Divided China

960-1200
• Liao Empire focused on north and east Asia;
Beijing as capital. Marco Polo—visits
• Song Empire focused north and east Asia;
gunpowder; navigation;
• Around 1125…Jin Empire influence over Asia.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty_-
_cs.svg/2000px-China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty_-_cs.svg.png
 Mongol Empire
• 1206 Genghis Khan
 Peru 200B.C.-1000 A.D.
• Prior to 200 B.C., Chavin Culture in Andes
• Mochica culture in north and Nazca in more
desert south 200 B.C.-600A.D.

• READING ASSIGNEMENT: Article entitled

Moche Civilization by Mark Cartwright found
at
https://www.ancient.eu/Moche_Civilization/
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Carte_Moche.png
 Mochica
• Northern Peru, mountains, Mochu River Valley
• Realism and action in art, especially pottery
• Monumental buildings, Temple of the Sun and
Temple of the Moon at Mochu
• http://www.perutoptours.com/jpg/10ic/lcpcrl
02.jpg
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Portrait_Vessel,_Peru_north_coast,_Moche_culture,_100-
500_AD,_ceramic,_Pre-Columbian_collection,_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7660.JPG
 Mochu Culture
Extensive use of irrigation, large populations in
cities and towns.
Warfare with neighbors
Metal and pottery artists
Religion: Sun god, Al Paec and Si, moon
goddess—governed life; human sacrifice
major part of religion
Declined perhaps mostly to climate changes
 Nazca
• READING ASSIGNMENT: Article on Nazca
Civilization by Mark Cartwright found at
https://www.ancient.eu/Nazca_Civilization/
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/8/8d/Vorkolumbische_Kulturen.png
 Nazca Culture
• Drier climate, coastal, ---extensive trade with
other parts of S.A.
• Chief god, Oculate Being---flying often with
necklace of human heads…sacrificial victims?
• Nazca Lines: geoglyphs etched into ground,
visible from air…purpose?
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Per%C
3%BA,_2015-07-29,_DD_54.JPG/1001px-L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Per%C3%BA,_2015-07-
29,_DD_54.JPG
 around 650-1470 A.D.
Among other cultures in Peru, some to note are
the Tiwaniku/Wari in the highlands and the
Sian/Chimu, both more coastally oriented and
both descended from the Mochu. The Chimu
eventually preside over all of Peru. Until
coming of the Inca people around 1400.
 Mesoamerica 500 B.C. -1000 A.D.

• READING ASSIGNMENT: Article entitled

Zapotec Civilization by Mark Cartwright found
at
https://www.ancient.eu/Zapotec_Civilization/
 Zapotec Civilization 500 B.C.-900 A.D.
• “Cloud People”
• Monte Alban in the Oaxaca Valley
• Pyramid builders and priestly culture
• Trade with other regions, including Olmec
people and later the Mayans
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Zapotecos.png
• Zapotec religion full range of gods, based
mostly on nature. Prayers and sacrifices for
fertility and victory at war.
• Earliest alphabet in the Americas;
mathematical systems for the calendar and for
the stars.
• Temple at Monte Alban, other sites,
interaction other meso. Cultures, especially
Teotihuacan
 Old Man God

• https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/164/416509236_15b1809b8a_z.jpg?zz=1
• https://photos.travelblog.org/Photos/36076/172664/f/1271342-Monte-Alban-temple-1.jpg
 Teotihuacan
• READING ASSIGNMENT: Article entitled
Teotihuacan by Mark Cartwright found at
https://www.ancient.eu/Teotihuacan/
• Largest pre-European city in Americas: peak
at 200,000 residents;
• Warfare and trade, as well as religious center.
• Temples and palaces, wealth
• 1000 years of cultural influence. Mayans and
Aztecs (religious center).
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Classic_sites_1.png/300px-Classic_sites_1.png
• https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSiAsZ7e3fHDvrAwPBWH7wG-OJYyLfSl1-kfFSL26kj82fATgQPfw
 Mayan Culture
• READING ASSIGNMENT: Article entitled Maya
Civilization by Joshua Mark, found at
https://www.ancient.eu/Maya_Civilization/
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/M
ayamap.png
 Maya Culture
• Flourished from 250-950 A.D.; cities
abandoned around 950, occupied by Toltec,
lasted until European conquest, but still
continues in adapted forms
• Culture based on religion:
– Sacred writings
– Sacred temples
– Sacred games: Poc-o-Toc
– Sacred calendars
 Journey of Person
• Cyclical following nature, but also progressive
in that, after death person journeys through 9
stages of the “underworld”—Xibalba, and
then through 13 stages until one attains
“paradise”-Tamoanchan-located on a
mountain top where the gods live.
• Ways to bypass this journey---die in childbirth,
suicide, in warfare, in the games, as a
sacrificial victim.
• Caves and dark places or conversely light and
mountaintops have sacred meaning.
• Temple pyramids are temples symbolic of
mountain of the gods.
 One of the Chichen Itza Temples
• https://img.rt.com/files/2015.08/original/55c
d8de2c361880741
https://img.rt.com/files/2015.08/original/55c
d8de2c3618807418b4617.jpg 8b4617.jpg

https://img.rt.com/files/2015.08/original/55cd
8de2c3618807418b4617.jpg
 Greco/Roman Culture
500 B.C.-1000 A.D.
• Two civilizations, various empires, yet in many
ways a unified culture
• E.g. Koine Greek (grammar), Greek
religion/mythology/art; Roman military
rule/law/architecture; combination in political
administration
 Ancient Greece
• READING ASSIGNMENT Article entitle Ancient
Greece by Joshua Mark found at
https://www.ancient.eu/greece/
• Little arable land: sea power
• Ionia in Asia Minor
• POLIS: City States: Athens, Sparta, Corinth,
Ephesus, Rhodes
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Map_of_Archaic_Greece_(English).jpg
 Sparta
• Divided society, Helots—slaves and free born
military
• Free born boys raised communally age 7, to be
warriors for Sparta
• Constant threat of slave rebellion
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Map_of_Archaic_Greece_(English).jpg
 Magna Graecia
• Greek colonies (600-185 B.C.) especially in
Italy and islands, Sicily.
• Greek culture, religion, and politics west into
Med.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Greek_Colonization_Archaic_Period.png
• http://tjbuggey.ancients.info/images/maggrecia1.jpg
 Leadership in Greek Polis-City States
• Leadership: king, or ruler, or general, or tyrant,
selected from among the prominent class,
sometimes for a specific length of time—or to
met specific threat.
• Theoretically, every males over 20 with
property could vote. Foundations of
democracy?
 First Among Equals
Not dynastic-generally

