SOLAR BASED FULLY AUTOMATIC MULTIPURPOSE

VEHICLE USED IN AGRICULTURE-AUTO DRILL, SEED,

SPRAYER
A Major Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By

A.VINEETH 15S41A0301

M.SHIVA SAI

Md.SAMEER

Under the esteemed guidance of

G.THIRUPATHI (M.Tech)

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VAAGESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
Beside LMD Police Station, Karimnagar-505 481.

2015-2019
 VAAGESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)

Beside LMD Police Station, Karimnagar-505 481.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “Title of project” being submitted
by

A.VINEETH 15S41A0301

M.SHIVA SAI

Md.SAMEER

In the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Bachelor
of Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING to the Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University is a record of bonafied work carried out by him under my
guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this project report have not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Guide External Examiner

G.THIRUPATHI (M.Tech)

Associate professor

Head of Department PRINCIPAL

N.KIRAN (Ph.D) Dr. CH.SRINIVAS

Associate professor

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To make an effort over this period can be successful by the advice and support of
many well-wishers. We avail this opportunity to express our gratitude and appreciation of
all of them.

We are thankful to our project guide Mr. G.THIRUPATHI , Assistant Professor,

ME Department for the guidance and valuable support given to us throughout this project.

We are thankful to Mr. N.KIRAN, Associate Professor& H.O.D of ME for his

valuable guidance and useful suggestions during the course of this project.

We would like to express our profound respect to Dr. CH. SRINIVAS, Principal,
Vaageswari College of Engineering for his useful suggestions during the course.

We would like to express our gratitude and heartfelt thanks to our parents for their
encouraging support and Almighty for His abundant blessing for finishing this project
successfully in time.

A.VINEETH 15S41A0301

M.SHIVA SAI

Md.SAMEER
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project work entitled “PROJECT TITLE” is submitted
towards partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering to VAAGESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING is
authenticated work and has not been submitted to any other university or institute for any
award of degree

A.VINEETH 15S41A0301

M.SHIVA SAI

Md.SAMEER
 SOLAR BASED FULLY AUTOMATIC MULTIPURPOSE
VEHICLE USED IN AGRICULTURE-AUTO DRILL, SEED,
SPRAYER

ABSTRACT

India was one of the leading developing nations pleaded for inclusion of agriculture
it is felt that the developing countries have a comparative advantage in agricultural
production. The principle of comparative advantage is built on the basis of the inter -country
differences in costs and returns between different commodities, abstracting from taxes and
subsidies influencing these costs and returns. Further, it was also hoped by the developing
countries that bringing agriculture into the ambit of WTO would result in better market
access to the developing countries, thereby facilitating the much celebrated trade as the
engine of growth. However, the principle of comparative advantage requires that prices be
determined by market forces and there are no barriers on trade.

Energy plays an important role in the material, social and cultural life of man kind.
The energy needs are increasing day by day. This is the result of population growth and
increase in the standard of living which is directly proportional to energy consumption.

As we know that man kind will be never lacking in energy. Today, it is liquid
fluid, tomorrow it may be uranium with an element of risk. Risk exists where ever there is
human activity and production of energy. Just as the supply of fossil fuel is finite thus there
will be the supply of uranium. Perhaps, uranium would be exhausted quickly if it is used on
a large scale. It is therefore, harnessing the gigantic inexhaustible solar energy source
reduces the dependence on fossil fuels.
 CONTENT

PARTICULATS PAGE NO

CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Etymology

1.2 History

1.3 Materials and efficiency

1.4 Interconnection and modules

CHAPTER-2: Theory

2.1 Background

2.2 Light generation of carriers

2.3 The p-n junction

2.4 Separation of carriers by the p-n junction

2.5 Connection to an external load

2.6 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

CHAPTER-3: Manufacture and devices

3.1 Energy conversion efficiency

CHAPTER-4: Applications and implementations

CHAPTER-5: Cost analysis

CHAPTER-6: Current research

6.1 Thin-film solar cells

6.2 Exotic materials

CHAPTER-7: Solar cells and energy payback

CHAPTER-8: See also

CHAPTER- 9: References

CHAPTER-10: External links

10.1 Yield data

10.2 Theory

10.3 Cost Benefit

10.4 Do-it-yourself

10.5 Indexes

10.6 Newsgroups

10.7 Patents
Introduction

[edit]

Etymology

THE ETYMOLOGY OF THE TERM "PHOTOVOLTAIC" COMES FROM THE GREEK PHOTOS MEANING

LIGHT AND THE NAME OF THE ITALIAN PHYSICIST VOLTA, AFTER WHOM THE VOLT (AND
CONSEQUENTLY VOLTAGE) ARE NAMED. IT MEANS LITERALLY OF LIGHT AND ELECTRICITY.

[edit]

History

MAIN ARTICLE: TIMELINE OF SOLAR CELLS

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT WAS FIRST RECOGNISED IN 1839 BY FRENCH PHYSICIST ALEXANDRE-
EDMOND BECQUEREL. HOWEVER IT WAS NOT UNTIL 1883 THAT THE FIRST SOLAR CELL WAS BUILT,
BY CHARLES FRITTS WHO COATED THE SEMICONDUCTOR SELENIUM WITH AN EXTREMELY THIN

LAYER OF GOLD TO FORM THE JUNCTIONS. THE DEVICE WAS ONLY AROUND 1% EFFICIENT.

RUSSELL OHL IS GENERALLY RECOGNIZED FOR PATENTING THE MODERN SOLAR CELL IN 1946
(US2402662, "LIGHT SENSITIVE DEVICE"). SVEN ASON BERGLUND HAD A PRIOR PATENT

CONCERNING METHODS OF INCREASING THE CAPACITY OF PHOTOSENSITIVE CELLS.

[edit]

Materials and efficiency

VARIOUS MATERIALS HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED FOR SOLAR CELLS. THERE ARE TWO MAIN

CRITERIA - EFFICIENCY AND COST. EFFICIENCY IS A RATIO OF THE ELECTRIC POWER OUTPUT TO THE

LIGHT POWER INPUT. IDEALLY, NEAR THE EQUATOR AT NOON ON A CLEAR DAY, THE SOLAR

RADIATION IS APPROXIMATELY 1000 W/M². SO A 10% EFFICIENT MODULE OF 1 SQUARE METER CAN

POWER A 100 W LIGHT BULB. COSTS AND EFFICIENCIES OF THE MATERIALS VARY GREATLY.
BY FAR THE MOST COMMON MATERIAL FOR SOLAR CELLS (AND ALL OTHER SEMICONDUCTOR

DEVICES) IS CRYSTALLINE SILICON. CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS COME IN THREE PRIMARY
CATEGORIES:

 Single crystal or monocrystalline wafers made using the Czochralski process. Most
commercial monocrystalline cells have efficiencies on the order of 14%; the
SunPower cells have high efficiencies around 20%. Single crystal cells tend to be
expensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical ingots, they cannot completely
cover a module without a substantial waste of refined silicon. Most monocrys talline
panels have uncovered gaps at the corners of four cells. Sunpower and Shell Solar
are among the main manufacturers of this type of cells.
 Poly or multi crystalline made from cast ingots - large crucibles of molten silicon
carefully cooled and solidified. These cells are cheaper than single crystal cells, but
also somewhat less efficient. However, they can easily be formed into square shapes
that cover a greater fraction of a panel than monocrystalline cells, and this
compensates for their lower efficiencies. See GT Solar HEM Furnace, BP Solar,
Sharp Solar and Kyocera Solar.
 Ribbon silicon formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and has a
multicrystalline structure. These cells are typically the least efficient, but there is a
cost savings since there is very little silicon waste since this approach does not
require sawing from ingots. See Evergreen Solar, and RWE Schott Solar.

THESE TECHNOLOGIES ARE WAFER BASED MANUFACTURING. IN OTHER WORDS, IN EACH OF THE

ABOVE APPROACHES, SELF SUPPORTING WAFERS OF ~300 MICROMETRES THICK ARE FABRICATED

AND THEN SOLDERED TOGETHER TO FORM A MODULE.

THIN FILM APPROACHES ARE MODULE BASED. THE ENTIRE MODULE SUBSTRATE IS COATED WITH

THE DESIRED LAYERS AND A LASER SCRIBE IS THEN USED TO DELINEATE INDIVIDUAL CELLS. TWO
MAIN THIN FILM APPROACHES ARE AMORPHOUS SILICON AND CIS:

 Amorphous silicon films are fabricated using chemical vapor deposition techniques,
typically plasma enhanced (PE-CVD). These cells have low efficiencies around 8%.
  CIS stands for general chalcogenide films of Cu(InxGa1-x)(SexS1-x)2. While these
films can achieve 11% efficiency, their costs are still too high.

THERE ARE ADDITIONAL MATERIALS AND APPROACHES. FOR EXAMPLE, SANYO HAS PIONEERED

THE HIT CELL. IN THIS TECHNOLOGY, AMORPHOUS SILICON FILMS ARE DEPOSITED ONTO

CRYSTALLINE SILICON WAFERS.

THE CHART BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE VARIOUS COMMERCIAL LARGE AREA MODULE EFFICIENCIES
AND THE BEST LABORATORY EFFICIENCIES OBTAINED FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS AND

TECHNOLOGIES.

IMAGE:PVMODULELABEFFIC.JPG

[edit]

Interconnection and modules

USUALLY, SOLAR CELLS ARE ELECTRICALLY CONNECTED, AND COMBINED INTO "MODULES", OR

SOLAR PANELS. SOLAR PANELS HAVE A SHEET OF GLASS ON THE FRONT, AND A RESIN

ENCAPSULATION BEHIND TO KEEP THE SEMICONDUCTOR WAFERS SAFE FROM THE ELEMENTS (RAIN,

HAIL, ETC). SOLAR CELLS ARE USUALLY CONNECTED IN SERIES IN MODULES, SO THAT THEIR

VOLTAGES ADD.

