabankur taluk of the Karimnagar
district of Andhra Pradesh. These included seven coins belong
ing to the first Satavahana ruler Simuka. This discovery is of
momentous importance for the history of the Satavahanas. It
leaves no doubt about the association of the Satavahanas with
Andhra from the very start. The legend on these coins streng
thens the possibility that king Satavahana of Kondapur coins
is none other than Simuka himself who is called Simuka Sata
vahana in a Nanaghat label inscription also. The Jain sources
mention Satavahana as the first Andhra king. The Kathasarrt
sagara contains a story about Satavahana. Therefore Satahana
or Simuka Satavahana of the Kondapur and Kotilingala coins
respectively is the same Satavahana who founded the imperial
Andhra line and his successors called themselves Satavahanas,
With regard to the capitals of the Satavahana kings, un
reliable and much later legend points to Srikakulam in the
Krishna district, which cannot stand for scrutiny. Dhanyakataka
(Dharanikota in the Guntur district) seems to be the eastern
capita] and when Maharashtra became part of Andhra empire
and when the Satavahanas concentrated their more attention
on western Deccan because of the Sakapahlava menace.
Paithan became the seat of their government in the west.
The foundation of the dynasty, which is known by its
tribal name Andhra in the Puranas and by its family name
Satavahana in the epigraphs, is attributed to one Simuka. The
2)
18 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
which is untenable due to the claims of other dynasties which
came to dominate over their territories. Therefore of the two
satements, the most reasonable one should be taken into con
sideration, rejecting the other. In view of the fact that the
rule of the Andhras cannot be extended beyond 2nd century
A.D., the Puranic tradition, that Simuka ended the rule of the
Kanvas may be rejected and the other statement that the
Andhras enjoyed a reign of more than 4 centuries can be relied
upon. V.A. Smith rejected the former tradition with an obser
vation, "the Andhra king who slew Susarman cannot possibly
have been Simuka'.
gave only the kings of the main line, and that Vayu's statement
that 17 kings ruled for 300 years. The point to be borne in
mind is that Vayu also in its general statement mentioned
30 kings with a total reign of 411 years. If in Bhandarkar's
view, Vayu gave only the names of the kings of the main line,
it had surprisingly omitted the name of Pulomavi II, who
was a king of the main line, succeeded to the throne after
Gautamiputra. Therefore, the argument and the view expressed
by R.G. Bhandarkar may be rejected and the Matsya Purana
may be accepted in preference to the other Puranas as our
authority, for it is fuller in details with regard to the number
and names of the Andhra kings and also as it is in harmony
with the general statements of the other Puranas including
the Vayu which allot more than 400 years to the Andhra
dynasty.
On the assumption that the 15th king of the Matsya
list, Pulomavi I was the slayer of Susarman of the Kanva
family and the conqueror of Magadha in 28 B.C., the learned
professors came to the conclusion that 271 B.C. was the year
in which the foundation of Andhra Satavahana rule was laid.
The Satavahanas 21
2} The fondness shown by he Satavahana rulers in bearing
that name undoubtedly indicate the importance of the king
who first appeared with that name. His successors must
have regarded him as a great ruler whose memory must be
cherished We find four rulers, who came after Pulomavi,
with that name, and that name was very much coveted next
to the name of Satakarni. The importance of the name is
further heightened by the statement in the Matsya, viz: "As
to the Andhras, they are the Pulomas". To cherish his
memory by his successors and descendants, Pulomavi's achieve
ments must have been very great and ever remembering.
This memorable achievement in all probability might be his
conquest of Magadha after slaying Susarma in 28 B.C.
The accuracy of 271 B.C. as the starting point of the
Andhra Satavahana 'defacto' rule by Simuka may be verified
and found correct by following another independent line of
reasoning, outside the equation of Pulomavi I with the slayer
of Susarman. The Hatigumpha inscription of Kharavela and
the Nanaghat inscription of Naganika help us in this quest.
In the Hatigumpha inscription, the name of one Satakarni was
mentioned. King Kharavela (of Kalinga) in his second regnal
year, sent his armies west "heedless of Satakarni". The date
of the Hatigumpha inscription is not known. But it furnishes
the scholars a clue, by mentioning Dimita, the name of a
Yavana king who retreated before Kharavela in the later's eigth
regnal year. This Dimita has been identified with Demetrius I,
the son of Euthydemos, whose invasion against India failed
because of Kharavela's opposition and also on account of trou
bles at home. This fact has been confirmed by GargiSamhita
of Yugapurana. According to Meyer the return of Demetrius
occured in 175 B.C. This was the 8th regnal year of Kharavela.
Six years earlier Kharavela sent his armies against Satakarni.
Therefore in 181 B.C., 'A Satakarni' was ruling the Andhra king
dom. (175+(82) =181 B.C.) The Nanaghat inscription of
Naganika refered to one Satakarni. Both the inscriptions, the
Nanaghat and the Hatigumpha, on palaeographical grounds,
were accepted by all scholars as contemporary documents for
'the alphabet of the former agrees generally with that of the
latter'. Satakarni of Nanaghat record had been styled as
Aprathihatacakra, and Dakshinapadhapathi. The 6th ruler of
the Matsya and the 3rd ruler of the Vayu was one Satakarni.
Both the Puranas have given him identical reign of 56 years.
The name of the third ruler in other Puranas was variously
given. Satakarni of the Nanaghat record was a staunch follower
of Brahmanism and is said to have performed a number of
Vedic sacrifices, including two Aswamedhas and one Rajasuya.
Therefore, Satakarni, who appeared in the Nanaghat and Hati
gumpha inscriptions, can be equated with Satakarni, who
appeared as the 6th of the Matsya and 3rd of the Vayu lists.
On the basis of this identification, we can say that Satakarni
of the Satavahana dynasty was the ruling king of the Andhra
Kingdom in 181 B.C., when Kharavela sent his armies west.
The Satavahanas 23
with out paying any heed of his existence. To entrench him
self in his seat and become a powerful rival to a great king
like Kharavete, Satakarni must have come to the throne some
3 or 4 years before the dispatch of the armies by Kharavela
against west. The five predecessors (according to Matsya)
rules for 87 years. Therefore Simuka must have founded the)
dynasty in 271 B.C. (181+3 + 87 = 271 B.C.) This date is
fully in accordance with the calculation made by suppossing
that Pulomavi I was the king who slew Susarman in 28 B.C.
and that some 15 years before that he must have sit on the
throne Of the Andhra country (28 + 15 + 228 = 271 B.C.).
years 41, 42, 45 and 46 at Nasik. Karle and Junnar. Whether
the above years refer to Saka era or the regnal years of
Nahapana is the problem. Prof. Rapson believing the years to
be of Saka era, tried to fix the date of Gautamiputra on the
basis of the Gimar record. The Girnar inscription dated 72
Saka, i.e. 150 AD., shows most of the territories of Gautami
putra as included in the kingdom of Rudradaman, the Kardamaka
ruler of Ujjain. Rapson who based his chronological scheme
on NahapanaGautamiputra synchronism, and on the date of
the Girnar record observed that it would not be improbable
that Nahapana's reign could not have extended much beyond
the last recorded year = 46 = 124 A.D. Gautamiputra's con
quests of Nahapana seems undoubtedly ....to have taken place
in the 18th year of his reign. We therefore have the equation :
Gautamiputra's years 18 = 124 A.D. or 124 A.D. + x. On this
synchronism, on the recorded regnal dates in the inscriptions
of Andhra kings, on the known date 72 Saka = 150 A.D. of
Rudradamana as Mahakshtrapa rests at present the whole
foundation of the later Andhra Satavahana chronology. On
the basis of the above observation. Prof. Rapson placed the
starting year of Gautamiputra Satakarni's reign in 106 A.D.
and as he is said to have ruled for 24 years, the reign, according
to him came to an end in 130 A.D. But the discovery of
Andhau inscriptions of Chastana and Rudradaman, the Karda
maka rulers proved Rapson's view erroneous. The Andhau in
scriptions are dated 20 years earlier than Girnar record, i.e.,
72 Saka —20 = 52 Saka = 130 A.D. According to these inscrip
tions, Chastana was in possession of all lands between Andhau
and Ujjain, i.e. from Kutch to Malwa. The Greek Geographer
Ptolemy in his account {130 A.D.) referred to one Testenes',
identified as Chastana as ruling at Ozene (Ujjain) If, according
to Rapson, in 124 A.D. Gautamiputra, in his 18th regnal year
launched on a career of conquest after the death of Nahapana,
we would have to ponder that could he have effected the con
quest of so vast a territory, which according to Bala Sri's
record of Nasik include Anupa, Aparanta, Akara, Avanti, Suratha
and Kukura kingdoms, and extended his sway as far as the
Aravalis in the north. To effect conquests of such a vast
area in a short period of 6 years is hardly sufficient. Even if
The Satavahanas 25
we agree with the learned Professor that so great a warrior
like Gautamiputra could have effected conquests of such magni
tude with such lightening rapidity within a short span of 6
years, we must also agree to the fact that all these magnificent
conquests were made only to be lost after 6 years, for the
Andhau inscriptions of 130 A.D. tell us that all these lands,
said to have been conquered by Gautamiputra, were in the
occupation of Chastana and Rudradaman of the Kardamaka
dynasty. From this we are to presume that the areas that were
conquered by Gautamiputra between 124 A.D.130 A.D. were
occupied by the Kardamakas, immediately after his death. If
this supposition is accepted, we must conclude that the glory
of the Andhras was shortlived. But a close study of Bala
Sri's record of Nasik would not allow us to cling to this
supposition.
The Nasik inscription was issued by Bala Sri, the mother
of Gautamiputra in the 19th regnal year of her grandson Pulo
mavill, the son and successor of Gautamiputra. In this in
scription, she recounted the exploits of her son with pride. If
by 130 A.D. Chastana could occupy all these lands between
Andhau and Ujjain during the life time of Gautamiputra itself,
according to Rapson, his mother would not have sung the
glories of her son which were only euphemeral. Another
supporting factor is that there is no scope to take the view
that these lands were lost during the time of Pulomavi, for
there is nothing in the inscriptions of Pulomavi to suggest any
reduction of his dominions during his reign. Therefore it is in
conceivable that Gautamiputra must have lost a part of his
dominions to Chastana and Rugradaman in 130 A.D.
Like Rapson, R.G. Bhandarkar also thought that the years
of Nahapana belong to Saka era and in order to avoid chrono
logical improbabilities, suggested a conjoint rule for Gautami
putra and Pulomavi II. He came to this conclusion on the
basis of Bala Sri's statement that she was 'Maharajamata and
Maharaja Pithamahi'.
Neither the equation of Nahapana's years with the Saka
era nor the conjoint rule of Gautamiputra and his son Pulomavi.
26 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
as postulated by R.G. Bhandarkar can be accepted. The mere
mention of Maharajamatha and Maharajapitamahi, the appear
ance of Gautamiputra's name in the Nasik inscription of Pulo
mavi as 'Dhanakatakasami' and the mention of Ptolemy to
Polemios (Pulomavi) as the ruler of Paithan cannot establish
the fact of a conjoint rule of the father and son. The pro
bable position would be that in the 24th regnal year, Gautami
putra had donated an excavated cave to the Buddhist monks
at Nasik. After 19 years of his death, his mother who out
lived him for a longtime, during the reign of her grandson
Pulomavi II, gifted a cave and in the inscription that was issued
on that occasion, praised the great qualities of her son, who
was no more by that time. In the Nasik inscription issued
in the 24th regnal year of Gautamiputra, Bala Sri referred to
him as one living (Jivasuata). In another Nasik inscription,
issued by Pulomavi II in his 19th regnal year, it has been stated
that the merit of the gift is said to have been made over to
his father (Pitupatiyo). Such transfer of the merit of gifts
are made only in favour of deceased persons. Another point
which disproved the supposition of a conjoint rule of the father
and the son is that had Gautamiputra been alive and ruling over
the territories as the senior king, the necessity of dating the
inscription in the regnal period of Pulomavi II would not have
arisen. Therefore the theory of conjoint rule of Gautamiputra
and his son Pulomavi, as advocated by R.G. Bhandarkar cannot
be accepted.
Regarding the years 41. 42, 45 and 46 of Nahapana, dif
ferent views have been expressed. Some scholars like Banerji
feel that they were the regnal years of Nahapana. Accepting
the view of Cunningham, Prof. K.A.N. Sastri held them to be
of Vikrama era. Rapson and Bhandarkar feel that they indicate
the Saka era. This last supposition has been disproved by the
discovery of Andhau inscriptions. If the view that they belong
to Vikrama era is taken into consideration, we are forced to
place the 41st year of Nahapana in 17 B.C. (58 B.C.—41 =
17 B.C.) and his last recorded date 46 in 12 B.C. If we agree
with Rapson that Nahapana's reign could not have extended
much beyond the last recorded year 46. 12 B.C. would be the
The Satavahanas 27
Besides the mention of Nahapana (Nambanus), a reference
has been made to two other kings, Sandanas and Saraganes
whom the scholars have identified as Sundara and Chakora
(3335 A.D.) respectively who were of the Satavahana family
and whose successive reigns were too insignificant to mention,
for their duration was only 11/2 years. Cakora's successor,
Sivasvati enjoyed a long reign of 28 years, during whose rule,
the Satavahana power regained new strength and was on the
road of recovery. According to the chronology adopted by
us, Siva Svati's reign must have come to an end by 63 A.D.
That was also the time of Nahapana's end if we agree with
the supposition that Nahapana and Nambanus are one, and
that the time of the Periplus is about 60 A.D. and that the
46th year of Nahapana was his last year as stated by Prof.
Rapson. This supposition may be strengthened on other
grounds as well. Gautamiputra is described in the Nasik in
scription as the annihilator of the line of Kshaharatas. These
Kshaharatas were the Kshatrapas of Saurashtra and Malwa.
28 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
On the basis of Yajna Sri's year of accession to the throne,
the initial year of the Satavahana rule may be fixed. Yajna Sri's
rule was preceeded by 26 kings, whose total rule according
to Matsya was 396 1/2 years. Therefore the year of Simuka's
accession to power would be 396 1/2 127 = 269 1/2 + y or 271 A.D.
This is in accordance with the chronology adopted by us earlier.
30 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
51
introduction
32 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long.
They were gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas
(Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in
the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled
this region by the first century A.D. By becoming master of
wide regions including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern
Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona dis
tricts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in
the year 41 (58 A.D.) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year
46 (63 A.D.).
3)
HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
34
The Satavahanas 35
confined to the Andhra area. The reigns of Yajna Sri's suc
cessors, Vijaya, Chanda Sri and Pulomavi (III), covering alto
gether a period of seventeen years, are of little significance
historically. The rise of the Chutus in the west and south, the
Abhiras in the Nasik area, the Ikshvakus in the east and the
relentless pressure of the Kardamakas of Ujjain sounded the
deathknell of the Satavahana empire. Thus came to an end
the glorious phase of the rule of the Satavahanas who not only
gave the area political integrity but protected it from foreign
invaders who inundated the North at that time.