Not rule by divine right—nor embodiment of

god

Not “worshipped”—First among Equals

Not like Eastern or Egyptian rulers

 Classical Greece 500 B.C.-350 B.C.
• Persian Wars 490-480 B.C.—with Athens
leader of city states; Sparta next
• Leagues of Cities
• Peloponnesian Wars. The first conflict (c. 460-
445 BCE) ended in a stalemate: the second
(431-404 BCE) between Sparta and Athens—
Sparta destroys Athens, but soon falls too.
• Philip of Macedon: 380 B.C.; Son, Alexander
 Alexander the Great 336-323 B.C.
• Conquers east (Persian and as far as the Indus
valley) and south (crowned pharaoh in Egypt--
Alexandria)
• Educated by Aristotle—one world-
“cosmopolitan” : spreads Hellenistic culture
wherever he goes; cities settled by veterans.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/6/6a/Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/6/6a/Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg
• Claims to be descended from Zeus---in Egypt
proclaimed to be Zeus-Ammon’s son.
• Hybrid of Eastern and Western leadership
• One culture, many nations…unified Greek
empire and culture---Hellenistic
 Hellenistic Culture
• Reading Assignment: Article entitled
Hellenistic Period by Antonie Simonin found at
https://www.ancient.eu/Hellenistic_Period
 Hellenistic World 323-30 B.C.
• Koine Greek/gym/bath/theater/stoa/gods
• Empire splits into four/three smaller
kingdoms:
– Antigonid in Greece
– Ptolemaic in Egypt
– Seleucids in Middle East and India
http://chapter9greeceperiod5.weebly.com/upl
oads/8/9/3/9/8939164/4775247_orig.gif
 Rome
• READING ASSIGNMENT Articles entitled
Ancient Rome by Joshua Mark, found at
http://www.ancient.eu/Rome/ and The
Roman Empire found at
http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Empire/
 Early Rome
750-509 B.C.; on Tiber River; trading post;
Etruscan culture to north, borrowed
considerably…Greeks in south and east,
borrowed considerably…
Monarchy…
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/859px-
Italy_400bC_en.svg.png
 Roman Republic
• 509-27 B.C.
• Expanded from Rome through warfare: rest of
Italian peninsula, Spain
• Carthage—Punic Wars– 246-146 B.C….Rome
eventual victor, assumed sea control of
western Med.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Expansion_of_Rome,_2nd_century
_BC.gif
Moche Civilization
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 20 August 2014

The Moche civilization (also known as the Mochica) flourished along the northern
coast and valleys of ancient Peru, in particular, in the Chicama and Trujillo Valleys,
between 1 CE and 800 CE. The Moche state spread to eventually cover an area from
the Huarmey Valley in the south to the Piura Valley in the north, and they even
extended their influence as far afield as the Chincha Islands. Moche territory was
divided linguistically by two separate but related languages: Muchic (spoken north of
the Lambayeque Valley) and Quingan. The two areas also display slightly different
artistic and architectural trends and so the Moche state may be better described as a
loose confederacy rather than a single, unified entity.

The Moche were contemporary with the Nazca civilization (200 BCE - 600 CE)
further down the coast but, thanks to their conquest of surrounding territories, they
were able to accumulate the wealth and power necessary to establish themselves as
one of the most unique and important early-Andean cultures. The Moche also
expressed themselves in art with such a high degree of aesthetics that their naturalistic
and vibrant murals, ceramics, and metalwork are amongst the most highly regarded in
the Americas.

The Moche were perhaps the most accomplished artists and metalworkers of
any Andean civilization.

Moche

The capital, known simply as Moche and giving its name to the civilization which
founded it, lies at the foot of the Cerro Blanco mountain and once covered an area of
300 hectares. Besides urban housing, plazas, storehouses, and workshop buildings, it
also has impressive monuments which include two massive adobe brick pyramid-like
mounds. These monumental structures, in their original state, display typical traits of
Moche architecture: multiple levels, access ramps, and slanted roofing.

The larger 'pyramid' is the Huaca del Sol, which has four tiers and stands 40 metres
high today. Originally it stood over 50 m high, covered an area of 340 x 160 m, and
was constructed using over 140 million bricks, each stamped with a maker's mark. A
ramp on the north side gives access to the summit, which is a platform in the form of
a cross. The smaller structure, known as the Huaca de la Luna, stands 500 metres
away and was built using some 50 million adobe bricks. It has three tiers and is
decorated with friezes showing Moche mythology and rituals. The entire structure
was once enclosed within a high adobe brick wall. Both pyramids were constructed
around 450 CE, were originally brightly coloured in red, white, yellow, and black, and
were used as an imposing setting to perform rituals and ceremonies. The Spanish
conquistadors later diverted the Rio Moche in order to break down the Huaca del Sol
and loot the tombs within, suggesting that the pyramid was also used by the Moche
for generations as a mausoleum for important persons.
 Huaca
del Sol, Moche

Buildings excavated between the two pyramid-mounds include many large residences
with courtyards enclosed by walls. The fields around the site are laid out in a regular
grid pattern of small rectangular plots often with a small adobe viewing platform,
which suggests some sort of state supervision and control by the elite (Kuraka) class.
Moche agriculture benefitted from an extensive system of canals, reservoirs, and
aqueducts, so that the land could support a population of around 25,000.

