APPSC Group 1 Mains - AP History Part 2

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ORIGIN AND GROWTH - TELUGU LANGUAGE AND

LITERATURE
Genesis:
 Naturally, Telugu is the most prominent of the Dravidian languages

 The origin of Telugu dates back to the 7th century A.D., but it was only in the 11th century A.D.
that it developed into a language with distinct identity
 The origin of Telugu language is involved in a controversy in some quarters. One school of
thought maintains that Telugu is a language of Dravidian or of indigenous origin, and other
school supports the view that Telugu is a corrupt form of Sanskrit, and hence Prakrit, born of the
great classical tongue.
 Now it has largely been accepted that Telugu belongs to the Dravidian Family of Languages
Study of the Telugu Language:
The study of the Telugu language may be divided into three sections:
1) The Telugu language as it stood before Nannaya, the 'father of classical Telugu poetry' i.e the
pre-Nannaya period (Upto 1020 A.D.)
2) The Telugu of Nannaya's Age i.e The Nannaya period (1020 to 1820 A.D.)
3) Modern Telugu i.e. Modern period (1820 A.D. onwards)
Telugu during Pre-Nannaya Period (Upto 1020 A.D.):
 Telugu during the Pre-Nannaya period was an ill-developed language in a formative stage.
 During the first 5 centuries, many inscriptions were in Prakrit and a few in Sanskrit in Andhra.
 These inscriptions refer the names of villages and their limits, which unmistakably reveal their
affinity to the modern village names of Andhra Pradesh.
 These Villages have suffixes like Uuru, Parru, Konda, Cheruvu, Revu, Paka, Palli, Padu and others.
 In present Andhra Pradesh, we have villages with the names Tanguturu, Guduru, pasumarru,
Thatiparru, Vinukonda, Singaraya Konda, Thaticheruvu, Molakalacheruvu, Vadarevu, Tallarevu,
Kolanupaka, Tallapaka, Kondapalli, Sattenapalli, Dupadu, Chilakapadu and so on.
 The important characteristic of Telugu of this period is that the special Dravidian letter (ra)
(called Sakata Repha) was frequently used, whereas in Modern Telugu this letter is virtually
defunct.
Another characteristic is that Telugu adopted several Sanskrit words with minor variation. They are
known as TATSAMAS. Thus during this period, it may be seen, that Telugu had attained maturity, and,
was also blossoming into an independent language with distinct characteristics.
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 From the 7th century A.D. onwards, Telugu was used in inscriptions issued by the Renati
Chodas and Chalukya kings.
 They were written solely in prose, and later in verse as well.
 The earliest Telugu inscriptions were composed in indigenous metres like Tharuvoja,
Madhyakkara, Seesamu, Ataveladi and Tetageethi. Nannaya employed Sanskrit and Desi metres
as well.
 Further, during the 7th and 8th centuries, Telugu borrowed several words of local origin and
also from Sanskrit. These words were modified suitably to fit into Telugu. These Tatsamas did
not disturb the development of the Telugu language during this period.
The Nannaya Period (1020-1820 A.D.)
Nannaya:
 Nannaya Bhattaraka was the celebrated author of the earliest known classic Telugu work
'Andhra Mahabharatha'.
 His period marked a turning point in the history of Telugu language and literature.
 Telugu was used during the period in the day-to-day administration.
 Nannaya's valuable contribution made Telugu as a respectable language.
 Nannaya reformed Telugu language on the lines of Sanskrit language, and gave it a new
appearence and reformed it.
 For this splendid accomplishment, Nannaya was honoured with the title of 'Andhra Bhasha
Vaganu Sasana' i.e. 'the reformer and dictator of the Telugu Language' by the grateful public.
Tikkana:
 Tikkana Somayadi another distinguished poet, and co-author of Maha Bharatha did equally
meritorious service to the enrichment of Telugu language.
 Tikkana created literary Telugu with hundreds of indigenous words and expressions, and used
them in conjunction with the Teluguised Sanskritisms.
Thus the two poets of repute - Nannaya and Tikkana developed Telugu language into poetical, political
and powerful language with each word giving an infinite variety of meanings.
Saiva school of poetry:
 After Nannaya, a new school of poets developed a greater degree of nativity to the Telugu
language.
 They belong to Saiva school of poetry.
 Nanne Choda, Palkuriki Somanatha and others were prominent among them.
 Palkuriki Somanatha tried to enhance its simplicity in order to bring it closer to the ordinary
people changing its earlier Sanskritised nature.

 In course of time, Sanskrit expressions had become so naturalised that people came to regard
them as pure Telugu words; for instance the common Telugu honorofic 'Ayya' born of Sanskrit
'Arya'; 'Aggi' for 'Agni'; 'Mogulu' for 'Megha' etc.
 Further bi-lingual poets like Nanne Choda seem to have introduced into Telugu some Kannada
and Tamil words though they could not gain much popularity.
 With the advent of Muslim rule, several Persian and Arabic words entered the Telugu language.
Modern Telugu i.e. Modern period (1820 A.D. onwards):
 The present age is the period of democracy. Democratic ideals entered into the realm of
language and created the necessity to make the language people-oriented.
 Further,Telugu language has been greatly influenced by the concepts and theories and
terminology of the modern subjects of sciences, technology, engineering, arts and humanities,
agriculture, social sciences and so on.
 With the result the modern Telugu is different from that of the traditional or classical Telugu in
its content, style, form, quality and in its conformity to the traditions.
Gidugu Ramamurthy Panthulu
 In the present age, the Telugu language has gained much in quantity but has suffered much in
quality. In this connection the name of Gidugu Ramamurthy Panthulu needs mention. He
attempted to simplify the Telugu in order to make it a colloquial language. He discarded the
traditional style of Telugu language and pleaded for its thorough modification as to make it very
simple, and fit for use even by the illiterate Telugu persons.
 Consequently, the social, political and cultural movements led by Randukuri Veeresalingam
Panthulu, Gurajada Appa Rao, Urmava Lakshminarayana and others contributed greatly to the
modernisation of Telugu language.
 With the enactment of Telugu as the official language of the State of Andhra Pradesh in 1966
Telugu has become a medium of instruction even upto the university level apart from being a
state language for almost all official purposes of the government at all levels.
Age of Telugu works:
 The period of 14th to 16th centuries is marked as the age of Telugu works in the field of Telugu
literature.
 The poets in this period launched a literary movement.
 Many literary works in Telugu were composed in this period with the influence of Vira Saiva
movement of Karnataka on the religious basis and also with the help of Nannechoda in
Andhradesa.

 Nannechoda : His work was the first Telugu Kavya which dealt with the birth of Kumara in
Kumara Sambhavamui. Thus his influence in the contemporary society led to establish religious
faith in Andhradesa.
 Hence, in the period was produced numerous philosophical and religious works. Most of the
poets, writers and authors wrote their works in Telugu language.
Kavitraya:
 “Kavitraya/Kavitrayam” is a Telugu expression for the trinity of poets who translated the great
epic Mahabharata into Telugu.
 The Mahabharata - Nannaya wrote two and a half parvas and Tikkana wrote from 4th parva till
the end. Errana completed the part left out by Nannaya in the third, Aranya parva. These three
are known as Kavitraya (The poet Trinity)
 Nannaya, also called Adi Kavi, started the work but could not complete it - he passed away
before completing the Aranya Parva. Tikkana left that unfinished parva and continued with the
translation of the rest of Mahabharata. Errapragada took up the unfinished portion that was left
by Nannaya and Tikkana and completed the translation of the epic.
Nannaya:
 Nanaya, as the first known poet, is venerated for multi-faced contribution to the Telugu
language and literature.
 Nannaya belonged to 1100 A.D.
 He was the court poet of King Raja Raja Narendra.
 He was awarded the titles of First poet and Vaganusasana (one who commanded word).
 He was called the First poet as he brought out the first monumental Telugu poetical work
“The Mahabharata”.
 It was Nannaya who refined the crude form of the Telugu language and moulded it into a fine
instrument into which Mahabharata, the Panchama Veda was later to be translated by him
from Sanskrit.
 Nannaya begins his Himalayan work with the Sanskrit sloka Sri Vani Girijas-chirayadadhato.
 He freely adopted Sanskrit words, along with chaste Telugu words in his translation. It was not
just a literal translation but more or less an adaption of Sage Vyasa’s great thought throughout.
 It was a translation yet it was as original as Sage Vyasa’s great work, reflecting his poetic talent.
 Nannaya was also the first poet to adopt the less known Sanskrit meters Utpalamala,
Champakamala, Matthebha and Sardula, called Vruttas in telugu. This way he breathed life into
Telugu metre.
 The Nannayan and Pre Nannayan period witnessed translations of Sanskrit Mahabharata into
Kannada.
 They generally reflected Jain thought as Jainism was patronized by the contemporary kings.

 Hence it can safely be concluded that again it was Nannaya who first mirrored the Vedic
thought in his work.
Nannaya’s Works
 Nannaya in his Andhra Mahabharata translated Adi and Sabha cantos (parvas) and 142 poems
in the Aranya (Pandavas exile into forest) Parva from the Sanskrit Mahabharata.
 The episodes Udankopakhyana, Sakuntalopakhyana, Nalopakhyana, Saugandhika paharanam
and the grand romantic story of Rura and Pramadwara were covered in the two contos.
 He was also credited with the works – Chamundica Vilasam, Indra Vijayam (3 cantos-120
poems) and Andhra Sabda Chintamani, an elaborate treatise in Sanskrit on Telugu grammar.
The principal poetic qualities of Nannaya:
 Readability: Nannaya’s Mahabharata is noted for its easy readability. Not only a scholar, but
a man in the street also can easily understand and appreciate the poetic beauty of Nannaya.
It is one of the reasons for the smooth flow of language in the Telugu translation of the
Sanskrit Mahabharata.
 Music quality: Nannaya writes music to words. Hence his words attain a peculiar beauty and
musical quality. This quality brings sweetness to the words he writes.
 Variety: Nannaya is noted for his varied qualities in narration. If a person narrates an incident
as it is, he is called a commentator. But when he tells about an incident in an interesting and
beautiful way, he is regarded a great poet.
Tikkana
 Tikkana was the court poet of King Manumasiddhi who ruled over Nellore region in the 13th
century.
 He assumed the titles of Kavibrahma and Udhaya kavimitra.
 He translated the 15 cantos of the Mahabharata (left by Nannaya) into Telugu from
Sanskrit in an inimitable style.
 Nannaya’s project of rendering the Mahabharata into Telugu remained unfinished for nearly
two centuries until Tikkana took it up.
 He assumed the title Kavi Brahma as he rendered the work acceptable to both Saivas and
Vaishnavas as Hari Hara tatva; and the title Ubhaya Kavimitra as he was a great poet in both
Telugu and Sanskrit.
 Tikkana’s first poetical work was Nirvachanotthara Ramayana (poetry without a single
sentence in prose).
 It was also the first poetical work without prose.
 He dedicated this work to King Manumasiddhi and his Mahabharata to God Hari Hara as He
inspired him to translate the epic.

Salient qualities of Tikkana’s poetry:
 Nannaya accorded top priority to Sanskrit words and filled them with music.
 But Tikkana elevated chaste Telugu words to a great, new literary height. No Poet thought
of completing the Telugu rendering of the Bharata even after two hundred years of
Nannaya’s death.
 It was a critical time during which Telugu literature suffered between the ideological clash of
Saivism and Vaishnavism.
 Tikkana appeared on the horizon of Telugu literary sky and undertook the stupendous task
of completing the rendering of the Bharata and propounded the Onenes of Lord Siva and
Vishnu (Hari Haradwaita tatva).
 He also handed down to the future generations of Telugu as a chaste Telugu tongue, they
could be proud about.
 His characterization and dramatization were to be emulated by the poets later.
Tikkana’s works:
 It was baffling that Tikkana had not touched the remaining part of the Aranya parva (the
canto of Pandava’s exile into the forest).
 In fact, for Tikkana, who could complete the rendering of the 15 cantos with great ease, it
was a child’s play to finish the Aranya parva. Yet he left it untouched.
 May be, it was destined to be completed by Errana later and the grand epic to be acclaimed a
great work by the trio.
Errana
 Errana lived at Gudluru around 1280 A.D.-1364 A.D.

