Annals of the „Constantin Brâncuşi” University of Târgu Jiu, Economy Series, Special Issue, volume II/2016

GENDER SEGREGATION AND WOMAN DISCRIMINATION ON LABOR MARKET

NIȚESCU ALINA
PHD ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, UNIVERSITY OF PETROȘANI

Abstract:
Promotion of gender equality is the core of the European social and economic policies, but in spite of the
progress achieved in recent years, the inequalities between women and men still remain in some fields of activities.
Thus, equality and inclusion on the labor market must become a desideratum given the belief that the labor market
should provide an opportunity for all, regardless of gender, age or ethnicity. Equality between men and women
represents a common value of the EU, and a necessary condition for achieving the objectives of growth, employment
and social cohesion.
In this context, the present paper aims to address a number of theoretical issues in relation to the concept of
gender segmentation, to its forms and factors of influence.

Key words: labor market, equality of sexes, employment, work

JEL Classification: J70, J71

1. Introduction
Equal opportunities exist when a goal or an opportunity is achieved with the same level of effort by individuals
or groups of different circumstances and types.
Equal opportunities are based on ensuring the full participation of every person in the economic and social life,
irrespective of ethnic origin, sex, religion, age, disability or sexual orientation. As regards the labor market, the
opportunities are unevenly distributed in all countries, and also at the level of the various subgroups. This situation
applies in respect of the types of jobs, types of employment contracts, working hours, remuneration, social security, and
other collateral benefits. Equal opportunities on the labor market relate to the choice of a profession, to employment and
promotion to any post or job vacancy at all levels of professional hierarchy, to the possibility of professional
development, working conditions in accordance with the rules of health and safety at work, to equal payment for equal
work, etc.
An essential feature of equal opportunities on the labor market is equal opportunities between men and women.
Discrimination means differentiated treatment applied to a person by virtue of membership, real or alleged, in
a particular social group The groups most often subjected to discrimination and on which most studies have been
centered are ethnic minorities, racial, religious, groups of immigrants. There is a special concern for the discrimination
against women. In terms of ethics, discrimination of any kind and, in particular, gender discrimination and the
consequences of such practices are unacceptable. Constitutions of any state, regulations regarding the European labor
market and policies concerning equal opportunity and fighting exclusion forbid and punish such practices, while
international standards of ethics and social responsibility in business voluntarily undertaken by numerous companies
disapproves them.