Other Moche sites include a pilgrimage centre at Pacatnamú, a mountain top site
above the Jequetepeque River and actually used from the Early Intermediate Period (c.
200 BCE). There were also administrative centres at Panamarca - where there is
another large adobe brick mound, this time with a switch-back ramp leading to the top
of the structure - and at Huancaco in the Viru Valley and Pampa de Los Incas in the
Santa Valley.

Moche Religion

Moche religion and art were initially influenced by the earlier Chavin culture (c. 900 -
200 BCE) and in the final stages by the Chimú culture. Knowledge of the Moche
pantheon is sketchy, but we do know of Al Paec the creator or sky god (or his son)
and Si the moon goddess. Al Paec, typically depicted in Moche art with ferocious
fangs, a jaguar headdress, and snake earrings, was considered to dwell in the high
mountains. Human sacrifices, especially of war prisoners but also Moche citizens,
were offered to appease him, and their blood was offered in ritual goblets. Si was
considered the supreme deity, as it was this goddess that controlled the seasons and
storms that had such an influence on agriculture and daily life. In addition, the moon
was considered even more powerful than the sun because Si could be seen both at
night and during the day. It is also interesting that murals and such finds as the intact
tomb of the priestess known as La Senora de Cao illustrate that women could play a
prominent role in Moche religion and ceremony.

Another deity who frequently appears in Moche art is the half-man, half-jaguar
Decapitator god, so-called because he is often represented holding a vicious looking
sacrificial knife (tumi) in one hand and the severed head of a sacrificial victim in the
other. The god may also be depicted as a gigantic spider figure ready to suck the
life-blood from his victims. That such scenes mirror real life events is supported by
archaeological finds, such as those at the foot of the Huaca de la Luna where
skeletons of 40 men under 30 years of age show evidence that they were mutilated
and thrown from the top of the pyramid. The bones of these skeletons display cut
marks, limbs were ripped out of their sockets, and jaw bones are missing from severed
skulls. Interestingly, the bodies lie above soft ground caused by heavy El Nino rains,
which suggests the sacrifices may have been offered to the Moche gods in order to
alleviate this environmental disaster. Ceremonial goblets have also been discovered
which contain traces of human blood, and tombs have revealed costumed and
be-jewelled individuals almost exactly like the religious figures depicted in Moche
murals.
 Moche Ceramic
Portrait

Moche Art

Many fine examples of Moche art have been recovered from tombs at Sipán (c. 300
CE), San José de Moro (c. 550 CE), and Huaca Cao Viejo, which are amongst some
of the best preserved burial sites from any Andean culture. The Moche were gifted
potters and superb metalworkers, and finds include exquisite gold headdresses and
chest plates, gold, silver, and turquoise jewellery (especially ear-spools and nose
ornaments), textiles, tumi knives, and copper bowls and drinking vessels. Fine pottery
vessels were usually made using moulds, but each was individually and distinctively
decorated, typically using cream, reds, and browns. Perhaps the most famous vessels
are the highly realistic portrait stirrup-spouted pots. These are considered portraits of
real people, and several examples could be made depicting the same individual.
Indeed one face - easily identified by his cut lip - appears in over 40 such pots.
Pottery shapes and decorations did evolve over time and became more and more
elaborate, although conversely, themes became less various in later Moche pottery
and art in general. One of the most distinctive styles created by the Moche uses
silhouette figures embellished with fine line details very similar to Greek black-figure
pottery. Ceramic effigy figures are also common, especially of musicians, priestesses,
and captives.

Popular subjects in Moche art - as seen on wall paintings, friezes, pottery decoration,
and fine metal objects - include humans, anthropomorphic figures (especially fanged
felines), and animals such as snakes, frogs, birds (especially owls), fish, and crabs.
Whole scenes are also common, especially religious ceremonies with Bird and
Warrior Priests, shamans, coca rituals, armoured warriors, ritual and real warfare with
their resulting captives, hunting episodes, and, of course, deities - notably scenes
showing night skies across which crescent boats carry figures such as Si. Many of
these scenes are rendered to capture narratives and, above all, action; figures are
always doing something in Moche art.
 Moche Vessel
Depicting Bird Warriors

Sipán & Pampa Grande

In c. 550 CE the Moche canal systems and agricultural fields became covered in sand
(blown inland from the coast where it had been deposited by erosive flooding from
the valleys), and the population left the area, resettling further north in the
Lambayeque Valley, notably at the sites of Sipán and Pampa Grande. The move may
also have been precipitated by the expansion of the Huari based in the highlands of
central Peru. At Sipán some of the best preserved and richest tombs in the Americas
have been discovered, including the famous 'Warrior Priest' tomb with its outstanding
precious metal objects such as a gold mask, ear-spools, bracelets, body armour,
sceptre, ingots, and magnificently crafted silver and gold peanut necklace.

The site of Pampa Grande covered 600 hectares and included the once 55 metre high
Huaca Fortaleza ritual platform. Reached by a 290-metre ramp the summit had a
columned structure containing a mural of felines. However, after 150 years of
occupation the site was also abandoned, once again, probably due to a combination of
climatic factors such as an extended period of drought, Huari expansion, and internal
strife as indicated by evidence of fire damage to many of the buildings.

Nazca Civilization
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 23 May 2014
The Nazca civilization flourished on the southern coast of Peru between 200 BCE and
600 CE. They settled in the Nazca and other surrounding valleys with their principal
religious and urban sites being Cahuachi and Ventilla, respectively. The culture is
noted for its distinctive pottery and textiles, and perhaps above all, for the geoglyphs
made on the desert floor commonly known as Nazca lines. These can be simple lines,
cleared spaces, or animals and figures traced in outline, and, as they cover several
kilometres, they are best appreciated from the air.

Overview

The Nazca were contemporary with, and then outlasted, the Paracas culture and many
Paracas sites have been discovered beneath Nazca settlements. Politically, the Nazca
civilization has been described as a collection of chiefdoms occasionally acting in
unison for mutual interest rather than as a single unified state. Or as M.E. Moseley
puts it, "individuality - with cultural coherence, but without large-scale or integrated
power - were Nazca hallmarks". This interpretation is reinforced by the art and
architecture of the Nazca which displays common themes across settlements but at the
same time there is a general lack of uniform town planning or evidence of
centralization. The maximum population of the Nazca has been estimated at 25,000
people, spread across small villages which were typically built on terraced hillsides
near irrigated floodplains.