 He was the court poet of Prolaya Vema reddy.
 He was a great devotee of Lord Siva and was known as Sambhudas or Sivadas.
 He was rewarded with the title of Prabandha Parameswara in recognition of his poetic
capabilities in rendering the remaining canto of Mahabharata (Aranya parva).
 His poetic capabilities: Among the trio of Nannaya, Tikkana and Errana; Nannaya adopted
narrative style and Tikkana dramatic style while Errana followed description style.
 That is why Errana was acclaimed Prabandha Parameswara. Again Nannaya’s style was Sanskritic
and Tikkana’s was chaste Telugu.
 While rendering the left over part of Aranya parva of the Bharata, Errana began with the style of
Nannaya and ended with that of Tikkana
 This way he bridged the gulf between Nannaya and Tikkana which was indeed a great poetic
engineering.
 Errana wrote Harivamsa, Nrusimha Purana and Ramayana also. But Ramayana was not found till
date.
 He dedicated his Harivamsa to king Prolaya Vema Redy, the founder of Reddy kingdom.

 He dedicated his Nrusimha Purana, also known as Lakshmi Narasimhavatra, to the God Ahobila
Narsimha Swamy.
 The theme was adopted from Brahmandapurana.
 This was the first account of a pilgrim centre in Telugu literature.
 Though this work exclusively deals about Ahobila, where the lion incarnation of Vishnu
(Narasimha Swamy) dwells, it has all the literatry merits which a great poetical work should
have.
 It is also one of the reasons why Errana is regarded Prabandha Parameswra.
Ashtadiggajas (8 poets):
 The beginning of the 16th century A.D was a glorious epoch in Telugu literature, because the
period was the reign of Krishnadeva Raya (r.1509-1529) of Vijayanagar. He himself was a great
poet and gave an impetus to Telugu literature. His work Amukta Malyada was a contribution to
Telugu literature and is considered as one of the five great Kavyas in Telugu literature.
 His court had the Ashtadiggajas ("eight elephants"), who were considered to be the greatest of
poets of that time.
 The title Ashtadiggajas (Ashta + dik + gaja) means elephants in eight directions. It refers to the
old Hindu belief that eight elephants hold the earth in eight directions.
 The court of poets were also called BhuvanaVijayam (Conquest of the World).
 The names of the Ashtadiggajas are
1) AllasaniPeddana: Andhra Kavita Pitamahudu or Grandfather of Andhra Poetry
2) Tenali Rama Krishna
3) Nandi Thimmana
4) Madayyagari Mallana
5) Dhurjati
6) Ayyalaraju or RamaBhadriah
7) Pingali Surana
8) Ramaraja Bhushana
Allasani Peddana:
 He stands foremost outstanding poet and Krishnadeva Raya conferred on him the title Andhra
Kavita Pitamaha (grandfather of Telugu poetry).
 His chief work is Manucharitra
Nandi Timmana:
 He wrote Parijatapaharanamu, dedicated to Krishnadeva Raya, intended to reconcile the king to

one of his queens.
 It elaborates the beautiful verse a wellknown episode in Lord Krishna’s life

Dhurjati :
 He, a Saiva poet evoked the admiration of Krishnadeva Raya by composing two poems one
Kalahasti Mahatmyam another Kalahasti Satakam, in praise of the god Kalahastisvara at
Kalahasti and dedicated it to god Siva
Pingali Surana:
 He was the native of a village in the Krishna District.

 He wrote Raghava Pandaviya which tells the story of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
 His another work Kalapurnodaya is more a novel in poetry tells the Kali worshippers, human
sacrifices and Malayali magicians
 His most outstanding work was Prabhavati pradyumna which deals with the puranic theme of
the Pradyumna, the son of Lord Krishna and his marriage with Prabhavati, the daughter of a
Daitya king Vajranabha
Madayagari Mallana:
 He wrote Rajasekhara Charitra.

 The work is a typical prabandha dealing with the wars and love of Rajasekhara, the king of
Avanthi.
 He dedicated this work to Nadendla Appa, the nephew of Saluva Timma the governor of
Kondavidu
Tenali Rama Krishna:
 He was the most interesting figure of the time of Krishnadeva Raya.

 He was a court juster of Krishnadeva Raya who played many practical jokes on high-placed men
and the king himself not exempted, but he was also a poet of talent and his Panduranga
Mahatyamu counted among the five great kavyas in Telugu which is a work of high merit.
Ayyalaraju (or) Rama Bhadraiah:
 He was the author of Ramabhyudayamu and Sakalakathasara-Sangraha which reflect the socio-
cultural conditions of the period.
Bhattu murthi (or) Ramaraja Bhushana:
 He had a long and distinguished literary career.

 He wrote Vasucharitra. The theme is the marriage of prince Vasu with princess Girika the
daughter of the river Suktimati and the mountain Kolahala.
 He also wrote Narasabhupaliyam and Harischandra Nalopakhyanam.
 The latter poem tells the story of Nala as well as that of Harischandra.
 He dedicated his work Vasucharitra to Tirumalaraya-I, the brother of Ramaraya who was the
son-in-law of Krishnadeva Raya

From the stone inscriptions of that time, it has been inferred that the village of Thippalur in the present-
day Cuddapah district has been gifted to the Astadiggajas by the emperor.

KAKATIYAS
POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM
Decentralised Monarchism:
 Like all Hindu rulers, Kakatiyas followed the system of Monarchy.

 Though the crown usually descended to the male line from father to son, the Kakatiya dynasty
alone presents in the entire history of South India a unique example of a female ruler who sat
on the throne and exercised the royal authority in her own right
 The decentralized monarchism marked the Kakatiya age
Matrimonial Alliances/War:
 After the fall of Chola and Western Chalukya dynasties in the South, a number of small kingdoms
emerged.
 In the Telugu regions under the rule of the above two dynasties also, many small states
emerged. The most expansive among them was the Kakatiya kingdom.
 They brought many other small kingdoms under their control by either defeating them at war or
by matrimonial alliances.
Evidence:
 The political system, politics and social conditions of Kakatiya were portrayed in books like
‘Sakalaneetisaram’ by Madiki singana; Neetisastra Muktavali’ by Baddena; ‘Purushar-thasaram’
by sivadevayya and ‘Neetisaram’ by Prataparudra.
Political system:
 According to the opinion of PV Parabrahma Sastry – “We have to believe that the Kakatiyas
tried to create a political system, other than imperialism, who we study the relations between
Kakatiyas and their subordinate rulers during their 200 year rule”
 They built their system on decentralizing power.
 They had given complete freedom to subordinate rulers in everything except military issues.
The duty of the king was only to supervise them so as they would not misuse their power.
 Another chief characteristic of Kakatiya dynasty was- Right to Rule was hereditary.
 It transferred from father to son usually. Rudramadevi, daughter of Ganapatideva, succeeded
her father as ruler of the kingdom for the first time in the history of South India. The ruler/king
was helped by ministers in administrating the state.

Administration:
 There were- “Mahapradhani, Pradhani. Preggada and Amatya’ in the council of ministers
 Before Kakatiyas, only Brahmins were appointed as ministers by rulers. But Kakatiyas threw
away this tradition and began to appoint persons of all castes as ministers.
 For example-Malyala Hemadrireddy (Under Ganapatideva), Vellanki Ganagadhara (under
Rudramadevi) and Muppidi Nayaka (under Prataparudra).
 Kakatiyas divided the kingdom into many divisions for ease of administration. They were-
Rajyam, Mandalam, Nadu, Sthalam, Seema, Bhumi and others. In each ‘Sthalam’ there used to
be between 10 and 60 villages.
Provincial Administration:
 The provincial administration was normally in the hands of the feudatories

 They were either the relatives of the king or distinguished members of some noble families or
made their mark in various acts of service
 They were given fiefs in lieu of their salaries and were empowered to enjoy considerable
amount of autonomy in their respective fiefs
Village Administration
 A group of villages were called as ‘Sthalam’ and a group of sthalams were called as ‘Nadu’.
 Kakatiyas introduced significant changes in the administration of villages. A system called
‘Ayyagars’ replaced the Gramasabhas.
 ‘Ayyagars’ were those who earned their land without taxes for serving the village and kingdom.
 ‘Ayam’ means the area of a land. The number of Ayyagars in a village was 12.
1. Karanam
2. Reddy
3. Talari (Butcher)
4. Purohit (priest)
5. Kammari (potter)
6. Kamsali (Blacksmith)
7. Vadrangi (carpenter)
8. Kummari (potter)
9. Chakali (washerman)
10. Mangali (barber)
11. Vetti (Bonded labour) and
12. Charmakar (Cobbler)
 The first three were the servants of employees of government and the next three were servants
(employees) of the village.
 Karanam used to control the statistics of land, revenue and other related area. According to the
statistics and lists made by him, Peddakapu (reddy) collected the revenue and handed it over to
the government.

 The Talari looked after the safety and protection of the village.
 Almost all the necessary duties like collection of taxes, management of records, protecting law
and order, water supply and others were conducted by the above 12 employees. For that, they
were given salaries and also some land to cultivate.
Village Councils:
 There are references to village councils in the inscriptions

 Nagara and Mahajana were the village councils
 Nagara was a corporate body of the ordinary village and empowers to collect land revenue and
other dues from the villagers belonging to all communities
 The Brahmin elders of an Agrahara village were the members of the Mahajana council. This
village council was incharge of the administration of an agrahara village.
Military system
 Kakatiyas devoted much of their energies in safeguarding their dominions from internal
troubles and external invasions. They kept two types of armies -
1. Army of the king/emperor and
2. Army of the Nayankara
Army of the Nayankara
 The army of emperor came directly under his control. Kings gave zagirs (lands) to Nayankaras
and asked them to keep armies for helping when necessary.
 Nayankaras used to maintain those armies and they also had to look after the law and order
conditions of their regions. Prataparudra maintained 75 such Nayankaras in his kingdom.
Army of the King
 The king himself maintained an army, for which he was the chief. After him, Maha
Dandanayaka, Dandanayaka, Maha senani and senani supervised it.
 As Kakatiyas continuously fought battles, they had to keep a huge army. Forts also played a key
role in the protection of the kingdom.
 There were many strong forts in their kingdom like – Orugallu, Dharanikota , Divi,
Kolanu,Anumakonda, Raichur, Gandikota,Kandur, Narayanavanam + Golconda, Devarakonda,
Rachakonda. Nalgonda and Panagallu forts.
 Though political texts say that there were four types of forces in the Kakatiya army, there was
no mention of chariots (Rathas) anywhere.
 They were described as ‘Navalaksha Dhanurdharadheeswarulu’. ‘Prataparudra Charitra’
described that-in the army of Prataparudra, there were 100 elephants, 20,000 horses and a
lakh foot soldiers.