Theory

Background

IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND HOW A SOLAR CELL WORKS, A LITTLE BACKGROUND THEORY IN

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS IS REQUIRED. FOR SIMPLICITY, THE DESCRIPTION HERE WILL BE LIMITED
TO DESCRIBING THE WORKINGS OF SINGLE CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS.

SILICON IS A GROUP 14 (FORMERLY, GROUP IV) ATOM. THIS MEANS THAT EACH SI ATOM HAS 4
VALENCE ELECTRONS IN ITS OUTER SHELL. SILICON ATOMS CAN COVALENTLY BOND TO OTHER

SILICON ATOMS TO FORM A SOLID. THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF SOLID SILICON, AMORPHOUS
(HAVING NO LONG RANGE ORDER) AND CRYSTALLINE (WHERE THE ATOMS ARE ARRANGED IN AN

ORDERED THREE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY). THERE ARE VARIOUS OTHER TERMS FOR THE CRYSTALLINE

STRUCTURE OF SILICON; POLY-CRYSTALLINE, MICRO-CRYSTALLINE, NANO-CRYSTALLINE ETC, AND

THESE REFER TO THE SIZE OF THE CRYSTAL "GRAINS" WHICH MAKE UP THE SOLID. SOLAR CELLS

CAN BE, AND ARE MADE FROM EACH OF THESE TYPES OF SILICON, THE MOST COMMON BEING POLY-

CRYSTALLINE.

SILICON IS A SEMICONDUCTOR. THIS MEANS THAT IN SOLID SILICON, THERE ARE CERTAIN BANDS OF
ENERGIES WHICH THE ELECTRONS ARE ALLOWED TO HAVE, AND OTHER ENERGIES BETWEEN THESE

BANDS WHICH ARE FORBIDDEN. THESE FORBIDDEN ENERGIES ARE CALLED THE "BAND GAP". THE
ALLOWED AND FORBIDDEN BANDS OF ENERGY ARE EXPLAINED BY THE THEORY OF QUANTUM

MECHANICS.

AT ROOM TEMPERATURE, PURE SILICON IS A POOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTOR. IN QUANTUM

MECHANICS, THIS IS EXPLAINED BY THE FACT THAT THE FERMI LEVEL LIES IN THE FORBIDDEN

BAND-GAP. TO MAKE SILICON A BETTER CONDUCTOR, IT IS "DOPED" WITH VERY SMALL AMOUNTS
OF ATOMS FROM EITHER GROUP 13 (III) OR GROUP 15 (V) OF THE PERIODIC TABLE. THESE
"DOPANT" ATOMS TAKE THE PLACE OF THE SILICON ATOMS IN THE CRYSTAL LATTICE, AND BOND

WITH THEIR NEIGHBOURING SI ATOMS IN ALMOST THE SAME WAY AS OTHER SI ATOMS DO.

HOWEVER, BECAUSE GROUP 13 ATOMS HAVE ONLY 3 VALENCE ELECTRONS, AND GROUP 15 ATOMS
HAVE 5 VALENCE ELECTRONS, THERE IS EITHER ONE TOO FEW, OR ONE TOO MANY ELECTRONS TO
SATISFY THE FOUR COVALENT BONDS AROUND EACH ATOM. SINCE THESE EXTRA ELECTRONS, OR

LACK OF ELECTRONS (KNOWN AS "HOLES") ARE NOT INVOLVED IN THE COVALENT BONDS OF THE

CRYSTAL LATTICE, THEY ARE FREE TO MOVE AROUND WITHIN THE SOLID. SILICON WHICH IS DOPED

WITH GROUP 13 ATOMS (ALUMINIUM, GALLIUM) IS KNOWN AS P-TYPE SILICON BECAUSE THE

MAJORITY CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES) CARRY A POSITIVE CHARGE, WHILST SILICON DOPED WITH

GROUP 15 ATOMS (PHOSPHORUS, ARSENIC) IS KNOWN AS N-TYPE SILICON BECAUSE THE MAJORITY
CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS) ARE NEGATIVE. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT BOTH N-TYPE AND P-

TYPE SILCION ARE ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL, I.E. THEY HAVE THE SAME NUMBERS OF POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE CHARGES, IT IS JUST THAT IN N-TYPE SILICON, SOME OF THE NEGATIVE CHARGES ARE

FREE TO MOVE AROUND, WHILE THE CONVERSE IS TRUE FOR P-TYPE SILICON.
Light generation of carriers

The absorption of photons creates electron-hole pairs, which diffuse to the electrical
contacts and can be extracted to power electrical devices

WHEN A PHOTON OF LIGHT HITS A PIECE OF SILICON, ONE OF TWO THINGS CAN HAPPEN. THE FIRST
IS THAT THE PHOTON CAN PASS STRAIGHT THROUGH THE SILICON. THIS (GENERALLY) HAPPENS

WHEN THE ENERGY OF THE PHOTON IS LOWER THAN THE BANDGAP ENERGY OF THE SILICON

SEMICONDUCTOR. THE SECOND THING THAT CAN HAPPEN IS THAT THE PHOTON IS ABSORBED BY

THE SILICON. THIS (GENERALLY) HAPPENS IF THE PHOTON ENERGY IS GREATER THAN THE BANDGAP

ENERGY OF SILICON. WHEN A PHOTON IS ABSORBED, ITS ENERGY IS GIVEN TO AN ELECTRON IN THE

CRYSTAL LATTICE. USUALLY THIS ELECTRON IS IN THE VALENCE BAND, AND IS TIGHTLY BOUND IN
COVALENT BONDS BETWEEN NEIGHBOURING ATOMS, AND HENCE UNABLE TO MOVE FAR. THE
ENERGY GIVEN TO IT BY THE PHOTON "EXCITES" IT INTO THE CONDUCTION BAND, WHERE IT IS FREE

TO MOVE AROUND WITHIN THE SEMICONDUCTOR. THE COVALENT BOND THAT THE ELECTRON WAS
PREVIOUSLY A PART OF NOW HAS ONE LESS ELECTRON - THIS IS KNOWN AS A HOLE. THE PRESENCE
OF A MISSING COVALENT BOND ALLOWS THE BONDED ELECTRONS OF NEIGHBORING ATOMS TO

MOVE INTO THE "HOLE," LEAVING ANOTHER HOLE BEHIND, AND IN THIS WAY A HOLE CAN MOVE

THROUGH THE LATTICE. THUS, IT CAN BE SAID THAT PHOTONS ABSORBED IN THE SEMICONDUCTOR
CREATE MOBILE ELECTRON-HOLE PAIRS.

A PHOTON ONLY NEEDS TO HAVE ENERGY GREATER THAN THE BAND GAP ENERGY TO EXCITE AN

ELECTRON FROM THE VALENCE BAND INTO THE CONDUCTION BAND. HOWEVER, THE SOLAR
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM APPROXIMATES A BLACK BODY SPECTRUM AT ~6000 K, AND AS SUCH,

MUCH OF THE SOLAR RADIATION REACHING THE EARTH IS COMPOSED OF PHOTONS WITH ENERGIES
GREATER THAN THE BAND GAP OF SILICON. THESE HIGHER ENERGY PHOTONS WILL BE ABSORBED
BY THE SOLAR CELL, BUT THE DIFFERENCE IN ENERGY BETWEEN THESE PHOTONS AND THE SILICON

BAND GAP IS CONVERTED INTO HEAT (VIA LATTICE VIBRATIONS - CALLED PHONONS) RATHER THAN

INTO USABLE ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

The p-n junction

A SOLAR CELL IS A LARGE-AREA SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTION. TO UNDERSTAND THE WORKINGS

OF A P-N JUNCTION IT IS CONVENIENT TO IMAGINE WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A PIECE OF N-TYPE

SILICON IS BROUGHT INTO CONTACT WITH A PIECE OF P-TYPE SILICON. IN PRACTICE, HOWEVER, THE

P-N JUNCTIONS OF SOLAR CELLS ARE NOT MADE IN THIS WAY, BUT RATHER, USUALLY, BY

DIFFUSING AN N-TYPE DOPANT INTO ONE SIDE OF A P-TYPE WAFER.

IF WE IMAGINE WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A PIECE OF P-TYPE SILICON IS PLACED IN INTIMATE CONTACT
WITH A PIECE OF N-TYPE SILICON, THEN WHAT OCCURS IS A DIFFUSION OF ELECTRONS FROM THE

REGION OF HIGH ELECTRON CONCENTRATION - THE N-TYPE SIDE OF THE JUNCTION, INTO THE

REGION OF LOW ELECTRON CONCENTRATION - P-TYPE SIDE OF THE JUNCTION. WHEN THE

ELECTRONS DIFFUSE ACROSS THE P-N JUNCTION, THEY RECOMBINE WITH HOLES ON THE P-TYPE

SIDE. THIS DIFFUSION OF CARRIERS DOES NOT HAPPEN INDEFINITELY HOWEVER, BECAUSE OF THE
ELECTRIC FIELD WHICH IS CREATED BY THE IMBALANCE OF CHARGE IMMEDIATELY EITHER SIDE OF

THE JUNCTION WHICH THIS DIFFUSION CREATES. ELECTRONS FROM DONOR ATOMS ON THE N-TYPE
SIDE OF THE JUNCTION ARE CROSSING INTO THE P-TYPE SIDE, LEAVING BEHIND THE (EXTRA)

POSITIVELY CHARGED NUCLEI OF THE GROUP 15 DONOR ATOMS, LEAVING AN EXCESS OF POSITIVE
CHARGE ON THE N-TYPE SIDE OF THE JUNCTION. AT THE SAME TIME, THESE ELECTRONS ARE

FILLING IN HOLES ON THE P-TYPE SIDE OF THE JUNCTION, BECOMING INVOLVED IN COVALENT

BONDS AROUND THE GROUP 13 ACCEPTOR ATOMS, MAKING AN EXCESS OF NEGATIVE CHARGE ON

THE P-TYPE SIDE OF THE JUNCTION. THIS IMBALANCE OF CHARGE ACROSS THE P-N JUNCTION SETS
UP AN ELECTRIC FIELD WHICH OPPOSES FURTHER DIFFUSION OF CHARGE CARRIERS ACROSS THE

JUNCTION.
THIS REGION WHERE ELECTRONS HAVE DIFFUSED ACROSS THE JUNCTION IS CALLED THE DEPLETION
REGION BECAUSE IT NO LONGER CONTAINS ANY MOBILE CHARGE CARRIERS. IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS

THE "SPACE CHARGE REGION".