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea composed in 60 A.D.
records the hegemony of Nahapana in this area and refers to
the trade activity of Western India with the Red Sea ports,
which was grabbed by Nahapana after defeating the Satavahana
rivals probably Sundara Satakarni and Chakora Satakami, The
Satavahana ports like Kalyan and Sopara lost their commercial
importance to Barygaza.
The evidence of the Periplus leading to a 1st century A.D.
date for Nahapane has to be accepted. The difficulties in the
assignment of Nahapana's years to one of the two eras have
been exposed by scholars like R.D. Banerji, A.S. Altekar etc.
Taking these years as the regnal years of Nahapana, these
scholars placed him in the second half of the 1st century A.D.
There is also a belief that these years could be the independent
years of rule of the Kshaharatas in Malwa and Saurashtra,
probably when there was weak succession on the Mathura
38 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
because the Nasik inscription of that year refers to Gautami
putra's areas of rule and also styles Pulomavi as 'Dakshina
patheswara'. During the last 9 years of rule, he must have
lost the Malwa region to Chashtana, who was the founder
of the Kardamaka line. The Kardamakas were at first sub
ordinates to the Kushanas. Later on they might have become
independent.
The Satavahanas accepted them and deliberately and consciously
followed the policy laid down in the Sastras available to them.
ADMINISTRATION
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
During this period, the people were familiar with the Aryan
fourfold division of society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras. Outside the Aryan influence were the indigenous
42 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
tribes, indifferent to Aryan ways of life and thought. People
were known according to their professions such as the Halika
(cultivator), the Sethi (merchant), the Kolika (Weaver) and
the Gadhika (druggist). The Buddhists and the SakaPahlavas
shook in social structure considerably. The foreigners were
becoming absorbed in the indigenous society by adopting the
faith and customs here and through intermarriages with the
caste people. It is true Gautamiputra Satakami attempted in
restoring the balance and stopping the contamination of the
castes. Yet caste rules were not strictly observed.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
women folk (especially with the royal ladies) and with the
masses. It was in fact the heyday of Buddhism in the Deccan.
The Buddhist monuments at Nasik, Karie, Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta,
Amaravati. Jaggayyapeta and Nagarjunakonda show the
Chaitya cult predomment in the South. Mehasanghika sects
flourished. Acharya Nagarjuna received patronage from the
ruler Yajna Sri and from his time Andhra became the stronghold
of Mahayanism. Due to the patronage and great services of
Kharavela of Kalinga, Jain ism made considerable progress in
the coastal region to the north of river Krishna.
LITERATURE
the history of the Ikshvaku Kingdom which flourished in the
Andhra country along the Krishna river, the Prakrit inscriptions
incised in Brahmi script found at Nagarjunakonda and at Jag
gayyapeta serve as the important authorities.
From the inscriptions, the names of four rulers of the
Ikshvaku race have been traced. Not only this, even some
of the regnal years of these rulers are also known. The
information is as follows :
attack thus can not be placed in between these reigns. It can
only be placed in the last years of the Ikshwaku rule.
4)
SO HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The basts for his chronology is as follows : (1) The
Puranic evidence that the seven kings ruled for 100 years has
been accepted and the corroboration from the inscriptions has
been sought for four kings with a minimum total period of rule
for 68 years. (2) The Abhira inscription is regarded as in
dicative of the victory of the Abhiras over the Ikshvakus and
the event be placed in 278 A.D., which should also be the end
of the Ikshvaku rule. (3) The cyclic years mentioned in the two
inscriptions of Virapurushadatta and Santamuha II need not be
different but could be one cyclic year. It must have witnessed
the end of Virapurushadatta's rule and the accession of the
Santamula II, Since 278 A.D. is accepted as the last date
of the Ikshwaku power, the cyclic year would be the year
corresponding to 213 A.D. (4) The rule of the four kings known
from inscriptions should be placed in between 180 and 248 A.D.
From that date upto 278 A.D., when the Abhiras conquered
the Ikshvaku territory, the three unknown Ikshvakus must have
ruled in their own right.
being royal ladies, the merchants and artisans and the people
at large.
2. The Brihatphalayanas
After the fall of the Ikshvakus, some of the ruling families
on the east coast of Andhra followed the practice of using
their Gotras as their dynastic appellations. Among such fami
lies, the Vasishtha Gotras in Kalinga, the Salankayanas in the
KrishnaGodavari basin and the Ananda Gotras in the region
to the south of the river Krishna, are known from inscriptions.
Similarly, Brihatphalayana was also the Gotra indicating the
ancestry of the family.
The only king of this dynasty was Jayavarma. He was
known from his Kondamudi copper plate inscription. The
Kondamudi grant was in Prakrit and Palaeographically it is
54 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
All that is known of the Ananda Gotra kings is from the
light thrown by a copper plate grant of Attivarma from Gorantla,
another of Damodaravarma from Mattepad and the damaged
stone inscription from Chezarla. All these three inscriptions
are from the Guntur district itself. In the two copper plate
grants, no filial affiliations are given. Attivarma claims descent
from Kandara and Damodaravarma is silent on this. The two
copper plate grants are in Sanskrit except that the names of
the donees in the Mattepad grant and that of the donor In
the Gorantia plates are spelt in Prakritic way. While Attivarma
was a fervent devotee of Siva, Damodaravarma was a follower
of Buddhist faith. While the former was a 'hiranyagarbha
prasava', the latter was a 'hiranyagarbhodbhavodbhava'.
4. The Salankayanas
About the end of the third quarter of the third century
A.D., there was utter political and military confusion in the
coastal Andhra country, following the end of the Ikshvaku rule
which was probably brought about by the Abhiras and their
allies. To add fuel to the fire, the Ikshvaku feudatories like
the Brihatphalayanas were making their efforts to assert them
selves and to carve out for themselves a small but independent
principality of their own. The Brihatphalayanas in Kudurahara,
north of the river Krishna, the Ananda Gotras in Kandarapura,
south of the river Krishna within the region of North Guntur
and the Pallavas in the PrakasamNel.'ore tract, were contending
for extension of their sway at the cost of their neighbours.
is identified with the land on either side of the river Krishna at
its mouth. The Salankayanas were, like the Pallavas, Brahmins
who played the role of Kshatriyas. The word Salankayana which
was acti/ally their gotra name, denotes Nandi, the Bull of Siva.
The crestsymbol of both the Paltava and the Saiankayana
families was the Bull. Such similarities between them may
point out either their friendly and matrimonial alliances or a
common cultural background and a possible original home of
the two.
The Salankayanas were first in the service of the Sata
vahanas as their feudatories and frontier guards in Andhra
country. The Ikshvaku patronage to Buddhism that reached
Jaggayyapeta and Ghantasala may indicate the extension of
their suzerainty over the country north of the river Krishna in
the third century A.D., in which case the Salankayonas might
have been their feudatories. Subsequently when the Pallava
paramountacy stretched over southern Andhra country and also
across the river Krishna, the Salankayanas might have been
their feudatories for some time. These kings took delight in
proclaiming themselves as 'Bappabhattaraka Padabhakta1 (wor
shippers of the feet of their exalted parents) and worshipped
in particular Chitrarathaswami, i.e. SunGod, enshrining him
in a remple at their capital city Vengi which is identified with
two tiny hamlets 'Pedavegi' and 'Chinavegi' quite close to Eluru
in the West Godavari district.
it was in the reign of his elder son, Hastivarma II (332367
A.D.), the Salankayanas faced the danger from the north in
the shape of Samudragupta, the imperial Gupta ruler, who
had his successful southern expedition. The Allahabad prasasti
refers to him among the South Indian rulers, that were defeated
by Samudragupta. Hastivarma II seems to have clashed in
the early part of his reign with Mantaraja of Kurala, identified
with Kolleru lake or the region around it in the vicinity of
Vengi, for security as well as for supremacy. This was before
the two were overpowered by Samudragupta about 350 A.D
At the same juncture, with his brother Achandavarrna. grown
up and ambitious, he tried to secure the claims of his son,
Skandavarma to the throne after him. He did this by associating
the boy with himself in the administration of the kingdom
(Skandavarma described as Bataka Maharaja in Kanukollu
plates, issued the Kanteru plates independently without
reference to his father). However this associate boyking died
shortly thereafter and Hastivarma II had to be content with
his brother Achandavarrna as Yuvamaharaja. Achandavarma
might have ruled on his own for some years after his brother's
death. His son, Nandivarma II who was the last flicker of the
Salankayana power, ruled for ten years (Pedavegi plates). The
rule of the Salankayanas was brought to a close in the last
60 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
quarter of the fourth century A.D. with the ascendency of the
Vishnukundins.
of Buddhevarma and his son Buddhyankura at all. As regards
Maharaja Vijaya Skandavarma, taking Vijaya and Siva as honori
fics, scholars generally identify him with Maharaja Sivaskanda
\rarrria. Thus on the basis of the four Prakrit charters the
Pallava genealogy can be given as follows :
SIMHAVARMA
(Manchikallu inscription)
V
(SIVA OR VIJAYA) SKANDAVARMA
(Mayidavolu and Hirahadagalli plates)
V
BUDDHAVARMA
(Married Charudevi, the donatrix of the British Museum
plates)
V
BUDDHYANKURA
Of this list, only the first two were rulers. Since on the basis
of scriptal resemblances, the nearness of Simhavarma to the
Ikshvaku rulers is pointed out, tentatively the reign of Simna
varma may be fixed in the last quarter of the third century A.D.
(290 A.D.) and the reign of (Siva or Vijaya) Skandavarma in
the first quarter of the fourth century A.D, (310 A.D.)
5)
66 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
gained prominence as the centre of their political and cultural
activity by the second quarter of the fourth century A.D.
Probably under the rule of Maharaja Simhavarma ll, the issuer
of the Vesanta and Sakrapatna plates. It was in his reign,
his younger brother Yuvamaharaja Vishnugopa issued his
Uravapaili and Nedungaraya grants. This Yuvamaharaja, who
subsequently succeeded his elder brother to the throne as
Maharaja Vishnugopavarma, was defeated by Samudragupta
by 350 A.D. Some scholars say this Pallava Vishnugopa of
Kanchi formed a confederacy of some southern kings against
the north Indian invader. However it was a futile attempt on
the part of Vishnugopa.
With Samudragupta's expedition, the Paliava eclipse had
set in. The Kandaras (Anandagotras) becanre independent in
the Karma rashtra. The Cholas had their ascendency in the
Kavery valley in the south. The Talgunda inscription refers to
the ambitious and aggressive activity of Mayurasarma, the
founder of the Kadamba dynasty in the Karnataka. It was
again in the reign of Simhavarma IV, who ascended the throne
in 436 A.D. (references from Lokavtbhaga and Penukonda
grant of the Western Ganga Madhavavarma), the fallen pre
stige of the Pallavas was restored. In the north upto the mouths
of the Krishna, the territories were recovered from the Vishnu
kundins. In the West, to restrain the Sana aggressiveness in
the Anantapur, Kolar and North Arcot regions, Simhavarma IV
intervened in the Western GangaKadamba conflict and enth
roned Ayyavarma of the Ganga family.
With the accession of Nandivarma, issuer of the Udayen
diram plates, in the last quarter of the 5th century A.D., the
decline of the early Pallava family was seen. The Kadambas
had their aggressions and even the headquarters of the Pallavas
was occupied by them. In coastal Andhra the Vishnukundins
established their ascendency. The Pallava authority was con
fined to Tondaimandalam. With the accession of Simha Vishnu
father of Mahendravarma I. probably in 575 A.D., the glorious
imperial Pallava phase begins in the south.
The Pallavas were Brahmins of Bharadwaja gotra. The
early Pallavas styled themselves as Brahma Ksnatriyas. i.e., the
70 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
6. The Vishnukundins
THE GENEALOGY AND THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE
VISHNUKUNDINS
Here M.S. Sharma and others identify Madhavavarma II of the
Ipuru plates second set with Madhavavarma of the above three
records. This is untenable because the Trikutamalayadhipati'
Madhavavarma of the Ipuru platesll set was not a performer
of many sacrifices and not Maharaja tike Madhavavarma of the
other grants. On the other hand the epithets given to Madhava
varma I of the same lpurll set and those attributed to the
Madhavavarma of the three records seem to be similar. There
fore it is probable that Madhava Varma I of the Ipur second
set and Madhavavarma of the other grants were one and the
same. If so Maharaja Madhava Varma had two sons—Deva
varma and Vikramendravarma (through the Vakataka princess).
Accordingly the following genealogy may be derived —
The Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri . 73
Now in combining the first (I) and second (II) pedigrees
to arrive at final conclusion, scholars differ from one another
in assuming Madhavavarma of the Ipur I set and Polamuru
plates to be the same at Maharaja Madhava Varma of the other
records. Dr. D.C. Sircar, Dr. Ramarao and K. Gopalachari
advocate the following shorter genealogy —
(1) Dr. Hultzch thinks that the Ipur platesII set was earlier
than the Ipur ptatesI set.
74
HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
(2) The Ipur platesl set and Polamuru plates indicate The
matrimony of Madhavavarma with the princess of Tivaranagara
whereas Maharaja Madhavavarma of the other records is said
to have married the Vakataka Princess,
In regard to the place of the kings given in the Indra
palanagara grant of Govindavarma in Vishnukundin genealogy.
Dr. Rama Rao thinks that the rulers mentioned in the grant
of Govindavarma (Maharaja Indravarma, his son Madhavavarma
and his son Govindavarma) could be collaterals who occupied
the Vishnukindin territory after Vikramendravarma II. Or. Rama
Rao and Prof. Mirashi try to fill in the gap between 569 A.D,
and 615 A.D. or 624 A.D. the former being the last date of
Vikramendravarma II and the latter being the date of the
Eastern Chalukyan occupation of Vengi from these collecterals
However Dr. Ramacrrandraiya and B.N. Sastri fill in this gap
by placing here the genealogy of the Polamuru grant and the
Ipur plates I set, i.e. by identifying Vikramendravarma II with
Vikramahendra.
How are we then to explain the relationship of the three
kings given in the Indrapalanagara grant of Govindavarma with
76 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
the other known kings? After a careful study of the two
Indrapalanagara grants. Dr. Ramachandraiya and B.N. Sastri
come to the conclusion that the Indrapatanagara grant of
Govindavarma was the first record of the Vishnukundins and
that Govindavarma of the Indrapalanagara grant (issuer) and
Govinda Raja of the Indrapalanagara grant of Vikramendra
Bhattaraka were one and the same. The basis for the identifi
cation is the leanings of the two Govindavarmas towards
Buddhism. Thus with the above assumptions, we get—
On the basis of the Indrapalanagara grant dated in the
11th regnal year corresponding to Saka 488, Vikramendra
varma II may be said to have ascended the throne in Saka 477
i.e., 555 A.D. His Tundi grant gives his latest regnal year as
fourteen. So his reign period may be placed between 555 A.D.
and 569 A.D. His father Indravarma II, who issued the Rama
tirtham plates in his 27th regnal year might have ruled from
528 A.D. to 555 A.D. Vikramendravarma I, the father and
predecessor of Indravarma II was the offspring of a political
marriage between the Vishnukundin and the Vakataka families.