 Kakatiya rulers used to lead their armies, themselves.That is why Rudradeva and Mahadeva
died at battle fields.
 They also allowed people of all castes to join in the army. Soldiers were trained to use different
types of weaponry like swords, sharpblades, lances, arrows and many others. There were
horsemen and elephant riders also.
 While the king was given protection chiefly by the bodyguards, his subordinate rulers were
protected by soldiers called lenkas.
SOCIAL SYSTEM OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM
 The society in Andhra during the Kakatiya period, as in other parts of the country, was strictly
divided into 4 main castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras
Brahmins:
o Brahmins were the custodians of learning and religion

o They also played a very important part in the field of politics. Some of them acted as
Dandanayakas and Amatyas.
o Brahmins were considered as the top caste of the social system and they had political
influence usually.
Kshatriyas:
o Kshatriyas lost their past glory

o Kakatiyas, who were Sudras came to power
o Eruva Cholas, Kanduri Cholas and Chalukyas of Elamanchili and Srikurmam were the Kshatriyas.
But they never ruled independently and recognized the supremacy of the Sudras
Vaisyas:
o The chief occupations of Vaisyas were agriculture and trade.

o They formed traders societies and maintained monopoly on domestic trade.
o Vaisyas were known as Komatis and Settis.
Sudras:
o During Kakatiya era, political influence of Brahmins decreased and influence of sudras (4th
caste) increased. They came up politically and financially in the society.
o The emergence of Sudras as rulers was one of the prominent features of the society in Medieval
Andhra.
o Kakatiyas, Velanadu Cholas etc. were originally Sudras, but became rulers

Caste Societies:
 The main feature of the Kakatiya society were the ‘caste societies’ (kula sanghalu) which were
called as ‘Samayas’ while the Brahmins maintained ‘Mahajan’ society. The vaisyas had a society
called ‘Vaisya Nakara’.
 Likewise, there were Nani Munnur, Telikidevuru and Panchanam – all caste societies. As there
were differences while writing about them in the inscriptions, it can be said that each ‘samaya’
had levels like village society, town society and others.
 At the same time, every society had its own practices and traditions, which if, not followed were
punishable.
 The caste societies gained prominence in the administration of the kingdom.
Inter-caste marriages:
 Marriages between castes and also child marriages, were common in Kakatiya era. Annaya, who
was Brahmin minister in the court of Rudramadevi, married ger second daughter Ruyyama. These
inter caste marriage were called Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages.
 Soldiers belonging to all castes – like Mala, Maddiga, Velama, Kammari and etc. used to eat
‘Chapakollu’ (A tradition of those days), meaning all castes eating together. Still no changes or
reforms occurred in the caste system.
Social evils
 All castes practice social evils like child marriages, dowry, selling girls, gambling, drinking and
prostitution during Kakatiya era. Prostitutes had a respectable place in society.
Status of women
 Kakatiyas had a significant place in the history of Telugu regions, because a women
(Rudramadevi) ruled the kingdom during their era, which was a first for southern India. But at
the same time, they practiced child marriages, selling girls, keeping Devadasis and prostitutes.
 Rulers, poets and scholars maintained mistresses, who were proficient in arts like dance, music,
literature and painting. ‘Machala devi’ mistress of Prataparudra, was given almost respect,
according to books of that period.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM
Agriculture
 Kakatiya rulers had given importance to agriculture.

 They were the first rulers to recognize the importance of water resources in Telangana region
and dug many tanks and canals.

Betaraju-II
 Betaraju-II, one of the earlier Kakatiya rulers, dug two huge tanks called seti (kera) and kesari
samudra.
Ganapatideva
 Ganapatideva also dug many ponds in Warangal in 1213 A.D.,

 Recharlarudra, Army General of Ganapatideva, constructed the famous Ramappa tank in
Warangal in 1213 A.D.
 Ghanapur and Laknavaram tanks were also constructed during this ruler’s era. Many more like
Chounda samudra, Bacha samudra, Sabba smudra and Amba samudra were also dug.
 There were employees to look after the maintenance and repair of the water resources and they
were given ‘Dasabandha’ revenue (Around 4 kgs paddy for ever crop) and ‘Dasabandha Manya’
(a piece of land) for their services.
Prataparadura-II
o Prataparadura-II converted forests into agricultural land in Nellore, Kadapa and Kurnool regions.
Cultivable land:
 Cultivable land was classified into 2 types – wet and dry

 Wet land is again sub-divided into paddy growing land and garden land
 Oil seeds, onions, ginger, Ragi and other crops were produced in drylands which depended only
on scanty rainfall
 Every village had jaggery and sugar making factories.

 Dairy animals and cattle were maintained in every village.
 The Kakatiya rulers gave almost importance to irrigation facilities and not only developed
agriculture but expanded cultivable lands.
 They also built new villages near the agricultural fields.
Tax system
 Land was divided into 3 types and taxes were imposed according to their categories. The three
categories were – Wetland, medium land and arcade land.
 Taxes were imposed only after surveying the land. Two officials called ‘Sunkari’ and ‘Tirpari’
collected taxes.
 Tax on land could be paid either in the form of money or paddy.
 If money was paid as tax, it was called ‘Puttipahundi’ and if paddy was paid, it was called
‘Puttu Koluchu’.
 Kakatiyas collected taxes from traders societies also. Panagallu inscription of 1122 A.D. reveals
information about these taxes. Motupalli inscription informs about import and export taxes.

 Nadendla and Durgi inscriptions of Ganapatideva reveal the rates of taxes also. Maadiga tax,
Puttuperu tax, Gandi tax and marriage tax were also collected.
 Tax burden was heavy during Kakatiya era.
 Trade taxes were displayed in the inscriptions, at port towns. They also collected ‘Pullari’ (tax)
on grass lands and Darishanam, Appanam, Upagrati and a number of other taxes.
Trade and Commerce
Guilds:
 During the Kakatiya period, as in the preceding regimes, trade was conducted by well
organized guilds.
 There were guilds of weavers, agriculturalists, potters, jewellers etc.
 These guilds were expected to purchase license for conducting the business in a particulat
town or a fair
Domestic and Foreign Trade:
 Both domestic and foreign trades flourished and very well developed during Kakatiya period.
 Motupalli grew as a prominent port town. Textiles, handlooms, kalamkari cloth, precious
carpets and velvet cloth were made in the Telugu regions.
 Hamsaladeevi (Guntur), Machilipatnam and Krishnapatnam (Nellore) and other towns were
prominent foreign trade centres. From these towns, spices and condiments were exported to
china, Persia, Arabia and Ceylon.
 Domestic and foreign trade were mostly conducted by vaisyas and shettibalijis.
 Different varities of traders’ societies (srenis) were – Nakaram, Swadesi, Paradesi, Nanadesi
and Udhayadesi.
 The Motupalli inscription of Ganapati deva, narrated about exports and imports of Kakatiya
era. Corruption in trade and business were punished severely.
 Though domestic and foreign trade flourished during that period, only few coins of Kakatiyas
were found.
 Biggest of their coins was – gadyanam (Nishkam), next was made (one gold coin), and next
were Ruka, Adduga, Padiga and vasi, according to inscriptions.
 Italian traveler Marcopolo praised the trade and business of Rudrama devi era, when he
visited India.
Metal Industry:
 Iron, brass, bronze, gold and copper – these five metals were used to make several items and
those industries flourished.
 Iron industry grew in Guttikonda and Palnati seema. Manthena, Panagallu, Alampur, Nandalur,
Nellore and Ghantasala and other towns were chief trading centrres.

Transportation of merchandise:
 The transportation of merchandise was largely effected by hired means of transport

 Cattle, donkeys, and cattle carts were used to transport goods.
 Major transportation of goods was also carried out on the rivers like Godavari and Krishna
CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
 Kakatiyas started their political career in the Telugu country when Jainism enjoyed royal
patronage under the Rashtrakutas, Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Chalukyas of Vemulawada
 The early members of the Kakatiya dynasty believed have been Jains of the Digambara sect,
and builts the famous Padmakshi temple at Hanumakonda
 Saivism gained popularity during the Kakatiya era.
 Saivism was divided into 3 categories at that period
1. Pasupata Saivism
2. Kalamukha Saivism
3. Kapalika Saivism
 Chief centre of all the above three was Srisailam, but a prominent centre of kapalika saivism.
 Famous ruler of Kakatiyas, Ganapatideva patronized Paupata Saivism. His teacher (Guru)
Visweswara Sambhu founded Golaki Mathas and propagated Saivism.These Mathas also
served as education centres.
 The Veerasaivism, founded by Basaveswara entered into Andhradesa during the era of
Kakatiyas.
 The techers (Gurus) of Veerashaivism were called as ‘Jangams’; their religious texts were
called ‘Agams’; and their followers were called as ‘Lingayaths’.
Reign of Ganapatideva:
 Saivism was the predominant faith during the Kakatiya period

 The reign of Ganapatideva is a remarkable period in the history of Saiva religion in Andhra
 The advent of the Saiva teachers of the Pasupata school into the Andhra country brought a
change in the Kalamukha sect
 During the reign of Ganapatideva the Pasupati Saivas belonging to the Golakimatha in the
Dahala country gained popularity among the masses as well as the rulers
ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM
 Kakatiya rulers built many Jain, Shaiva and Vaishnava temples.

 They followed the architecture of their earlier rulers Western chalukyas in the construction
of temples. Smooth decorated pillars, pointed roofs, Torana sculpture, statues of dancing
ladies were part of chalukya tradition.

 The Thousand pillar temple at Hanumakonda, built during Rudradeva’s reign is still standing
proudly as a fine example of Kakatiya architecture.
 Another example of their artistic prowess is the Ramappa temple. Nandi statues of both
temples show the skills of the sculptors of that period. It is said that the bricks used for the
construction of Ramappa temple float on water. Kakatiyas built many more temples in
Manthena, Panagallu, Pillalamarri and many other places.
 The Great Temple at Palampet , Ramappa temple was erected by Recherla Rudra, the
commander-in-chief of Ganapatideva. It represents climax of the Kakatiyan style.
 Kakatiya rulers also patronized music, dance, painting and other art forms.
 Many books regarding these arts were written during their era. Jayapa senani,
Ganapatideva’s army general wrote a text on dances called ‘Nritya Ratnavali’. It is said that
the statues of dancing ladies at palampet were sculpted according to the characteristics
described in this book.
Thousand Pillar Temple:
 Also known as Rudreshwara Swamy Temple

 It was built by Rudradeva
 Located in Hanmakonda
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, Vishnu and Surya  it is a “trikutalaya” triple shrined with 3 sanctum
santorams
 Style of later Chalukyan and early Kakatiyan Architecture, star-shaped and triple shrined
 None of these shrines contains a vimana at present and it is also not known whether it is left
unfinished or subjected to vandalism of the muslim invaders.
 In order to bring harmony among Hindus this temple was built. Now shiva idol is existing and
the remaining two are demolished in due course
 Used sandbox technique for strengthening foundations
 The pillars in the mukha mandapa, the doorways of the Sivalinga and the Nandi exhibit exquisite
decoration and the highest degree of polishing.

Ramappa temple:
 Constructed by Recharla Rudra the famous general of Ganapatideva in about A.D.1213 as stated
in the inscription at the place.
 Located in Palampet
 The temple is not a Trikuta shrine
 The temple is a Shivalaya, where Lord Ramalingeswara is worshipped
 The temple is named after the sculptor Ramappa
 It consists of a garbhagriha preceded by an antarala on the western side and with porticos on
the other sides.
 The temple is remarkable for the bracket figures which spring from the outer pillars and shown
as supporting the roof projections. Some of these figures are alasa-kanvas and some lions.
 The superstructure is of the pyramidal type consisting of four bhumis or storeys. It is built of
light brick, specially manufactured for the purpose.

REDDI RULERS
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF THE REDDI KINGS
 The Reddis who ruled central coastal Andhra for about a century administered it well and
created favourable atmosphere for the growth of Telugu language and literature, agriculture,
trade and commerce, fine arts
 Sufficient resources are not available to describe about the administration of the Kondaviti
Reddy rulers.
 The inscriptions of this period provide very little information about the ruling system. Only the
literary sources gives some information about the administration.
 The literature mentions only the political science that prevailed since preceding periods.
 So we can say that the Reddy rulers followed the prevailing traditional systems.
 Vilasa inscription of the Prolayanayaka, Tangeda inscription of Kumaragiri Reddy, Sakalaniti
Sammatam of Madiki singana, Rukmangada Charitra of Proudha Mallana kavi, Nitesaram of
Baddenam the writings of Srinatha, the genelogy of Velugoti dynasty etc., provide some
information regarding to the administrative system of that age.
 Rukmangada history mentions about the constitutions, king, minister, army, fort, mitrudu, land
tax like branches.
The King:
 Total powers were vested in the King.

 Emphasis was laid to show the royal power and prestige but no divinity was assigned to the
kings
 In general kings were well educated.
 Before attaining the age of ascending the throne, they got the ability to rule the kingdom.
 Eventhough king was the supreme ruler, they ruled in according to the code of law.
 The greater poet Srinatha called the Pedakomati Vema Reddy as ‘Adhykkshamamandali’. By
taking such titles Reddy rulers carried out their administration.
Council of Ministers:
 Council of Ministers was there to give advice the king in administration.

 In general the council consists of 10-20 ministers.
 Except Kumarigiri Reddy all other rulers appointed Brahmins as their ministers.
 Kumaragiri Reddy appointed his brother-in-law Kataya Vemareddy as his minister. In Vanapalli
inscription the donee mentioned Immadi Mantri Anavema Reddy as the king of the ministers.
 So we can say that the Reddy rulers used to take the advice of the ministers.