THE ELECTRIC FIELD WHICH IS SET UP ACROSS THE P-N JUNCTION CREATES A DIODE, ALLOWING

CURRENT TO FLOW IN ONLY ONE DIRECTION ACROSS THE JUNCTION. ELECTRONS MAY PASS FROM

THE N-TYPE SIDE INTO THE P-TYPE SIDE, AND HOLES MAY PASS FROM THE P-TYPE SIDE TO THE N-

TYPE SIDE. BUT SINCE THE SIGN OF THE CHARGE ON ELECTRONS AND HOLES IS OPPOSITE,

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT MAY ONLY FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION.

Separation of carriers by the p-n junction

ONCE THE ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR HAS BEEN CREATED BY THE ABSORPTION OF A PHOTON, THE

ELECTRON AND HOLE ARE BOTH FREE TO MOVE OFF INDEPENDENTLY WITHIN THE SILICON LATTICE.

IF THEY ARE CREATED WITHIN A MINORITY CARRIER DIFFUSION LENGTH OF THE JUNCTION, THEN,
DEPENDING ON WHICH SIDE OF THE JUNCTION THE ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR IS CREATED, THE ELECTRIC

FIELD AT THE JUNCTION WILL EITHER SWEEP THE ELECTRON TO THE N-TYPE SIDE, OR THE HOLE TO

THE P-TYPE SIDE.

Connection to an external load

OHMIC METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACTS ARE MADE TO BOTH THE N-TYPE AND P-TYPE

SIDES OF THE SOLAR CELL, AND THE ELECTRODES CONNECTED TO AN EXTERNAL LOAD. ELECTRONS

THAT ARE CREATED ON THE N-TYPE SIDE, OR HAVE BEEN "COLLECTED" BY THE JUNCTION AND

SWEPT ONTO THE N-TYPE SIDE, MAY TRAVEL THROUGH THE WIRE, POWER THE LOAD, AND

CONTINUE THROUGH THE WIRE UNTIL THEY REACH THE P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR-METAL CONTACT.

HERE, THEY RECOMBINE WITH A HOLE THAT WAS EITHER CREATED AS AN ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR ON
THE P-TYPE SIDE OF THE SOLAR CELL, OR SWEPT ACROSS THE JUNCTION FROM THE N-TYPE SIDE

AFTER BEING CREATED THERE.

[edit]

Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The schematic symbol of a solar cell

TO UNDERSTAND THE ELECTRONIC BEHAVIOUR OF A SOLAR CELL, IT IS USEFUL TO CREATE A

MODEL WHICH IS ELECTRICALLY EQUIVALENT, AND IS BASED ON DISCRETE ELECTRICAL

COMPONENTS WHOSE BEHAVIOUR IS WELL KNOWN. AN IDEAL SOLAR CELL MAY BE MODELLED BY A

CURRENT SOURCE IN PARALLEL WITH A DIODE. IN PRACTICE NO SOLAR CELL IS IDEAL, SO A SHUNT

RESISTANCE AND A SERIES RESISTANCE COMPONENT ARE ADDED TO THE MODEL. THE RESULT IS

THE "EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL" SHOWN ON THE LEFT. ALSO SHOWN ON THE RIGHT, IS

THE SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A SOLAR CELL FOR USE IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS.

[edit]
Manufacture and devices

BECAUSE SOLAR CELLS ARE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES, THEY SHARE MANY OF THE SAME

PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES AS OTHER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SUCH AS

COMPUTER AND MEMORY CHIPS. HOWEVER, THE STRINGENT REQUIREMENTS FOR CLEANLINESS

AND QUALITY CONTROL OF SEMICONDUCTOR FABRICATION ARE A LITTLE MORE RELAXED FOR

SOLAR CELLS.

MOST LARGE-SCALE COMMERCIAL SOLAR CELL FACTORIES TODAY MAKE SCREEN PRINTED POLY-

CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS. SINGLE CRYSTALLINE WAFERS WHICH ARE USED IN THE

SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY CAN BE MADE IN TO EXCELLENT HIGH EFFICIENCY SOLAR CELLS, BUT

THEY ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED TO BE TOO EXPENSIVE FOR LARGE-SCALE MASS PRODUCTION.

POLY-CRYSTALLINE SILICON WAFERS ARE MADE BY WIRE-SAWING BLOCK-CAST SILICON INGOTS

INTO VERY THIN (250 TO 350 MICROMETRE) SLICES OR WAFERS. THE WAFERS ARE USUALLY

LIGHTLY P-TYPE DOPED.

TO MAKE A SOLAR CELL FROM THE WAFER, AN N-TYPE DIFFUSION IS PERFORMED ON THE FRONT

SIDE OF THE WAFER, FORMING A P-N JUNCTION A FEW HUNDRED NANOMETRES BELOW THE

SURFACE.

ANTIREFLECTION COATINGS, WHICH INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT COUPLED INTO THE SOLAR

CELL, ARE TYPICALLY APPLIED NEXT. OVER THE PAST DECADE, SILICON NITRIDE HAS GRADUALLY
REPLACED TITANIUM DIOXIDE AS THE ANTIREFLECTION COATING OF CHOICE BECAUSE OF ITS

EXCELLENT SURFACE PASSIVATION QUALITIES (I.E., IT PREVENTS CARRIER RECOMBINATION AT THE

SURFACE OF THE SOLAR CELL). IT IS TYPICALLY APPLIED IN A LAYER SEVERAL HUNDRED

NANOMETERS THICK USING PLASMA-ENHANCED CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (PECVD).

THE WAFER IS THEN METALLISED, WHEREBY A FULL AREA METAL CONTACT IS MADE ON THE BACK
SURFACE, AND A GRID-LIKE METAL CONTACT MADE UP OF FINE "FINGERS" AND LARGER "BUSBARS"

IS SCREEN-PRINTED ONTO THE FRONT SURFACE USING A SILVER PASTE. THE REAR CONTACT IS ALSO

FORMED BY SCREEN-PRINTING A METAL PASTE, TYPICALLY ALUMINUM. USUALLY THIS CONTACT

COVERS THE ENTIRE REAR SIDE OF THE CELL, THOUGH IN SOME CELL DESIGNS IT IS PRINTED IN A
GRID PATTERN. THE METAL ELECTRODES WILL THEN REQUIRE SOME KIND OF HEAT TREATMENT OR
"SINTERING" TO MAKE OHMIC CONTACT WITH THE SILICON.

AFTER THE METAL CONTACTS ARE MADE, THE SOLAR CELLS ARE INTERCONNECTED IN SERIES

(AND/OR PARALLEL) BY FLAT WIRES OR METAL RIBBONS, AND ASSEMBLED INTO MODULES OR

"SOLAR PANELS". SOLAR PANELS HAVE A SHEET OF TEMPERED GLASS ON THE FRONT, AND A

POLYMER ENCAPSULATION ON THE BACK.

SOME SOLAR CELLS HAVE TEXTURED FRONT SURFACES THAT, LIKE ANTIREFLECTION COATINGS,

SERVE TO INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT COUPLED INTO THE CELL. SUCH SURFACES CAN

USUALLY ONLY BE FORMED ON SINGLE-CRYSTAL SILICON, THOUGH IN RECENT YEARS METHODS OF

FORMING THEM ON MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED.

[edit]

Energy conversion efficiency

TYPICAL MODULE EFFICIENCIES FOR COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SCREEN PRINTED

MULTICRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS ARE AROUND 12%. A SOLAR MODULE'S ENERGY CONVERSION

EFFICIENCY, (OR JUST EFFICIENCY) IS THE RATIO OF THE MAXIMUM OUTPUT ELECTRICAL POWER

DIVIDED BY THE INPUT LIGHT POWER UNDER "STANDARD" TEST CONDITIONS. THE "STANDARD"
SOLAR RADIATION (KNOWN AS THE "AIR MASS 1.5 SPECTRUM") HAS A POWER DENSITY OF 1000
WATTS PER SQUARE METRE. THUS, A TYPICAL 1 M² SOLAR PANEL IN DIRECT SUNLIGHT WILL

PRODUCE APPROXIMATELY 120 WATTS OF PEAK POWER. A MORE TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF

EFFICIENCY IS THE MAXIMUM POWER, MADE UP OF THE FILL FACTOR X THE OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

X THE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT, DIVIDED BY THE INPUT POWER.

[edit]

Applications and implementations

SEE THE ARTICLE SOLAR PANEL FOR INFORMATION ABOUT APPLICATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS
OF SOLAR CELLS AND PANELS.
[edit]

Cost analysis

THE US RETAIL MODULE COSTS ARE IN THE $3.50 TO $5.00/WP RANGE (SEE SOLARBUZZ).
ADDITIONAL INSTALLATION COSTS FOR A RESIDENTIAL ROOFTOP RETROFIT IN CALIFORNIA (CA) IS
AROUND $3.50/WP OR MORE. SO ON THE LOW SIDE, INSTALLED SYSTEM COSTS ARE ABOUT

$7.00/WP IN CA, AND PROBABLY HIGHER IN PLACES WITH LESS EXPERIENCE. FEDERAL, STATE,

UTILITY, AND OTHER SUBSIDIES COMBINED PAY ABOUT HALF THE COST. SO CA RULE OF THUMB IS
THAT THE INSTALLED SYSTEM PV WILL COST YOU AT THE LOW END, $3.50/WP.