As they developed, the Nazca extended their influence into the Pisco Valley in the
north and the Acari Valley in the south. In addition, as llamas, alpaca and vicuna do
not survive in the coastal areas the use of their wool in Nazca textiles is evidence that
trade was established with highland cultures. In addition, Nazca mummies have been
discovered wearing headdresses made with the feathers of rainforest birds, once again,
illustrating that goods were traded across great distances.

The Nazca have left a legacy of distinctive imagery on their pottery,

textiles, and across the desert floor of Peru.

Graves, often placed up to 4.5 metres deep and accessed via a shaft, are the richest
source of Nazca artefacts and reveal many aspects of the culture. Fine pottery and
textiles were buried with the dead and with no particular distinction between male and
female burials. The deceased is mummified, carefully wrapped in textiles and usually
placed in a seated position, skulls sometimes display deliberate elongation, and we
know the Nazca wore tattoos. Tombs, especially shaft ones lined with mud bricks,
could be re-opened and more mummies added, perhaps indicating ancestor worship.
Caches of trophy-heads often accompany the mummy, many showing signs of
trephination which allowed several to be strung on a single cord as illustrated in
pottery designs. Trophy-heads are also frequently incorporated into textile designs,
especially in miniature and as border decoration. There were also burials of what
appear to be sacrificial victims. These have the eyes blocked and excrement was
placed in the mouth which was then pinned shut with cactus needles. Alternatively,
the tongue was removed and kept in a cloth pouch.
Weakened by a generation-long drought in the 5th century CE, the Nazca were
eventually conquered by the Wari - who assumed many of their artistic traits - and
Nazca settlements, thereafter, never rose beyond provincial status.

Ventilla

Ventilla was the Nazca urban capital and covered over 2 square kilometres (495 acres)
and included ceremonial mounds, walled courts, and terraced housing. To fight the
ever-present threat of drought the Nazcans built an extensive network of underground
aqueducts, galleries, and cisterns in order to ensure a good water-supply during the
dry season and minimize evaporation. These were reached by impressive descending
spiral ramps and lined with river cobbles.

Nazca Civilization Map

Cahuachi
Founded c. 100 BCE, Cahuachi, on the south bank of the Nazca River, 50 km inland,
was a site of pilgrimage and the Nazca religious capital. It was probably first
considered sacred because it was one of the few locations with a guaranteed
year-round water supply. The lack of domestic architecture indicates it was not used
as a place of habitation.

The sacred site covers 11.5 square kilometres (2,841 acres) and has around 40 large
adobe mounds which take advantage of natural hills. The largest mound, known as the
Great Temple, is over 20 metres high. All of the mounds have an adjoining plaza and
are topped by adobe walls. The largest plaza measure 47 x 75 metres. A low wall, 40
cm high, surrounded the main sacred precinct. Posts and postholes across the site
suggest canopies protected worshippers from the sun. Textile scenes also suggest that
religious gatherings were connected to harvest festivals, and piles of rubbish
consisting mostly of pottery shards at the site indicate ritual feasting. This rubbish was
deliberately left so that it became a part of the mound. Consequently, the larger the
mound, the more it had been used in rituals. Some mounds also contained burials and
large pots containing fine textiles given as religious offerings.

More details of the religious ceremonies that may have been carried out at Cauachi
are depicted in Nazca art, especially on pottery, and many are scenes involving
shamans. These religious figures, in a drug-induced trance, appealed to nature spirits
to guarantee favourable conditions for agricultural abundance. Music was an
important part of these rites, as is evidenced by the abundance of ceramic drums and
panpipes in the archaeological record. The principal Nazca god seems to have been
the Oculate Being who is represented in art as a flying deity figure wearing strings of
trophy-heads. He is frequently depicted in pottery and textile designs in a horizontal
position with streamers flowing from his body. Large staring eyes and a snake-like
tongue are other typical features.
 Nazca Line Human
Figure

Nazca Lines

The Nazca drew geoglyphs and lines across the surrounding deserts and hills which
were either stylized drawings of animals, plants, and humans or simple lines which
connected sacred sites or pointed to water sources. Their exact purpose is disputed,
but the most widely held theory is that they were designed to be walked along as part
of religious rites and processions.

The lines were made remarkably easily and quickly by removing the oxidised darker
surface rocks which lay closely scattered across the lighter coloured desert pampa
floor. Most designs are only visible from the air, but some were made on hillsides and
so are visible from the ground.

Lines could be single - both straight and curved - or in groups and could cross each
other in complicated networks. The width and length of lines can vary; one of the
longest straight lines is 20 km long and the total combined length of Nazca lines has
been estimated at over 1,300 km. Those lines used to describe a specific shape are
generally composed of a single continuous line. Designs could be geometric shapes or
animals such as a hummingbird, spider and even a killer whale. Trees, plants, and
flowers were another subject, as were human figures.

The scale of the designs can be huge; many are at least the size of a sports field. They
were also made over several centuries and very often newer designs overlap and
ignore older ones which would strongly suggest a lack of long-term and unified
planning and, therefore, that they were made by different groups at different times and
served more than a single purpose.

Nazca Figure Vessel

Nazca Pottery
The Nazca have achieved a reputation for great artistry and their finely worked
pottery is an excellent example. Vessels were thin-walled and could take on a wide
variety of shapes. Distinctive forms include the double-spouted containers with a
single handle and generally bulbous vessels without a flat bottom or base. Bowls,
beakers, jars, effigy drums, and panpipes were also common. There were also vessels
in the shape of human heads, no doubt inspired by the Nazca practice of taking
trophy-heads following battles.