2. Indicators of segregation
Gender segregation refers to the tendency of men or women to work in different sectors and jobs. In other
words, one of the genders dominates a certain professional category.
Many policies and programs do not take into account these differences; they are "gender-blind". The result is
that the services and public and private infrastructures, as well as the areas such as employment, training, business and
political environment are not always created according to the specific needs of men and women (or more often males
are taken as models).
Specialized literature outlines two distinct concepts, namely the horizontal segregation and the vertical
segregation.
Horizontal segregation means under/over representation, without any criterion, of a group in certain fields or
sectors. It refers to the concentration of men or women in certain professions or sectors of economic activity. It is
considered that there is a constant horizontal segregation on the labor market in almost all OECD countries. It is
anticipated a continuation or even an intensification of professional segmentation, the number of women tending to
increase in certain sectors in the long run. This trend explains, in part, the difference in remuneration between men and
women.
Horizontal segregation of the labor market is quite obvious both nationally and at the European level. The
delimitation between male and female jobs is justified primarily by arguments that do not refer to women's ability to
exercise a certain profession or to the roles and requirements of the gender within the family and society in general.
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Vertical segregation means the over/under representation of a group of workers with various professions or
from different sectors that are at the 'top' of the occupational pyramid, depending on income, prestige, job stability,
regardless of the field of activity. Under-representation at the top level of the employment pyramid is a phenomenon
known as 'vertical segregation' in academic literature, or more commonly known as 'hierarchical segregation'. In
academic literature, vertical segregation is referred to as the 'glass ceiling', indicating the existence of obstacles that lead
to a certain scarcity of women in leadership positions and in decision making processes within organizations, businesses
and also in associations and unions. The existence of barriers that prevent the rise of women is capped with the concept
of 'sticky floor'. This concept describes the forces that tend to keep women in the lowest levels of the organizational
pyramid.
Unfortunately, vertical segregation persists in many countries, and furthermore the opportunities for
professional development and ascension of women are still fewer than those of men. Barriers faced by female
representatives in achieving professional success are a less visible hence the name of 'glass ceiling'.
Gender segregation on the labor market can be measured through indicators such as
The dissimilarity index (ID Index) is the most frequently used indicator for measuring inequalities, and is
defined as: "the sum of the minimum proportion of women and the minimum proportion of men who should change
their profession so that the number of women could be identical in any profession". The dissimilarity index (ID) is most
often used for international comparisons. This indicator calculates employment or field distribution based on gender in
relation to horizontal or vertical segregation.
The standardized index introduced by Karmel and MacLachlan(1988) (IP Index). It can be interpreted as the
share of the active population who should change their job (sector) in order to achieve an equal distribution of men and
women in occupations and sectors.
Moir and Selby-Smith index (MSS Index), also called 'Female employment indicator' is based on the
assumption that segregation implies that the rate of women in a professional category is different from the rate of
women in employment. This indicator measures the sum of absolute difference between the percentage of women and
the rate of employees per occupations.
The Sex Ratio Index (SRI)represents the number of women employed in typically female jobs/sectors divided
by the expected proportion of women in these occupations if there were no segregation less the equivalent ratios of
women in male occupations.
The Gini coefficient is generally used to measure inequalities in income, but it can also be applied in
measuring segregation. Unlike other indicators this one takes into account the distribution of sectors/occupations
corresponding to the degree of concentration of women and men.
Marginal matching (MM) consists in the division of males and females by sector and occupations. It is
assumed that female sectors/occupations have a number of women workers equal to the number of women in
employment and that male sectors/professions have the same number of men equal to the number of men in
employment.

3. Influence factors of segregation

 Comparative advantages given by different biological characteristics of both sexes probably represent the
Gender segregation on the labor market is influenced by a number of factors, such as:

oldest explanation for the division of labor by gender. For a long time, emphasis has been put on the variety of physical
differences between the two sexes, but in the long run, technological progress has reduced the role of physical

 Fewer investments in education. It is considered that women themselves choose to invest less in education
characteristics, and the attention has shifted to the brain or rather towards the way in which the mind works;

because they believe that employers will have prejudice against them and they will be offered jobs that do not require
high investments in training. In terms of professional training at work, statistics show that on average, women receive
fewer hours of training compared to men. This is however due to the decision of employers and collective agreements
rather than to women’s choice;
 Preferences and prejudice. Specialists consider that preferences for a particular job and certain features of it
are defined even before a person enter an educational system or labor market and that, in theory, people are willing to

 Entry barriers and organizational practices. Examples of potential organizational practices are employment
pay for their preferences if need be;

or promoting mechanisms that tend to favor male work force as a result of the fact that women have fewer relational
resources. Research has shown that the more formal and more transparent personal practices are, the weaker the
pairings between jobs and gender will be. Jobs in the public sector or in large companies tend to be more regulated in
terms of bureaucracy. Thus, the different payment structures or the different types of employers (large or small

 Roles/responsibilities in ensuring family income. It is believed that occupational segregation often keeps
companies, public or private) contribute to the establishment of the model of segregation;

women captive on jobs with low added value and more poorly paid. On the one hand, the different employments have
different value added for employers according to the position in the structure of the production chain and not according
to productivity or to the professional training of the employee. The uneven distribution of family tasks offers an
alternative explanation for the fact that women accept job offers with short or with flexible schedule although this
implies lower wages, but it is the only way that they can combine the role of mother and income provider.
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4. Aspects regarding discrimination of women on the labor market