UNDER NET METERING, ONE OFFSETS REGULAR RETAIL UTILITY RATE WHICH FOR CA IS ABOUT 11
CENTS/KWH. KNOWING INSTALLED SYSTEM COSTS, AMOUNT OF SUNSHINE, AND THE UTILITY

RATES, ONE CAN FIGURE OUT THE YEARS TILL PAYBACK WITH OR WITHOUT FINANCING COSTS.

ASSUMING NO FINANCING COSTS AND A $6/WP INSTALLED SYSTEM COST (LOWER THAN CURRENT
$7), ONE CAN TAKE SUNSHINE AND UTILITY RATE INFORMATION FROM AROUND THE GLOBE AND

COME UP WITH A PAYBACK GRAPH SUCH AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ADDITION OF SUBSIDIES BRINGS
DOWN THE YEARS TO PAYBACK PROPORTIONATELY. FOR EXAMPLE, IF THE YEARS TO PAYBACK

WERE 24 YEARS AT $6/WP, AND SUBSIDIES BROUGHT THAT DOWN TO $3/WP, THE YEARS TO

PAYBACK WOULD BE 12.

[edit]

Current research

THERE ARE CURRENTLY MANY RESEARCH GROUPS ACTIVE IN THE FIELD OF PHOTOVOLTAICS AT

UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS AROUND THE WORLD.

MUCH OF THE RESEARCH IS FOCUSSED ON MAKING SOLAR CELLS CHEAPER AND/OR MORE

EFFICIENT, SO THAT THEY CAN MORE EFFECTIVELY COMPETE WITH OTHER ENERGY SOURCES,

INCLUDING FOSSIL ENERGY. ONE WAY OF DOING THIS IS TO DEVELOP CHEAPER METHODS OF

OBTAINING SILICON THAT IS SUFFICIENTLY PURE. SILICON IS A VERY COMMON ELEMENT, BUT IS

NORMALLY BOUND IN SILICA SAND. ANOTHER APPROACH IS TO SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE THE

AMOUNT OF RAW MATERIAL USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SOLAR CELLS. THE VARIOUS THIN-

FILM TECHNOLOGIES CURRENTLY BEING DEVELOPED MAKE USE OF THIS APPROACH TO REDUCING

THE COST OF ELECTRICITY FROM SOLAR CELLS.

THE INVENTION OF CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS, (FOR WHICH ALAN HEEGER WAS AWARDED A NOBEL
PRIZE) MAY LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUCH CHEAPER CELLS THAT ARE BASED ON

INEXPENSIVE PLASTICS, RATHER THAN SEMICONDUCTOR GRADE SILICON. HOWEVER, ALL ORGANIC
SOLAR CELLS MADE TO DATE SUFFER FROM DEGRADATION UPON EXPOSURE TO UV LIGHT, AND

HENCE HAVE LIFETIMES WHICH ARE FAR TOO SHORT TO BE VIABLE.

[edit]

Thin-film solar cells

THE NEXT STEP IN REDUCING THE COST OF SOLAR CELLS AND PANELS SEEMS CERTAIN TO COME

FROM THIN-FILM TECHNOLOGY. THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS USE LESS THAN 1% OF THE RAW

MATERIAL (SILICON) COMPARED TO WAFER BASED SOLAR CELLS, LEADING TO A SIGNIFICANT PRICE

DROP PER KWH. THERE ARE MANY RESEARCH GROUPS AROUND THE WORLD ACTIVELY

RESEARCHING DIFFERENT THIN-FILM APPROACHES AND/OR MATERIALS.

THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS ARE MAINLY DEPOSITED BY PECVD FROM SILANE GAS AND HYDROGEN.
THIS PROCESS PRODUCES A MATERIAL WITHOUT CRYSTALLINE ORIENTATION : AMORPHOUS

SILICON. DEPENDING ON THE DEPOSITION'S PARAMETERS BOTH PROTOCRYSTALLINE SILICON,

WHICH HAS BEEN SHOWN TO EXHIBIT THE MOST STABILITY, AND NANOCRYSTALLINE SILICON CAN

ALSO BE OBTAINED. THESE TYPES OF SILICON PRESENT DANDLING AND TWISTED BONDS, WHICH

RESULTS IN THE APARITION OF DEEP DEFECTS (ENERGY LEVELS IN THE BANDGAP) AS WELL AS IN

THE DEFORMATION OF THE VALENCE AND CONDUCTION BANDS (BAND TAILS). THIS CONTRIBUTES
TO REDUCE THE EFFICIENCY OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS BY REDUCING THE NUMBER OF

COLLECTED ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR BY INCIDENT PHOTON.

AMORPHOUS SILICON (A-SI) HAS A HIGHER BANDGAP (1.7 EV) THAN CRYSTALLINE SILICON (C-SI)
(1.1 EV), WHICH MEANS IT IS MORE EFFICIENT TO ABSORB THE VISIBLE PART OF THE SOLAR

SPECTRUM, BUT IT FAILS TO COLLECT AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE SPECTRUM : THE INFRARED. AS
NANO CRYSTALLINE SI HAS ABOUT THE SAME BANDGAP AS C-SI, THE TWO MATERIAL CAN BE

COMBINED BY DEPOSITING TWO DIODES ON TOP OF EACH OTHER : THE TANDEM CELL. THE TOP CELL

IN A-SI ABSORBS THE VISIBLE LIGHT AND LEAVES THE INFRARED PART OF THE SPECTRUM FOR THE

BOTTOM CELL IN NANOCRYSTALLINE SI.

ONE PARTICULARLY PROMISING TECHNOLOGY IS CRYSTALLINE SILICON THIN-FILMS ON GLASS

SUBSTRATES. THIS TECHNOLOGY MAKES USE OF THE ADVANTAGES OF CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A

SOLAR CELL MATERIAL, WITH THE COST SAVINGS OF USING A THIN-FILM APPROACH. FROM THE

PACIFIC SOLAR WEBSITE:

"Crystalline Silicon on Glass (CSG) [is] the photovoltaic technology developed by

Pacific Solar that is now being commercialised by CSG Solar. A very thin layer of
silicon, less than two micrometres thick, is deposited directly onto a glass sheet
whose surface has been roughened by applying a layer of tiny glass beads. The
silicon is not crystalline when first deposited, but becomes so after heat treatment in
an oven. The resulting layer is processed using lasers and ink-jet printing techniques
to form the electrical contacts needed to get the solar-produced electricity out of the
thin silicon film."

IN 2005, A FULL-SCALE PRODUCTION FACTORY IS BEING BUILT IN THALHEIM, GERMANY TO

COMMERCIALISE THIS TECHNOLOGY (PROJECT MANAGEMENT BY IB VOGT GMBH). CSG SOLAR

EXPECTS TO RELEASE ITS FIRST PRODUCT FOR SALE IN 2006. EACH SOLAR MODULE WILL HAVE A

RATED POWER EXCEEDING 100 WATTS AND WILL BE CHEAPER THAN COMPETING SOLAR PANELS.

ANOTHER INTERESTING ASPECT OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS IS THE POSSIBILITY TO DEPOSIT THE

CELLS ON ALL KIND OF MATERIALS, INCLUDING FLEXIBLE SUBSTRATES (PET FOR EXAMPLE),

WHICH OPENS A NEW DIMENSION FOR NEW APPLICATIONS.

[edit]

Exotic materials

FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS, SUCH AS DEEP SPACE 1, HIGH-EFFICIENCY CELLS CAN BE MADE FROM
GALLIUM ARSENIDE BY MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY. SUCH CELLS HAVE MANY DIODES IN SERIES,

EACH WITH A DIFFERENT BAND GAP ENERGY SO THAT IT ABSORBS ITS SHARE OF THE

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM WITH VERY HIGH EFFICIENCY. TRIPLE JUNCTION SOLAR CELL HAVE
(AS THE NAME SUGGEST) 3 DIODES LAYERED ON TOP OF EACH OTHER, EACH ABSORBING A

DIFFERENT SPECTRUM OF LIGHT, EFFICIENCY AS HIGH AS 28% HAVE BEEN ACHIEVED. THE
MULTIPLE JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS MAY BE VERY EFFICIENT, BUT ARE PROHIBITIVELY EXPENSIVE TO

MAKE. COST-EFFECTIVE USE OF THESE CELLS COULD BE ACHIEVED WITH CONCENTRATING OPTICS
SO THAT LESS OF THE ARRAY CONSISTS OF ACTUAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES.

EXPERIMENTAL NON-SILICON SOLAR PANELS CAN BE MADE OF CARBON NANOTUBES OR QUANTUM

DOTS EMBEDDED IN A SPECIAL PLASTIC. THESE HAVE ONLY ONE-TENTH THE EFFICIENCY OF SILICON

PANELS BUT COULD BE MANUFACTURED IN ORDINARY FACTORIES, NOT CLEAN ROOMS WHICH

SHOULD LOWER THE COST. WHILE CONVENTIONAL SOLAR CELLS ONLY GENERATE ELECTRICITY

FROM THE VISIBLE LIGHT SPECTRUM, EXPERIMENTAL CELLS HAVE BEEN MADE THAT USE THE

INFRARED SPECTRUM. BY VARYING THE SIZE OF THE QUANTUM DOTS, THE CELLS CAN BE TUNED TO

ABSORB DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS. IF PANELS THAT ABSORB BOTH VISIBLE AND INFRARED

SPECTRUMS ARE ABLE TO BE MANUFACTURED, THE PANELS MAY BE ABLE TO ACHIEVE UP TO 30

PERCENT EFFICIENCY. (MCDONALD, ET AL., 2005)

SOME OF THE MOST EFFICIENT SOLAR CELL MATERIALS ARE CADMIUM TELLURIDE (CDTE) AND

COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE (CIGS). UNLIKE THE BASIC SILICON SOLAR CELL, WHICH CAN
BE MODELLED AS A SIMPLE P-N JUNCTION (SEE UNDER SEMICONDUCTOR), THESE CELLS ARE BEST

DESCRIBED BY A MORE COMPLEX HETEROJUNCTION MODEL. THE BEST EFFICIENCY OF A BARE

SOLAR CELL AS OF APRIL 2003 WAS 16.5% [DR IM DHARMADASA, SHEFFIELD HALLAM
UNIVERSITY, UK]. HIGHER EFFICIENCIES (AROUND 30%) CAN BE OBTAINED BY USING OPTICS TO

CONCENTRATE THE INCIDENT LIGHT.