Prince
 The eldest son of the king was named the crown prince and associated in the administration,
enjoying powers equal to those of the Chief Minister of Pradhana Mantri
 In the administration, after King and the Prime Minister, Prince had a key role. Prolaya Vema
Reddy during his tenure, declared his son Ana Pota Reddy as the Prince and appointed him as
his representative at Tripurantaka town.
 Kumara giri Reddy also declared his son Anapota Reddy-II as prince and made him as the royal
representative at Rajamahendra varma.
 Reddy rulers decided the future kings and trained them very well. When the king was out of
station, Prince used to took the responsibility of administration. The princes used to participate
in the wars and learnt about the generalship. They took part in the administration.
Administrative departments
 For administrative facility, various administrative departments were formed. Revenue, Army,
People welfare like branches were there.
 Every department headed by a chief. To assist them every department has officials at various
levels. They were given lands in the name of ‘Sarva Manyalu’ instead of paying the salaries.
Income
 Agriculture, industries, mines, diamond mines, business, forests, commercial taxes were the
various sources those provide income to the government.
 Baddena, Mallana, Ari, Sunkam, Gokulam, Panikriya, Nandanavanam, Kappam, Appanam,
Vaari, Karamu, Durga, Rakshana like taxes were collected.
 The Cheemakurti inscription of the Prolayavemu mentions about the taxes collected on the
horticulture.
Trade and Commerce:
 The Reddi period witnessed the development of inland and sea-borne trade.
 Inland transport was done by means of animals and crafts whereas sea-borne trade by ships.
 Trade guilds played an important part in the development of trade and commerce. The kings
never intervened in their internal affairs. They enjoyed full autonomy in the management of
their own affairs.
 The articles of trade were the elephants, horses, oxen, buffaloes, cows, carpets, textiles etc.
 Reddi kings showed special interest in developing sea-borne trade. This is evident from
Motupalli charter of king Anavota Reddi.
 Anavota Reddi not only abolished many taxes levied on foreign merchants but also fixed the
rates of duty on all the articles of import and export.

Royal officials and Administrative branches
 Different types of employees carried out their duties in the Royal court. All about them were
mentioned in the inscriptions and literature.
 According to the Sakala Neeti Sammatam of Madiki Singana, there were number of
statisticians and ‘Kavilesampratulu’. This book also mentions that, their main duty is to record
the income received from various forts. This book also hails them as the ‘Ratna Deepa’ of the
Royal Palace. After them the notable employees followed the kings and ministers. Their main
duty was to issue the orders of the kings in written form. They know different language and
well script writers. This was mentioned in the ‘Sakala Neeti Sammatham’.
 The main administrative branches were war maintenance, agreements department.
 The department to meet the requirements of the people, tax collecting department were the
important administration branches.
 People welfare department carryout the digging of various tanks.
 The accounts relating to the expenditure of digging tanks and canals the tax collected from the
tanks were well recorded.
 Measurements of lands, classifying the land depending on the fertility and for deciding the
taxes separate departments were there.
Taxes-Customs-Customs official
 The government receives income from various taxes. Taxes were also collected from gifts,
cattle wealth, commercial, entertainment, mines, Pullari from pasture lands like income also
received the government. All these were mentioned in ‘Rukmangada Charitra’.
 Various taxes were collected from the wet, dry, horticulture crops. On wet and dry lands taxes
were levied in the form of crop. On horticulture crops, tax collected in the form of cash. The
Cheemakurti inscription of the Prolaya Vemareddy mentions about the ‘Suvarnadaayam.’
Srinatha mentioned about the Dandaadaya. This was income collected in the form of fine.
 Vilasa inscription mentions about the how much tax collected from the land. This edict
mentions that Prolaya nayaka collected 1/6th of the crop as tax. Reddy rulers might have also
collected from the mines. In the name of ‘Vritti Katnalu’ taxes were collected from looms, oil
mills. At week end markets at towns and villages and port towns also taxes were collected.
 Taxes were collected on import and exports in ports. Such collectors were called as
‘Guttagandlu’. Tangeda inscription of the Kumara Reddy period, mentions about such
‘Guttagandlu’.
 Who ever ready to pay highest amount in the auction, ‘Sunka Gutta’ was given.
 Where there is no Gutta, Royal employees used to collect the taxes. They were called as
‘Sunkarlu’ or ‘Sunkadhikarlu’.
 Out of this amount auctioned amout was paid to the king.
 For temple and Brahmins lands tax exemption was given.
 In the inscriptions, the word, ‘Dasa Bandha Manya’ was found. Those who own these manyas
has to pay 1/10th of the produce as tax. In total tax burden was heavy.

Punishments for non payment of taxes
 If tax was not paid, severe punishments were given. Srinatha described the various
punishments imposed on farmers those who not paid their taxes. During Nalagamaraju period,
handcuffs were fixed to the hands of the farmers, falling them into the pits and thrust them
with pestles. Some people were beaten and fine collected from some other people.
 During his last period, Poet Srinatha subjected to punishments due to non payment of the
taxes.
 After the down fall of the Reddy dynasty, due to lack of patrons Srinatha suffered with severe
poverty. To meet his daily needs he forced to do cultivation. Due to crop loss he could not pay
his taxes. In those taxes were heavy and punishments were severe.
 During the period of Racha Vema Reddy, taxes were imposed on hearth (Stove), deliveries
also.
 After delivery of his wife, Savaram Yellaiah was tormented by the royal employees for the
payment of the tax. Not able to sustain this plague he entered in to the royal palace and killed
the Racha Vema with sword. This was mentioned in the kaifiyat of the Mekanji. This was the
best example for the unbearable tax burden on the people.
Tribute
 The tribute paid the feudatories was another source of income.

 From the total tax amount collected from the areas which were under their control, the
feudatories, after meeting their expenses like administration, army the remaining amount was
sent as tribute to the kings.
 For every region tribute was decided before itself.
 Every year feudatories will pay such amount. Kings received large amounts in the form of
tribute.
 If a feudatory failed to pay the amount, immediately he was removed. Most income of the
kings during this period was spent on the wars.
Expenditure
 Of the total amount received, major part goes to army and remaining was spent for the royal
employees and for the administration.
Administration of Justice
 King was the final Judge. Arekulu collected the information secretly and decided the
punishments. Punishments were given in accordance with the code of law.
 The literature of this age gives us some information regarding to the process of justice. The
courts were called as ‘Dharmasanams.’ To hear the special cases, temporary courts were
formed.
 Simhasana Datrimsika mentions, “if one want to prove his innocence, he has to held his hands
together like cup and then live coal was kept in them. Another form of provising innocence was,

one has to catch hold of iron boll with fire. Such type of testings were called as ‘Divya
Parikshalu’.
 Rukmangada Charitra also mentions about the false evidences.
 Severe punishments were imposed on those who involved in a crime. For Royal betrayal death
penality imposed. This punishment was implemented on an altar stone. Peel of the skin, cutting
the hands and legs, grinding in the oil mill, covering the body with dried grass and put fire to it
like punishments were in practice. All about this was mentioned in the ‘Simhasana Datrimsika.’
 Rukmangada Charitra also reveals that, if any body fails to repay the loan or taxes punishments
imposed were very severe in nature. Beating a man after binding him with ropes, dragging the
men in the streets, make them to stand in the hot sun, keeping the soulders on the chest,
pinching the thigh with tongs like punishments were in practice.
 Brahmins had separate punishments. If a Brahmin indulged in a crime which is punishable with
death sentence, then imprint dog figure on his face and made him to parade him on the
donkey.
Administrative branches
 Reddy rulers divided their kingdom into bhoomulu. Bhoomulu divided into Seemalu. Seemalu
divided into Nayankaras.
 The names of the Gurajala, Tangeda, Nagarjunakonda, Bellamkonda seemas were found in
the inscriptions of the Reddy rulers.
 Every bhoomi has one fort. Once there was one fort for two Bhoomies.
 The fort protects the land under its control. In order to protect that region, sufficient army
was kept in each fort.
 Every fort is under the control of a ‘Durgadhipati’. In general ‘Durgas’ were being developed
as towns with large population.
In those days four types of villages were prevailed
1) Racha gramalu
2) Nayankara gramalu: These were given to the army commanders for their army service
3) Agraharalu : Lands donated to Brahmins
4) Devadanalu : Villages donated to temples
 Village administration was done by the Gram Samithi. Village elders were the members in the
samithi.
 Crafts men used to provide the requirements of the village people. Their job was hereditary.
They were given the ‘Vritti Manyalu’. On behalf of the government Reddy, Karanam

employees were there. These two carryout their duties according to the orders of the king.
Reddy also acted as judge. He used to settle small disputes in the village.
 Karanam performed duties like measurement of land, deciding the area, recording the crops
and fixing the taxes.
 These two officials worked in co-ordination. These were called as ‘Chatavritti Manyalu.’ They
used to collect some amount in the form of donations and gifts.
 Every village has a protection wall around it. A centry was appointed to protect the village. At
the same time ‘Grama rakshakudu’ (village protector) was also there. He was also called as
‘Arekudu.’ During night time, they perform centry duty by keeping ‘divities’ (torches) in their
hands.
 In a village twelve types of crafts men. The professions of the Kakatiya period continued. In
general villages were self sufficient with self rule.
 So there was no impact of the change of rulers at higher level on villages self rule always
protected the villages.
 Priest also played an important role in the village life.
Army-Strategy-Weapons
 During reddy rulers period, army has three branches  Elephants, cavalry, infantry.
 Elephants were brought from Simhala (present Srilanka). Srinatha described about the
training, decoration of elephants in his Palanati Veera Charitra. Those who fight by sitting on
the horse were called as Satulu of Rahutulu.
Infantry was in four types
1) Selagolubalam : These were fight with lance

2) Vilukandru : This fight with bows and arrows
3) Kaitigandlu : This was the army, brought into the war field when ever require
4) Ekkatlu : If the self army was sufficient enough, this army brought into the field on hire
Some kings gave inams and lands and maintained them. During those days they were kept in
every town and village. The Vellaturi inscription of 1418 mentions that, those Ekkatlu
donated land to the nearby temple.
Army was also classified into two types:
 For one type of army, lands were provided for their maintainance. Another type of army was
paid with salaries. This was mentioned in the Palnati Veera Charitra.
 To provide army and soldiers special employees were there.They were called as ‘Kalarulu’- To
inform about the movements of enemies and their strength, secret agents were there. Before

starting of army some infantry soldiers were sent to clear the way for the movement of the
army.
Weapons
 Srinatha mentioned about 18 weapons in his Palnati Veera Charitra. During Reddy rule, Srinatha
wrote Palanti Veera Charitra.
Forts
 During this period, forts played a key role in the war strategy. Especially the role of hill forts was
very important. Large number of forts were built on the hills only. When ever the enemy attacks,
these forts gave protection to them. So the kings took special care to protect the hill-forts. They
built the forts in impregnable manner. Number of forts were built during this period.
 In the coastal Andhra Pradesh, forts like Udayagiri, Kandukuru, Nagarjunakonda, Kondaveedu,
Kondapalli, Tangeda, Bellamkonda, Vinukonda, Rajamahendravaram, Pithapuram,
Rayalaseema, Logutti, Gandikota like forts because very famous. All these were in the Reddy
kingdom only. Rayalaseema forts were under the control of Vijayanagara rulers.
 While going to wars, sufficient protection was provided to the forts, before going to the wars,
kings used to consult the astrologers and ask them to put ‘Muhurtam’ for it. They have very
sentiment on the omens. Beating large kettledrum they go for war fields.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF REDDY RULERS PERIOD
 Economic development was greatly effected during this period. Vritti Sanghalu, Santala, Srenulu
of Kakatiya period were not found. Agriculture was the main occupation. It also respectable
profession. Large number of sudras were cultivators.
 Reddy rulers dug the tanks, wells and canals, provided irrigation facilities. Eventhough dry
land areas suffered with water scarcity. “Paramesa! Ganga niduvu Parvati chalun’ (Paramesa
release Ganga. Parvati is enough) sloka is the best example to depict the actual situation.
 Important crops were, Paddy, Jowar, Bajra, Sugar Cane, Sesamum, Cotton were the main
crops. At Palnadu and Renadu only jowar rice was available. Srinatha said at Palnadu,
‘Kusumastrudaina Jonna Koode Tintadu’ (I eat cupid jower food).
 Textile industry was wide spread in this period. Srinata wrote, ‘Rambhayaina Ekulu Vadakun’
(Even Rambha also spin cotton thred on spinning wheel). Affiliated to this indigo preparation
was also flourished.
 In the contemporary literature, there was mention of various industries. A metallic alloy
containing five metals (copper, zinc, tin, lead and iron-Pancha lohalu), Jaya stambhalu (victory
pillars), Deepa stambhalu (light pillors), information regarding to the manufacture of weapons
was widely mentioned.
 National and International commerce was made by Telika, Vysya, Balija castes. In the capital
cities, pilgrim centers, weekend markets and in Vasanthotsavams the sales and purchases were