The labor market is where the work offer meets the demand and establishes the terms of employment,
negotiation and the wages the workers' will get according to their performance, the mobility of wages and work force
based on vacancies, companies, regions, etc. It is here that labor relations unfold and are strengthened, real human
networks are formed and interact with each other and make this field exist.
The characteristic of this market leads to a series of features, such as: a derived market, influenced by other
markets (the goods market, the production market) and at the same time generating effects which can be found in all
sectors of economic and social life; it reflects the mutual ties between demographic realities (which determines the job
offer) and economic and social development (which generates the demand); it means constant negotiation between job
providers and demanders, in terms of quantity, quality and structure; it is regulated in the highest degree. This trait is
derived from the need to protect the employee, to control fair competition through trade unions, to allow grouping of
entrepreneurs who employ labor power; it is a market with an imperfect competition, either a monopoly or an oligopoly,
depending on how the offer and demand are structured and organized by employers and trade unions; it reflects the way
in which labour force is supplied based on branches, sectors, professions and levels of training.
In addition to the above features one should keep in mind that labor market is a heterogeneous market, divided
into segments, types of activity, geographical areas, qualification levels, professions, sex, age, etc. From this point of
view, followers of the labor market segmentation theory reveal a primary labor-market-characterized by high stability
of employment, high and growing wages, the presence of a hierarchical scale, the use of relatively advanced
technology, the existence of strong and effective trade unions -and a secondary-market characterized by insecure jobs,
high staff fluctuation, the use of rudimentary technology, lack of opportunities for promotion, non-existent or weak
unions.
Another feature of the labor market is a certain degree of discrimination against certain persons belonging to
vulnerable groups. Persons belonging to vulnerable groups within the society face discrimination both in finding a job
and at the workplace. These groups include women, elderly workers, minorities and EU immigrants; mothers looking
for a job after they have given birth, but whose duties relating to childcare are unwanted by employers; the very
qualified elderly who have been denied promotion in favor of younger candidates; immigrants are discriminated by
potential employers, employers or colleagues.
Women's discrimination refers to any differentiation, exclusion or restriction based on gender which has the
effect or purpose of precluding or denying recognition, benefit or exercise of women, irrespective of their matrimonial
status, based on the equality of men and women, on the human rights and on the fundamental freedoms within political,
economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.
Equality on the labor market means equal access to:
- choosing a profession;
- getting employment or promotion on any position or vacancy, on any hierarchical level;
- information and job counseling;
- qualification, training, life-long learning; possibility to develop professionally;
- working conditions complying with the health and safety regulations in force;
- equal payment for equal tasks;
- access to extra benefits or social protection.
These principles are often violated and take various forms of classic discrimination (gender, age, geographical
area, religion, sexual orientation, chronic or potentially transmittable diseases or varying degrees of handicap).
Gender discrimination or the denial of the fundamental rights of women is a major cause of poverty.
Systematic discrimination has reduced the participation of women in the public area, has increased their vulnerability to
poverty, violence and HIV and it has led to an increase of the percentage of poor population in the world.
The main reasons for the discrimination of women are:
- preconceived attitudes of employers toward hiring women, whom they consider lower work force;
- the employer's preference, who is usually a man, for male workers for reasons of social life or solidarity,
willing to work with a group of men rather than with a group of women or believing that a man is more
efficient;
- the employer’s predictions regarding the probable efficiency of the female candidate, whereas her work may be
suspended by marriage, birth, and childcare. Therefore, the employer shall give priority to a male applicant or,
in the case a woman is hired, she is paid less.
In this context it is appropriate to grant importance to the mobbing phenomenon, which often applies to female
persons. This is a phenomenon on the border of discrimination and can be only partially considered a type of
discrimination. It is linked exclusively to work and relates mainly to actions of psychological pressure carried out on an
employee by the employer or a group of colleagues in order to determine the former to leave the job in question, given
that his dismissal is not possible since there is no good reason in terms of the professionalism of the person concerned
and/or without legislative issues to affect the employer. The employee who 'should be' removed therefore has to endure,
for a long period of time, injustice and humiliations which make him unable to full fill the duties and are aimed to bring
him to the point where, on the verge of a breakdown, he will decide to quit that job. These humiliations and pressures to
which the employee is subjected to causes social and psychological damages that can even affect health. Women can be
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more easily a target of a mobbing attack, but European statistics show, however, that both women and men are targets
of such actions, in roughly equal percentages.[7]
With regard to gender discrimination on the labor market statistics carried out at national level present the