In accordance with the general principle, he can be assigned
25 years rule i.e., from 503 A.D. to 528 A.D.
By the middle of the 5th century A.D., the dynasty began
its imperial expansion under its most efficient ruler Madhavarma
(II), the great. The reign of Madhavavarma (461508 A.D.)
nearly for half a century is a golden age in the history of the
Vishnukundins. It was during this period, the small Vishnu
kundin dynasty was raised to the imperial dignity. A princess
of the then powerful ruling family of the Deccan the Vakatakas
was given in marriage to Madhavarma's son, Vikramendravarma.
This alliance with the great power made easy the task of
extending the Vishnukundin influence to the east coast and
vanquishing the petty chieftains lingering on in that area.
The Vishnukundin empire set its way again to the imperial
expansions and cultural prosperity under its able ruler 'Jans
sraya' Madhavavarma (IV) (573621 A.D.). This prudent king
spent his early years of rule in consolidating his position in
Vengi. The later part of his reign is marked by wars and
annexations. According to his epithets in Ipur I set and
Polamuru plates, Madhavavarma IV conquered Tivara, the
Somavamsi king of Mahakosala and married his daughter and
spent sometime in their capital, Trivaranagara. In his 37th
regnal year, he suppressed the revolt of his subordinate chief
the Durjaya Prithvimaharaja in Guddadivishya (modern Rama
chandrapuram Taluk in the East Godavari district).
6)
82 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
CULTURAL CONDITIONS
It is really a venture to try to speak, on the basis of a few
records available, about the contribution of the Vishnukundins
in various walks of life during that period. The society of the
period appears to be based upon the traditional Hindu fourfold
caste system. The Vishnukundins belonged to the priestly
class committed to arms. The fourth class swelled the military
ranks, in general people lived in harmony.
ADMINISTRATION
For administrative convenience, the empire might have
been divided into a number of rashtras and Vishayas. Inscrip
tions refer to Palki rashtra. Karma rashtra, Guddadi vishaya etc.
The ruler carried on administration depending upon the Sukra
niti. Madhavavarma III as the Trikutamalayadhipati shows the
appointment of members of the royal family as Viceroys for
strategical areas. Vishayemahattaras might have been the heads
of the vishayas. It seems that villages enjoyed autonomy with
in their jurisdiction.
In judicial administration, the king was the highest court
of appeal. Endowed with the knowledge of law and intelligence,
the Vishnukundin rulers established various kinds of ordeals
(divyas) in trails of disputes. They were known for their
impartial judgment and high sense of justice. Their army
consisted of traditional Chaturangabala. Hastikosa (officerin
charge of elephant forces) and Virakosa (officerincharge of
land forces) were referred in records. These officers issued
even grants on behalf of the kings. There might have been a
wellorganised administrative machinery for collection of land
revenue. Agrahara villages enjoyed tax exemptions. Sixteen
types of coins of the Vishnukundin rulers, brought to light by
Dr. R. Subrahmanyam, speak well of the economic prosperity
of the kingdom.
RELIGION
All the records of the Vishnukundins throw a flood of light
on the religious conditions of the period. The kings prior to
The Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri 83
LITERATURE
The Vishnukundins were also great patrons of learning
Learned brahmins were encouraged by gifts of lands and
ghatikasthanas (colleges) were established for the propagation
of Vedic studies. Being a greet believer in the efficacy of
sanatanadharma, Indrabhattaraka established many Ghatike
sthanas for imparting education on Vedic literature. Performance
of several elaborate Vedic ceremonies by Madhavarmas imply
the faith of the rulers in Brahmanism and popularity of Vedic
learning with the people during this period.
Apart from being patrons of learning, some of the Vishnu
kundin kings were by themselves men of letters of high cadre.
Vikramendravarma I was described as 'Mahakavi' in a record.
Further, an incomplete work on Sanskrit poetics called 'Jana
sraya Chhandovichhiti', was attributed to Madhavarma IV who
84 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
bore the title of 'Janasraya'. As is known from the available
records, Sanskrit enjoyed royal patronage. Telugu had not
yet grown to the stature of receiving royal patronage.
The Eastern Chalukyas
East Coast, several doubts arise. When did the actual con
quest of the coastal districts of Andhra take place? who were
the enemies from whom the Chalukyas conquered these terito
ries? When was Kubja Vishnuvardhana appointed as Viceroy
of the region? When did he assume full titles as a Maharaja?
Why was Vengi partitioned as a separate kingdom. These
questions which sound simple evoke many and sometimes
even conflicting answers.
THE DATE OF THE CHALUKYAN CONQUEST OF COASTAL
ANDHRA
The Maruturu grant of Pulakesin II gives us some informa
tion regarding this. The grant was made immediately after
the conquest by seizure of Pishtapuraka. This was indicated
by the phrase in the inscription in lines 13 and 14. i.e. 'Pishta
purakadana Grahananantaryena'. 'Adana' means seizure,
'grahana' means capture and 'anantaryena' means immediately
after. This phrase therefore clearly proves that the grant was
given immediately after Pishtapuraka was captured. The in
scription was issued in the eighth victorious reign of Pulakesin
II. Dr. N. Ramesan who edited the inscription has come to
the conclusion that it was issued in 616 A.D. So by 616 A.D.
Vengi must have been conquered by Pulakesin II. The details
of the Maruturu grant indicate the same. The King is described
as granting the village Maruturu from Kallura and the Aluka
Maharaja for whose benefit also the grant was made said to
have come from Mangalapura. Pishtapuraka is the modern
Pithapuram in the East Godavari district. Kallura is probably
to be identified with the modem Kollur and Mangalapura with
the modern Mangalagiri in Guntur district. The village that was
granted was Maruturu, a famous village of Narasaraopet Taluk
of the Guntur district.
However the Chalukyan conquest of the coast was not
affected in the course of a single campaign. There must have
been a strenuous warfare for some years.
WHO WAS THE ENEMY FROM WHOM THE CHALUKYAS
CONQUERED THE COASTAL DISTRICTS?
Whether it was the Durjaya family or the Vishnukunndin
family, there are doubts regarding the enemy from whom the
88 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
title of a Maharaja. If 624 A.D. is taken to be the starting
point of the Eastern Chalukyan chronology, the date of the
above inscription has been calculated to be 641 A.D. What
was the necessity for the partition of Vengi as a separate
kingdom from the Western Chalukyan empire? Hitherto it has
been tacitly assumed that this was a formal division and
Pulakesin II conferred independent sovereignty of Vengi on his
younger brother. It is improbable to hold that a great warrior
like Pulakesin II could not have administered Vengi also as
part of his kingdom and felt the need for a separate king.
Kopparam plates make it clear that Kubja Vishnuvardhana was
living only as Yuvaraja subordinate to his brother Pulakesin II
in the Vengi area. A revolution of Kubja Vishnuvardhana can
be ruled out of account since he seems to have been very loyal
and affectionate towards his brother. Though the Chipurupalli
grant of Vishnuvardhana was issued in 641 A.D. with the
appellation of Maharaja, he was himself not quite certain about
his title and did not mention his regnal year with the usual
phrase Pravardhamana Vijayarajya Samvatsare etc.
In this connection one should bear in mind for a moment
the course of history in the Western Chalukyan country to
understand the reason. The last ruling years of Pulakesin II
ended in a disaster. The great Pallava king Narasimhavarman I,
in order to wipe off the disgrace which his father Mahendra
varma had to sustain at the hands of Pulakesin II, inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Chalukyas and burnt Badami. Pulakesin II
actually lost his life in this encounter. This event was placed
somewhere in 641 A.D. by Fleet. After this there was an
interregnum in the Western Chalukyan power. The date 641
A.D. is exactly equivalent to the Chipurupalli grant of Kubja
Vishnuvardhana where he also haltingly made a reference to
himself as Maharaja. Just as the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the
Chalukyas of the Andhra line also proclaimed their independence
on the death of Pulakesin II and the eclipse of the Western
Chalukyan power. Thus it was in 641 A.D. when Pulakesin II
fell, Vishnuvardhana issued his Chipurupalli charter where he
made a very halting and modest reference to himself just as a
Maharaja and did not refer to the year as 'the Pravardhamana
The Eastern Chalukyas 91
Vijayarajya Samvatsare' since by that time his reign had not
firmly been established. He gave only a reference to his 18th
year of rule over Vengi perhaps counting his rule as a Viceroy.
Hence there is no necessity at all to postulate a formal division
of the kingdom into two. One important and interesting point
is the three events, i.e. the sack of Vatapi, destruction of Pula
kesin II, and Kubja Vishnuvardhana assuming the title of
Maharaja, occured in 641 A.D. itself. It is also probable that
when the disaster fell upon his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana,
who assumed full sovereignty over Vengi being 'Priya Anuja'
of Pulakesin II, could not have kept quite, but must have rushed
to the help of Badami and he too must have probably fallen
in the same onslaught against the Pallavas.
KUBJA VISHNUVAROHANA
It is widely accepted that Pulakesin II completed the con
quest of the Vengi country by 624 A.D. and appointed his
brother as Viceroy over it in that year. Soon after, this brother
92 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
competence ted the former carry the Chalukyan arms into the
heart of the Rashtrakuta dominions. Amoghavarsha I made
peace with him and gave his sister to the latter's son Kali
Vishnuvardhana. Inscriptions say of Vijayaditya that he fought
108 battles and erected 108 Siva temples.
His reign began with a short period of victory and expan
sion. Soon after his accession to the throne, he sent an
expedition against the BoyaKottams in the Nellore district
who attempted to assert their independence by defying his
authority. His army under Pandaranga dismantled the fort of
Kattem and reduced the Nellore fort to ashes and advanced
triumphantly to the frontier of Tondaimandalam. This expedi
tion resulted in the permanent annexation of the southeastern
Telugu country which was until that time a fief of the Pallavas.
Vijayaditya bestowed the governorship of this conquered terri
tory with Kandukur as the headquarters on Pandaranga who
is said to have worsted another chief called Rahana (whose
identity or country is not known) as well in battle.
In the reign of the Chalukya Bhima I (892921 A.D.), the
nephew and successor of Gunaga, the Rashtrakutas attempted
to avenge the defeats. Bhima, after putting down the internal
rebels, defeated even the Rashtrakutas in the battles of Nira
vadyapura and Peruvanguru. The death of his grandson.
Amma I (921927 A.D.) was followed by a continually fought
war of succession among many claimants. The Rashtrakutas
continued to interfere in this internecine warfare to their
advantage. One Ammaraja II (945970 A.D.) suppressed all
his rivals and ruled the kingdom from his new capital, Raja
mahendravaram. He was overthrown by his own brother,
Danarnava who got help from the Rashtrakutas. However
Danamava was defeated and killed by Jata Choda Bhima.
The Eastern Chalukyas 95
Bhima invaded Kanchi region in 1001 A.D. This was pro
bably in pursuance of the ambitious and imperialistic Chola
army of Rajaraja I who espoused the cause of Danamava's sons,
and having given his daughter in marriage to the younger of
the two princes (Vimaladitya), invaded Vengi in 9991000 A.D.
to restore them to their ancestral throne. Bhima laid seize to
Kanchi and captured it in 10012 A.D. But soon he was
expelled from the Chola territory. Rajaraja I then invaded the
coastal Telugu country again and having slain Bhima in battle
established Saktivarma I, the elder son of Danamava, firmly
in Vengi. However Vengi ceased to be an independent kingdom
and became a protectorate of the Chola empire.
This chola hegemony over the Telugu country of the mari
time plain was not liked by the Chalukyas of Kalyani who had
just replaced the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. With the result.
96 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
Vengi became a bone of contention and the battle arena of a
long war for the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas. Sakti
varma I (10001011 A.D.) faced the Western Chalukya inroad
into Vengi in 1006 A.D. and with the Chola help, he secured
his throne back.
On the death of Virarajendra and the assassination of his
son and successor Adhirajendra a few months later in 1070 A.D.
in Tanjore, the Eastern Chalukya Rajendra, a descendant through
his mother from Rajendra Chola I, went to Tanjore and ascended
the Chola throne as Kulottunga I, Later he reconciled with
his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule in Vengi
(106368 A.D.; 107275 A.D.) as an independent king. With
Viiayaditya's death in 107576 A.D., the Eastern Chalukya line
came to an end. Vengi became a Chola province under
Kulottunga I.
The Eastern Chalukyas 97
7)
98 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
From the above discusson, it can be said that the Eastern
Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas waged wars for 200 years with
a view to dislodge each other Both the dynasties tried to
establish their hegemony over the other, whenever the oppor
tunity came. The struggle was not strictly confined to these
dynasties only At times they took the help from the neighbour
ing kingdoms. The fortunes fluctuated from one dynasty to
the other. Neither of the powers could establish their grip
102 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
To the South of the Vengi kingdom were the Cholas who
became dominent having brought about fall of the Pallavas. Raja
raja, who is considered the greatest Chola ruler, ascended the
throne of Tanjore in 985 A.D. He pursued his imperialistic
ambitions with an aggressive attitude. He conquered and
consolidated the southern provinces and then in a mighty
sweep in the north, brought Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, Talaik
kadu and parts of southern Mysore under his rule. This Chola
advance into Mysore brought them into conflict with the
Kalyani Chalukyan power.
It is at this juncture Rajaraja thought that it was in the
best interests of the Cholas to see that the Eastern Chalukyas
did not make common cause with their cousins in the west,
for such a coalition would constitute a challenge to the rising
Chola power. He decided befriend the weaker as against the
The Eastern Chalukyas 103
stronger and create the traditional sphere of balance of power
in South India. He took advantage of the situation when the
sons of the Eastern Chalukya Danamava, being deprived of
their parental kingdom by Jata Choda Bhima, sought his help.
He espoused their cause and entered into matrimonial alliance
with them. He gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to
Vimaladitya, the younger of the two princes and his was but
a beginning of series of diplomatic marriages between these
two dynasties. He invaded coastal Telugu country twice and
in the second attempt in 100203 A.D., having slain Jata Choda
Bhima in battle succeeded in establishing Darramava's elder
son Saktivarma I firmly on the Vengi throne.