Influenced by the earlier Paracas culture designs, Nazca pottery vessels were
decorated with a slip (before firing) to produce a wide array of vividly rendered
patterns, gods, shamanic imagery, crustaceans, condors, monkeys, and mythical
transformational creatures, especially felines. The Nazca went on to create their own
unique style and designs evolved from naturalistic to highly ornamented and then to
highly abstract forms. Often the design covers the entire vessel producing a
wrap-around three-dimensional effect, even a narrative, for example, with battle
scenes. Designs might also exploit the contours of the vessel, for example, a nose on a
protruding part. Designs can also overlap each other to create the illusion of space and
depth.

Maroon, light purple, and blue-grey were a favourite choice of colours but a very
wide range was used, more, in fact, than in any other ancient Andean culture.
Backgrounds were usually in white, red, or black. Outlining figures in black was
another feature and another example of the Nazca delight in linear design. A final
polishing gave the colours a fine shine.

Nazca
Gold Mask
Nazca Textiles & Metalwork

The Nazca were fond of not only wool weaving and embroidery but also of painting
plain cotton cloth with an array of colourful images and motifs. Textiles have
survived remarkably well, thanks to the extremely dry climate, and they illustrate that
Nazca weavers possessed the full range of Andean techniques and employed an
astonishing range of colours and shades to produce intricate and detailed designs.
Figures were especially popular in designs and most often are depicted participating
in harvest scenes which show such foodstuffs as maize and beans. Animals, similar to
those in the geoglyphs and pottery designs, were also a popular subject. Looms,
spindles, needles, cotton balls, and pots of dyes have all been excavated from Nazca
settlements.

Nazca metalworkers beat gold into thin sheets which were cut to create silhouettes.
Preferring to keep surfaces smooth and reflective, only a little repoussé work provides
sparing decoration. Masks were produced which were worn over the mouth and made
the wearer appear to have a golden beard and whiskers. Gold full-face masks, hair
plumes, and nose and forehead ornaments were also produced. These gold masks
transform the face of the wearer and recall the transformation ceremonies carried out
by the shamans who were such a popular subject in Nazca art.

Zapotec Civilization
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 28 October 2013
The Zapotecs, known as the 'Cloud People', dwelt in the southern highlands of central
Mesoamerica, specifically, in the Valley of Oaxaca, which they inhabited from the
late Preclassic period to the end of the Classic period (500 BCE - 900 CE). Their
capital was first at Monte Albán and then at Mitla, they dominated the southern
highlands, spoke a variation of the Oto-Zapotecan language, and profited from trade
and cultural links with the Olmec, Teotihuacan and Maya civilizations.

Origins & Development

The Zapotecs grew from the agricultural communities which grew up in the valleys in
and around Oaxaca. In the Preclassic period they established fruitful trade links with
the Olmec civilization on the Gulf Coast which allowed for the construction of an
impressive capital site at Monte Albán and for the Zapotec to dominate the region
during the Classic period. The city, strategically placed overlooking the three main
valleys, evolved over centuries, beginning around 500 BCE and remaining the
cultural centre until the demise of the civilization around 900 CE.

Zapotec cities show a high level of sophistication in architecture, the

arts, writing and engineering projects.

The Zapotec had other significant settlements besides the capital and over 15 elite
palaces have been identified in the surrounding valleys. Indeed, the Zapotec may be
divided into three distinct groups: the Valley Zapotec (based in the Valley of Oaxaca),
the Sierra Zapotec (in the north), and the Southern Zapotec (in the south and east,
nearer the Isthmus of Tehuantepec). The major Zapotec sites, spread across the
Y-shaped Valley of Oaxaca, include the capital Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Huitzo, Etla,
San Jose Mogote, Zaachila, Zimatlan, Ocotlan, Abasolo, Tlacolula, and Mitla. The
latter would become the most important Zapotec city from c. 900 CE and is notable
for its buildings arranged around plazas which are richly decorated with reliefs of
geometrical designs.

By the late Preclassic period Zapotec cities show a high level of sophistication in
architecture, the arts, writing and engineering projects such as irrigation systems. For
example, at Hierve el Agua there are artificially terraced hillsides irrigated by
extensive canals fed by natural springs. Evidence of contact with other Mesoamerican
cultures can be seen, for example, at the site of Dainzu, which has a large stone-faced
platform with reliefs showing players of the familiar Mesoamerican ball game
wearing protective headgear. We also know of very close relations between the
Zapotec and the peoples based at Teotihuacan in the Basin of Mexico. Indeed, at
Teotihuacan there was even a quarter of the city specifically reserved for the Zapotec
community.

Cocijo
Religion

The Zapotec pantheon is as rich and bewildering as any other Mesoamerican religion
is to modern eyes with the standard deities for such important agencies on the human
condition as rain, sun, wind, earth, and war. Some of the most important gods were
the Bat-god - the god of corn and fertility, Beydo - god of seeds and wind, Cocijo
(who had a human body with jaguar and serpent features with a forked tongue) - the
rain and lightning god, Pitao Cozobi - the corn god, Copijcha (symbolised by the
macaw) - the god of the sun and war, Coquebila - god of the earth's centre, Huechaana
- a mother goddess also associated with hunting and fishing, Kedo - god of justice,
Ndan - the androgynous god of the oceans, Pixee Pecala the god of love, and Coqui
Xee - the creator god who represented infinity.

In addition, individual cities often had their own patron deities, for example,
Coquenexo ('Lord of Multiplication') patron of Zoquiapa, Coqui Bezelao and Xonaxi
Quecuya (gods of death and the underworld) patrons of Mitla and Teocuicuilco, and
Cozicha Cozee (another war god) patron of Ocelotepec.

Offerings, prayers and sacrifices were offered to these deities in the hope of their
favourable intervention in human affairs, for example, to bring rain vital for crops, to
end droughts or bring fertility to the land and its population. Also, in common with
other Mesoamerican cultures, the Zapotec had 20 day names represented by various
glyphs such as Chilla (crocodile), Pija (drought) and Xoo (earthquake); once again
they often represent the fundamental elements that could drastically affect daily life.