POLYMER OR ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS ARE BUILT FROM ULTRA THIN LAYERS (TYPICALLY 100 NM)
OF ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS SUCH AS POLYPHENYLENE VINYLENE AND FULLERENE. THE P/N
JUNCTION MODEL IS ONLY A CRUDE DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNCTIONING OF SUCH CELLS, AS

ELECTRON HOPPING AND OTHER PROCESSES ALSO PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE. THEY ARE POTENTIALLY
CHEAPER TO MANUFACTURE THAN SILICON OR INORGANIC CELLS, BUT EFFICIENCIES ACHIEVED TO

DATE ARE LOW AND CELLS ARE HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO AIR AND MOISTURE, MAKING COMMERCIAL

APPLICATIONS DIFFICULT. IN THE REVERSE MODE, THE TECHNOLOGY HAS HOWEVER ALREADY

SUCCESSFULLY BEEN COMMERCIALISED IN ORGANIC LEDS AND ORGANIC DISPLAYS, ALSO CALLED
POLYMER DISPLAYS.
GRAETZEL CELLS (SOMETIMES CALLED PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS) HAVE BEEN AROUND FOR
TWO DECADES OR SO. A P/ N JUNCTION IS USED HERE TOO IN THE FORM OF A DOPED SOLID

(NORMALLY TITANIUM DIOXIDE) IN CONTACT WITH A SOLID OR LIQUID ELECTROLYTE (FOR

EXAMPLE CUI). IN CONTRAST TO THE CLASSICAL SOLAR CELL NOT THE SEMICONDUCTOR BUT A DYE

PLACED AT THE P/N INTERFACE IS USED FOR ABSORPTION OF RADIATION, MIMICKING THE PROCESS

OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS. AS A RESULT, THIS TYPE OF CELL ALLOWS A MORE FLEXIBLE USE OF

MATERIALS. LIKE ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS, GRAETZEL CELLS CAN BE MANUFACTURED UNDER

"DIRTY" CONDITIONS. COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS HAVE FAILED TO APPEAR DUE TO THE FAST

DEGRADATION OCCURRING IN GRAETZEL CELLS.

[edit]

Solar cells and energy payback

THERE IS A COMMON BUT MISTAKEN NOTION THAT SOLAR CELLS NEVER PRODUCE MORE ENERGY

THAN IT TAKES TO MAKE THEM. WHILE THE EXPECTED WORKING LIFETIME IS AROUND 40 YEARS,
THE ENERGY PAYBACK TIME OF A SOLAR PANEL IS ANYWHERE FROM 1 TO 30 YEARS (USUALLY

UNDER FIVE) DEPENDING ON THE TYPE AND WHERE IT IS USED (SEE NET ENERGY GAIN). THIS MEANS

SOLAR CELLS ARE NET ENERGY PRODUCERS AND CAN "REPRODUCE" THEMSELVES (FROM 6 TO

MORE THAN 30 TIMES) OVER THEIR LIFETIME. FOR DETAILS SEE NET ENERGY ANALYSIS FOR
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM SILICON BASED SOLAR CELLS.

[edit]

See also

 Autonomous building
 Future energy development
 Green technology
 Photodiode
 Photovore
 Renewable energy
 Solar power
  Solar panel

Power hacksaws are used to cut large sizes (sections) of metals such as steel. Cutting diameters
of more than 10/15mm is very hard work with a normal hand held hacksaw. Therefore power
hacksaws have been developed to carry out the difficult and time consuming work.

The heavy ‘arm’ moves backwards and forwards, cutting on the backw
ards stroke.

The metal to be cut is held in a machine vice which is an integral part of the base. Turning
the handle tightens or loosens the vice. The vice is very powerful and locks the metal in
position.

When cutting is taking place, the metal and especially the blade heats up quickly. Coolant
should be fed onto the blade, cooling it down and lubricating it as it cuts through the metal.
Without the use of coolant the blade will over heat and break/snap. This can be dangerous as
the blade can break with powerful force, shattering.

When the metal is placed and fixed in the vice, the blade is lowered onto its top surface. The
diagram below shows the ‘arm’ being lowered with the ‘adjusting handle’.

Blades of power hacksaws are graded according to the material they are made from and the
number of teeth per inch. Top quality blades are manufactured from High Speed Steel.
although there are cheaper alternatives such as carbon steel blades.
In general the number of teeth per inch (TPI) range from 14 to 24. The more teeth per in ch -
the smoother the cut.

Every power hacksaw should have a foot switch / emergency switch. This allows the
operator to turn the machine off quickly by using his/her foot to step on the switch. The foot
switch is normally positioned at the front or side of the machine.

Power hacksaws have electric motors that power the blade through a pulley system. Some
have ratchet systems. The pulley system shown below shows how rotary power is
transferred from the motor and changed to reciprocating motion, allow the bl ade to cut
through the material.

Most power hacksaws have two pulley wheels. If the belt is placed on the smaller pulley
wheel the speed of cut will be fast. Changing the belt so that it runs round the larger pulley
wheel will reduce the speed.
A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and principally for cutting metal. They can also cut
various other materials, such as plastic and wood; for example, plumbers and electricians often
cut plastic pipe and plastic conduit with them. There are hand saw versions and powered versions
(power hacksaws). Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that holds
a blade under tension. Such hacksaws have a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins for attaching
a narrow disposable blade. The frames may also be adjustable to accommodate blades of
different sizes. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the thin blade under tension. Panel
hacksaws forgo the frame and instead have a sheet metal body; they can cut into a sheet metal
panel further than a frame would allow. These saws are no longer commonly available, but
hacksaw blade holders enable standard hacksaw blades to be used similarly to a keyhole saw or
pad saw. Power tools including nibblers, jigsaws, and angle grinders fitted with metal-cutting
blades and discs are now used for longer cuts in sheet metals.

On hacksaws, as with most frame saws, the blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or
away from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. In normal use,
cutting vertically downwards with work held in a bench vice, hacksaw blades should be set to be
facing forwards. Some frame saws, including Fret Saws and Piercing Saws, have their blades set
to be facing the handle because they are used to cut by being pulled down against a horizontal
surface.

History[edit]

While saws for cutting metal had been in use for many years, significant improvements in
longevity and efficiency were made in the 1880s by George N. Clemson, a founder ofClemson
Bros., Inc of Middletown, New York, USA,. Clemson conducted tests which involved changing
the dimensions, shapes of teeth, styles of set, and variable heat treatments of blades. Clemson
claimed enormous improvements to the cutting ability of blades and built a major industrial
operation manufacturing hacksaw blades sold under the trade name Star Hack Saw.[1] In 1898,
Clemson was granted US Patent 601947, which details various improvements in the hacksaw.[2]

Blades[edit]
Junior hacksaw

Blades are available in standardized lengths, 10 or 12 inches (254 or 305 mm) for a standard
hand hacksaw. "Junior" hacksaws are 6 inches (152 mm) long. Powered hacksaws may use large
blades in a range of sizes, or small machines may use the same hand blades.

The pitch of the teeth can be anywhere from fourteen to thirty-two teeth per inch (tpi) for a hand
blade, with as few as three tpi for a large power hacksaw blade. The blade chosen is based on the
thickness of the material being cut, with a minimum of three teeth in the material. As hacksaw
teeth are so small, they are set in a "wave" set. As for other saws they are set from side to side to
provide a kerf or clearance when sawing, but the set of a hacksaw changes gradually from tooth
to tooth in a smooth curve, rather than alternate teeth set left and right.

Hacksaw blades are normally quite brittle, so care needs to be taken to prevent brittle fracture of
the blade. Early blades were of carbon steel, now termed 'low alloy' blades, and were relatively
soft and flexible. They avoided breakage, but also wore out rapidly. Except where cost is a
particular concern, this type is now obsolete. 'Low alloy' blades are still the only type available
for the Junior hacksaw, which limits the usefulness of this otherwise popular saw.

For several decades now, hacksaw blades have used high speed steel for their teeth, giving
greatly improved cutting and tooth life. These blades were first available in the 'All-hard' form
which cut accurately but were extremely brittle. This limited their practical use to benchwork on
a workpiece that was firmly clamped in a vice. A softer form of high speed steel blade was also
available, which wore well and resisted breakage, but was less stiff and so less accurate for
precise sawing. Since the 1980s, bi-metal blades have been used to give the advantages of both
forms, without risk of breakage. A strip of high speed steel along the tooth edge is electron beam
welded to a softer spine. As the price of these has dropped to be comparable with the older
blades, their use is now almost universal.

Hacksaw blade specifications: The most common blade is the 12 inch or 300 mm length.
Hacksaw blades have two holes near the ends for mounting them in the saw frame and the 12
inch / 300 mm dimension refers to the center to center distance between these mounting holes.[3]

12 Inch Blade

Hole to hole: 11 7/8 inches / 300. mm

Overall blade length: 12 3/8 inches / 315 mm (not tightly controlled)

Mounting Hole diameter: 9/64 to 5/32 inch / 3.6 to 4 mm (not tightly controlled)

Blade Width: 7/16 to 33/64 inch / 11 to 13 mm (not tightly controlled)

Blade Thickness: 0.020 to 0.027 inches / 0.5 to 0.70 mm (varies with tooth pitch and
other factors)

The kerf produced by the blades is somewhat wider than the blade thickness
due to the set of the teeth. It commonly varies between 0.030 and 0.063
inches / 0.75 and 1.6 mm depending on the pitch and set of the teeth.