At the close of the reign of Vrmaladitya (101118 A.D.)
the succession to the Vengi throne was in dispute. His son
Rajaraja Narendra, through the Chola princess Kundavai, was
appointed crown prince and succeeded his father on the throne
of Vengi. But Vijayaditya VII, who was the stepbrother of
Rajaraja Narendra, seized power with the help of Jayasimha II,
the Western Chalukyan ruler. Rajaraja Narendra naturally
sought the help of his maternal uncle and overlord, the Chola
emperor Rajendra Chola I. The latter promptly dispatched
forces to his aid. The tradition of fighting on two fronts in
the north, which was started by Rajaraja Chola, was continued
by his son as well. Rajendra Chola I sent a powerful army
against Rattapadi to divert the attenton of Jayasimha II and
prevent him from sending effective help to Vijayaditya VII.
With this, the king of Kalyani was compelled to take steps for
the defence of his kingdom. On the Eastern Chalukyan front,
the Chola army ted by the general Soliyavarasan defeated
Vijayaditya and his Kalinga and Odda supporters in several
battles, took possession of the country on behalf of Rajaraja
Narendra and proceeded afterwards on a grand military expedi
tion to the Gangetic valley. To protect the rear of his army
campaigning in the Gangetic valley, Rajendra Chola I had his
sojourn on the banks of the Godavari, during which he en
throned his nephew Rajaraja Narendra as the ruler of Vengi
and celebrated the latter's coronation on 16th August 1022 A.D.
He even gave his daughter Ammangai in marriage to his nephew
who had by her a son Rajendra named after him.
oust his brother, seize the throne and keep himself in power
between 1031 A.D. and 1035 A.D. Even after this, Rajaraja
Narendra did not enjoy peaceful reign. About, the year 1042
A.D. the new ruler of Kalyani, Ahavamalla Somesvara I, with
whom Vijayaditya VII allied himself, sent an expedition against
Vengi. Rajendra Chola I sent some Chola forces to Vengi
under his Brahman general Rajaraja Brahmamaharaja. A bloody
battle took place at Kalidindi in the West Godavari district.
The result of the battle was indecisive. A lull prevailed in the
warfare after this battle.
On the death of Virarajendra and the assassination of his
son Adhirajendra in 1070 A.D., Rajendra Chalukya, a descen
dant through his mother from Rajendra Chola I, went to the
south and established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga
Chola I. He reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII
and allowed him to rule Vengi during the remaining years of
his life. With Vijayaditya's death in 1075 A.D., the Eastern
Chalukyan line came to an end. Vengi became a province of
the Chole empire. Kulottunga Chola I administered the pro
vince through his sons by sending them as Viceroys. However
108 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
SOCIETY
RELIGION
In the religious sphere. Buddhism which was dominant once
was now in a decadent position. Its monasteries were practi
cally deserted, when the Chinese traveller visited the Vengi
country. Due to their love of sacred relics in stupas, a few
might have lingered on, Ywan Chwang noticed some twenty
or more Buddhist aramas in which more than three thousand
Sramanas lived. He spent some time in Amaravati and studied
Mahasanghika Abhidamma with the help of two sramanas.
With the spread of Vajrayana Tantric cult and moral degrada
tion. Buddhism had lost ground and the Buddha at Amaravati
was in fact worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu.
Jainism. unlike Buddhism, continued to enjoy some sup
port from the people. This is evident from the several deserted
images in ruined villages all over Andhra. The inscriptions
also record the construction of Jain basadis and grants of land
for their support from the monarchs and the people. The
rulers like Kubja Vishnuvardhana, Vishnuvardhana III and Amma
II patronised Jainism. Vimaladitya even became a declared
follower of the doctrine of Mahavira. Bezwada. Jenupadu
(Aryavatam in East Godavari), Penugonda (West Godavari)
and Munugodu (Guntur district) were the famous jain centres
of the period.
The Eastern Chalukyas 111
LITERATURE
Great Epic in order to counteract the influence of Pampa's
Bharata (Jaina) in Karmada. He was ably assisted in his
endeavour by Narayana Bhatta who was proficient in eight
languages. Though incomplete, his work is universally ac
claimed as a masterpiece of art. It remains unrivalled for its
graceful end dignified diction and sweet, mellifious and elegant
verse.
8)
114 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The Velanati Chiefs were regarded as one of the Telugu
Choda families which claimed their descent from the illustrious
Cholas of South India. The words 'Choda' and 'Chola' are
taken to be synonymous. Velanadu corresponds to the
modem Guntur district. Some people regard it, as part and
parcel of 'Aruvelanadu' whereas some believe both as one and
the same. The chieftains who ruled over Velanadu came to
be known as the Velanati Chodas. In fact they belonged to
the Durjaya family, a Sudra clan. One of them, Rajendra
Choda II had even assumed the title 'Durjayakulaprakara'. These
Velanati chiefs were the subordinate allies of the Chalukya
Cholas of the south. They were entrusted with the responsi
bility of the governance of the Andhra region, which formed
a part of the Chola kingdom in the twelfth century A.D. 'As
a mark of their gratitude to their masters, the Cholas, the
Andhra chieftains of Velanadu described themselves as Velanati
Chodas and even named their children after their illustrious
monarchs.' Their capital was Dhanadapura or Sanaduprolu,
the modern Chandolu in the Guntur district.
after which it was overrun by the Kakatiyas and became a
part of their kingdom. These chieftains were Gonka I
(10761108 A.D.) Rajendra Choda 1 (110832 A.D.) Gonka II
(113261 A.D.), Rajendra Choda II (116181 A.D.), Gonka III
(118186 A.D.) and Prithviswara (11861207 A.D.).
Gonka I was regarded as the first important chief of the
Velanati family. When Kulottunga Chola sent his second son
Rajaraja MummadiChola as the Viceroy to rule over Vengi,
he appointed, on the occasion, Mahamandalesvara Velanati
Gonkaya, one of the most trusted and faithful subordinates
of his father, as the commanderinchief of the army. Gonka
continued to serve the successive ChalukyaChola princes of
Vengi until his death in 1108 A.D. He had to fight battles
along with his masters against the refractory vassal chiefs
who treacherously joined hands with the Lord of Kuntala
(Chalukyan ruler of Kalyani), Kalinga and Chakrakuta. It seems
that in the first year of Rajaraja CholaGanga's viceroyalty
(1084 A.D.), a number of local chiefs, under the orders of the
general Velanati Gonka I, assembled at Draksharama (shortly
after the arrival of the viceroy). To prevent any possible dis
sertion of the cause of the impenat family in the hour or
foreign invasion or internal rebellion, Gonka made those feuda
tory chiefs swear unswerving allegiance to king CholaGanga
before the shrine of the God Bhimanatha. It was a clever move
on the part the Velanati chief whose diplomacy and valour led
them destroy the enemies and subdue the refractory vassals.
Gonka assumed the title 'Chalukyarajyamulsstambha'. From
his records it is understood that he exercised his authority
as a vassal from the river Gundlakamma in the south to
Tripurantakam in the west.
About the year 1158 A.D., Gonka II came into clash with
the Kakatiya ruler Prola II. The latter, who expanded his
kingdom in Telangana at the cost of the dwindling Western
Chalukyan power, raided the Vengi territories. Gonka dis
patched his vassal Kota Chodayaraja along with the prince
Vira Rajendra at the head of a large army. Prola was slain
in the battle and to commemorate this victory, Chodayaraja
assumed the title 'Kakali Prola Nirdahana'.
During the period of hegemony of the Velanati Chodas for
a century, according to the poetical work 'Keyurabahu
charitramu', the country enjoyed plenty and prosperity. The
capital Dhanadapura (Chandolu) was a magnificent city with
beautiful structures and opulent markets. It was comparable
to the city of Kubera, The era witnessed aggressive Saivism
and Vaishnavism. The religious influence made itself felt in
temple architecture and the temples built in this age served
as centres of promoting learning and fine arts like music and
dance. Devadasi system was prevalent. Literature of this
period also was deeply influenced by the religious notions of
the people. Maliikarjuna Panditaradhya's 'Sivatatvasara' and
Palkuriki Somana's 'Basava Purana' reflect the same.
The Telugu Chela rulers of Renadu had the unique honour
of using the Telugu language in their official records. Those
records (inscriptions) belonging to the 7th and 8th centuries
A.D. were discovered at Jammulamadugu, Prodduturu and other
places. After the fall of the Renati Cholas, the Cuddapah
region passed into the hands of the Telugu Cholas of Pottapi.
The inscriptions in Telugu, belonging to the 11th century A.D.,
of these Pottapi Cholas were also discovered.
9)
130 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The first important chief in the family of the Nellore Chodas
was one Chola Bijjana. As a feudatory of the Western
Chalukya Someswara I (104268 A.D.) of Kalyani, he took
part in the wars of the Chalukyas and Cholas. In recognition
of the loyalty and services of his descendants to the Chalukyas
of Kalyani, Vikramadiya II (10761126 A.D.) appointed them
as rulers of Pakanadu.
to the ChalukyaChola ruler Rajaraja lII in restoring him back
to his throne by repulsing the attacks of Aniyanka Bhima,
Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas. Subsequently, whan the
Hoyasala Vira Narasimha's successor Somesvara, desirous of
making the ChalukyaChola ruler a puppet in his hands, joined
hands with the Pandyas and attacked Rajendra IIl, who ascended
the ChalukyaChola throne in 1246 A.D., Choda TiKka came
to the rescue of the emperor. He defeated both the Hoyasala
and the Pandyan forces and got thereby the Tondaimandalam
region for himself. He even assumed the title 'Cholasthapan
acharya'.
During the reign of Tikka's son and successor Manuma
siddhi II (124863 A.D.), the power of the Nellore Chodas was
at its low ebb. One Vijayagandagopala, probably a member
of the Telugu Cholas, secured the friendship of Somesvara and
Rajendra III and occupied the southern parts (Chengalput area)
of the Nellore kingdom, defying Manumasiddhi's authority. In
addition to this, Manuma was driven out from Nellore by his
agnates Tikkana and Bayyana The Vaidumba chief Rakkesa
Ganga occupied the Cuddapah region. Under these circum
stances, Manuma's wellwisher and minister Poet Tikkana. who
was a diplomat as well, went to Warangal and secured the
great Kakatiya monarch Ganapatideva's support for his master.
The Kakatiya forces effectively tackled the rivals of Manuma
siddhi and reinstated him on his paternal throne. Ganapatideva
got of course a big slice of Manuma's realm in the process.
The Kakatiyas
son Eriya in charge of Kurravadi in Koravisima near Warangal.
Koravi, which was part of the Mudigonda Chalukyan kingdom
under the suzerainty of the Eastern Chalukyas, was a bone
of contention between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern
Chalukyas. This Kurravadi kingdom was created as a check
on the Mudiginda Chalukyas on the eastern borders of the
Rashtrakuta empire. Eriya made Orugal (Kakatipura) his
capital.
this time due to poisoning by his brother Bhima). After this,
he marched on Vardhanapura, the capital of Bhima who had
poisoned his brother Chodadaya to death. Bhima fled to the
forest and the capital was easily captured by the Kakatiyas.
These conquests were also consolidated.
Rudradeva seems to have devoted the later part of his
reign to the conquest of the coastal region. He regarded him
self as the political successor of the Western Chalukyan
emperors and laid claim to the sovereignty over Vengi and
other parts of the coastal Andhra country, earlier conquered
and enjoyed by Vikramaditya VI and his son until 1133 A.D,
He started making his efforts to avenge his father's death in
the hands of the Telugu Chodas of Velanadu and their sub
ordinates. The latter were ruling over the territory (comprising
of the Kurnool, Guntur, Krishna and the Gddavari districts) to
the south of the Kakatiya kingdom. By the time of Rajendra
Choda lI, the decline had set in for the Velanadu kingdom.
The Chalukyas in the Vengi manetela were continuing their
intrigues as usual. Apart from this, during the years 117682
A.D., the battle of Palanadu was fought. Rudradeva rendered
military assistance to Nalagama's faction. In this battle, the
military strength of Velanadu had got weakened. Exploiting
the situation, Rudradeva led his forces into coastal Andhra and
conquered upto Srisailam and Trpurantakam in the south. In
1186 A.D., Gonka III of Velanadu might have lost his life in
battle with Rudradeva and his son Prithvisvara confined his
rule to the north of Godavari (Pithapuram). According to
Anmakonda inscription, his kingdom comprised the whole area
between Srisailam and Tripurantakam in the south, the
Malyavantam in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the east and
Kalyani in the west.
The history of the last decade of Rudradeva is a dark
spectrum. However in the last year of his reign (119596 A.D.),
he came into conflict with the Seunas (Yadavas) of Devagiri.
Whether it is a defensive war or offensive war, it is uncertian.
But one certainty is that Rudra suffered defeat and death in
his encounter with the Seuna king Jaitugl or Jaitrapala I.
The Kakativas 137
pala, who had his own political considerations (like his desire
to secure himself against an attack from Warangal side in the
event of a conflict with the aggressive Hoyasalas in the south)
in setting Ganapatideva at liberty.
gains. For no trace of the Kakatiya rule has so far been dis
covered to thenorth of Draksharama in the East Godavari
district (Rajanayaka's Draksharama inscription dated 1212
A.D.), The eastern Ganga king Ananga Bhima IIl and his sub
ordinates like Godhumarati and Padiyaraya soon asserted
their authority
When Tikka died in 1248 A.D., the Nellore kingdom was
plunged into lawlessness. One VijayaGandagopala seized
Chingleput and North Arcot districts leaving only Nellore and
Cuddapah districts to Tikka's son and successor Manuma
siddhi II. He allied himself with the ChalukyaChola heir
apparent Rajendra III and the Karnataka ruler Vira Somesvara.
At the same juncture, the agnates Tikkarra and Bayyana drove
away Manumasiddhi II from his capital Nellore. Rakkasa
Ganga, a scion of the Vaidumba family, ousted Manuma's
general Gangaya Sahini from his governorship and occupied
the Cuddapah region. Under these circumstances, Manuma
sought, through his loyal minister and the famous Telugu poet
Tikkana, the help of Ganapatrdeva. The Nayanipalli record
(Guntur district) refers to the march of a powerful Kakatiya
army under its general Samanta Bhoja to the south. Nellore
was reduced to ashes. Tikkana and Bayyana were killed. The
combined forces of the kings of Dravida and Karnataka and
The Kakatiyas 141
Ganapatideva had no male issue. But he had two daughters.
