Precipitation

- Water that reaches the ground as rainfall or snowfall

- Evaporation from ocean surfaces is the chief source of moisture for
precipitation

- Orographic barriers often exert more influence on climate if a region than

nearness to a moisture source does.

- Single strongest variable driving hydrologic processes

- Formed by water vapor in the atmosphere

- As air cools its ability to ‘hold’ water decreases and some turns to liquid
or ice (snow)
Forms of Precipitation:
1. Drizzle. This is a finest mist with drops just a little
larger than heavy fog, about 0.1 – 0.5 mm (0.004
– 0.02 in).
2. Rain. Rain drops average about 1 mm, but may
range from 0.5 to 5 mm (0.02 – 0.2 in) in
diameter.
3. Ice Pellets. Also called sleet, that occurs when
raindrops freeze as they fall through air where the
temperature is below 0oC (32oF). Ice pellets are
transparent spherical grains of ice, usually with
diameter of less than 5mm (0.2 in).
4. Snow. Snow is precipitation that reaches the
ground in the form of ice crystals. The size of
snowflakes may vary from a few millimeters to
several centimeters.
5. Hail. Hailstones, which may range from 5 to 10 cm
(0.2 – 0.4 in) or more in diameter, are rounded
lumps of ice that fall during thunderstorms.
Types of Precipitation:

1. Cyclonic / Frontal Precipitation – results when the leading edge of a

warm, moist air (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass (cold
front).

Frontal Precipitation
Convective Precipitation – caused by upward movement of air which is
warmer than its surroundings; this precipitation is generally showery
nature with rapid changes of intensities.

Convective Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation – caused the air masses which strike the mountain barriers
and rise up, causing condensation and precipitation.

Orographic Precipitation
Rainfall Characteristics
The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration,
the frequency or return period, and the seasonal distribution .
The amount is of course important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment
of the soil water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity
times the duration. For example, the amount may be the same for a high intensity
short duration rainfall as it is for a low intensity long duration rainfall

However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces larger
size raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can
damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity storms can literally displace
soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion process. High intensity
storms may also overwhelm the soils ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate,
causing infiltration-excess runoff.
The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a
short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on
soil erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration,
runoff, and soil erosion processes.

The frequency, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall
occurs at a particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return
periods are referred to as 100 year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24 hour rainfall to
define the probability that a given amount will fall within a given time period.
- The frequency of occurrence of a storm of given magnitude and duration is important
to establish a measure of risk.

- For a given storm duration, the probability that an event of certain magnitude has of
being equaled or exceeded in any one year is termed the probability of exceedance

- Frequency can be represented by the return period, which is the average number of
years between events of a given magnitude or greater. The return period is related to
the probability of exceedance by

1
Tr 
Prob Exceedance 
Where Tr is the return period and P is the
probability of exceedance.
Frequency characteristics of storms are generally summarized in Intensity-Duration-
Frequency (IDF) Curves.

In general, for the same return period, short storms are more intense than long
storms. Similarly, for a given intensity, longer storms are associated with greater
return periods
In hydrologic design, frequencies are needed to select appropriate rainfall values
that will result in design streamflows.

A storm of a given frequency does not generally produce a peak discharge of the
same frequency. However, these frequencies are commonly assumed to be the
same, especially if models are used to estimate runoff from precipitation.
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Curves

IDF is a plot of precipitation intensity on the y-axis and duration on the x-axis with
return period indicated on each intensity-duration curve.

Rainfall Intensity - is the amount of rainfall for a given rainfall event recorded at a
station divided by the time of record, counted from the beginning of the event.

Return Period - is the time interval after which a storm of given magnitude is likely to
recur. This is determined by analysing past rainfalls from several events recorded at a
station.
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency
IDF-Curves
Intensity in inches/hour

Time in minutes
The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall
amounts occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep
percolation are most likely to occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal
distribution of rainfall varies in different parts of the country, practices used or
recommended in one part of the country may not necessarily be appropriate in
another.

• A hyetograph is also used to describe the variation of the storm with time.
• The time distribution of the storm affects the shape of the direct runoff
hydrograph.
• Early, Center, Late peaking precipitation
 Rainfall Hyetograph
Rainfall Intensity in in/hour

Time in hours
Spatial Distribution
• A localized storm would likely produce smaller peaks and a shorter
hydrograph than if the same storm covered the whole watershed.
• A storm moving away from the outlet will produce an earlier and
smaller peak than if the storm moves towards the outlet.
• Storm location, aerial extent, and storm movement are usually
determined by the origin of the storm.

• For instance, cold fronts produce localized fast-moving storms. Warm

fronts give origin to slow-moving widespread precipitation.
Spatial Distribution

• A storm taking place far from the outlet would produce longer
hydrographs and lower peaks than if the same storm occurred near
the outlet.
• In most circumstances, it is assumed that rainfall is uniform over the
entire watershed for the duration of the time increment.
 Precipitation Measurement
Liquid precipitation is traditionally measured using various types of rain gages such as the
non-recording cylindrical container type or the recording weighing type, float type and tipping-
bucket type. All of the above gages measure precipitation at a point. Another method of
measuring precipitation is through the use of radar.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Tipping Bucket Raingauge

suggests the number of rain gauges:

Ideal Acceptable
For Flat Regions of temperate, 1 Station for 600 1 Station for 900
Mediterranean and tropical zones – 900 km2 – 3000 km2

For Mountainous Regions of 1 Station for 100 1 Station for 250

temperate, Mediterranean and – 250 km2 – 1000 km2
tropical zones

Manual Raingauge
Selection of RAINFALL Gauging Station Location

1. Site is safe and accessible for installation and operation.

2. An area upstream of proposed intake and within river catchment.

3. Objects should not be closer to the gauge than a distance twice their height above the
raingauge orifice.

4. Sites on slope or on the roof of a building should be avoided.

5. Best sites are often found in cleanings within forest or orchards, among trees, in scrub or
shrub forests, or where other objects act as an effective wind-break for winds from all
directions.