widely taken place. Motupalli was the centre for international trade. Number of wars waged
to occupy this.
 According to Haravilasam of Srinatha, with Simhala, Sumatra, Malaya, Indochina, Jafna like
countries wide range of trade relations were there. Fines costly silk cloth from China
(Cheenambaram), sandal, camphor were imported.
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS OF REDDY RULERS
 Reddy kingdoms were established with the main aim to restore the Hindu religion. As a part of
this, rulers introduced the ‘Varnasrama Dharmas’. Various castes took over their professions. But
with the impact of the Muslim rulers, they could not implement the caste system as just it was.
 Brahmins were Scholars : Scholars were given highest status in the society. Aaruvela and Velanati
like branches came in the Brahmins. Top most positions were occupied by them.
 Prime Minister and Royal priest posts were filled with Brahmins only. Following the Veda
Dharma, Kshatriyas maintained good relations with Brahmins. Vysyas maintained the business
and act like banks in providing loans and collecting them.
 Highest populated sudras indulged in the agriculture. Some were joined in army. In infantry their
number was more. Rulers were not strict on ‘Varanasrama Dharma’ in these recruitments.
 Along with them, ‘Chandala’ varna also came into existence. These were treated as the
untouchables by the higher castes. But these group people played a key role in agriculture
operations.
 During Reddy rulers tenure, farmers suffered a lot with the tax burden.
 Reddy kingdoms main aim was to protect the Hinduism. Agraharas were revived. Extensive
donations were made by the Reddy kings.
 Due to the Bhakti movement, Vedic rituals came down. Islam effect is seen in the Veera
Saivism. Number of Bhakti centres were increased.
 Early Reddy kings were the followers of Saivism. But in later period rulers adopted
Vaishnavism.
 In Saivism, militancy got the support of the people. Tripurantakam and Srisailam became
important pilgrimage centers.
 Shakti worship became famous. In the forms of Durga, Kali, Bhadrakali, Shakti was worshiped.
Worshipping the ‘Siddhas’ who got enlightenment was the special characteristic nature of this
period. Eventhough the Saiva sect prominence was more, in some regions Vishnavism was in
strong position. Nellore, Tirupathi, Srikakulam, Ahobilam, Simhachalam, Srikurmam grown as
Vaisnava Pilgrim centres. Kumaragiri, Katayavema followed Vaisnavism.
 Vaishnavism also divided into so many branches. Ramanujacharya formed the Srivaishnavam and
propagated it in the lower castes. In some regions ‘Panchamas’ were allowed in to the temples.
 Srivaishnavam divided into Tengala and Vadagala branches. Controversies were common
between Saiva and Vaisnava sects and among the various branches. Interest was increased on

omens and Panchangam among the people. Royal courts, agraharas flourished like education
centers. Till there prevailed innocence among the lower cast people.
 During this period, Brahmins were addicted to prostitutes, and the youth behaved unfettredly in
Jatara and Tirunalla functions. In the society from rulers to the poor people the passion was
increased.
SCULPTURE AND OTHER ARTS DURING REDDY RULERS PERIOD
 There is no sufficient evidence to know about the sculpture art during Reddy rulers period. Not a
single temple built by them is not existing. They might have built number of temples at Addanki
and Kondaveedu which were their capital cities. In Kondaveeti Fort some temples are in
dilapidated condition. Some of the, might have built by the Reddy kings. At present ruins of a fort
present at Kondaveedu. It is said that this fort was built by Hamvera the son of Kapileswara
Gajapati.
 It is said that, earlier the original fort built by the Reddy rulers was very small. This was called as
‘Putta Kota’.
 The actual place of this fort was located just near to this present ruins of the fort. So the ruins of
the temples present in the Kondaveedu cannot be attributed to the Reddy rulers. But they might
have built various temples here.
 Kumaragiri Reddy, Kataya Vema Reddy patronized Vishnavism. They might have built Vaishnava
Temples. In Kondavidu fort, ruins of Saiva, Visnava temples are still present.
 The caste diety of the Reddy rulers was Moolagooramma. Her temple also might have built.
 During Racha Vema Reddy period, it was learnt that in “Mutyalamma” temple was present at
Kondaveedu. Any where it is not being possible to understand about the sculpture and temples of
the Reddy rulers.
Other Constructions
 Reddy rulers also built some monuments in other places. Prolaya Vema Reddy built steps to the
‘Patala Ganga’ at Srisailam. At Ahobilam he built steps to the temple.
 Ana Vema Reddy built the ‘Veera Siro Mantapam’ at Srisailam. They made donations to the
Tripurantakam and other temples.
 Eventhough there were no temples belongs to Reddy rulers period, they built number of pavillions.
This was mentioned in various inscriptions. According to the inscriptions at Draksharama, Reddy
rulers built Bhimanatha town at Draksharamam.
 Peda Komati Vema Reddy built a building named as ‘Gruharaju Meda’ at Kondaveedu. He also kept
Enapotu Katari there. This is also a temple. But at present it is not found. But inscriptions say that
this temple was built by Kumaragiri.

Vemana:
 Whenever there is use of the term ‘Reddy’, the one must have to know about Hemareddy
Mallamma.
 There is a story for the term ‘Hemareddy’. That is, a farmer named Aliyareddy with the blessings
of Srishail Mallikarjun, began converting water and such other materials into gold and also used
to give to the poor people. In this way, he was become rich and popular and built Kondaveedu
town and become King of the Kondaveedu area.
 Long ago, there was Vemana, a merchant living in Srisailam and he was devotee of Lord
Mallikarjuna. It was said that even though he was restricted by Lord Mallikarjuna to leave
Srisailam, he went from Srisailam and during his journey, he faced many of the difficulties. He
felt tired and thirst and he seen a pond. He used to drink water from pond and his finger ring of
iron became gold ring. He remembered Srisailam Mallikarjuna and he took two earthern pitches
of water from the pond. When he stayed in Aliyareddy’s house on the way, he kept two pitches
of water. When plough of Aliyareddy was touched with these pitches, it became golden. By
knowing this, Vemana burnt the house of Aliya Reddy and rushed outside with these pitches, he
was died due to burns. Aliya Reddy came out from his burning hut and got these pitches. In this
way, Aliya Reddy became rich by converting all and giving the same to the poor to solve their
problems. Later, Aliya Reddy built a town called ‘Kondaveedu’.

Prajakavi Vemana and Others:
 Popularly called Rajarshi, Bhartrihari belonged to Northern part of India and Vemana, also
known as Prajakavi or Yogi Vemana, belonged to the Southern geography of the country.
 The contribution of both the great poets has placed the Indian literature at the epitome of the
literary world.
 Bhartrihari's Slokas in Sanskrit and Vemana's Padyalu in Telugu have found eternity since they
provide critical commentary on the social, political, cultural, religious and moral discipline in
addition to examining the basic nature or the thought process of people.
 In order to bring Social, Political, Cultural and Moral discipline, these two poets — who are
reformers than just poets -- had put in untiring efforts to enlighten the society at large.
 It is important to remember that the works are centred on the socio-political situations of their
times and considering that these conditions remain constant even today, they are equally
applicable
On observing the Life history and the Verses of Bhartrihari and Vemana one would come across several
similarities though the poets were born at various time periods and places. To summarise:
 Both were born in Kshatriya families

 Devotees of Lord Shiva
 Experimented on making gold out of various other metals
 Having enjoyed the worldly pleasures, renounced the world
 Have the impact of women in renouncing
 Spoke on moral values, romance and renunciation
 Criticized the orthodox and evil practices and customs present in the society at that time
 All the verses rendered by them give independent meaning (Muktakas)

Socio-Cultural and Religious Conditions in Andhradesa

1000 to 1565 A.D
The age of Chola-Chalukyas:
After the fall of Eastern Chalukyas, Andhra was divided into different Nadus like Renadu, Palanadu,
Valnadu and Veginadu. Though political stability was disturbed, the literary and cultural development
continued to flourish during this age.
Major Social Developments
 The Chaturdavarna (Sudras) emerged as powerful landed aristocrats were very soon formed
into sub-castes like Reddy, Komma, Naidu and Velamas.
 Within the Brahmin community, sub-caste formation continued to take place dividing the
community into Khammanati, Reginati and Muriginati sects.
 The agricultural communities opted for trade and commerce and emerged as business
communities. The balijas who were actually agriculturists entered into trade and commerce.
 Social evils such as Sati, Dowry system and Devadasi system continued.
 The Veeravaishnava movement started by Brahmanaidu attempted to bring a change in to the
social structure finally leading to a conflict between reformism and revivalism in the form of
great Palnadu battle. In the end, it was revivalism which emerged victorious defeating the
reformism of Brahmanaidu.
Religious Conditions:
 Buddhism and Jainism were almost at the verge of extinction.

 Brahmanism continued to flourish with Saivism and Vaishnavism.
 Within Saivism worhsipping “kali” (kapalikavartha) became a popular tradition.
 “Deekshadharana”, following the rituals in the worshiping pattern started both in Saivism and
Vaishnavism.
Saivism:
 Saivism gained popularity with the “Pandithatraya” consisting of Sreepathi, Mallikarjuna and
Palkuriki somana.
 Sreepathi Panditha preacha and promoted “Agamantha Saivism” whereas Mallikarjuna founded
“Aradya Saivism”.
 Basaveswaras Veerasaivism also became a popular movements.
The reasons for the popularity of Saivism were it condened social evils and inequalities. Secondly, it
completely identified with lower class and agriculture coolies. Particularly Basavewsaras “Veerasaivism”
opposed the exploitation of agriculture coolies by Vaishnava landlords.

Vaishnavism:
 Vaishnavism on the other hand got an impetus with the teachings of Ramanujayacharya.
 “Veeravaishnavism” started by Brahmanaidu became a popular movement challenging
Veerasaivism.
 Like Veerasaivism, it stood for social equity.
 As a great reformer, Brahmanaidu organized temple entry movement for the untouchables in
the Chennakesava temple in Macherla. He encouraged intercaste marriages and started the
practice of intervarna dining called “Chapa Kinda Kuudu”. His reformism attracted reaction from
the conservative sections of the society particularly the orthodox saivites led by “Nagamma”.
 The great “Palanadu battle” in the year 1176 A.D. though a conflicit between two brothers for
power, in reality a clash between Saivism and Vaishnavism.
The Social implications of the battle were, within the lower sections of the society, new subcastes like
Maladasari and Madigadasaris were formed following Vaishnavism. Secondly, the followers of
Brahmanaidu defeated and driven away from Palanadu called themselves Velamas.
In the religious sphere, the Saiva-Vaishnava conflict caused great social turmoil. The poet cum reformer
Tikkana-Somayaji inorder to forge unity between Saivas and Vaishnavities introduced “Hari-Hara-
Aradhana” worshipping both Vishnu and Shiva. He also revived Smartha movement giving scope for
worshipping any god.
The age also witnessed communal strife between Brahmanism and Jainism. The great reformer Tikkana
Somayaji himself turned intolerant towards the Jains and prevailed upon Ganapatideva of Kakatiyas to
prescuate the Jains. Jainism was forced to make an exit from Andhra.
Cultural Contribution:
 The literary activity continued to flourish with the greatest poet of the times “Tikkana-
Somayaji” called “Kavibrahma” and “Ubhaya Kavimatra”. He translated the “15” parvas of
Mahabharatha into telugu. Dedicated his work “Nirvachanothara Ramayanam” to
“Manumasidhi”. His disciple “Kethana” wrote “Dashakumarachatria” in telugu and became
popular as “Abhinavadandi”.
 Mallikarjunapanditha was the first to use the literature as a powerful medium to promote
Saivism. His “Sivatatvasaya” consisting “400 poems” is one of the earliest works in Sataka
Literature.
 Great development took place in vocal and instrumental music. Srinatha is his “Palanati
Veeracharitra” refers to musical instruments like Flute, Chirugantalu and Sannayi, a testimony
for the development of Sangeethasastra.