Rudramadevi and Genapamadevi. Rudramadevi or Rudramba
was given in marriage to a prince of the Eastern Chalukyan
lineage (of Nidadavolu) called Virabhadra. The second daughter
was given in marriage to Beta of the Kota family. Rudramadevi
was nominated as heir apparent and she began to rule the
kingdom conjointly with her father as his coregent from 125960
A.D. onwards, under the name of Rudradeva Maharaja. In
the first two or three years of her conjoint rule with her father,
the kingdom was thrown into confusion and disorder due to
Jatavarma Sundara Pandya I's invasion and the disastrous
defeat of the Kakatiyas along with their allies on the battle
field of Muttukur near Nellore Though Ganapati was ultimately
successful in turning back the tide of invasion, yet he suffered
loss of territory end prestige and his hold over his feudatories
and nobles was shaken. Under these circumstances, he retired
from active politics.
tangasimha' (lion to the rutting elephant, viz. the Gajapati), and
'Oddiyarayamanamardana' (the destroyer of the pride of Oddiya
raya). The Kakatiya power was thus reestablished in the
coastal Andhra country.
10)
146 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
community, of course, excited the jealousy of the Reddi chief
tains who grew sullen and discontented. Prataparudra even
centralised power as far as possible.
district), was sent against the Seuna territory on the western
frontier. Vitthala must have wrested the KrishnaTungabhadra
doab from the Seunas of Devagiri and fortified Raichur so that
the entire region could effectively be controlled from that fort.
rity. At the same time, the Hoyasala Ballala III invaded and
occupied a large part of Tondaimandalam, including perhaps
Kanchi, and forced some of the local chieftains, such as the
Sambuvaraya of Padaividu and the Yadavaraya of Chandragiri
to pay their allegiance. According to N.V. Ramanayya, at the
instance of AlaudDin Khilji, Prataparudra along with the
generals, the Padma Nayak chief Erra Dacha Nayaka along with
Induluri Rudra, Muppidi Nayaka and Devari Nayaka, marched
on the Pandyan territory. Ranganatha was driven away and
Nellore became part and parcel of the Kakatiya empire. Devari
Nayaka occupied Kanchi from the Hoyasala forces, defeated
both Ravivarma and Vira Pandya and anointed Sundara Pandya
at Viradhavaia. The Kakatiya authority was thus established
in the south upto Trichinopoly in the south.
The glory of the Kakatiya realm which was at its zenith
during the reign of Prataparudra, exited the jealousy of his
neighbours, especially the Yadavas of Devagiri and tire Oriya
rulers of Cuttack and led them even to make common cause
with any power that sought to humble the pride of the Kaka
tiyas. 'Unfortunately for the Andhras such a mighty power
came forth in the dynasty of the Imperial rulers (The Khaljis
and then the Tughlaks) of Delhi.' Alauddin Khalji was the
first Sultan of Delhi to undertake expedition against Andhra.
It is to be viewed as part of his grand scheme of invasions of
the Deccan and South India. S.K. Aiyangar rightly observes
in his work 'South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders' about
the motives of Alauddin in undertaking these expeditions
thus: 'Aluddin's object in these various invasions of the
Deccan and the farther south appears to have gone on farther
than making them the milehco for the gold that he was often
much in need for the efficient maintenance of his army to keep
Hindustan free from internal disturbances and invasion by the
Mughals (Mongols) from outside'.
Alauddin was by all counts, the first Muslim general who
crossed the Vindhyas and invaded the Hindu States of South
India. Being the nephew of Jalaluddin Khalji, the founder
of the Khalji rule in Delhi, he (Ali Gurshasp Malik was his real
name) rendered his services to his uncle and fatherinlaw
in crushing the revolt (AugSept. 1290 A.D.) of the disaffected
Turkish amirs led by Malik ChhajjuKishlu Khan, governor of
Kara. This young man, calculating, unscrupulous and aggres
sive', was eventually appointed governor of Kara. His domestic
misery (due to haughty and arrogant wife) increased his thirst
152 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
He realized that money was the first requisite and raid
on the neighbouring Hindu states and beyond the Vindhyas
appeared to assue a working capital for the furtherance of
his ultimate objective of capturing the throne of Delhi. In this
process, he first captured Bhilsa (Vidisha) near Bhopal, plun
dered and destroyed the richly endowed temples and collected
enoromous booty. Here he 'assiduously gathered knowledge
of the fabled wealth of southern Hindu kingdoms'. On the
pretext of invading Chanderi, Alauddin, as a fugitive prince,
marched in the winter of 1295 A.D. to Ellichpur and then passed
through Lasaura with his eight thousand picked cavalry. He
had his assault on the capital Devagiri of the Yadava kingdom,
when its main army had gone southwards under heir apparent
Singhana Deva. The ruler Ramachandra sued for peace. Even
Singhana who arrived from the south was also defeated.
Enormous booty and huge war indemnity were extracted.
Devagiri was reduced to a vassal state. This invasion 'not
only provided Alauddin with the money, he needed so badly
to further his ambitious plans to succeed to throne of Delhi
but also opened the way to South India to the Mahammadans,
none of whom had dared to cross the Vindhyas so far'.
fighting, the outer mud fort of Warangal was taken by storm.
While laying sieze of the inner stone fort, the Muslim army
devastated the country side, terrifying the inhabitants. Thus
Prataparudra was forced to submit. Peace was restored.
'War and peace with Sultan Alauddin made little difference,
the former involved death and the latter the loss of everything
that one possessed'. Malik Naib left Warangal with a high
booty 'a thousand camels groaned, under the weight of the
treasure'. Prataparudra remained a vassal of Delhi, paying
the stipulated amount of tribute every year thereafter.
RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
The Kakatiya monarchs were well known for their policy
of religious toleration. Among the reformist faiths. Buddhism
was a thoroughly spentup force by the eleventh century A.D.
Due to the patronage of the early Kakatiya rulers, Jainism
lingered on here and there, maintaining its individual character,
in 'Panditaradhyacharitra' and 'Basava Purana', references were
made to the persecution of Jains.
Among the Bhakti cults which replaced Buddhism and
Jainism, though Vaishnavism also flourished, it was the hey
160 HISTORYOFTHEANDHRAS
marriage with the Cholas of South India, it is natural that their
temples should show a happy blending of these two styles
of temple architecture. With regard to secular architecture,
since the forts began to play a dominant part in the defence
of the realm, they were built at Warangal, Raichur, Golkonda,
Rachakonda, Devarakonda and other places revealing the archi
tectural skills of the times. The entrances of the mudwall
and the stone citadel at Warangal are magnificent examples
of mediaeval defence arrangements.
The great Ramappa temple at Palampeta is said to have
been built in 1213 A.D. by Recherla Rudra, one the generals
of Ganapatideva. At the eastern entrance of this temple raised
on a high platform stands the beautifully symmetrical and life
like image of the monolithic Nandi with marvellous smoothness
and polish, displaying extraordinary skill in carving the nume
11)
162 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
rous details of its ornamental hangings. The outside of the
temple is decorated by a variety of figures including deities,
warriors, musicians and dancers. The twelve figure brackets,
springing from the shoulders of the outer pillars and nominally
supporting the protruding caves of the roof of the temple,
represent the dancing artists in different postures. The other
temples at Katakshpur, Nagnur, Nagulapadu, Panagal, Attirala,
Manthani, and Bejjanki and the Toranas (gateways) at Warangal
and Veerakals (herostones) at different pieces also exhibit the
same artistic merit of the Kakatiya times. The fine arts of
music and dance also received patronage at the Warangal court.
DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE
Somanatha was the first poet who attempted to write in 'Desi'
(Janu Tenugu). His 'Basava Purana' is in popular Dwipada
metre. Gona Buddharaja's 'Ranganatha Ramayanamu' in the
same twofooted verse, 'Bhaskara Ramayanamu' ascribed to
Bhaskara, Mallikarjunabhatta and others and the works of
Nanne Choda, Manchana, Malliya Rechana, Baddena, Siva
devayya, Madiki Singana and Yathavakkula Annamayya enriched
the Telugu literature during the age of the Kakatiyas New
styles of Telugu poetry, like Prabhandha and Staka, made their
appearance.
CHAPTER 7
This conquest of the Telugu country end the farther south
and the subsequent destruction of Kampili and the subjugation
of the Hoyasalarajya by Ulugh Khan (later Mohammad Bin
Tughlak) had farreaching consequences. When Alauddin
Khilji conquered the southern states, he was wise enough not
to follow the policy of direct annexation. After conquering
these territories, he left them all independent and accepted
tributes from the defeated states. As long as these states
regularly paid their tributes end acknowledged the supremacy
of Delhi, they were let alone. However the Tughlak Sultans
failed to appreciate and accept the wisdom of this policy. With
the result, they followed the policy of annexation. Every at
tempt was made to create the defeated states as provinces
of the Delhi empire.
With the advent of the Muslim rule in the Telugu country
and other parts of the south, conditions underwent a drastic
change. During the stay of Ulugh Khan in Telangana, he tried
to consolidate his conquests and organise the administration.
He appointed Malik, Amirs and other officers of state and
placed garrisons in strategic centres. The overall supervision
was entrusted to the Daulatabad governor. The Muslim rule
was tyrannical and oppressive and the people began to groan
under hardships. The plight of Andhradesa under the Muslim
rule is graphically described in the contemporary Vilasa copper
plate grant of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka, The record says, "In
a hundred sinful ways, the rich were tortured for the sake of
money. Merely on beholding the Parasikars (Muslims) some
abandoned their lives. Brahmins were disallowed to perform
their religious rites and rituals. Temples were destroyed and
idols were desecrated and broken. All the agraharas, which
had long been in the enjoyment of the most learned, were taken
away. Forcibly deprived of the fruits of their cultivation, the
husbandmen, both the rich and poor, got ruined. In that great
calamity, people could not regard their money, wives and other
earthly belongings as their own. The wretched Yavanas
(Muslims) revelled always in drinking wine, eating cow's flesh.
The Age of the Musunuri Chiefs and the Reddis 167
sporting in amour and killing the Brahmins. When such is the
case, how could the world of living beings exist? Situated
as the country was without the possibility of a saviour being
conceived even in imagination, the land of Telinga, tormented
in this way by those Yavana warriors who were exactly like
Rakshasas, was in flames like a forest surrounded by wild fire".
Taking advantage of the death of the Delhi Sultan Ghiya
suddin and the preoccupation with affairs nearer home of his
son and the new Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlak in the year
1325 A.D., Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka with the help of the
confederate forces detached the Muslim armies in important
centres, inflicted a series of defeats on them and established
himself in the Godavari region with Rekapalle in the Bhadra
crtalam taluk. In appreciation of the services rendered by
Annamantri in this war, the village Aredu in the West Godavari
district was granted to him. Prolaya Vema Reddi assumed
the epithet 'Mlechchhabdi Kumbhodbhava' (Agastya to the
Oceon, i.e. the Mlechchhas), indicating his active participation
in the same war of liberation.
As Prolaya had no children, he was succeeded by his
cousin Kapaya Nayaka (1333 A.D.1368 A.D.), who had his
training in statesmanship, warfare and administration under the
former. Kapaya had now before him the task of liberating the
Andhra country lying to the west of the Eastern Ghats (Telan
gana). His Polavaram, Pillalamarri and Ganapesvaram inscrip
tions, Anitalli's Kaluvacheru grant and the literary accounts like
Velugotivari. Vamsavali and Ferishta's and Barani's accounts
help us to reconstruct the history of his career and also of the
times. Kapaya is referred as Kanya Nayak or Krishna Naig
in the Muslim accounts.
After the departure of the Sultan from the south, Kapaya
Nayaka plunged himself into action. He reinforced his army.
According to Ferishta, Kapaya received help from even Hoyasala
Ballala III. With the allied forces, he drove away Malik Maqbul
and occupied Warangal in 1336 A.D. He assumed the titles
like 'Andhra Suratrana' and 'Andhradesadhisvara,'
of his reign period are not available. Ever since the establish
ment of the two kingdoms of the Rayas of Vijayanagara and
the Reddis of Addanki, they were locked up in a territorial strug
gle for supremacy in the coastal region. An inscription of
Kampana, younger brother of Harihara I dated 1346 A.D., indi
cates that the Vijayanagar generals wrested from the Reddis
the region north of Pennar, that is to the southwest of Kanigiri
and Kandukur. Similarly hostility existed between the Reddis
and the Rajukonda Velamas (the Recherla chiefs).
In order to strengthen the defences of the realm, Prolaya
Vema built several forts at places like Dharanrkota, Chandavolu,
Vinukonda, Kondavidu and Bellamkonda and stationed strong
garrisons there. He gave one of his daughters in marriage to
Eruva Choda Bhima, son of Bhaktiraja. Being a pious Hindu,
he gave protection to the pious Brahmin and the sacred cow.
He built temples and tanks and gave liberal grants to Brahmins.
Public welfare activities were undertaken. Prolaya Vema was
also a patron of learning. The famous Erra Pragada was his
courtpoet.
Bahamanis and the Recherlas, the Vijayanagara ruler Bukkaraya I
occupied Srisailam end Markapuram areas.
Inspite of the problems of security beset to his kingdom,
Anavota paid much attention to the prosperity of his realm.
He renewed in 1358 A.D. the charter of security (abhayasasana)
granted earlier by Kakati Ganapatideva. As a result, the traders
of Motupalli got absolute safety and security. All vexatious
exactions were abolished. Only reasonable taxes and tithes
were collected from the merchants. Like his father, Anavota
too fostered the Hindu way of life.
was not undisputed. His right to the throne was challanged
by his cousins Vema and Macha, sons of Pedakometi Reddi,
The kingdom was plunged into a civil war. Kumaragiri emerged
victorious thanks to the active support given by his brother
inlaw Kataya Vema Reddi. The civil war came to an end only
when Pedakomati Vema was promised that he would be
Kumaragiri's successor at Kondavidu.
12)
178 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The Reddi rulers along with the aristocracy and the mer
chant princes enthusiastically extended their patronage to
Sanskrit, the sacred language of Hindu religion and culture.
One unique feature of these kings is that almost all were great
scholars and distinguished authors themselves. Kumaragiri,
Kataya Vema and Pedakomati Vema were the most outstanding
among them. Kumaragiri was the author of Vasantarajiyam,
a famous treatise on the art of dancing. Komati Vema wrote
Sahitya Chintamani, Sangita Chintamani and Sringaradipika.
His court poet Vamanabhattabana wrote Vira Narayana Charita
in Sanskrit prose.
the war to its logical conclusion since they were badly in need
of friends against their arch rivals the Bahamani sultans and
the Velamas of Rajukonda who formed a mutual alliance. Hence
an agreement was reached according to which Harihara II had
to give up Tripurantakam and Vinukonda and Katayavema had
to agree to give away a major portion of Srisailam region to
Harihara II. This alliance was further cemented by a matri
monial alliance. Harihara II gave 'his daughter in marriage to
Katayavema's son Kataya.
no other 90 except to depend upon Firoz Shah. However
Allada, defeated and drove out the enemies from Rajah
mahendravara Rajya. In the meantime, to help the Rajah
mundry power, Devaraya I sent some of his divisions end
captured Motupalli the famous seaport of the kingdom of
Kondavidu. Panugal in the Nalgonda district was the base of
his operations against the Bahamani sultan. Some of his forces
marched into the Bahamani territory. Firoz Shah retreated
from the coastal districts and hastened to attack Panugal, Now
free from the Muslim pressure, Allada turned his attention
solely to destroy Pedakomati Vema's power. The latter was
decisively defeated on the field of Rameswaram (Razole taluk
of the East Godavari district) and was forced to retire to
his own territory.