Monte Albán

Built on a series of mountain plateau at an altitude of 400 m, the city of Monte Albán
was the residential, ritual and economic centre of the Zapotec civilization. It replaced,
between 500 and 450 BCE, San José Mogote as the most important settlement in the
Valley. It also became the burial site of Zapotec kings for over a thousand years. The
city particularly flourished in the late Preclassic period when its population was as
high as 20,000 people and again between 400 and 700 CE when the population rose to
25,000 and the city ruled over some 1,000 settlements spread across the Valley.

The majority of the structures visible today on the main plaza date to the Classic
period with the notable exception of the Temple of the Danzantes, a stone platform
structure which was constructed when the site was first occupied (Monte Alban I).
The name Danzantes derives from the dancing relief figures decorating the platform.
300 figures are identifiable, some seem to be old, single-toothed males, some have
been mutilated, whilst still others seem to be almost swimming - who they represent is
not known. Other relief stones from the temple also provide the first certainly
identified written texts in Mexico showing an alphabet with semantic and phonetic
elements (as yet undeciphered). There is also a system of numbers represented by dots
and bars and glyphs for the 260-day year based on 20 day names and 13 numbers with
the 52-year cycle of the Calendar Round.
 Danzan
tes, Monte Alban

Finds at the site from this period include a large quantity of pottery, usually made
with a fine grey clay, sometimes with incised figures similar to the Danzantes, and
typically in the form of spouted vases and bowls set on a tripod. Another interesting
type is the whistling jar, a jar with two chambers which when used to pour liquid,
expelled air from the second chamber to create a whistling sound. The Zapotec were
also skilled sculptors and single effigy figures, groups of figures and urns survive both
in clay and more precious goods such as jade.

The city further developed between 150 BCE and 150 CE to create Monte Albán II.
Dating from this phase is a large stone-faced building shaped like an arrow head
(Building J) which points southwest and is aligned with the Capella star. The building
is covered with carved text and reliefs which indicate regional conquests, illustrated
by the upside down heads of defeated kings.

In the subsequent Classic period Monte Albán III arose and, influenced by
Teotihuacan, saw the construction of an I-shaped ball court and the
Temple-Patio-Altar complex that would be copied at sites across the Valley. In
addition, over 170 underground tombs have been excavated, many with vaults and
antechambers with richly painted walls, which attest to the wealth of the city. The
tombs also show signs of being regularly re-opened, illustrating the Zapotec
preoccupation with ancestor worship.
 Zapote
c Double-chambered Vessel

Decline

Quite why the city and the Zapotec civilization collapsed at Monte Albán is not
known, only that there is no trace of violent destruction and that it was contemporary
with the demise of Teotihuacan and a general increase in inter-state conflict. The site
continued to be significant, though, as it was adopted by the later Mixtec as a sacred
site and place of burial for their own kings. The Zapotecs did not disappear
completely, however, for in the early Post-Classic period they established a new,
smaller centre at Mitla, known to them as Lyobaa or 'Place of Rest' which also had
many fine buildings including the celebrated Hall of the Columns. The site continued
to be occupied even up to the Spanish conquest.

Teotihuacan
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 17 February 2015
Teotihuacan, located in the Basin of Central Mexico, was the largest, most influential,
and certainly most revered city in the history of the New World, and it flourished in
Mesoamerica's Golden Age, the Classic Period of the first millennium CE. Dominated
by two gigantic pyramids and a huge sacred avenue, the city, its architecture, art, and
religion would influence all subsequent Mesoamerican cultures, and it remains today
the most visited ancient site in Mexico.

Historical Overview

In relation to other Mesoamerican cultures Teotihuacan was contemporary with the

early Classic Maya (250 - 900 CE) but earlier than the Toltec civilization (900-1150
CE). Located in the valley of the same name, the city first formed between 150 BCE
and 200 CE and benefitted from a plentiful supply of spring water which was
channelled through irrigation. The largest structures at the site were completed before
the 3rd century CE, and the city reached its peak in the 4th century CE with a
population as high as 200,000. Teotihuacan is actually the Aztec name for the city,
meaning "Place of the Gods"; unfortunately, the original name is yet to be deciphered
from surviving name glyphs at the site.

The city's prosperity was in part based on the control of the valuable obsidian deposits
at nearby Pachuca, which were used to manufacture vast quantities of spear and dart
heads and which were also a basis of trade. Other goods flowing in and out of the city
would have included cotton, salt, cacao to make chocolate, exotic feathers, and shells.
Irrigation and the natural attributes of local soil and climate resulted in the cultivation
of crops such as corn, beans, squash, tomato, amaranth, avocado, prickly pear cactus,
and chili peppers. These crops were typically cultivated via the chinampa system of
raised, flooded fields which would later be used so effectively by the Aztecs. Turkey
and dogs were husbanded for food, and wild game included deer, rabbits, and
peccaries, whilst wild plants, insects, frogs, and fish also supplemented a diverse diet.
In addition, the city displays evidence of textile manufacturing and crafts production.
Teotihuacan also had its own writing system which was similar to, but more
rudimentary than, the Maya system and generally limited in use to dates and names, at
least in terms of surviving examples.

At its peak between 375 and 500 CE, the city controlled a large area of
the central highlands of Mexico.

At its peak between 375 and 500 CE, the city controlled a large area of the central
highlands of Mexico and probably exacted tribute from conquered territories via the
threat of military attack. Teotihuacan's fearsome warriors, as depicted on murals,
carry atlatl dart-throwers and rectangular shields, and they wear impressive costumes
of feather headdresses, shell goggles, and mirrors on their backs. Evidence of cultural
contact in the form of Teotihuacan pottery and luxury goods is found in elite burials
across Mexico and even as far south as the contemporary Maya centres of Tikal and
Copan.

Mysteriously, around 600 CE, the major buildings of Teotihuacan were deliberately
destroyed by fire, and artworks and religious sculptures were smashed in what must
have been a complete changing of the ruling elite. The destroyers may have been from
the rising city of Xochicalco or from within in an uprising motivated by a scarcity in
resources, perhaps acerbated by extensive deforestation (wood was desperately
needed to burn huge quantities of lime for use in plaster and stucco), soil erosion, and
drought. Whatever the reason, after this climatic event, the wider city remained
populated for another two centuries but its regional dominance became only a
memory.