Gajapatis
Culture and Literature during the Gajapatis period
 Gajapatis did not interfere with the Andhra culture. Therefore there was no change in the
cultural scenario. However, they introduced certain administrative practices of Orissa. They
divided their kingdom into ‘Dandapadi’ divisions.
 Such words like Kondaveeti Dandapadi, Kondapalli Dandapadi are seen in their edicts. This is the
only change during their rule. Though the Gajapatis belonged to Orissa, they patronized some
Telugu poets.
Telugu Literature:
 Though, entire Andhra was under the Gajapati rule, they did not patronize the Telugu language
and literature. However, Sri Krishna Devaraya, the emperor of the Vijayanagara kingdom, who
was a contemporary of the Gajapati kings, highly patronized the Telugu literature
 The only famous Telugu poet during the Gajapatis was Srinadha. However, he was not honoured
by them, but was punished for defaulting in tax payment
 Though the Gajapatis have not patronized the Telugu literature, their subordinate kings have
patronized Telugu literature and got many books written. One such king was Pusapati Basava
Bhupala of Udayagiri. He patronized Dubagunta Narayanakavi, Daggupalli Dugganna. The poet
duo Nandi Mallayya and Ghanta Singaiah were under the care of him
 Dubagunta Narayana kavi wrote “Panchatantram.” He described the poverty and misteries of
mundane life. He said poverty was worse than hell. It is better to immolate oneself than to bear
the utter penury. He dedicated this book to Chandaluri Gangaiah Mantri.
Nandi Mallayya – Ghanta Singanna
 This poet duo are the court poets of Basava Bhupala.

 They translated the play ‘Prabodha Chandrodayam’ and dedicated the same to Chandaluri
Gangaiah
Malleswara Kavi
 He was the son of Pillalamarri Pinaveerabhadra

 He migrated to the Gajapati’s kingdom, served them and got the village “Penumalla” as gift from
them
Saraswati Vilasam
 Prataparudra Gajapati, the last of the Gajapatis, was a famous writer himself
 He wrote the book “Saraswathi Vilasam”. He described the women’s property rights in that
book. Some minor service was done to telugu literature during Gajapati’s rule

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
ADMINISTRATION OF VIJAYANAGARA RULERS
Theory of Kingship
 Kingship was based on the principle of absolute monarchy, but of benevolent type. King was to
ensure people’s welfare, listen to their appeals, and remove all their difficulties.
 He enjoyed absolute authority in the executive, judicial and legislative matters
 He was the highest court of appeal and supreme law-giver
Law Succession
 It was based generally on the hereditary principle. But there were instance where successors
were nominated by the reigning rules to ensure peaceful succession.
 There were also instance of usurpation. Sangama dynasty ended when Saluva Narasimha
usurped the throne.
 And when a minor succeeded to the throne, the practice of appointing a regent to look after the
minor and administration was also there.
Council of Ministers and Central Officers
 There was a council of ministers, headed by a Prime Minister, to assist and advice the king in
administrative matters. But it was left to the king’s discretion wheather he should heed to their
advice or not.
 The Kings also consulted, besides the ministers, his own favourate individuals on veey important
issues.
Provinical Administration:
 The empire was divided into many territorial units

 The biggest unit was the province
 This was referred to in the inscriptions as Rajya and Mandala
 Each province was kept under the viceroy or governor or Nayaka. He may be a member of a
royal family or an influential noble of the state or a descendant of some old royal family
 They enjoyed enormous powers and the following are some of them
1) They were empowered to exercise civil, judicial and military powers in their respective
provinces
2) They were empowered to appoint their own officials
3) They were accorded permission to issue coins of their own in small denomination

4) They maintained their own armies. But they were expected to supply army to the king
whenever he was in need
Though these feudal chiefs of Nayakas were controlled in many a way by the emperors, they enjoyed a
considerable amount of autonomy in their respective provinces. In one way state within a state
prevailed during this period. Thus the Vijayanagara Polity was a vast feudal organization.
Village Administration:
 Village was the unit of administration.

 Each village was self-sufficient.
 The Panchayat looked after the administration of the village
 Besides hereditary village officials like accountant, talari, carpenter etc. participated in the
administration of the village. They were called as ayagars.
 These village officials were paid either by grants of land or a portion of the agricultural produce
 The heads of the commercial corporations or guilds seem to have formed an integral part of the
village assemblies
Revenue Administration
a. Chief sources of Income

i. Land revenue from crown lands
ii. Tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs
iii. Flourishing seaports brought huge wealth. Customs collected at these ports and tolls on
inland commerce at these ports and tolls on inland commerce were also important
sources of revenue
iv. Taxes on various professions, houses, markets and licenses
v. Fines inflicted by courts were also an important source of income
b. Collection of Land Revenue
 It was collected on the basis of assessment, fixed after careful survey. Its rate varied according
to the nature of the cultivated land. It was fixed on the basis of crop cultivation and the
quantum of yield obtained. Generally 1/6th of the gross produce was collected as land
revenue. But some times it was raised to ½.
Items of Expenditure: As suggested in the Amuktamalyada, the income of the state was divided
into four parts.
 Personal charities and personal expenditure of the king

 Maintenance of horses
 Military conquests
 Greater part of the revenue for progress and security of the empire

Judicial Administration
 The King administrated justice impartially. He presided over the Sabhga, the highest court of
appeal.
 Reguar courts for administering justice were also there in different parts of the empire.They
were headed by a hierarchy of officials.
 Dharma Sastras generally formed the basis on which causes were decided.
 Smriti of Yajanavalkya and code of Purasara were accepted as guiding principles whenever
genuine doubts arose.
 There were also village courts, caste panchyatas and guild organization to dispose of petty
offences like violation of caste rules and rules of trade.
 Harsh punishments were inflicted. For instance, decapacitation,mutilation, and throwing to
elephants were quite common.
Military Administration
 There was a well organised and efficient standing army.

 It consisted of cavalry, artillery and elephant corps.
 High-breed horses were procured from foreign merchants.
 Different Grades of officers were there in the army, the top grades being the Nayakas (or)
Palegars.
 In addition to the regular standing army, armies of vassal kings and governors assisted the king
whenever necessary. In fact, some of the Nadapradhus (rules of Nadus or sub-districts) like
Gaudas of Bangalore practically protected the boundaries from foreign invasions and even in
suppressing the defiant provincial governors and vassals.
 Ordinary soldiers of the royal army were usually paid in cash, but big officers like Palegars were
granted territory (amaram) with a fixed revenue in lieu of their salaries.
SOCIETY AND RELIGION
Caste System
 Allasani Peddana, in his “Manucharitam”, mentions the four castes that existed in the
Vijayanagara society:
 Viprulu or Brahmins followed the traditional profession of teachers and priests. They also,
sometimes performed duties of soldiers and administrators. This is confirmed from the
narration of Dominago Paes.
 Rajulu or Kshatriyas were generally associated with the ruling dynasty, assisting them in matters
of state and warfare. In all probability, most of the nobles and men of rank belonged to this
caste.
 Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the same as merchants who carried on trade and commerce
 Nalavajayivaru or Sudras were mainly agriculturists, but some of them carried on several other
professions. They were not segregated, though considered inferior.

 Brahmins were priests in charge of temple worship. They were vegetarians so also the
Veerasaivas who wore the symbol of their god round their neck.
 Jains also formed an important section of the population.
Position of women
a. Education and Learning:

i. Gangadevi, wife of Kampana, wrote ‘Maduravijayam’.
ii. Hannamma was a prominent scholar in the court of Proudadeva.
iii. Tirumalamma was a distinguished poetess in Sanskrit in the Achyuta Raya
b. Employment :
According to Nuinz, large number of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers,
domestic servants and palanquine bearers. They were also appointed as accountants, judges,
bailiffs, and watchwomen.
c. Custom of Devasasis: The practice of dancing girls attached to temples was also in vogue. From
the account of Paes, we learn that ‘devadasis’ held a highly respectable position in society, given
land grants, maid-servants, jewelry, etc.
Religion
 Vijayanagara emperors followed the policy of religious toleration.

 Early Vijayanagara rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family god.
 Later on they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. But Siva continued to be worshipped.
 Vaishnavism was professed in various forms. Sri Vaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly
popular. Dviata syatem of Madhava was also practiced largely.
 Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses, especially they served as a means of
education among women.
 Jainism too was followed by the people.
 Atchyutadevaraya was a follower of Vishnu. But he gave donations to Saiva temples at
Kanchi, Lepakshi etc.
 It is known from epigraphic evidence that during the time of Harihara II, sectarian conflicts
between Jains, Buddhists and Brahmanical faiths were common. But they were suppressed by
the rulers by following the policy of toleration
Economic Conditions:
 The economic prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire is very well attested by the accounts left by
the foreign travelers. It is evident from the account left by Domingo Paes that the king of
Vijayanagara had a lot of money. The residents of the city of Vijayanagara carried on trade in
precious stones.
 The sultans of deccan after the Battle of Tallikota attacked and destroyed the city of
Vijayanagar.

Factors that were responsible for the growth of economic prosperity:
1) The development of agriculture, and the agricultural surplus produced was one potential facor
for the growth of wealth
2) The second major factor was the development of industry. The major industries of the empire
were textiles, mining, metallurgy, diamonds and perfumes.
3) The other important factor for the economic development of this period was the flourishing
trade and commerce. The internal trade was carried on by the guilds. The external trade was
mostly carried on by the Portuguese and Arab merchants. The chief ports of the empire were
Calicut, Cochin, Pulicat, Bhaktal and Mangalore. The chief countries with which they had
commercial relations were the islands in the Indian Ocean, Malaya, Burma, China, South Africa
and Persia. The overseas trade was carried on with the help of ships.
The flourishing trade and commerce of this period is very well attested by the large number of gold and
silver coins issued by the Vijayanagara emperors.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE DURING THE PERIOD OF VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
 The rulers of Vijayanagara Kingdom have rendered tremendous service to literature and culture
while working hard for the expansion of their kingdom and for the economic development.
 Most valuable literature was created in Sanskrit as well as regional languages, during the times
of the Vijayanagara Kings.
 Some of the Vijayanagara kings were poets themselves, who created ever lasting literature.
 Classics like Rajasekhara Charitra written by Madaya gari Mallana, Nirankusha opakyanam
written by Kandukuri Rudrakavi and Manucharitra written Allasani Peddanna gave an account
of the educational system prevailing during the Vijayanagara Kingdom.
Poets Books written

 Allasami Peddana Manucharitra
 Ramaraju Bhushana Vasu Charitra
 Nandi Timmana Parijatha Apahareina
 Pingali Surana Rajahava Pandaveeyam, Kalapoorano Dayam.
Panduranga
 Tenali Rama Linga Ramabhyudayam
 Ayyala Raju Rama Bharalam Rajasekhara Charitra
 Madayagani Mahana Srikalahastiswaea Mahatyam
 Dhoorjati
 It can be said that the Vijayanagara Emperors have indirectly supported the development of
education in their kingdom.
 Education was not with in the reach of all, at that time. It was limited to a few

 Vijayanagaram (Hampi), Kanchipuram and Madurai were major education centres during that
period. Similarly, the Shaivite and Vaishnava monasteries (Matham) and Agraharams (place
where the Brahmins live) here also developed into learning centres.
 Generally, religious knowledge was imparted in these monasteries. However, repository of
books, were found in the households of pundits.
 The scholars of those days used palmleaves and copper foils writing.
 The great music composers writer Tallapaka Annamacharya made his 30 thousand Keerthanas
written on copper foils and stored it safely in the Saraswatu Bhandagatam.
Sanskrit and Regional Languages:
 During the rule of Bukkaraya – I, who founded the Vijayanagara Kingdom, with his
encouragement few Sanskrit scholars and learned pundits, wrote commentary on the four
Vedas, Bramhanas and Aranyakas.
 The Commentary written by Devaraju of Srirangam on the 15th century is an example of Vedic
literature.
 Govida raju wrote ‘Bhushana’ in Sanskrit.
 A Sanskrit scholar by name Eswara Deekshitar, under the patronage of Sri Krishna Devaraya
wrote a mammoth commentary as Ramayana.
 Ananda Poorna Vidyasagara of Gokarnam regions during the rule of Hari Hara – II, wrote
“Vyakhya Ratnavali” a commentary on Mahbharata in Sanskrit.
 Even women of Royal families were good at Sanskrit literature. Gangadevi wife of Kampa Raya,
Tukkamba, wife of Sri Krishna Devaraya were noted writers in sanskrit. Many books were
written on Alankara, Natya and Sangeeta Sastras.
Dance – Music
 As for as classical dance and classical music are concerned, Maha Nataka Sudhanidhi, Desa
Bhakta Sangeeta Muktavalli, Tala Deepika, Sangeeta Suryodayam, Sangeeta Sudha etc are
famous.
 Several volumes were written on various subjects in Sanskrit during the Vijayanagar epoch. The
reason for writing on such magnificient scale is perhaps the rulers have taken up the Hindu
Renaissance, religiously.
 During the regime of Vijayanagara, not only Sanskrit but other Southern languages like Telugu,
Kannada and Tamil also have patronized by the rulers.
Telugu Literature
 The founders of Vijayanagara empire, Hari Hara and Bukkaraya being Telugus, Telugu language
received the royal patronage.
 During the reign of the Sangama King, Deva raya – II, the Emperor of poets Srinadha,
Vijayanagara, defeated their court poet Govida Dindima Bhattu in a literary contest, had himself
honoured by the King. It is reported that Srinadha was bathed in mintfrem gold coins.
 The Kreeda Bhiramam, a stage play was written by Vinukonda Vallabha Ramudu, in this period.