 women in Romania are paid less than men for the same work; In terms of the level of salary, differences may
situation of the Romanian women as follows:

arise as a result of their employment on different jobs and it is not neglected that women interrupt their career
when they become mothers and due to maternity leave, which reduces the chances of promotion of women and

 female population constitutes the majority of employees in budgetary sectors with the lowest salaries: social
men at the same rate;

assistance, education, the medical sector; they hold positions which are more poorly paid, and they are take
leadership positions with a decision-making role in a much smaller proportion than men, while men are urged
to avoid accepting jobs in areas traditionally considered to belong to women: teaching, babysitting, nursing,

 women represent a category of the population more vulnerable to economic and social effects, characterized by
housekeeping, secretary, etc.;

 women from Romania show a risk of poverty which is more increased than in the case of men and they are
a high rate of long-term unemployment, as well as by limited access to well-paid jobs;

more exposed to domestic violence;

 they carry out most of the chores in a household – ironing, washing, brushing, cooking and caring for:
children, the elderly, the sick –without being paid or acknowledged -(showing them “in the lead” in terms of
hours of housework).
Women’s vulnerability to discrimination is amplified by the membership of categories with high risk of
discrimination, such as the disabled, the pregnant, Romas, the elderly, etc. In 2012, for example, statistics of the
National Authority for People with Disabilities showed that in Romania, out of the 636,310 adults with disabilities 54%
were women.
Belonging to an ethnic minority, specifically Roma women, entails multiple effects in terms of discrimination.
The Roma represent, according to the census of 2011, 3.2% of the country's population. [8] Ethnic discrimination is

 deficiency in applying the legislation in force

caused, mainly by:

 poor representation of women belonging to ethnic minorities in the public life

 persistence of negative stereotypes referring to ethnic minorities
 insufficient promotion of ethno-cultural diversity as the basis of social cohesion
According to the Gender Equality Index developed by the European Institute for Gender Equality in 2013,
Romania holds the last place in terms of gender equality in all areas, including employment, money and knowledge. At
the same time, Romania has the lowest standard of living in the EU (Eurostat, 2012), and women show a low degree of
employment on the labor market and they are faced with situations of job discrimination (the Strategic national
implementation report of the ESF, 2013).[9]
Reconciliation of the professional life with the family life has a direct impact on women's employment and the
jobs available for them on the labor market, on their income and economic freedom throughout life. From the analysis
of statistical data one can gather that the reconciliation of family life with professional aspect is of great interest for
identifying specific problems which can help us explain the phenomenon of gender discrimination in Romania.
In Europe, according to the report on gender equality published by EU (2013), although differences in terms of
gender equality are dropping progress is slow. The report notes the persistence of inequalities between women and men
in terms of employment rate, wage levels and representation in public life. On average, women earn less by 16.4% than
men. Across Europe, only 27% of parliament members are women. The report estimates that it may take more than 70
years to reach gender equality in terms of wages and 20 years for women to have a representativeness of 40% in the
national parliaments.
In order to reduce discrimination on the labor market there have been developed a number of strategies at
European level in order to ensure equal chances for people belonging to groups traditionally subject to discrimination.
These strategies aim to ensure equal opportunities for all citizens, regardless of the group they belong to. These
strategies involve on the one hand acknowledging the disadvantages accumulated by such groups as well as the
development of policies and practices which help to overcome the difficulties.
There are two reasons for fighting against discrimination in order to access labor market and maintain
employment. The first reason is of social nature: discrimination based on such grounds is against European values and
against Community law. The second reason is the economic one: the EU, confronted with an aging population, needs to
have many active people on the labor market in order to ensure economic growth and future prosperity.