Teotihuacan Religion

The most important deity at Teotihuacan seems to have been, unusually for
Mesoamerica, a female. The Spider Goddess was a creator deity and is represented in
murals and sculpture and typically wears a fanged mask similar to a spider's mouth.
Other gods, who would become familiar in subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations,
included the Water Goddess, Chalchiuhtlicue, who is impressively represented in a
three-metre high stone statue, and the rain and war god Tlaloc. Clearly, there was a
preoccupation with life-giving water in such an arid climate. Other deities often
represented in Teotihuacan art and architecture include the feathered-serpent god
known to the Aztecs as Quetzalcoatl, Xipe Totec, who represented agricultural
renewal (especially maize), and the creator god known as the Old Fire God. The
positioning of temples and pyramids in alignment with the sun on the June solstice
and the Pleiades suggests calendar dates were important in rituals, and the presence of
buried offerings and sacrificial victims illustrates the belief in the necessity to appease
various gods, especially those associated with climate and fertility.

Architectural Layout & Features

The city, covering over 20 square kilometres, has a precise grid layout oriented 15.5
degrees east of true north. The city is dominated by the wide Avenue of the Dead (or
Miccaotli as the Aztecs called it) which is 40 metres wide and 3.2 km long. The
avenue begins in agricultural fields and passes the Great Compound or market place,
Citadel, the Pyramid of the Sun, many other lesser temples and ceremonial precincts,
and, culminating at the Pyramid of the Moon, points towards the sacred mountain
Cerro Gordo. Archaeology has discovered that the original avenue was much longer
than is visible today and is dissected by another avenue which thus created a city of
four quarters. The site is dominated by the two great pyramids of the sun and moon
and the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, but most buildings were more modest and take the
form of small groups of buildings (over 2,000 of them) organised around a courtyard
and the whole surrounded by a wall. It was here in the compound that daily cooking
was done using clay braziers. Many compounds have one or two burial spaces
suggesting that each was a family or kin group, and some cover several thousand
square metres and so may be better described as palaces. Other compounds are more
modest and use less fine building materials so that they may have been workshops for
artisans. Many compounds also have large cisterns offering the possibility of
independent water supply. The city had ethnic zones: Zapotecs in the western area and
Maya in the eastern, for example. Typical features of the site's architecture include
single-storey structures, flat roofs with occasional open portions, and decorative
vertical rectangular panels set on a sloping support wall (talud-tablero) which were
inset into the sloping facades of all types of religious buildings and which were much
copied across Mesoamerica.

Avenue
of the Dead, Teotihuacan

Pyramids of the Sun & Moon

The five-level Pyramid of the Sun was actually built over a much earlier sacred
tunnel-cave and natural spring. The structure, constructed c. 100 CE, has six platforms
and measures 215 metres along the sides and towers 60 metres high, which made it
one of the biggest structures ever built in the ancient Americas. The present exterior,
which would have once had a facing of smooth lime plaster, covers a slightly smaller
earlier pyramid built over a massive mud-brick and rubble interior. The top once had
a small temple structure, reached by a flight of stone stairs climbing the entire
pyramid and which split and rejoined higher up. Inside the pyramid is a 100
metre-long tunnel which leads from beneath the outside staircase to a four-winged
chamber, unfortunately, looted in antiquity but probably once a burial chamber or
shrine.

The Pyramid of the Moon is very similar to, albeit slightly smaller than, it’s neighbour
the Pyramid of the Sun. The present exterior covers six progressively smaller
pyramids. Constructed c. 150 CE there is no inner chamber as in the Sun pyramid, but
the foundations did contain many dedicatory offerings such as obsidian and
greenstone felines and eagles and a single person. Offerings were also buried at each
subsequent construction stage. And three males were buried just beneath the summit;
the accompanying precious jade objects suggest they were important Maya nobles.
There are also the remains of sacrificed animals including pumas, rattlesnakes, and
birds of prey.

Temple
of the Moon, Teotihuacan

The Citadel & Temple of Quetzalcoatl

The Citadel (Ciudadela) royal residential complex is dominated by the Temple of

Quetzalcoatl, a celebration of warfare. The latter was constructed c. 200 CE and,
although once partially covered, is richly decorated with sculptures of
feathered-serpent and Tlaloc-like heads. These decorative elements were once
brightly painted in blue, red, yellow, and white. The pyramid has seven levels, and
over 200 non-local males and females were sacrificed to commemorate its completion.
Amongst these were two groups of 18 young warriors who, with hands tied behind
their backs, were sacrificed and buried in two large pits on the north and south sides
of the building. At each corner of the pyramid another victim was buried, and in the
heart of the structure another 20 sacrificial victims were buried along with a vast
horde of precious objects. The numbers are significant as each of the calendar months
had 20 days and there were 18 months in the Mesoamerican year. In addition, at the
heart of the temple are two burial chambers which were emptied, perhaps by the
residents of Teotihuacan c 400 CE, but one remaining feathered-serpent baton
suggests that the occupants were rulers. Also deserving of mention is the
Quetzalpapalotl Palace. This structure is one of the latest at Teotihuacan and forms an
enclosed columned courtyard. The building is richly decorated with relief images of
owls and quetzals, representative of warfare.

Teotihuacan Art

The art of Teotihuacan, as represented in sculpture, pottery, and murals, is highly

stylized and minimalist. Stone masks were made using jade, basalt, greenstone, and
andesite, often highly polished and with details, especially eyes, rendered using shell
or obsidian. These masks were also made in clay, and both types would once have
adorned statues and mummy bundles. A great many buildings at Teotihuacan were
decorated with murals, most of which portray religious events, especially processions,
but also scenes with details of landscape and architecture and especially watery scenes
such as fountains and rivers. Scenes also include gylphs suggesting the existence of a
writing system, even if much less varied and sophisticated than that used by the
contemporary Maya. Painted using the true fresco technique, the work was then given
a final polish. Bright colours were used and shades of red were especially popular and
used to most often depict gods, sacrifices, and warriors. In the more modest buildings,
repeated patterns were also painted using stencils to create an effect much like
modern wallpaper.