The 10 inch blade is also fairly common and all the above dimensions apply
except for the following:

Hole to Hole: 9 7/8 inches / 250 mm

Overall blade length: 10 3/8 inches / 265 mm (not tightly controlled)

Variants[edit]
 A panel hacksaw

A panel hacksaw has a frame made of a deep, thin sheet aligned

behind the blade's kerf, so that the saw could cut into panels of sheet
metal without the length of cut being restricted by the frame. The
frame follows the blade down the kerf into the panel.

Junior hacksaws are a small version with a half-size blade.

Like coping saws, the blade has pins that are held by notches in the
frame. Although potentially a useful tool for a toolbox or in confined
spaces, the quality of blades in the Junior size is restricted and they
are only made in the simple low alloy steels, not HSS. This restricts
their usefulness.

An electric hacksaw

A power hacksaw (or electric hacksaw) is a type of hacksaw that is

powered either by its own electric motor or connected to a stationary
engine. Most power hacksaws are stationary machines but some
portable models do exist; the latter (with frames) have been
displaced to some extent by reciprocating saws such as the Sawzall,
which accept blades with hacksaw teeth. Stationary models usually
have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return stroke and
 some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from
overheating.

Power hacksaws are not as commonly used in the metalworking

industries as they once were. Bandsaws and cold saws have mostly
displaced them. While stationary electric hacksaws are not very
common, they are still produced. Power hacksaws of the type
powered by stationary engines and line shafts, like other line-shaft-
powered machines, are now rare; museums and antique-tool
hobbyists still preserve a few of them.

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current(electrical energy) into
mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important
for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been
discussed in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we
need to first look into its constructional feature.

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the
north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below. Now to
go into the details of the operating principle of DC motor its important that we have a clear
understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the

armature conductors of dc motor. Fleming’s left

hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand in
such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented by the
index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the middle finger), then
the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented by the thumb) mutually
perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in the conductor.

For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the
force, by considering the diagram below. We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is
made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B,
then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

i.e. it’s the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of
current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the
force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at
right hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite
direction with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

∴ we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the
armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the
rotation of the armature conductor.

Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α with its
initial position.

The torque produced is given by,

Where α is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the
initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.

The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the
torque at all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α. To explain
the variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise
analysis.
Step 1: Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the
angle α = 0.

Since α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum
given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into rotation.
Step 2: Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the
armature and its reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it
becomes 90° from its initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of
torque.

The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than
0°.
Step 3: In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of
the rotor is exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90°, and as a result the term cosα
= 0.

The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does
not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of dc motor has been
engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this
point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual
position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.

Working Principle of DC Motor

Objective Questions on DC Motor (MCQs)

Construction of DC Motor | Yoke Poles Armature Field Winding Commutator Brushes of

DC Motor

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A DC motor like we all know is a device that deals in the conversion of electrical energy to
mechanical energy and this is essentially brought about by two major parts required for the
construction of dc motor, namely. 1) Stator – The static part that houses the field windings
and receives the supply and,

2) ROTOR – THE ROTATING PART THAT BRINGS ABOUT THE MECHANICAL ROTATIONS.

OTHER THAN THAT THERE ARE SEVERAL SUBSIDIARY PARTS NAMELY THE

3) YOKE OF DC MOTOR.
4) POLES OF DC MOTOR.

5) FIELD WINDING OF DC MOTOR.

6) ARMATURE WINDING OF DC MOTOR.

7) COMMUTATOR OF DC MOTOR.

8) BRUSHES OF DC MOTOR.

ALL THESE PARTS PUT TOGETHER CONFIGURES THE TOTAL CONSTRUCTION OF A DC MOTOR. NOW
LET’S DO A DETAILED DISCUSSION ABOUT ALL THE ESSENTIAL PARTS OF DC MOTOR.

Yoke of DC Motor
THE MAGNETIC FRAME OR THE YOKE OF DC MOTOR MADE UP OF CAST IRON OR STEEL AND FORMS
AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE STATOR OR THE STATIC PART OF THE MOTOR. ITS MAIN FUNCTION IS TO

FORM A PROTECTIVE COVERING OVER THE INNER SOPHISTICATED PARTS OF THE MOTOR AND

PROVIDE SUPPORT TO THE ARMATURE. IT ALSO SUPPORTS THE FIELD SYSTEM BY HOUSING THE

MAGNETIC POLES AND FIELD WINDING OF THE DC MOTOR.

Poles of DC Motor

The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner wall of the yoke with
screws. The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts namely, the
pole core and the pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic pressure and then attached to
the yoke. These two structures are assigned for different purposes, the pole core is of small
cross sectional area and its function is to just hold the pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the
pole shoe having a relatively larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the
air gap between the stator and rotor to reduce the loss due to reluctance. The pole shoe also
carries slots for the field windings that produce the field flux.

Field Winding of DC Motor

 The field winding of dc motor are made with field coils
(copper wire) wound over the slots of the pole shoes in such a manner that when field
current flows through it, then adjacent poles have opposite polarity are produced. The field
winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces field flux within which the rotor
armature of the dc motor rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.

Armature Winding of DC Motor

The armature winding of dc motor

is attached to the rotor, or the rotating part of the machine, and as a result is subjected to
altering magnetic field in the path of its rotation which directly results in magnetic losses.
For this reason the rotor is made of armature core, that’s made with several low -hysteresis
silicon steel lamination, to reduce the magnetic losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss
respectively. These laminated steel sheets are stacked together to form the cylindrical
structure of the armature core.

THE ARMATURE CORE ARE PROVIDED WITH SLOTS MADE OF THE SAME MATERIAL AS THE CORE TO
WHICH THE ARMATURE WINDING MADE WITH SEVERAL TURNS OF COPPER WIRE DISTRIBUTED

UNIFORMLY OVER THE ENTIRE PERIPHERY OF THE CORE. THE SLOT OPENINGS A SHUT WITH FIBROUS

WEDGES TO PREVENT THE CONDUCTOR FROM PLYING OUT DUE TO THE HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

PRODUCED DURING THE ROTATION OF THE ARMATURE, IN PRESENCE OF SUPPLY CURRENT AND

FIELD.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARMATURE WINDING OF DC MOTOR CAN BE OF TWO TYPES:-

Lap Winding

In this case the number of parallel paths between conductors A is equal to the number of
poles P.
i.e A = P

***AN EASY WAY OF REMEMBERING IT IS BY REMEMBERING THE WORD LAP-----→ L A=P

Wave Winding

Here in this case, the number of parallel paths between conductors A is always equal to 2
irrespective of the number of poles. Hence the machine designs are made accordingly.

Commutator of DC Motor

THE COMMUTATOR OF DC MOTOR IS A CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURE MADE UP OF COPPER SEGMENTS

STACKED TOGETHER, BUT INSULATED FROM EACH OTHER BY MICA. ITS MAIN FUNCTION AS FAR AS

THE DC MOTOR IS CONCERNED IS TO COMMUTE OR RELAY THE SUPPLY CURRENT FROM THE MAINS

TO THE ARMATURE WINDING HOUSED OVER A ROTATING STRUCTURE THROUGH THE BRUSHES OF

DC MOTOR.

Brushes of DC Motor

The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or graphite structures, making sliding
contact over the rotating commutator. The brushes are used to relay the current from
external circuit to the rotating commutator form where it flows into the armature
winding. So, the commutator and brush unit of the dc motor is concerned with
transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating
region or the rotor. 3 Point Starter | Working Principle and Construction of Three Point
Starter

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A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting and running of a
shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor. Now the question is why these
types of DC motors require the assistance of the starter in the first case. The only
explanation to that is given by the presence of back emf E b, which plays a critical role in
governing the operation of the motor. The back emf, develops as the motor armature starts
to rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters the supply
voltage. This also essentially means, that the back emf at the starting is zero, and develops
gradually as the motor gathers speed.

THE GENERAL MOTOR EMF EQUATION E = EB + IA.RA,

AT STARTING IS MODIFIED TO E = IA.RA AS AT STARTING EB = 0.

Thus we can well understand from the above equation that the current will be dangerously
high at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) and hence its important that we make
use of a device like the 3 point starter to limit the starting current to an allowable lower
value. Let us now look into the construction and working of three point starter to
understand how the starting current is restricted to the desired value. For that let’s consider
the diagram given below showing all essential parts of the three point starter.

Construction of 3 Point Starter

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as

shown in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are
shown separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN. Other than that there are 3 main points, referred
to as 1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.) 2. 'A' Armature terminal.
(Connected to the armature winding.) 3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3 point
starter in further details reveals that, the point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called
overload release (OLR) as shown in the figure. The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the
lower end of conducting lever of starter handle where a spring is also attached with it and
the starter handle contains also a soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to
the other side RUN against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to its
original OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived
from the stud '1', given to the another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is
further connected to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance at starting is entirely in series with
the armature. The OLR and NVC acts as the two protecting devices of the starter.

Working of Three Point Starter

Having studied its construction, let us now go into the working of the 3 point starter. To
start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC motor is switched on.
Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1. At
this point, field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply through the
parallel path provided to starting resistance, through No Voltage Coil. While entire starting
resistance comes in series with the armature. The high starting armature current thus gets
limited as the current equation at this stage becomes I a = E/(Ra+Rst). As the handle is moved
further, it goes on making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series
resistance from the armature circuit as the motor gathers speed. Finally when the starter
handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated and the motor runs
with normal speed. This is because back emf is developed consequently with speed to
counter the supply voltage and reduce the armature current. So the external electrical
resistance is not required anymore, and is removed for optimum operation. The handle is
moved manually from OFF to the RUN position with development of speed. Now the
obvious question is once the handle is taken to the RUN position how is it supposed to stay
there, as long as motor is running ? To find the answer to this question let us look into the
working of No Voltage Coil.

Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter

The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when field current
flows, the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron
piece connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC,
because of flow of current through it. The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the
handle in 'RUN' position against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the
motor. Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.

NOW WHEN THERE IS ANY KIND OF SUPPLY FAILURE, THE CURRENT FLOW THROUGH NVC IS

AFFECTED AND IT IMMEDIATELY LOOSES ITS MAGNETIC PROPERTY AND IS UNABLE TO KEEP THE

SOFT IRON PIECE ON THE HANDLE, ATTRACTED. AT THIS POINT UNDER THE ACTION OF THE SPRING
FORCE, THE HANDLE COMES BACK TO OFF POSITION, OPENING THE CIRCUIT AND THUS SWITCHING
OFF THE MOTOR. SO DUE TO THE COMBINATION OF NVC AND THE SPRING, THE STARTER HANDLE
ALWAYS COMES BACK TO OFF POSITION WHENEVER THERE IS ANY SUPPLY PROBLEMS. THUS IT

ALSO ACTS AS A PROTECTIVE DEVICE SAFEGUARDING THE MOTOR FROM ANY KIND OF

ABNORMALITY.

Point Starter | Working Principle and Construction of Four Point Starter

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Working Principle of Four Point Starter

The 4 point starter like in the case of a 3 point starter also acts as a protective device that
helps in safeguarding the armature of the shunt or compound excited dc motor against the
high starting current produced in the absence of back emf at starting.

THE 4 POINT STARTER HAS A LOT OF CONSTRUCTIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL SIMILARITY TO A THREE
POINT STARTER, BUT THIS SPECIAL DEVICE HAS AN ADDITIONAL POINT AND A COIL IN ITS

CONSTRUCTION, WHICH NATURALLY BRINGS ABOUT SOME DIFFERENCE IN ITS FUNCTIONALITY,

THOUGH THE BASIC OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTIC REMAINS THE SAME. NOW TO GO INTO THE

DETAILS OF OPERATION OF 4 POINT STARTER, LETS HAVE A LOOK AT ITS CONSTRUCTIONAL

DIAGRAM, AND FIGURE OUT ITS POINT OF DIFFERENCE WITH A 3 POINT STARTER.

Construction and Operation of Four Point Starter

A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely 1. ' L' Line
terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.) 2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the
armature winding.) 3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.) Like in the case
of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is, 4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No
Voltage Coil) The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage
Coil is connected independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N' in
addition to the 'L', 'F' and 'A'. As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field
supply current does not bring about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus it
must be ensured that no voltage coil always produce a force which is strong enough to hold
the handle in its 'RUN' position, against force of the spring, under all the operational
conditions. Such a current is adjusted through No Voltage Coil with the help of fixed
resistance R connected in series with the NVC using fourth point 'N' as shown in the figure
above.

APART FROM THIS ABOVE MENTIONED FACT, THE 4 POINT AND 3 POINT STARTERS ARE SIMILAR IN
ALL OTHER WAYS LIKE POSSESSING IS A VARIABLE RESISTANCE, INTEGRATED INTO NUMBER OF

SECTIONS AS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE ABOVE. THE CONTACT POINTS OF THESE SECTIONS ARE CALLED

STUDS AND ARE SHOWN SEPARATELY AS OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN, OVER WHICH THE HANDLE IS FREE

TO BE MANEUVERED MANUALLY TO REGULATE THE STARTING CURRENT WITH GATHERING SPEED.

 NOW TO

UNDERSTAND ITS WAY OF OPERATING LETS HAVE A CLOSER LOOK AT THE DIAGRAM GIVEN ABOVE.

CONSIDERING THAT SUPPLY IS GIVEN AND THE HANDLE IS TAKEN STUD NO.1, THEN THE CIRCUIT IS
COMPLETE AND LINE CURRENT THAT STARTS FLOWING THROUGH THE STARTER. IN THIS SITUATION

WE CAN SEE THAT THE CURRENT WILL BE DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS, FLOWING THROUGH 3 DIFFERENT
POINTS. I) 1 PART FLOWS THROUGH THE STARTING RESISTANCE (R1+ R2+ R3…..) AND THEN TO THE

ARMATURE. II) A 2ND PART FLOWING THROUGH THE FIELD WINDING F. III) AND A 3RD PART FLOWING

THROUGH THE NO VOLTAGE COIL IN SERIES WITH THE PROTECTIVE RESISTANCE R.

SO THE POINT TO BE NOTED HERE IS THAT WITH THIS PARTICULAR ARRANGEMENT ANY CHANGE IN
THE SHUNT FIELD CIRCUIT DOES NOT BRING ABOUT ANY CHANGE IN THE NO VOLTAGE COIL AS THE

TWO CIRCUITS ARE INDEPENDENT OF EACH OTHER. THIS ESSENTIALLY MEANS THAT THE

ELECTROMAGNET PULL SUBJECTED UPON THE SOFT IRON BAR OF THE HANDLE BY THE NO VOLTAGE

COIL AT ALL POINTS OF TIME SHOULD BE HIGH ENOUGH TO KEEP THE HANDLE AT ITS RUN
POSITION, OR RATHER PREVENT THE SPRING FORCE FROM RESTORING THE HANDLE AT ITS ORIGINAL

OFF POSITION, IRRESPECTIVE OF HOW THE FIELD RHEOSTAT IS ADJUSTED.

THIS MARKS THE OPERATIONAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A 4 POINT STARTER AND A 3 POINT STARTER.
AS OTHERWISE BOTH ARE ALMOST SIMILAR AND ARE USED FOR LIMITING THE STARTING CURRENT
TO A SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR OR COMPOUND WOUND DC MOTOR, AND THUS ACT AS A

PROTECTIVE DEVICE.

peed Regulation of DC Motor

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On application of load the speed of a dc motor decreases gradually. This is not at all
desirable. So the difference between no load and full load speed should be very less. The
motor capable of maintaining a nearly constant speed for varying load is said to have good
speed regulation i.e the difference between no load and full load speed is quite less. The
speed regulation of a permanent magnet DC motor is good ranging from 10 - 15% whereas
for dc shunt motor it is somewhat less than 10 %. DC series motor has poor value of
regulation. In case of compound DC motor the speed regulation for dc cumulative
compound is around 25 % while differential compound has its excellent value of 5 %.

Speed of a DC Motor

The emf equation of DC motor is given by

Here N = speed of rotation in rpm. P = number of poles. A = number of parallel paths. Z =
total no. conductors in armature.

Hence, speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to emf of rotation (E) and inversely
proportional to flux per pole (φ).

Speed Regulation of a DC Motor

The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed from no load to full load, expressed
as a fraction or percentage of full load speed. Therefore, as per definition per unit (p.u)
speed regulation of DC motor is given as,

Similarly, percentage (%) speed regulation is given as,

Where Nno load = no load speed and N full lod = full load speed of DC motor. Therefore,
Percent speed regulation = Per unit (p.u) speed regulation X 100 %. A motor which has
nearly constant speed at all load below full rated load, have good speed regulation.

Battery Basics

How Do Lead Acid Batteries Work?

Lead Acid batteries have changed little since the 1880's although improvements in materials and
manufacturing methods continue to bring improvements in energy density, life and reliability.
All lead acid batteries consist of flat lead plates immersed in a pool of electrolyte. Regular water
addition is required for most types of lead acid batteries although low-maintenance types come
with excess electrolyte calculated to compensate for water loss during a normal lifetime.

Battery Construction

Lead acid batteries used in the RV and Marine Industries usually consist of two 6-volt batteries
in series, or a single 12-volt battery. These batteries are constructed of several single cells
connected in series each cell produces approximately 2.1 volts. A six-volt battery has three single
cells, which when fully charged produce an output voltage of 6.3 volts. A twelve-volt battery has
six single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of 12.6 volts.

A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of lead dioxide and
a negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between. The plates
are enclosed in a plastic battery case and then submersed in an electrolyte consisting of water and
sulfuric acid (see figure # 1). Each cell is capable of storing 2.1 volts.

In order for lead acid cell to produce a voltage, it must first receive a (forming) charge voltage of
at least 2.1-volts/cell from a charger. Lead acid batteries do not generate voltage on their own;
they only store a charge from another source. This is the reason lead acid batteries are called
storage batteries, because they only store a charge. The size of the battery plates and amount of
electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can store. The size of this storage
capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery. A typical 12-volt battery used in a
RV or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it can supply 10 amps of current for 12.5
hours or 20-amps of current for a period of 6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can be connected in
parallel to increase the total AH capacity.

In figure # 2 below, six single 2.1-volt cells have been connected in series to make the typical
12-volt battery, which when fully charged will produce a total voltage of 12.6-volts.

Lead Acid Batter Discharge Cycle

In figure # 3, above a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb) and the chemical
reaction between sulfuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to light the bulb. This
chemical reaction also begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a substance
called lead sulfate also known as sulfation (shown as a yellow build-up on plates). This build-
up of lead sulfate is normal during a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to discharge, lead
sulfate coats more and more of the plates and battery voltage begins to decrease from fully
charged state of 12.6-volts (figure # 4).
In figure # 5 the battery is now fully discharged, the plates are almost completely covered with
lead sulfate (sulfation) and voltage has dropped to 10.5-volts.

NOTE: Discharging a lead acid battery below 10.5 volts will severely damage it!