 Other poetic works during this period are Ramabhyudayam, Jaimini Bharatam by Pillala Marri
Pinaveerabhadra.
 The reign of the Tuluva Dynasty is considered to be a golden epoch for Telugu Literature.
 The most famous among the Vijayanagara Kings, Sri Krishna Devaraya, was a great patron of
Telugu literature and literators, being a poet himself. Vijayanagara emerged as a hub of
literature activity.
A new trend in telugu literature emerged in the 16th century
 Independent literature in Telugu started coming and a new concept of Prabandham a

combination of verse (mostly) and partly in ornate prose has appeared in the literary domains.
 The concept of Prabandham is pure romance, laced with lust. Along with this other styles of
literature ie, Jawali and Keeratana also surfaced.
 The author of Panchatamtram, Narayana kavi wrote on state craft.
 Kunchiraju Errana wrote Kokkokam a compendium on the art of coition.
 During this time, extempose poetry becamee popular. The concept of Avadhanam came to
action.
 Famous poetess of this period are Molla and Tallapaka Thimamakka. Molla wrote Ramyanam
and Thimmakka wrote Subhadra Kalyanam.
 However, by the beginning of the 17th century, fall of Vijayanagara Kingdom started and so the
fall of literature.
 Another concept of literature in this period was Javali, where in the love lorn lovers, bereft of
each other, wait endlessy, further Shataka concept propogating, morality and righteousness, too
has become popular during this period. Both Shaivite and Vaishnavite Shataka poetry was in
vogue.
Kannada Literature
 During the rule of the Vijayanagara Kings, popularity of Shaiva and Vaishnava sects of Hinduism
was at its peak, and Jainism diminished.
 However, scholars of Jainism wrote the life sketches of Jaina Tirthankaras in Kannada.
Literature on the lives of Dharamanadha and Gomateswara were popularired. Jainism was
popular in Tulu region of Karnataka. Gersoppa and Mudubidiri were seats of Jainism.
 The Veerashaiva Scholars have endeavored to uplift the Kannada literature. Devaraya II
patronized the Kannada language and literature.
 Chenna Basava Puranam was written in 1584. Pandita radhya and revana Siddha were
depicted as great heroes in these works.
 Virupaksha-II ruled between 1465-85. His Shaivaguru Thonthada Siddeswara or Siddi Linga Yati,
wrote “Shadsthala Gnanamrutham” in 700 verses.
 Nijaguna Siva Yogi wrote commentary on a Sanskrit book “Shiva Yoga Pradipaka”. Mallanaraya,
a contemporary of Sri Krishna Devaraya, wrote in sanskrit and kannada. He wrote
Veerasaivamrutam in 1530 AD.

 Between 1173AD-1230AD, the first to write in Kannada on Vaishnavism was Rudrabhatta. He

wrote Jagannadha Vijayam based upon Vishnu Puranam.
 Narayanappa translated Maha Bharata into Kannada. He was honoured with the title “Kumara
Vyasa” by Devaraya – II.
 Narahari, who got the title of Kumara Valmiki wrote Ramayana in Kannada.
 Achayuta Raya and Chata Vithalandha translated the Bhagavatam into Kannada.
 Dasa literature a product of the Vaishnava cult is very popular then. The poet compasses
purandara dasa and kanaka dasa belong to this sect.
 By 17th century Kannada literature has blossomed into a modern language. Mohana
Tharanagana, written by Kanakadasu have added shine to Kannada literature.
Tamil Literature
 According to the opinion of some historians, the period between 1200 AD and 1650 AD was
called the 4th and the last great epic of the Tamil literature. Many philosophic texts,
commentaries, Puranas were written during this period.
 More than innovation, linguistic initiation was more prominent in this period. Several writers of
that time belonged to Shaiva, Vaishnava or Jaina Faiths.
 The school of non-duality (advaita) or momism was propogated in the books ‘Siva Prakasa
Perindarathi’ and ‘kulindarattu’ by the sages Swaroopanada Desikar and his disciple Tattu
Varier in the 14th and 15th centuries. These books are important texts of Shaiva literature.
 Tattu Varier wrote Paduturani, Nanavinodin, Kalam bakkam, Mohavadde Prarani, Annava
Daipparani books.
 In the 15th century, Aruna Girinatha wrote Thiruppural in lyrics.
 Tamil writers were also patronised by Sri Krishna Devaraya. Hari Dasa, Marainana Nambandar
were some.
 The Vaishnavite literature in Tamil region was written in Sanskrit only.
 Vedanta Desikar wrote in Tamil and Sanskrit as well.
 The Purana literature was popular in Tamil at that time. The Koil Puranam, Archandira Puranam
by Nallar Vira kavi, Kanda Puranam by Kachiyappa Siva Charya, Vrudhhachala Puranam by
Nayak Kattur, Thiru vanjeeya Puranam etc.
 In the 15th century, a commentary on “Soundarya Lahari” was written in Tamil.
Thus, the literature in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil Language can be divided into two sections.They
are religious (Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jaina) and Secular literature.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE





QUTUB SHAHIS
Administrative System
Good administrative system and stable economy are important for any state to run smoothly for a long
period. The chief characteristics of the administrative system of the Qutub Shahi dynasty were
 The Sultan (ruler) was the head of the state, chief of army, chief law maker and chief judge.
 He used to form new laws, and farmaanas and issued them.
 The Golkonda rulers were generous, they gave importance to the welfare of people.
 Sultans toured the kingdom to know the conditions of people.
 As Hindus were the majority in population, Sultans of qutub-shahi dynasty respected their
religious beliefs, traditional practices, languages and literature.
 Though most of the Farmaanas (orders) were issued in Persian, a Hindu employee or translator
was usually appointed by every ruler to translate them into Telugu.
 All of them used to live in the capital and attended meeting called by the sultan.
 A council of ministers helped the king in running the different departments of administrative
system.
 The Prime minister was called as ‘Peshwa’ – He was next to the sultan in powers.
 12 vazirs (ministers) worked under him. The minister of finance was most important after
peshwa. He was called ‘Mirjumla’. Revenue and expenditure of the kingdom were under his
control
 Next in the line of power was minister of battles (or defence). He was called as ‘Inulmulk’.
 The ‘Majumdar’ was equal to today’s Auditor General.
 The main officer who looked after the administrative affairs and reported to the king, was called
as ‘Nazir’.
 Kotwal is equal to present day police commissioner, who looked after the law and order of the
state.
 Two secretaries called ‘Dabirs’ worked under the peshwa. They used to compose Farmaanas
(Government orders) and supervised their implementation. One of them always used to be a
Hindu. He translated them from Persian to telugu.That is why the Hindu Dabir used to be a
bilingual.
 The drafts and details of the Farmaanas and laws were formed by another officer called
‘Prahnavis’. Mushrif used to supervise the affairs of royal protocol.
 The Golkonda rulers of Qutub Shahi dynasty divided the kingdom into Tarafs (states), Circars
(districts) and Paraganas (Taluqs) for ease of administration.
 The Golkonda kingdom was divided into 6 tarafs, 38 circars and 517 paraganas.
 The head of a Taraf was Tarafdar, head of a circar was Fauzdar and head of a paragana was
Tahsildaar.
 An officer called ‘Shabandar’ was appointed to collect duties in port towns.

 In the department of revenue-There were Mukadddam (head of the village or Munsif), Kulkarni
(karanam) and Deshmukh, (collector). Circars were taken as a unit to collect taxes.
 The power to collect taxes was sold through auction. Those who bought that power were called
as ‘Mustazirs’. Most of them used to be Hindus.
 There used to be 12 types of Ayagars who had Mirasi (hereditary) rights in the villages of
Golkonda kingdom.They were called as Baluthions-which means strongmen. They were
1. Patel (Munsif)
2. Kulkarni (karanam)
3. Chaudary (head pf traders)
4. Potedar (Exchange of coins)
5. Deshpandya (statistician)
6. Nehani (barber)
7. Parith (Washerman)
8. Guru (priest)
9. Sutar (carpenter)
10. Kumbhar (potter)
11. Vesahara (gatekeeper)
12. Joshi (Astrologer-Jyotishya)
Judiciary
 Qutub Shahi recognized the importance of a proper judiciary system and followed the judiciary
system of the Bahmani dynasty mostly.
 During their reign, the khuran, farmaanas and local traditions were the chief sources of
judgements, and decision making.
 Sultan acted as the chief justice of the state. ‘Shariat Panch’ was the second in line. He used to
supervise the implementation of judiciary system in the kingdom. He could be compared with
the chief justice of today.
 The judicial activities of each paragana were conducted by officials called Quazi, Hawaldar,
Majlis and Thamedar. But all of them came under the control of ‘Shariat Panch’.
 A special officer called ‘Mahatsif’ was appointed to propagate moral values among the masses.
 The speciality of the Qutub Shahi rulers was that they did not usually interfere in the religious
matters and traditions of Hindus.
 People had the right to appeal to the sultan on the judgments of local courts.According to
historian Travernier, Sultan used to give judgments on these appeals every once in a week.
 Punishments were very severe. Revolutionaries were given the punishment of death. Limbs and
hands of theifs were severed.

Religious freedom
 Qutub Shahi rulers provided religious freedom to all communities.

 They were not partial in their administrative activities.
 Hindus in their kingdom enjoyed religious freedom that no other muslim dynasty allowed
anywhere else.
 They built tanks and canals and on general helped the development of agriculture
 They also dug wells in many villages, built choultries, stopped collection of taxes in villages
where conditions of people were not good.
Tax system
 Qutub Shashi ruler imposed taxes on industries and trade. Import and export traffic were
collected in port towns by Hawaldars.
 Production of salt, precious stones, betel leaves, tobacco and others was completely under the
control of government.
 Taxes on land, industries and trade used to be high.
 The annual average income of Qutub Shahi rulers was 5 crore honns and the net profit was 19
lakh honns, according to historians
Military system
 As they were surrounded by strong neighbour states, the Golkonda rulers built up a strong
military system from the beginning. Sultan was the chief of all armies.
 Second to him was Inulmulk, who helped the sultan in military activities and decisions.He used
to supervise the selection and training of soldiers and also the production of weaponary and
preparedness of the army.
 The army of Golkonda was divided into two classes. 1. Central army 2. Jagirdar army.
Agriculture
 The chief occupation of people was agriculture.

 Sultans constructed and dug tanks, wells and canals to develop agriculture.
 They appointed workers called ‘Vadderas’ to repair them. Main crops were – paddy, jowar, ragi,
pulses, cotton, tobacco.
 Tobacco was exported to Portugal during this period. The revenue of the government
increased by cotton and tobacco.
Industry
 By 17th century, industries grew rapidly in the Golkonda kingdom. Some historians believe that
Golkonda was far better in industrial sector than some European countries during that period.
 Some western travellers even described the Golkonda kingdom as the ‘Second Egypt’.
 As cotton was produced extensively, handloom industry developed as the chief industry of the
state.