Devaraya II died in 1446 A.D. since his son and successor
Mallikarjunaraya was beset with many difficulties at home, the
Vijayanagara forces were recalled from Rajahmundry. Some
time about 1448 A.D. Virabhadra Reddi died. Kapilesvara must
have been overjoyed at these developments. He sent promptly
his forces under the leadership of his sort Hamvira into the
Rajahmundry kingdom. The Reddi power fell. The Gajapati
rule was established over these territories. Thus the Reddi
kingdom of Rajahmundry was liquidated. With this, the Vajaya
nagara hegemony over the coast of Andhra especially to the
north of Krishna received a set back. The Gajapatis began to
dominate the scene in Coastal Andhra.
CHAPTER 8
1. According to the first tradition, the two brothers Harihara
and Bukka, who were in the service of the king of Warangal
at the time of destruction of that kingdom by the Muslims in
1323 A.D., escaped with some cavalry men to Anegondi area.
They were being accompanied by Brahmin Madhavacharya
Vidyaranya and by some means not stated became lords of
that tract and afterwards founded the city of Vijayanagara.
2. The second tradition asserts that the two brothers were
in the service of the Mahammadan governor of Warangal, sub
sequent to its first capture in 1309 A.D. They were despatched
against the Hoyasala Ballala under the leadership of Malik Kafur
in 1310 A.D., which resulted in the capture of the Hindu capital
Dwarasamudra; but a portion of the force, to which these
brothers belonged, suffered defeat and the brothers fled to the
mountainous tract near Anegondi. Here they met holy Madhava
and with his help, they established the kingdom and the capital
city.
patriotism triumphed in the end and they threw in their lot
with their coreligionists to protect South India from the Muslim
penetration.
4. The fourth tradition refers to the hermit Madhava himself
founding the city after the discovery of a hidden treasure,
ruling over it himself and leaving it after his death to a Kuruba
family member who established the first regular dynasty (i.e.,
Sangama).
However, the very basis for the Karnataka origin of the
founders of the Vijayanagara empire is defective. The same
Ferishta, who stated that Ballala IIl built in 1344 A.D. the
Vijayanagara fort after the name of his son in the northern
frontier of his kingdom, also said that the city was founded
by a Hindu prince who had been taken captive and set free by
the Muslims. With regard to Ferishta's date 1344 A.D. for
the foundation of the Vijayanagara city, it is against all the
known chronological facts. Ballala III died in 1342 A.D. itself.
Further the Delhi Sultan was having his dominion exercised from
1328 A.D. to almost upto 1336 A.D. over the Anegondi region
and subsequently Harihara I held his sway over the same area.
Hence, for any sound historical argument, such illinformed and
self contradictory statements of Ferishta cannot be taken as
the basis.
Further, there is no concrete proof to show that the Sultan
of Delhi destroyed Dwarasamudra in 132728 A.D. On the
other hand, the Muslim chronicles affirm that Ballala III handed
The Vijayanagara Empire 193
over the rebel Bahauddin to the Sultan and made peace with
him. This fact clearly indicates that there was no necessity
for the Sultan to destroy Dwarasamudra, There is also no
evidence to prove that Harihara and his brother were ever in
the service of Ballala III. Contrary to this, there is epigraphical
and literary evidence to show that Harihara and Ballala fought
with one another. Another thing is that simply because the
area, over which the Sangama brothers established their autho
rity, relates to Karnataka, and the language which was patro
nised by them and in which half the inscriptions were issued
happened to be Kannada, and the titles borne by them happened
to be Kannada, one should not jump to the conclusion that
the founders of the empire were Kannadigas. It is but natural
for the rulers of any dynasty to develop and promote, to issue
their records in and to assume their titles in the local language
especially in the land of their adoption. Further, though some
what late in composition and legendary in nature, the very
Kannada chronicles like 'Keladi Nripavijayam', 'Rajakalanirnaya',
and 'Siva tatva Ratnakara' assert the tradition that the founders
of the Vijayanagara empire were officers in the court of pratapa
rudra. Thus the theory of the Karnataka origin of the Vijaya
nagara appears to be untenable.
13)
194 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
of the Sultan and were set free for their upright conduct in
prison. When the people of Kampili revolted in 133435 A.D.
against the Muslim governor, the two brothers were sent back
to quell the revolt and administer the region as governors. But
they established their independent government with the help
of a sage at Anegondi,
Of late, N. Venkataramanayya, more or less on the tines
of Sewell, developed and postulated the Andhra origin of the
founders of Vijayanagara. Taking into consideration the
evidence of tradition furnished by works like Vidyaranya
Kalajnana, Vidyaranya Vrittanta, Rajakalanirnaya, Piramaha
samhiti and Sivatatva Ratnakara, the evidence of the Muslim
historians like Ziauddin Barani, Isarni and Ferishta, the evidence
of the foreign visitors like Ibn Batuta and Nuniz and the
evidence of inscriptions like Gozalavidu record, Venkataramanay
ayya states that "the founders of Vijayanagara were at first in
the service of Prataparudra of Warangal, and that when that
monarch was defeated by Muhammad Bin Tughlak and taken
prisoner, they fled to Kampili and took refuge in the court of
Kampilideva. They were, however, captured by the Sultan
after the sack of Kampili in A.D. 1326 and were carried away
to Delhi where they were forcibly converted to Islam. On the
outbreak of a rebellion in Kampili and the collapse of the
provincial government, they were released by the Sultan from
prison and sent with an army to Kampili to reconquer it from
the rebels and rule the province as his deputies. This they
successfully accomplished; but they did not long remain loyal
196 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
to the Sultan. They came under the influence of Vidyaranya
who persuaded them to renounce Islam, and threw in their
lot with the Andhra nationalists who had just then succeeded,
under the leadership of Kapaya, in expelling the Musulmans
and reestablish their national independence. Harihara and
Bukka then reverted to their ancient faith and, having declared
their independence, assumed the leadership of the Hindus of
Kampili in their fight against the Musulmans."
VIDYARANYA
He realized that money was the first requisite and raid
on the neighbouring Hindu states and beyond the Vindhyas
appeared to assure a working capital for the furtherance of his
ultimate objective of capturing the throne of Delhi. In this
process, he first captured Bhilsa (Vidisha) near Bhopal, plun
dered and destroyed the richly endowed temples and collected
enormous booty. Here he 'assiduously gathered knowledge
The Vijayanagara Empire 199
of the fabled wealth of southern Hindu kingdoms'. On the
pretext of invading Chartderi, Alauddin, pretending as a fugitive
prince, marched in the winter of 1295 A.D. to Ellichpur and
then passed through Lasaura with his eight thousand picked
cavalry. He had his assault on the capital Devagiri of the
Yadava kingdom, when its main army had gone southwards
under heir apparent Singhana Deva. The ruler Ramachandra
or Ramadeva sued for peace. Even Singhana who arrived from
the south was also defeated Enormous booty and huge war
indemnity were extracted. Devagiri was reduced to a vassal
state. This invasion 'not only provided Alauddin with the
money he needed so badly to further his ambitious plans to
succeed to throne of Delhi but also opened the way to south
India to the Muhammadans, none of whom had dared to cross
the Vindhyas so far.'
Alaud'din then hatched a plot, assassinated Jalaluddin,
won the nobles over to his side with the Deccan money and
usurped the Delhi throne in 1296 A.D. He was obliged to keep
a large and effective army in order to keep the nobles, under
check, maintain law and order, subjugate and conquer the
independent and semiindependent states, and to check the
Mongol menace. His revenue reforms were due to his desire
to increase state resources. The execution of his policy of
conquest of north India drained mostly these resources. He
soon felt the need to look for money outside his territory. His
assiduously gathered earlier knowledge of the fabled wealth
of southern Hindu kingdoms beyond Devagiri came to his help,
instead of conquering and annexing these kingdoms, he
shrewdly apted for squeezing them of their immense treasures
and making them pay tributes regularly to augment the imperial
treasury. S.K. Aiyangar rightly observes in his work 'South
India and Her Muhammadan Invaders' about the motives of
Alauddin in undertaking the southern expeditions thus : "Ala
uddin's object in these various invasions of the Dekkan and
the farther south appears to have gone no farther than making
them the milchcow for the gold that he was often much in
need for the efficient maintenance of his army "
200 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
Kafur's forces defeated the Yadava king in 1307 A.D. and
established the supremacy of Delhi over Devagiri. Malik Kafur
even made captive the family of the ruler Ramadeva. Ramadeva
was,however, welltreated at Delhi and sent back to south
with heavy presents. He felt obliged to Alauddin and remained
loyal to him. This was a diplomatic move by the Sultan and
it paid dividends and Alauddin was thus able to get a loyal
ally in the south who proved to be of great help in his later
campaigns.
To wipe out the disgrace of defeat which the Delhi army
faced in the hands of Prataparudra II, Malik Kafur, assisted by
Ramadeva, entered Telangana, defeated Prataparudra in January,
1310 A.D., seized all his accumulated wealth and forced him
to pay annual tribute to the Sultan. He then spent the sub
sequent two years in subjugating the Hoyasala and the Pandyan
kingdoms. Among other things even temples were not spared
from loot in these victorious expeditions. Malik Kafur once
again marched on Devagiri in 1312 A.D. when Ramadeva's son
and successor raised the standard of revolt. Devagiri was
conquered.
Following the death of Alauddin in 1316 A.D., there was
anarchy in the country due to war of succession and palace
intrigues. Taking advantage of this, Devagiri declared itself
independent. Soon after restoring order in the north, Ateud
din's successor Qutbuddin Mubarak personally took the field
against Devagiri. The Yadava kingdom came into the posses
sion of the Sultan. Mubarak's general Khusrau Khan collected
the arrears of tribute from Prataparudra; Gulbarga, Dwara
samudra and Madura were once again reduced to submission.
Bahauddin had taken shelter. The Hoyasala ruler Ballala Ill was
not prepared to risk his kingdom for the sake of a refugee. He
made peace with the Sultan by handing over Bahauddin and
accepting the sovereignty of Delhi. Thus the entire peninsula
from Tapti to Cape Camorin with the exception of Jajnagar
or Orissa, was included in the Delhi Sultanat. The Sultan
stayed in Deccan for two years and made arraignments for
the administration of the newly acquired territories.
In the southeast, the Reddis were driven out from their
anccstoral house, the lower Pennar valley. Meanwhile in tire
north of the Krishna, the Deccan amirs revolted against Delhi
and founded the Bahmani kingdom in 1347 A.D. under A!aud
din Bahman Shah. Ferishta and TabaTaba mention that Alaud
din waged war against Harihara I and defeated him. But there
are no evidences to prove this war between Vijayanagara and
Bahmani kingdoms at this stage.
In 1358 A.D., Bukka, after entering into an alliance with
the Musunuri chief Kapaya Mayaka of Warangal, invaded the
Raichur doab. The allied forces were totally defeated by the
Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah I. Finally Kapaya Nayaka
capitulated and gave an immense treasure as indemnity and
a magnificent throne set with precious stones. To punish
Bukka, the ally of Kapaya, the Sultan ordered him to pay the
musicians who had given the entertainment in his Gulbarga
court. But the proud Bukka insulted the messenger of the
Sultan, invaded the dcab, captured Mudgal and ravaged the
territory (1366 A.D.). The infuriated Sultan crossed the Krishna
and recaptured Mudgal. Bukka fled to Adoni and later retreated
to Vijayanagara. The Sultan ordered a general massacre of
the Hindus around the city and this made Bukka sue for peace.
A treaty was concluded (1368 A.D.) and both the parties agreed
to the river Krishna to be the boundary between the two
kingdoms and in future wars, the noncombatants should not
be molested.
War again broke out in 1377 A.D. between the new
Bahmani Sultan, Mujahid Shah and Bukka over the question
of the Raichur doab Mujahid marched on Adoni and later
the city of Vijayanagara. He could not succeed in seizing
either one. Meanwhile he was murdered by his hostile uncle
Daud Khan.
The Vijayanagara Empire 209
In 136465 A.D., shortly after the first phase of his war
with the Bahmani Sultan came to an end, Bukka was engaged
in a war with the Reddis of Kondavidu. Little is known about
the causes and events of this war. The Reddi ruler was
defeated. Ahobalam and Vinukonda with their depndent terri
tories were annexed to the Vijayanagara kingdom.
14)
210 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
Bukkaraya's son Harihara II ruled for 27 years and con
solidated the supremacy of Vijayanagara all over southern
India. Soon after his accession to the throne, he replaced his
cousins by his own sons as governors of provinces and made
an attempt thus to forestall the tendencies to disruption due
to the ambitions of his more distant relatives. He succeeded
in putting down rebellions and enforcing his authority. His
son Virupanna played an important role in bringing back the
Tamil country to subjection. The final extinction of the Madurai
Sultanate took place in 1378 A.D. After the subjugation of the
Tamil country, Virupanna led an expedition to the island of
Ceylon and exacted tribute from its ruler,
Harihara II, through his son Devaraya I, who was the
governor of Udayagiri, deprived the Kondavidu Reddis of their
possessions in Kurnool, Nellore and even parts of Guntur during
the period 138285 A.D. When the alliance between the
Velamas of Rajakonda in Telangana and the Bahmanis spelt
danger to both Kondavidu and Vijayanagara, Harihara II allied
himself with the Reddis through a matrimonial! alliance. He
gave his daughter to a son of the valiant Reddi general Kataya
vema. Two expeditions were sent into Telangana before the
end of 1390 A.D. Finally it was in the year 1397 A.D. Panugal
was taken.
After the death of Harihara II in 1404 A.D., the war of
succession broke out among his surviving three sons and it
lasted for about two years. At first, Virupaksha succeeded
in securing the throne, but was soon removed by Bukka II.
who ruled for two years. Finally, Devaraja I became the king
and celebrated his coronation on 5th November 1406 A.D.
Early in his reign Devaraya I had to face the invasion of
the Bahmani Sultan, Firoz Shah. Ferishta says that it was
the result of Devaraya's infatuation for a beautiful goldsmith
girl who lived in Mudgai. But other accounts attribute it to
the Sultan's determination to wage a Jihad (holy war) against
the Vijayanagara king. Sayyad Ali states that Firoz returned
with a huge amount of money collected from the Raya. This
discomfiture of Devaraya I was taken advantage of by the
Reddis of Kondavidu. Peda Komati Vema Reddi occupied the
rich territories of Udayagiri. He was in league with Firoz and
the Velama ruler Anadeva. To counteract this tripple alliance.