6. The surface surrounding the precipitation gauge can be covered with short grass, gravel or
shingle, but hard, flat surfaces, such as concrete, should be avoided to prevent excessive in
splashing.
Precipitation Patterns in Space and Time:

1. Geographic Range of Precipitation

Rainfall tends to be heaviest near the equator and to diminish as the air
flows toward higher latitudes. The geographical distribution of precipitation
depends on orographic factors as well as how far an air mass has moved away from
its source.

2. Seasonal Variations in Precipitation

Precipitation varies with the sun’s position. Many parts of the world have
one definite rainy season, which may occur in summer or in winter depending on
the general circulation.
Source:http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/c
ab/climate.htm
Precipitation Patterns in Space and Time:
3. Long Term Variations in Precipitation
Precipitation have a predictable pattern of fluctuation around its long term
average value or mean.
Variation of Rainfall
Rainfall may vary from a given point to the other.

Average Rainfall Depth (ARD) – is the mean depth of rainfall for

a particular basin. For any given time duration, the average
depth of rainfall falling over the basin can be computed using
three methods:

1. Arithmetic Mean – taken as the average of all rainfall

depths.

Time (hrs) Total

1st 2nd 3rd 4th
15  12  8  5
 10.0 mm
Rainfall
A 15 10 3 2 30
4 (mm)
B 12 15 8 5 40
C 8 10 6 4 28
D 5 8 2 2 17
2. The Thiessen Polygon Method

This method is proposed by Theissen in

1911, considers the representative area of each rain
gauge.

These area are found out using a method consisting

of the following three steps:

1. Joining the rain gauge station locations by

drawing straight lines to form triangle.

2. Bisecting the edges of the triangles to form the

For example, the weighted average
so called “Thiessen Polygons”.
rainfall over the catchment is
determined as,
3. Calculate the area enclosed around each rain
gauge station to find the area of influence
corresponding to the rain gauge. (55x15)  (70x12)  (80x8)  (35x5)
 10.33mm
(55  70  80  35)
 2. The Isohyetal Method

This is considered as one of the most accurate method.

The method requires the plotting of isohyets as shown in
the figure and calculating the areas enclosed either
between the isohyets or between an isohyet and the
catchment boundary.

The areas II and III fall between two isohyets each.

Hence, these areas may be thought of as corresponding
to the following rainfall depths:
Area
Area II : Corresponds to (10 + 15)/2 = 12.5 mm rainfall Area I 40 km2
depth Area II 80 km2
Area III : Corresponds to (5 + 10)/2 = 7.5 mm rainfall
Area III 70 km2
depth
Area IV 50 km2
(40x15)  (80x12.5)  (70x7.5)  (50x5) Total 240 km2
 9.896 mm
240
 Isohyetal method
• Steps
• Construct isohyets (rainfall contours)
• Compute area between each pair of
adjacent isohyets (Ai) P1
• Compute average precipitation for
each pair of adjacent isohyets (pi)
• Compute areal average using the P2
following formula

P3
1 N
PP  A p  Ai Pi
M

 A i 1
i 1
i i

5  5  18 15  12  25  12  35
P  21.6 mm
47
Probability and Statistics

The concept of probability is paramount in the field of hydrology. The following are techniques of
probability and statistics used to analyze random events.

1. The probability of obtaining either outcome A or B, with A and independent and mutually
exclusive, is the sum of the probability of obtaining each, thus
P( AorB)  P( A)  P ( B)
Where:
P(A or B) = probability of obtaining either A or B
P(A) = probability of obtaining A
P(B) = probability of obtaining B
Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Curve Return Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)
Period
1 2 3 6 12 24
2 62.67 38.83 28.01 15.11 7.77 3.88
Davao City – Sasa Rainfall 5
79.50 49.26 35.53 19.17 9.85 4.93
Station
20 101.34 62.79 45.29 24.43 12.56 6.28
50 115.17 71.37 51.47 27.77 14.27 7.14
Years of Record: 1952 - 2011
100 125.54 77.79 56.11 30.27 15.56 7.78
200
135.876 84.195 60.724 32.763 16.840 8.422
1000
159.809 99.025 71.419 38.534 19.806 9.905

Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (RDIF) Curves

200
Rainfall Intensity (mm)

150 2 year

5 year

100 20 year

50 year

50 100 year

200 year

0 1000 year

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Time (Hours)
Analysis for Anomalous Rainfall Record

Rainfall recorded at various rain gauges within a catchment should be monitored regularly for any
anomalies.

These two major types of anomalies in rainfall are categorized as:

1. Missing rainfall record 2. Inconsistency in rainfall record

To approximate the missing record, To determine the possible
inconsistencies, use double mass
1  N4 N4 N4  curve.
P4   P1  P2  P3 
3  N1 N2 N3 
P4 = precipitation at the missing
location
N1, N2, N3 and N4 = normal annual precipitation
of the four stations
P1, P2 and P3 = rainfalls recorded at the three
stations 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Example:
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:
Double Mass Curve
- tests the consistency of the record at a station
by comparing its accumulated annual precipitation with
the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation
for a group of surrounding stations.
-used to check the consistency of a rain gauge
record:
- compute cumulative rainfall amounts for suspect
gauge and check gauges Cumulative rainfall at other
gauges
- plot cumulative rainfall amounts against each
other (divergence from a straight line indicates error)
- multiplying erroneous data after change by a
correction factor k where
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