 Beautiful, handmade cloth was produced extensively and was exported to European countries,
which was much sought after there.
 Especially Doria cloth from Visakhapatnam, carpets from Eluru, long cloth (white cloth) from
East Godavari region, Kalamkari cloth from Bundar (machilipatnam) and neighbouring regions,
kerchiefs and towels from Nellore areas were in high demand in Western countries.
 Ships were built with wood available near Rajahmundry and Bhadrachalam regions. Iron tools,
necessary for ship building were produced at Madhaveetapalem.
 The ships built in the Golkonda kingdom travelled to Java, Sumatra and other islands and
returned safely.
 During the 17th century, iron and steel were also produced in Golkonda kingdom. Swords,
knives and weaponary were produced at Nirmal and Indur areas.
 Sulphur was available in Machilipatnam, Narasapur and Pulicat regions, with which gun shot
material was prepared.
 The diamonds found at Golkonda mines had become world famous.
 Diamond mines were located at Kollur (Guntur district), Paritala (Krishna district.), Vajrakarur
(Anantapur district) They were routed to contractors by the government.
 Textiles, paddy, diamonds, iron, steel implements, china silk, copper and red sandals were
exported from Nizampatnam, Pulicat and Chennai to western countries.
Castes and Occupations
 Majority population in Golkonda kingdom belonged to the Hindu community.

 The caste system settled down in the society during the reign of Qutub Shahis. Castes and
subcastes expanded.
 Brahmins, with their education and knowledge remained at the respected and were appointed
for key posts in the courts of kings.
 Kshatriyas continued as subordinate rulers, Zagirdars and Mirasidars. Some even resorted to
agriculture and related occupations.
 The chief occupation of vaisya continued as trading. They conducted the businesses of gold,
diamonds, textiles and others and many of them exported to foreign countries also.
 Sudras mainly conducted agricultural occupations, though there were sudras who held key posts
in the courts of Sultans. Some people of Reddy, Kamma and Velama castes were occupied as
Zagirdars, Deshmukhs, Deshpandeys and Mirasidars. Untouchability was in practice.They lived at
the outskirts of villages in separate colonies. Many of them were charmakaras but some were
weavers.
Family system
 Patriarchy was in practice in the society under the rule of Qutub Shahi dynasty. Father/man was
the head of family.
 Women were treated as inferior creatures. Most of the men married only once but used to take
mistresses or patronized prostitutes. Prostitution had the blessing of rulers.

 Both child marriages and sati were in practice. Though the Sultans discouraged sati, it still
continued.
Religious conditions
o As vices like prostitution and drinking were in vogue and increased during the Qutub Shahi
reign, as if to oppose them, the Sufi movement also expanded rapidly in the Golkonda state.
o The leaders of Sufi movement condemned social inequalities.
o In Hindus reformers and philosophers likr Potuluri Veerabrahmendraswami and others emerged
and propagated the spiritual way of life. The Qutub Shahis were followers of Shiate Islam. They
mentioned the name of emperor of Persia in their prayers.
o But after they were defeated by Aurangazeb this changed and they began to mention the name
of Mughal emperor in Friday prayers.
o The Golkonda rulers respected the religious beliefs and traditions of majority Hindus; donated
to temples and priests; appointed Hindus depending upon their talent in government posts
while followers of Hindusim were in majority, there were a few jains, but Buddhism almost
disappeared by then.
o In 1670, a church was built in Machilipatnam for the Christians of GOA. Most important thing
was until then, the presence of Muslims was limited to the Telangana region during the
Bahmani rule, but during the reign of Qutub Shahis, they expanded to all areas of Andhra region.
o The Sultans used to attend Hindu festivals and celebrations, while Hindus participated in Muslim
celebrations like ‘peerla festival’ and others. This traditional is being continued even today.
Language and Literature
 The languages of Urdu and Telugu and their literature flourished under the reign of Qutub Shahi
dynasty
 Urdu developed here is called as ‘Deccani urdu’. Many poets wrote books in this language.
 Almost all the Qutub-Shahi rulers patronized Telugu language and literature.
 The service of Ibrahim Qutub Shah, who was called as ‘Malkibharama’, to the Telugu literature
were memorable. He used to conduct ‘Mushairs’ (readings of poetry) in Telugu language.
 Kandukuri Rudrakavi wrote Nirankusopakhyanam, Sugreeva Vijayam and Janardhanaashtakam
during his regin, for which Ibrahim donated the chintalapalem of Nellore district, to him.
 Addanki Gangadhara kavi dedicated his “Tapathi samvaranopakhyanam’ to Ibrahim.
Mallareddy who wrote ‘Padmapurana’, ‘Shatchakravarti Charitra’ and ‘Sivadharmottaram’ was
a Zagirdar in the Golkonda kingdom.
 Ramadasu wrote the ‘Dasarathi Satakam’ during their reign, which was being called as
‘Ramadasu keertanalu as’ today.
Art and Architecture
 Art and architecture flourished during the reign of Qutub Shahi rulers.
 They had become famous all over the world after the construction of Hyderabad city.
 Several great structures were built here and are still standing.

 Architecture reached its zenith under their rule, which is showcased in the buildings of
charminar, chaar kamaan, Mecca Masjid and others.
 Music and dance were also given prominence by Qutub Shahi rulers.
 They used to conduct music and dance programmes frequently in their courts.
 A number of dance systems like Perini, Dandalasyam, Kundali danceand others were developed
and several musical instruments like kinnera, veena, tambura, mridangam, flute and others were
in vogue.
 Kuchipudi, which was a famous dance tradition of Andhras was also patronized extensively.
 Abul Hasan, who immensely liked it, donated the Kuchipudi Agraharam to Bhagavatas (who
practice the kuchipudi dance).
Historical Monuments-Significance
 The Qutub Shahi Sultans were very fond of raising monumental structures such as fortresses,
bridges, palaces, mosques, mausoleums and gardens.
 The architectural examples of Qutub Shahi period, are distributed in the eastern part of Deccan,
but the most illustrious ones are grouped in and about the city of Hyderabad.
 Golkonda style or the Qutub Shahi style of architecture represents the final flowering of
Islamic architecture of the Deccan.
 Style: Indo-Persian Architecture
Special features of Indo-Persian Architecture:
Domes
Arches
Superior mortar is used
Colourful tiles
Whispering galleries
Char Kaman:
 Meaning : 4 gates
 After the completion of Charminar, at about 75 metres feet to its north, four lofty arches known
as Char Kaman were built in 1592.
 All four arches are at equidistant with each other with Gulzar Houz in the Centre. These arches
were built by Sultan Muhammad Quli.
 Each of the four Kamans (arches) were built for a purpose and they served as a gateway to the
palaces or other structures of Royal importance. On the West was “Daulat Khanae Ali” (The
gate of Royal residence); that on the East, the Naqqar Khana (gate of palace where drums are
beaten), and general the Central area of the four arches was termed the “Jilau Khana” (Royal
Vestibule).

 Though, they appear to be similar, the four arches of Char Kaman come with a slight architectual
difference. Among the four, the first two — Char Kaman and Machili Kaman — were
constructed in 1592 and the other two — Kali Kaman and Sher-e-Batil Kaman — a year later.
 The significance of Gulzar Houz is that it used to serve as a gardening system and supply water
for gardens around the structures
Golconda Fort:
 Golconda is a fortified citadel and an early capital city of the Qutub Shahi dynasty.
 Within its stone fortifications that cover a length of over seven kilometres, the Golconda Fort
envelopes a medieval Islamic settlement.
 The historic structures range from military and defensive structures, mortuary baths, silos,
mosques, gardens, residential quarters, pavilions and royal courts, showcasing the entire range
of structures that catered to life in a medieval fortified town in India.
 The fort at one point housed precious diamonds such as the Hope diamond, Nassak diamond,
and the Koh-i-Noor diamond, one of India’s most precious gems.
 Golconda Fort was first built by the Kakatiyas as part of their western defenses along the lines
of the Kondapalli Fort.
 The historicity of this Golconda fort which played important role in 17th Century lies in the fact
that it existed from early medieval Deccani era. Sultan Quli strengthened the ramparts of
famous Golconda fort and built several parts of it like fabrication, living quarters, Turkish baths,

etc. Thevenot who visited Golconda in 1666 AD remarked that it was named as Golconda by
Sultan Quli Qutub Shah himself
 The legend says a shepherd (golla) guided Sultan Quli to the fort and hence forth, it came to be
known as Golla or Golconda meaning in Telugu 'the plateau of the shepherd’.
Qutubshahi Tombs:
 The tombs of Qutub Shahis are a mausoleum complex, a royal necropolis (cemetery) which
comprises the tombs of the Royal family and the officials who faithfully served them and also
mortuary bath and mosques.
 The complex consists of 30 tombs, mosques and a mortuary bath. The Qutub Shahi tombs
collectively constitute an outstanding example of an Indo-Muslim dynastic necropolis and is
the most extensive and best epigraphically documented in all of India.
 The tombs are graceful structures with intricately carved stonework. The tombs display a
distinctive style, a mixture of Persian, Pathan and Hindu forms.
 The material used for constructing these tombs was grey granite embellished with stucco
(durable finish for exterior walls) ornamentation.
 The tombs form a large cluster and stand on a raised platform. They are domed structures built
on square bases surrounded by pointed arches.
 Each tomb stands on a wide quadrangular terrace approached on all sides by flights of steps.
The galleries of the smaller tombs are single storied while the larger ones are two storeyed.

Charminar:
 Charminar is a ceremonial Gateway built to celebrate the foundation of Hyderabad, a new

Millennial City, in 1591 A.D.
 Its date of construction that marks the beginning of the second Islamic millennium, an event
that was widely celebrated in the Islamic world and therefore suggestive of Hyderabad being
deliberately founded as a "Millennial" city.
 It was the first monument in the world constructed using lime mortar and granite, it was only
after its construction that the architects throughout the world recognised the strength of lime-
mortar in raising huge structures.
 It stands at the crossing of two arterial axes in the old city of Hyderabad and forms the symbolic
fulcrum of the city, with its four gateways oriented towards the cardinal directions.
 Charminar provided a point of origin and reference point for the planning grid that determined
the layout of the city of Hyderabad.

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ORIGIN AND GROWTH - TELUGU LANGUAGE AND

 Naturally, Telugu is the most prominent of the Dravidian languages

Study of the Telugu Language:

Telugu during Pre-Nannaya Period (Upto 1020 A.D.):

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The Nannaya Period (1020-1820 A.D.)

Saiva school of poetry:

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Modern Telugu i.e. Modern period (1820 A.D. onwards):

Gidugu Ramamurthy Panthulu

Age of Telugu works:

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The principal poetic qualities of Nannaya:

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Salient qualities of Tikkana’s poetry:

 Errana lived at Gudluru around 1280 A.D.-1364 A.D.

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 He wrote Parijatapaharanamu, dedicated to Krishnadeva Raya, intended to reconcile the king to

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 He was the native of a village in the Krishna District.

 He wrote Rajasekhara Charitra.

Tenali Rama Krishna:

 He was the most interesting figure of the time of Krishnadeva Raya.

Ayyalaraju (or) Rama Bhadraiah:

Bhattu murthi (or) Ramaraja Bhushana:

 He had a long and distinguished literary career.

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POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM

 Like all Hindu rulers, Kakatiyas followed the system of Monarchy.

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 The provincial administration was normally in the hands of the feudatories

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 There are references to village councils in the inscriptions

Army of the Nayankara

Army of the King

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SOCIAL SYSTEM OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM

o Brahmins were the custodians of learning and religion

o Kshatriyas lost their past glory

o The chief occupations of Vaisyas were agriculture and trade.

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ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM

 Kakatiya rulers had given importance to agriculture.

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 Ganapatideva also dug many ponds in Warangal in 1213 A.D.,

 Cultivable land was classified into 2 types – wet and dry

 Every village had jaggery and sugar making factories.

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Trade and Commerce

Domestic and Foreign Trade:

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 The transportation of merchandise was largely effected by hired means of transport

CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

 Saivism was the predominant faith during the Kakatiya period

ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF KAKATIYA KINGDOM

 Kakatiya rulers built many Jain, Shaiva and Vaishnava temples.

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