212 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
Devaraya II was by far the greatest ruler of the Sangama
dynasty. He was involved in a series of wars with the Bahmani
rulers. Ahmad Shah (142236 A.D.), the brother and successor
of Firoz Shah, soon after his accession to the throne, desirous
of avenging the humiliating defeat at Panugal, invaded the
Vijayanagar empire. Devaraya II, with his new ally Anavota II
of Warangal, penetrated as far as Etgir in the Gulbarga district.
While he was successfully attacking the enemy on his own
soil, the king of Warangal deserted on the battlefield. The
Vijayanagara army suffered defeat. Moreover, Bhanudeva IV,
the king of Orissa, invaded the coastal Andhra country. Ahmad
Shah took the offensive and laid waste the Vijayanagara terri
tories. According Ferishta, the Raya sued for peace. It must
be noted in this context that the Sultan shifted his capital
from Gulbarga, near the Vijayanagara frontier, to Bidar, situated
in the hilly tract farther north in the interior of his dominions.
This transfer of the capital was not without significance. The
incessant wars with Vijayanagara and some sudden attack
on Gulbarga probably compelled the Sultan to transfer it.
The glorious reign of Devaraya II came to an end with his
death in 1446 A.D. The immediate political situation at Vijaya
nagara is not definitely known. The general assumption is
that he was succeeded by his son Mallikarjuna. But literary
and epigraphic evidence shows that Devaraya's brother Vijaya
raya II ruled for a short time in 146667 A.D. The dessensions
in the royal family and the patricidal wars from 1446 A.D.
onwards proved disastrous to the Sangama dynasty, which was
finally replaced by the Saluvas.
laid seize to Vijayanagar but the city defied all their efforts
to capture it. The invading armies had to retire without ac
complishing much, Kapilesvara, however, reduced the Reddi
kingdom of Rajahmundry and took Kondavidu before 1454 A.D.
The Kshatriya and Velama chieftains of Telangana helped him
in his enterprise. Subsequently, Kapilesvara extended his con
quests upto Srisailam and included a large part of the Kurnool
district. His son Hamvira proceeded against Mahmud Gawan,
defeated the Bahmani forces, captured Warangal and later, on
Humayun's death in 1461 A.D, Bidar also. He then conquered
Udayagiri in the Nellore district and Kanchipuram and Trichinc
poly in the southern provinces of the Vijayanagar empire (1463
A.D.). The Telugu districts became part of the empire of
Orissa for some years, But the sovereignty of Vijayanagara
in the southern lands was upheld by its powerful nobles such
as Tirumalaideva Maharaja and Saluva Narasimha. Tirumalai
deva held Trichinopoly, Tanjore and Pudukkottai and Narasimha.
the governor of Chandragiri, was prominent in the centre and
in the eastern parts of the empire. These nobles rose into
prominence and resisted the Bahmani and Gajapati aggressions.
SANGAMA DYNASTY
SALUVA DYNASTY
The Vijayanagara Empire 219
The Saluvas make their first appearance in Andhra in the
first half of the 14th century A.D. simultaneously with Harihara
and Bukka, the founders of Vijayanagara. As noted above.
Mangidejva of the family took a leading role in the Madurai
campaign of Kumara Kampana and thereby got the title 'Saluva'.
From then onwards, his descendants came to be known as
220 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
the Saluvas. They were of Atreya gotra and disciples of the
Vaishnava teacher Tatacharya. They claimed themselves to
be Kshatriyas.
invade the coastal Andhra. Before 1448 A.D, he occupied the
entire Rajahmundry kingdom. Sometime between 1454 A.D.
and 1455 A.D. Kondavidu, Addanki and Vinukonda which formed
part of the Vijayanagara empire, were also occupied. Later,
the Bahmanis also suffered territorial loss. Then Kapilesvara
commissioned his son Hamvira to lead the grand army to the
south. Udayagiri Kanchi, Padaividu, Veludilampatti—Savidi,
Tiruvaruru and Tiruchirapalli, one after the other fell into the
hands of the Gajapatis. Chandragiri thus passed into the
hands of the Gajapatis before 1464 A.D. The 'Oddiyan Galabhai'
for a time shook the very foundations of the Vijayanagara
empire.
Saluva Narasimha, at the time of his death, entrusted the
care of the empire and of his two young sons to his loyal
general end minister Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. On his death,
Narasa Nayaka raised his elder son Timmabhupa to the throne
and himself began to act as the Rakshakarta (protector). This
elder prince was murdered by an enemy of Narasa Nayaka in
order to foist the crime on the head of the Regent. But the
younger prince was crowned and he came to be called Immadi
Narasimha But Narasa Nayaka remained the Regent and
retained all the powers in his hands in the best interests of
the realm and even 'assumed the royal style along with his
Saluva titles'.
The Vijayanagara Empire 225
In order to assert the effective central authority in the
south, Narasa Nayaka undertook an expedition against the chiefs
and nobles in the south. He defeated the tyrannical and oppres
15)
226 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
sive governor of Trichi and Tanjore, Koneriraja. He also com
pelled the Chola, Chera and Manabhusha Pandya to acknowledge
the suzerainty of Vijayanagara. He next proceeded against
the rebellious Palaigars of Ummattur and their allies. The
island fort of Srirangapatnam was captured and the leader of
the rebels was taken prisoner. Thus the Vijayanagara authority
was firmly established in the Tamil country and Karnataka.
At the outset of his reign, Krishnadeva had to fight with
the Muslim forces which declared a jihad on the infields of
Vijayanagara and invaded his territory. The Bahmani Sultan
was joined by all the chiefs and nobles who nominally acknow
ledged his sovereignty. Krishna was equal to the task. His
forces checked the progress of the Muslims on the frontier,
defeated them at Dony and inflicted another crushing defeat
on the retreating army at Kovilkonda. Yusuf Adil Shah of
Bijapur lost his life with the result Bijapur was thrown into
confusion and disorder.
Krishna then set out on an expedition against the rebels.
He marched against the Kadava chieftains of the Kanchi region.
After reducing them, he advanced against Gangaraja of Umma
ttur who had been in revolt since the last years of Vira Nara
The Vijayanagara Empire 231
Krishnadevaraya once again marched against the king of Orissa.
On the way to Kondavidu, he reduced some of the forts includ
ing Addanki, Vinukonda, Bellamkonda, Nagarjunakonda, Tangeda
and Ketavaram sometime between February and June 1515 A,D.
Simultaneously, Kondavidu was laid siege, The Gajapati ruler
was obliged to divide his forces and send them to defend the
different forts and with the remaining forces when he attacked
the Raya in open battle, he was defeated.
c) The third satge in Krishna's Kalinga campaign began with
the siege of Bezwada. After capturing it, the Raya made it an
advance base for further operations. Then he proceeded to
Kondapalli, a strong and welldefended fort with very nigh
walls, situated a few miles away to the northeast of Bezwada.
He besieged the fort and the army sent to relieve it by Pratapa
rudra was thoroughly defeated. After a siege of two months,
Kondapalli was taken and the Gajapati commander Praharesvara
Patra and other chieftains were made prisoners and sent to
the imperial capital. According to Nuniz, a wife of the King of
Oriya was also included among the prisoners.
While at Vijayanagara, the Raya who had love for martial
exercises including duelfencings, arranged for the sword
fencing. According to Nuniz prince Virabhadra Gajapati, who
was taken captive at Kondavidu, was invited to fence since he
was famous as a dexterous swordsman. But Virabhadra, with
the misunderstanding that his opponent was not of royal blood
but a man of humble birth, felt offended and put an end to
himself.
e) The Gajapati ruler, burning with rage and sorrow for the
death of his son at the Vijayanagara court, continued hostilities
with Vijayanagara. Since he did not come to terms with
Krishna, the latter resolved on the Cuttack expedition. The
inscriptions and the contemporary Telugu literary works like
'Manucharitra' and 'Amuktamatyada' refer to the invasion of
the Raya and the devastation of the country of the Matsya
chiefs of Oddadi and the burning of the capital town Kataka
(Cuttack) thus sufficiently humiliating the Gajapati to sue for
peace.
234 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The Vijayanagare Empire 235
Timmarasa were put out. The Raya, then, nominated his half
brother Achyutaraya to be his successor.
in the name of the infant. But Achyuta's brothersinlaw, the
Salakaraju brothers helped by Satuva Vira Narasimha foiled his
designs and kept the throne vacant till Achyuta could come
up from Chandragiri after his relase. Finally Achyuta made
up his dispute with Ramaraya by giving him a share in the
government and ascended the throne.
In 1534 A.D. the dispute between Mallu and Ibrahim for
the throne of Bijapur following the death of their father Ismail
Adil Shah, encouraged Achyuta to make an attempt for the
recovery of the Raichur doab. According to 'Achyutaray
abhyudayam' and the accounts of Barros and Nuniz, Achyuta
reestablished his hold over Raichur and Mudgal. An inscription
dated 15341535 A.D. also confirms this.
During the later half of his reign, Achyuta was domineered
over by his brothersinlaw. Ramaraya led the opposition to
the de facto rule of the tyrannical Salakaraju brothers. He and
his brothers advanced the claims of Sadasiva (who was the
The Vijayanagara Empire 241
son of Achyuta's brother Ranga) as the infant son of Krishna
devaraya died about 1533 A.D. Taking advantage of this con
fused political condition at Vijayanagara, Ibrahim I of Bijapur
marched upon Vijayanagara end razed Nagalpura, a suburb of the
city, to the ground. On the advice of his brotrrersinlaw,
Achyuta refrained from offering resistance to the invader. Ibrahim
got Raichur and large sums of money.
It was during the reign of Achyutaraya that Fernao Nuniz,
a Portuguese horse trader and chronicler, visited Vijayanagara.
He stayed in the city during 153437 A.D. He was the first
among the travellers to evince keen interest in the
early history of Vijayanagara and he recorded the history on
the basis of the traditions current at that time. Of the 23
chapters of his chronicle, the last five chapters deal with the
contemporary social condition of Vijayanagara and the rule of
Achyutaraya.
16)
242 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
definite stages in his ascendency. In the first stage from 1543
A.D. to 154950 A.D., he was nothing but the Regent on
behalf of the king. He showed respect to the king, who mostly
resided at the capital, and carried on administration as 'the
Agent for Affairs' of Sadasiva's empire. In the second stage,
in 1550 A.D. he imprisoned Sadasiva in a strongly fortified
tower with iron doors surrounded by sentries; but treated him
as King, showing to the public only once a year. During this
stage, which lasted almost upto 1563 A.D. inscriptions put the
power of Ramaraya on equality with that of Sadasiva. It was
during this period, Ramaraya strengthened his position by eleva
ting his relatives to high offices. In the third stage, from
sometime in 1563 A.D. he stopped the annual ceremony of
exhibiting the emperor to his subjects. He assumed imperial
titles and issued pagodas (gold coins) in his name. But there
is no evidence of his coronation as emperor. Cauto writes
that the Aravidu brothers used to go once a year to Sadasiva's
prison like palace in order to do homage to him as their
sovereign.
Ramaraya's enemies in the land to the south of Chandragiri
could not bear his ascendency and made attempts to defy his
authority. Ramaraya had to send expeditions to Travancore
and the Fishery Coast in the south between the years 1543 A.D.
and 1558 A.D. to subdue the defiant and aggressive activities
of those rebels. He put down all the centrifugal forces with
a stern hand and his cousin, Vitthala restored the central autho
rity over Travancore and the Fishery coast. Visvanatha Nayaka
and his son Krishnappa I of Madura tent support to Vitthala
in his endevour.
In 1543 A.D., Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar, in alliance
with Ramaraya and Qutb Shah of Golkonda, attacked Bijapur.
Ramaraya's brother Venkatadri proceeded to reduce the Raichur
doab. Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was able to detach Vijaya
nagara and Ahmadnagar from the alliance through his general
Asad Khan's welltried elderly statesmanship. Then Asad
marched on Golkonda, defeated the Qutb Shah and wounded
him.
In 1549 A.D., when an alliance was formed between the
Sultans of Bijapur and Bidar, Burhan sought the alliance of
Ramaraya. In the war that ensued, the Vijayanagara forces
captured the Raichur doab once again.
In 1557 A.D., Hussain Nizam Shah, the son and successor
of Burhan of Ahmadnagar, in alliance with Ibrahim Qutb Shah
of Golkonda, attacked Bijapur and laid siege to Gulbarga.
Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur sought the help of Vijayanagara.
Ramaraya marched in person at the head of a big army. But
The Vijayanagara Empire 247
When Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur died, his young son
All Adil Shah renewed his father's alliance with Ramaraya by
entering into a new treaty. In 1560 A.D., when Hussain Nizam
Shah of Ahmadnagar broke the four kings' peace of 1557 A.D
and attacked Bijapur, Ramaraya took an active part in the league
organised by Ali Adil Shah I against Ahmadnagar The allied
army captured Kalyani and later on defeated the Nizam Shah
in the battle of Jamkhed. Finally Hussain concluded peace
by ceding Kalyani to Ali Adil Shah. According to Ferishta, in
this invasion, the Hindu soldiers committed horrible attrocities
in Ahmadnagar. The country was laid waste. The honour of
Muslim women was insulted. Mosques were destroyed and
even the sacred Koran was not respected. The victorious army
invaded and devastated Bidar as well.
he did not offer them seates and treated them with most con
temptuous reserve and hautiness. He made in public in his
train on foot not allowing them to mount till he gave orders.
On return from the test expedition the officers and soldiers of
his army in general treated the Muslims with insolance, scoffing
and contemptuous language."
The controversial name of the battle itself calls for dis
cussion. It is a misnomer to call it 'the battle of Tallikota'.
Tallikota was the place where the Muslim forces numbering
50,000 cavalry, 3,00,000 infantry along with 6,000 Maratha
The Vijayanagara Empire 251
Even with regard to the duration of the war, the Muslim
accounts say that it was a very short affair, that the fierce
engagement took place on 23rd January, 1565 A.D. and that
the battle lasted for a few hours, Jess than four hours. Taking
into consideration the extent, resources, manpower and past
military record, it is inconievable to conclude that the fate of
Vijayanagara was decided in the four hours' engagement. How
could the Deccan Sultans, who severally and conjointly suffered
repeated reverses on previous occasions, overthrow the indo
mitable Ramaraya in less than four hours fight? The Hindu
accounts seem to be right since they say that the war lasted
for more than six months and one battle with intense fury
was fought for twentyseven days continuously.
stratagem. They gave out the impression that they would like
to come to terms with Ramaraya and seemed to start nego
tiations. In the meantime, they recouped their strength. More
important than this is that they opened secret communication
with the Muslim officers in the army of Ramaraya and a secret
understanding was arrived at with them.