5. Conclusions
In general, research suggests that men and women are making different choices in terms of their professions or
their jobs, according to the tasks which they need to undertake, on the one hand, and on the other hand, men consider
financial gains and responsibilities more important, while women consider relations between employees and the
significance of the tasks they have to carry out to be important. In other words, the satisfaction of women at the jobs
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predominantly addressed to them derives from those features they consider valuable. This shows that in groups where
members are mostly of the same sex, satisfaction at work and communication are clearly superior, and also labor
productivity is higher.
Jobs for men and women differ according to economic development. All over the world, it is noted that women
can be found in greater proportion in areas with low productivity and lower wages. Typically, they work in small
companies, they run small businesses or can be found mainly in the informal sector; this happens due to disproportions
between the requirements on the labor market and those relating to family care and household. Social regulations
emphasize the role of women in the household, so that women would seek rather to work a flexible schedule, which
means under paid job areas.
Labor market discrimination occurs as a result of a combination of individual risk and social factors. There is a
combination of causes, including individual behavior but also the conditions and environment of work (including
management practices), which facilitates the occurrence of discrimination cases. It takes a good management of anti-
discrimination policies and the promotion of equal opportunities.
Equality between women and men not only constitutes an end in itself: it is a precondition for the fulfillment of
the overall objectives of EU in terms of development, employment and social cohesion. Increased participation of
women on the labor market offers a guarantee of their economic independence and a substantial contribution to the
economic development and sustainability of social protection systems.
Fighting discrimination of women on the labor market and supporting gender equality have as main objective
the creation of a society in which both women and men enjoy the same opportunities, rights and obligations in all
spheres of life. One can ascertain there is equality between men and women when both sexes are able to equally divide
power and influence; to have equal opportunities in terms of financial independence through work and by setting up
their own business; to benefit by equal access to education and the opportunity to develop their skills and talents; to
share responsibility for home and children and be free from any constraints, intimidation and acts of violence relating to
gender both at home and at work.
In order to achieve the objectives concerning the participation of women in the economic life it is necessary to
promote a non-discriminatory basis of the roles of women in all areas of life such as education, career and employment.
Economic competitiveness must be achieved so that it could be socially sustainable. Women's participation in the
economic activities is essential, not only for reasons of fairness but also as a strategic element because countries that fail
to use the talents of half of their population make an inefficient allocation of resources, have lower economic growth
and threat en their competitiveness.
Thus, we should keep in mind that equal opportunities in education, employment and property has a strong
impact on economic development.
Moreover, gender equality and combating discrimination in the workplace constitute the priorities of the
legislative framework in all countries within the European Union, reconciling national legislation with the
recommendations, declarations and the instruments in force established by the European Union.

 Identify regional specificity of discrimination at work;

In the future, the following directions must be in the center of concerns:

 An investigation to reveal the mentality and behavior of managers in relation to discrimination;

 Increasing transparency in how to develop and apply labor market policies at national or company level;
 Support and encourage women to carry their own businesses;
 Including the prevention of mobbing in the package of performance indicators of managers;
 Improving the regulatory and institutional framework to ensure gender equality principles;
 Raising awareness on the benefits of gender equality through various outreach activities.

References:
[1] *** Ghid pentru promovarea egalității între femei și bărbați pe piața muncii, ANOFM
[2]. *** Ocuparea forței de muncă de către femiei și antreprenoriatul în România, 2011
[3]. *** Studiu privind segregarea de gen pe piața muncii, Editura Fundației România de Mîine, 2012
[4]. *** Analiza privind stereotipurile de gen în cadrul proiectului „Succesul la feminin”
[5]. http://www.femeiactive.ro/discriminarea-de-gen-la-locul-de-munca/
[6]. http://www.femeiactive.ro/discriminarea-de-gen-la-locul-de-munca/
[7]. http://www.revistacalitateavietii.ro/2010/CV-1-2-2010/07.pdf
[8]. http://www.carierepentrufemei.ro/node/55040
[9]. http://proiectul-elisa.fundatia.ro/despre-egalitate-de-gen

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