Lead sulfate (sulfation) now coats most of the battery plates. Lead sulfate is a soft material,
which can is reconverted back into lead and sulfuric acid, provided the discharged battery is
immediately connected to a battery charger. If a lead acid battery is not immediately recharged,
the lead sulfate will begin to form hard crystals, which can not be reconverted by a standard
fixed voltage (13.6 volts) battery converter/charger.

NOTE: Always recharge your RV or Marine battery as soon as possible to prevent loss of
battery capacity due to the build-up of hard lead sulfate crystals!

Lead Acid Battery Recharge Cycle

The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a
converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or maintain your
battery. Proper recharging and maintenance requires an intelligent charging system that can vary
the charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine battery.
Progressive Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery problems
and reduce battery maintenance.

The discharged battery shown in figure # 6 on the next page is connected to a converter/charger
with its output voltage set at 13.6-volts. In order to recharge a 12-volt lead acid battery with a
fully charged terminal voltage of 12.6-volts, the charger voltage must be set at a higher voltage.
Most converter/chargers on the market are set at approximately 13.6-volts. During the battery
recharge cycle lead sulfate (sulfation) begins to reconvert to lead and sulfuric acid.

During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the electrolyte
and water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These gasses are
very flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside. Gassing
causes water loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added periodically. Sealed
lead acid batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to recombine into the electrolyte.
If the battery is overcharged pressure from these gasses will cause relief caps to open and vent,
resulting in some water loss. Most sealed batteries have extra electrolyte added during the
manufacturing process to compensate for some water loss.
The battery shown in figure # 7 above has been fully recharged using a fixed charging voltage of
13.6-volts. Notice that somelead sulfate (sulfation) still remains on the plates. This build-up will
continue after each recharging cycle and gradually the battery will begin to loose capacity to
store a full charge and eventually must be replaced. Lead sulfate build up is reduced if battery is
given an Equalizing Charge once every 10 discharge cycles or at least once a month.
An Equalizing Chargeincreases charging voltage to 14.4 volts or higher for a short period. This
higher voltage causes gassing that equalizes (re-mixes) the electrolyte solution.

Since most RV and Marine craft owners seldom remember to perform this function, Progressive
Dynamics has developed the microprocessor controlled Charge Wizard. The Charge Wizard will
automatically provide an Equalizing Charge every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes, when
the battery is fully charged and not in use. Our 2000 Series of Marine Battery Chargers have
the Charge Wizard feature built-in.

One disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is the recharge
time is very long. A typical 125-AH RV or Marine battery will take approximately 80 hours to
recharge at 13.6 volts. Increasing the charge voltage to 14.4-volts will reduce battery recharge
time for a 125-AH battery to 3-4 hours. Once a battery reaches 90% of full charge, thevoltage
must be reduced from 14.4-volts to 13.6-volts to reduce gassing and water loss. The
optional Charge Wizardautomatically senses when a battery has a very low state of charge and
automatically selects its BOOST MODE of operation.BOOST MODE increases the voltage of
a PD9100 Series converter/charger to 14.4 volts. When the battery reaches the 90% charge level,
the Charge Wizard automatically reduces the charge voltage down to 13.6 volts to complete the
charge. Again, this is a standard feature on our Marine Chargers.
Another disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is that
once it is fully charged, 13.6 volts will cause considerable gassing and water loss. To prevent this
from occurring the charging voltage must be reduced to 13.2-volts. The Charge Wizard will
automatically select its STORAGE MODE of operation (13.2-volts) once the battery reaches full
charge and remains unused for a period of 30 hours. This feature is standard on all of Progressive
Dynamics Marine Battery Chargers.

At a charging voltage of 13.2 volts, the converter/charger will maintain a full charge, reduce
gassing and water loss. However, this lower voltage does not provide enough gassing to prevent
a battery condition called Battery Stratification. Battery Stratification is caused by the fact
that the electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all mixtures, one
component, the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate at
the bottom of the battery (see figure #8).

This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of lead
sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity and battery life. In order to
prevent Battery Stratification, an Equalization Charge(increasing charging voltage to 14.4-
volts) must be applied periodically. The Charge Wizard automatically selects
itsEQUALIZATION MODE (14.4 volts) every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes.
This Equalizing Charge feature is standard on our Marine chargers.

As you have learned, in order to properly charge and maintain a lead acid battery you must use
an intelligent charging system. Progressive Dynamics, Inteli-Power 9100 Series RV converters
with a Charge Wizard installed, or one of our Inteli-Power Marine Battery Chargers will
provide the intelligent charging system your battery needs for a long life, with low maintenance.

Answers to Common Questions about Batteries

Do lead acid batteries discharge when not in use?

All batteries, regardless of their chemistry, will self-discharge. The rate of self-discharge for lead
acid batteries depends on the storage or operating temperature. At a temperature of 80 degrees F.
a lead acid battery will self-discharge at a rate of approximately 4% a week. A battery with a
125-amp hour rating would self-discharge at a rate of approximately five amps per week.
Keeping this in mind if a 125 AH battery is stored for four months (16 weeks) winter without
being charged, it will loose 80 amps of its 125-amp capacity. It will also have severe sulfation,
which causes additional loss of capacity. Keep your batteries charged while not in use!

Do lead acid batteries develop a memory?

Lead acid batteries do not develop any type of memory.

Do I need to completely discharge my lead acid battery before recharging it?

No, in fact you should never discharge your lead acid battery below 80% of its rated capacity.
Discharging it below this point or 10.5 volts can damage it.

When do I need to perform an equalization charge?

Equalizing should be performed when a battery is first purchased (called a freshening charge)
and on a regular basis (every 10 discharge cycles or at least once a month). Reduced
performance can also be an indicator that an equalizing charge is needed.

What is an equalizing charge?

An equalizing charge for a 12 volt battery requires that it be charged with a voltage of at least
14.4 volts for a period of at least one hour once a month, or every 10 discharge cycles. An
equalizing charge prevents battery stratification and reduces sulfation, the leading cause of
battery failure.

When should I add water to my batteries?

How often you use and recharge your batteries will determine the frequency of watering. Also,
using batteries in a hot climate will require more frequent watering. It is best to check your
battery water level frequently and add distilled water when needed. Never add tap water to your
battery. Tap water contains minerals that will reduce battery capacity and increase their self-
discharge rate.

Warning - A brand new battery may have a low electrolyte level. Charge the battery first and
then add water if needed. Adding water to a battery before charging may result in overflow of the
electrolyte.

What is the proper electrolyte level?

Battery electrolyte levels should be just below the bottom of the vent well, about ½ - ¾ inch
above the tops of the separators. Never let the electrolyte level to drop below the top of the
plates.

Do I ever need to add acid to my battery?

Under normal operating conditions, you never need to add acid. Only distilled or deionized water
should be added to achieve the recommended electrolyte levels.

Can my batteries freeze?

If your battery is partially discharged, the electrolyte in a lead acid battery may freeze. At a 40%
state of charge, electrolyte will freeze if the temperature drops to approximately -16 degrees F.
When a battery is fully charged the electrolyte will not freeze until the temperature drops to
approximately -92 degrees F.
What are the most common mistakes made by owners of lead acid batteries?

 Undercharging - Generally caused by not allowing the charger to restore the battery to
full charge after use. Continuously operating a battery in a partial state of charge, or
storing the battery in the discharged state results in the formation of lead sulfate
(sulfation) on the plates. Sulfation reduces the performance of the battery and may cause
premature battery failure.
 Overcharging - Continuous-charging causes accelerated corrosion of the positive plates,
excessive water consumption and in some cases, damaging temperatures within the
battery. Lead acid batteries should be charged after each discharge of more the 50% of its
rated capacity and during or after prolonged storage of 30 days or more.
 Under-watering - In lead acid batteries water is lost during the charging process. If the
electrolyte level drops below the tops of the plates, irreparable damage may occur. Check
your battery water level frequently.
 Over-watering - Excessive watering of a battery results in additional dilution of the
electrolyte, resulting in reduced battery performance. Add water to your battery after it
has been fully charged, never when the battery is partially discharged.

Can I reduce the need to add water to my battery by lowering the charging voltage to 13
volts or less?

Lowering the charging voltage will reduce the need to add water, but this will cause a condition
known as battery stratification. Battery stratification is caused when the sulfuric acid in the
electrolyte mixture separates from the water and begins to concentrate at the bottom of the
battery.
ADVANTAGES

Economical aspect:

Least maintenance cost.

No transportation from long distance
No rent for electricity utilized
No fuel required for operation

Technical aspect:

No moving parts, thus long life

Noiseless operation
No person required to operate the system

Manufacturing aspect:

Simple in construction, so easy to fabricate

No heavy materials are used

Safety aspect:

Pollution free
Less chance of accidents

LIMITATIONS

High initial installation cost

Care should be taken for batteries
Power production will be lesser in cloudy days
CONCLUSION:

This project has the potential to improve the competitiveness and profitability
of the industry, reduce the environmental impact of existing wild agriculture
production systems, and enhance the sustainability of rural life in india .
Advantages of modern agriculture is that you have machines to plant and do
everything so you don't have to do it all with your hands .the environmental
impact will be positive as it is anticipated that the amount of current
agrochemicals being used in the wild agriculture industry will be reduced and
better targeted by Solar Based Fully Automatic Multipurpose Vehicle Used In
Agriculture-Auto Drill, Seed, Sprayer Agriculture.

Bibliography[edit]

 The Genius of China, Robert Temple, ISBN

 History Channel, Where Did It Come From? Episode: "Ancient China: Agriculture"

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years
of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works
of Joseph Needham>
2. ^ Jump up to:a b History Channel, Where Did It Come From? Episode: "Ancient China:
Agriculture"
3. ^ Jump up to:a b Joseph Needham; Gwei-Djen Lu; Ling Wang (1987). Science and
civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Temple, p.25
5. Jump up^ The story of wheat | Ears of plenty | Economist.com Paid subscription
required