In the end the allies made a treacherous night attack upon
the Vijayanagara camp. In spite of this and irrespective of
his age, Ramaraya directed the operations in person. But at
the crucial moment, the two Muslim commanders of the Vijaya
nagara army, each in charge of a large contingent, deserted to
the enemy side. Neither Ferishia nor Ali Ibn Aziz referred to
this treason. However Ceaser Frederick, who visited Vijaya
nagara shortly after the war, and later Perron also referred to
this fact of treason by the two Muslim generals of the Vijaya
nagara army. Frederick says, "when the armies were joined,
the battle lasted but a while, not the space of four hours,
because the traitorous captains, in the thick of the battle,
turned their face against their king and made such a disorder
in his army that they were bewildered." The artillery of the
allies under Chalabi Rumikhan of Asia Minor also played havoc.
Ramaraya was captured in the midst of confusion and Hussain,
with great vengeance, put him to death instantaneously, in
that panic and confusion, the Vijayanagara army took to flight.
'So great was the confusion that there was no attempt to give
battle'. Venkatadri died. Tirumala who lost an eye in the
contest hastily withdrew to Vijayanagara and left it with the
king and others, carrying away as much treasure as possible
first for Penugonda and then to Tirupati. The camp of the
Vijayanagara army was plundered. As Ferishta observes, "The
plunder was so great that every private man with in the allied
army became rich in gold, jewels, effects, tents, arms, horses
and slaves, as the Sultans left every person in possession of
what he had acquired, only taking elephants for their own use."
of the Sultans stayed in Vijayanagara for about five months
footing and plundering everything that they came across. Sewell
writes, "They slaughtered the people without mercy, broke down
the temples and palaces; and wreaked such savage vengeance
on the abode of kings, that, with the exception of a few great
stonebuilt temples and walls nothing now remains...They de
molished the statues...Nothing seemed to escape them...with
fire and sword, with crowbars and axes, they carried on day
after day their work of destruction. Never perhaps in the
history of the world has such havoc bean wrought, and wrought,
so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy
and industrious population in the full of plentitude, of prosperity
one day, and on the next seized, pillaged, and reduced to
ruins, amidst scenes of savage massacre and horrors begging
description."
Dr. N. Venkataramanayya remarks, "The battle of Rakshasi
Tangadi was the Waterloo of the Vijayanagara history. Though
Vijayanagara empire flourished for nearly another century with
the fall of Ramaraya on the field of RakshasiTangadr in 1565,
its glory began to wane and it ceased to be the dominant
power in the deccan and the Rayas never attempted once again
to recover their lost ground."
of which its invaders were never guilty.' it is true that almost
all the idols of worship were broken and several structures
of the city were destroyed by the invaders, partly while search
ing for treasures and partly by order of Hussain Nizam Shah
who set on fire a number of houses. Besides, one should not
forget that more than four centuries have elapsed since those
memorable days and time is as sure a destroyer as man. It
was the desertion of the city by the Rayas that gradually
ruined the city.
Fr. Heras opines that the Deccan Sultans did not intend
to destroy Vijayanagara. This was evident from two aspects—
their about five months' long stay within the walls of Vijaya
nagara, indicating their intention of retaining the city for them
selves, and secondly their construction of new structures there
like the queen's bath, elephants' stable, the lotus mahal etc.
with mortar, marvellously combining both Hindu and Muslim
styles. Yet six months after their triumphal arrival, the Sultans
left Vijayanagara. "They departed to their own kingdom,"
Frederick relates, "because they were not able to maintain
such a kingdom as that was so far distant from their own
country."
Undoubtedly, the battle of KrishnaBannihatti (1565 A.D.)
"did vital damage to the empire, but the empire was still intact
and could go on for another century almost with a compara
tively brilliant epoch of a generation before it got weakened
by the constant invasions from the north, and dismembered
by the dissatisfaction and rebellion of the viceroys within. This
is the sad tale of the end of Vijayanagara; the actual ending
of which is marked by the beginning of the Maratha power
in the south". The battle of Bannihatti was no doubt the
climacteric, but not the grand climacteric of the Vijayanagara
empire. It necessitated the desertion of the imperial capital
and resulted in the loss of the Raichur derail. Peace was
concluded Tirumala returned to the capital after the Sultans'
departure and tried to repopulate it. His efforts could not
succeed. Hence he shifted to Penukonda and ruled as the
regent of Sadasiva. It is said that Sadasiva continued to live
in the deserted Vijayanagara where he died in 1576 A.D.
The Vijayanagara Empire 255
The battle of 1565 A.D. had its own direct or indirect
impact on the Deccan Sultanates. Since the danger from
Vijayanagara was minimised after the battle, the unity forged
among the Sultans disappeared and they weakened themselves
in their mutual wars and with the result ultimately fell an easy
prey to the Mughal aggression from the north
It is also said that the ruin of the city of Vijayanagara and
the shrinkage in the power and prestige of the empire adversely
affected the Portuguese trade. Sewell observes, "Goa rose
and fell simultaneously with the rise and fall of the Tuluva
dynasty." Partly, it may be true. However the Portuguese
monopoly of the Indian Ocean remained unbroken till 1595,
fifteen years after the fatal union of Portugal and Spain. Sub
sequently, Philip II of Spain neglected the Portuguese dominions
in India and involved Portugal in costly and disastrous European
wars. By 1602, the Dutch deprived Portugal of their hold over
Spice islands etc.
TULUVA DYNASTY
In order to strengthen his hold on the southern portions,
Tirumalaraya divided the empire into three divisions on iin
guistc basis and appointed his sons as viceroys over them,
As a part of his attempts to revive the glorious traditions
of Vijayanagara, he maintained a splendid court at Penugonda
which was adorned by the Telugu poet Bhattumurti (Rama
rajabhushana), the author of 'Vasucharitra'.
of the south, he transferred his capital to Chandragiri by 1602
A.D. Later, for all practical purposes, Vellore became the
capital.
in the later part of his reign, Venkatapatiraya faced two
problems arising from the Mughal emperor Akbar's imperialism
and the advent of the Dutch traders in the eastern waters. He
was prepared to measure swords with the Mughals. When
the Mughals crossed the Vindhyas, there was considerable
diplomatic stir in the south. But with Akbar's death in 1605,
there was a sigh of relief. Venkatapatiraya displayed great
tact and firmness towards the European traders. He was
frendiiest with the Portuguese, exchanged embassies with them,
gave protection to the Jesuit mission in his empire and even
supported them against the Dutch. Yet when required, he
did not hesitate to put down the unruly behaviour of the
Portuguese at St. Thome. Later he supported the Dutch
against the Portuguese to establish settlements at Pulicat
17)
258 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
However the Marathas under Shivaji continued the Vijayanagara
traditions.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
'Amuktamalyada' says that the King was the pivot of the
entire administrative mechinery and was the most important
limb of the body politic. He was the supreme authority in civil,
military and judicial affairs. The people of Vijayanagara showed
their respect to the kings for their personal bravery, character
The Vijayanagara Empire 259
and integrity. They did not, at the same time, lag behind to
exhibit their dislike towards the weak, cruel and sensuous
usurpers and patricides.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
K.A.N. Sastri writes, "Justice was administered by a
heirarchy of courts, the emperor's sabha being the highest
appellate authority." No doubt, the king was the chief judge.
But. generally on his behalf, the Pradhani dispensed justice.
In provinces, the Governors discharged the function as part of
their duty. Courts of different grades at different levels func
tioned. Appeals lay from the lower to the higher courts.
depended on its military strength. So its rulers had to maintain
a huge standing army, which was not of course uniform alt
through. In times of need, the standing army was reinforced
by auxiliary forces of the feudatories and nobles. They organized
a military department called 'Kandachara' under the control of
the Dandanayaka (Dannayaka) who was assisted by a staff
of minor officials. The king's guards were called the gentleman
troopers. In the warfare of the Vijayanagara period, infantry
including even Muslims, cavalry strengthened by good Ormuz
horse supplies through the Portuguese, elephants "lofty as hills
and gigantic as demons" and strong forts coupled with artillery
played an important role. Review of the forces used to take
place every year at the close of the Mahanavami festival.
Krishnadevaraya exhibited sentiment and personal touch, when,
after the battle was over, he used to go to the scene of war
and arrange for giving aid to the wounded. He even rewarded
the gallantry.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
NAYAKARA SYSTEM
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
The social life of Vijayanagara is of great interest. The re
anination of Hindu life, resulting in the revival of the ancient
Dharma modified to some extent by the experience of the age,
was seen during this period. The kings endevoured to protect
the Varnasrama Dharma arid maintain the social solidarity. The
prevalence of filial love' was instrumental in bringing together
into closer relationship the various conflicting elements in the
social life of the people.'
The caste system of the Hindu society had already lost
its regid nature. The Brahmins were still the most respected
members of the society. They were found in almost every
walk of life, enjoying even high offices as ministers and generals
in the state. It is curious to note that the name Kshatriya did
not figure during this period. The commercial and agricultural
classes might have made up the vitality. As T.V. Mahalingam
says, the rise of a social consciousness among the different
communities was the significant feature of the social history
of the later Vijayanagara period. At the lower levels, communi
ties like the Kambalattars (originally shepherds) followed the
266 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The rulers as well the ruled bestowed attention on agri
culture. The state provided irrigational facilities. Industres
like, diamondmining were fully developed. The foreign visitors
like Razzak and Paes were profoundly impressed by the fully
vigorous economic life with huge population, rich bazars,
number of skilled craftsmen and dealers in precious stones
and other articles in the imperial capital. Razzak observes the
importance of roses in the daily life of the citizen. Temples, as
landlords and bankers, because of large endowments made
to them, played an important part in the public economy of
the period. Foreign trade carried on through important ports
like Honnavar, Bhatkal, Nagapatnam, Pulicat and others by
merchants and traders by forming into organisations, brought
in prosperity adding to the luxury and magnificence of court
life. However as Sathianathaier remarks, "The luxuries of the
king and his officers contributed to the splendour of the imperial
city, but the hard condition of the peasants, characteristic of
even the best period of Vijayanagara, should not be forgotten
in estimating the glories of the Hindu empire."
RELIGION
LITERATURE
SANSKRIT LITERATURE
TELUGU LITERATURE
'The bulk of the best part of the Telugu literature, which
affords the greatest delight in the minds of the Andhras, is
the product of direct patronage of Vijayanagara emperors and
their Viceroys. It is equally a striking phenomenon, that the
above literature has grown both in volume and variety under
Vijayanagara dynasty.' From the time of the Kanakabhisheka
of Srinatha by Devaraya II, Telugu began to dominate the
Vijayanagara court. It was in the time of Knshnadevaraya
that Telugu literature made its greatest advance. 'Under his
lead, the practice of translating from Sanskrit originals was
generally given up and independent prabandhas which handled
a Puranic story or some invented theme after the manner of
Mahakavya in Sanskrit came more into vogue'. Krishnadevaraya.
an accomplished poet in Telugu also, wrote 'Amuktamalyada'
in a very abtruse and complicated style, showing the depth
of his learning.
Tradition associates Krishna's name with the 'Ashiadigga
jas', the eight elephants who supported the world of Telugu
literature. Allasani Peddana stands out foremost among them.
He dedicated his work 'Manucharitra' to his patronking. Nandi
Timmana, Dhurjati. Madayyagari Mallana and other poets also
received the patronage of Krishnaraya, Bhattumurti, Pingali
Surana and Tenali Ramakrishna, who belonged to postKrvshna
raya's period, became immortal with their contributions
270 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAKANNADA LITERATURE
TAMIL LITERATURE
Much of the beauty of the Vijayarragara temples is pro
duced by their pillars. Pointing out, the same. Percy Brown
writes, "Much of the intricacy and rich beauty of Vijayanagara
type of temple was produced by the number and prominence
of its pillars and piers and the manner in which they are sculp
tured into the most complicated compositions, strange and
manifold, so that each becomes a figurative drama in stone."
Four types of pillars are discernible from among the temples
such as Vitthala, Hazara Rama and others. In the first type,
the shaft becomes merely the central core for the attachment
of an involved group of statues of heroic size chiselled entirely
in the round. In the second variety, circling round the centra)
column, a cluster of slender, miniature pillars often referred
as musical pillars on account of the sounds they produce when
they ere hit by a stone or a coil are seen. The third type con
sists of the shaft composed of a series of small scale shrines.
The fourth variety relates to the type where the shaft has
sixteen or eighteensided surface. In response to the demand
for more richness of detail, the corbel of the pillar is elaborated
into a valute terminating in en inverted lotus bud.
The Vijayanagara kings were the force behind the artistic
activity of the period. The finest flowering of this movement
272 HISTORY OF THE ANDHRAS
The story of the forgotten empire is recalled by other
structures like the kings Audiance Hall, Throne platform. Lotus
Mahal, Queen's bath, the remnants of the fort watch tower.
elephant and horse stables, the main market area. Royat balance
and the TankasaJa and the colossa) monolithic images of
Narasimha and Ganesa and also the palaces of Penugonda
and Chandragiri,
18)
APPENDIX
A Note on The Raya-Bahmant Rotations
No doubt, the history of the foreign policy of the Vijaya
nagara rulers was principally a story of their incessant warfare
with the Bahmani Sultans to their north. There was hardly
any decade that passed without a clash of arms between the
two kingdoms. Since the contemporary Muslim chroniclers
painted these dynastic conflicts as 'Jihads' (holy wars) his
torrans generally regard these wars as due to religious differences
of the two states. But in any of the peace settlements arrived
at the end of the wars, the imposition of one's religion upon
275
the other even when the Bahmanis were the victors, could
not be seen. Further, the rulers of Vijayanagara especially
Devaraya I, Devaraya II and Ramaraya employed Muslim horse
men and archers and gave them complete freedom of worship
and other religious rites. Hence, if any body assumes religion
as the root cause of the wars between the two kingdoms, then
it is quite wrong.
As Prof. G.V. Rao sees it, the conflict between the two
states was the legacy of the past. The land between the
Krishna and the Tungabhadra, on account of its great economic
wealth had been a bone of contention and the rulers of Deccan
and South India always clashed over the possession of the
Doab had its own political overtones. The control of the
strategically important KrishnaTungabhadra Doab with its
impregnable forts of Raichur and Mudgal and places Ike Banka
pur would, give the one an advantageous position over the
other for the ultimate overlordship of the entire peninsula. It
was the real cause of the clashes between the Western
Chalukyas and the Cholas as well as the Yadavas and the
Hoyasalas. On the ruins of the Yadava and Hoyasala dominions
rose the Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms respectively.
These new states inherited the same legacy and the contest
between these two was nothing but a revival of the earlier
economic struggle between the Deccan and South India. The
so called undercurrent of their religious differences might have
served, on the part the Muslims, to brutalise the conflict. The
greed of the Sultans whose kingdom embraced the poorest
portion of the Deccan plateau, was naturally excited by the
wealth and prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire. Thus all
these factors dragged the two states into a prolonged and
fierce conflict which ultimately ruined both the powers.