Typical Teotihuacan pottery vessels are the round dishes with three rectangular feet
and a lid, and bulbous vases sparingly decorated with geometric designs. Other
popular forms include intricate incense burners and dynamic figurines, both of which
have mould-made additions and stamped decorations which suggest a degree of
mass-production. The best Teotihuacan pottery was made with thin-walled orange
clay, decorated with stucco, and was much in demand across Mesoamerica.
 Greens
tone Mask, Teotihuacan

Sculpture was made in all sizes but never captures individual likenesses. Rather, the
focus is on generic forms and stylistic conventions, chiefly in the representation of
gods such as the huge Great Goddess statue, from basaltic lava and standing 3.2
metres high, discovered near the Pyramid of the Moon and dating to before 300 CE.
Imagery relating to the rain god Tlaloc was also popular in Teotihuacan sculpture
which was made without the use of metal tools.

The Legacy of Teotihuacan

Aspects of Teotihuacan's religion, monumental architecture, urban planning, and

various features of the city’s art would influence both contemporary and subsequent
civilizations across Mesoamerica, including the Zapotecs, Maya, Toltecs, and Aztecs.
Imagery such as the feathered-serpent god and the owl representative of warfare are
just two examples of Teotihuacan iconography that became ubiquitous across
Mesoamerica. Teotihuacan cast a long cultural shadow through history and, 1,000
years after its peak, the last great Pre-Columbian civilization, the Aztecs, revered the
city as the origin of civilization. They believed Teotihuacan was where the gods had
created the present era, including the fifth and present sun. The Aztec king
Montezuma, for example, made several pilgrimages to the site during his reign in
homage to the gods and the early rulers of Teotihuacan, who were "wise men,
knowers of occult things, possessors of the traditions" and whose tombs were the
site's great pyramids, built for them, according to legend, by giants in the distant but
not forgotten past.

Maya Civilization
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 06 July 2012

Listen to this article, narrated by Nitin Sil

The Maya are an indigenous people of Mexico and Central America who have
continuously inhabited the lands comprising modern-day Yucatan, Quintana Roo,
Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala,
Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. The designation Maya comes from the ancient
Yucatan city of Mayapan, the last capital of a Mayan Kingdom in the Post-Classic
Period. The Maya people refer to themselves by ethnicity and language bonds such as
Quiche in the south or Yucatec in the north (though there are many others). The
`Mysterious Maya’ have intrigued the world since their `discovery’ in the 1840's by
John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood but, in reality, much of the culture is
not that mysterious when understood. Contrary to popular imagination, the Maya did
not vanish and the descendants of the people who built the great cities of Chichen Itza,
Bonampak, Uxmal and Altun Ha still exist on the same lands their ancestors did and
continue to practice, sometimes in a modified form, the same rituals which would be
recognized by a native of the land one thousand years ago.

MAYA Origins

The history of Mesoamerica is usually divided into specific periods which, taken
together, reveal the development of culture in the region and, for the purposes of this
definition, the emergence and cultivation of the Maya Civilization.

The Archaic Period: 7000-2000 BCE – During this time a hunter-gatherer culture
began to cultivate crops such as maize, beans and other vegetables and the
domestication of animals (most notably dogs and turkeys) and plants became widely
practiced. The first villages of the region were established during this period which
included sacred spots and temples dedicated to various gods. The villages excavated
thus far are dated from 2000-1500 BCE.

The Olmec Period: 1500-200 BCE – This era is also known as the Pre-Classic or
Formative Period when the Olmecs, the oldest culture in Mesoamerica, thrived. The
Olmecs settled along the Gulf of Mexico and began building great cities of stone and
brick. The famous Olmec heads strongly suggest highly sophisticated skill in
sculpture and the first indications of Shamanic religious practices date from this
period. The enormous size and scope of Olmec ruins gave birth to the idea that the
land was once populated by giants. Though no one knows where the Olmecs came
from, nor what happened to them, they lay the foundation for all the future
civilizations in Mesoamerica.
The Zapotec Period: 600 BCE-800 CE – In the region surrounding modern-day
Oaxaca, the cultural center now known as Monte Alban was founded which became
the capital of the Zapotec kingdom. The Zapotecs were clearly influenced by (or,
perhaps, related to) the Olmecs and, through them, some of the most important
cultural elements of the region were disseminated such as writing, mathematics,
astronomy and the development of the calendar; all of which the Maya would refine.

The Teotihuacan Period: 200-900 CE – During this era the great city of Teotihuacan
grew from a small village to a metropolis of enormous size and influence. Early on,
Teotihuacan was a rival of another city called Cuicuilco but, when that community
was destroyed by a volcano c. 100 CE, Teotihuacan became dominant in the region.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan was an important religious center
which was devoted to the worship of a Great Mother Goddess and her consort the
Plumed Serpent. The Plumed Serpent god Kukulkan (also known as Gucamatz) was
the most popular deity among the Maya. Like many of the cities which now lie in ruin
throughout the southern Americas, Teotihuacan was abandoned sometime around 900
CE.

The El Tajin Period: 250-900 CE – This period is also known as the Classic
Period in Mesoamerican and Mayan history.

The El Tajin Period: 250-900 CE – This period is also known as the Classic Period in
Mesoamerican and Mayan history. The name `El Tajin’ refers to the great city
complex on the Gulf of Mexico which has been recognized as one of the most
important sites in Mesoamerica. During this time the great urban centers rose across
the land and the Maya numbered in the millions. The very important ball game which
came to be known as Poc-a-Toc was developed and more ball courts have been found
in and around the city of El Tajin than anywhere else in the region. Who, precisely,
the people were who inhabited El Tajin remains unknown as there were over fifty
different ethnic groups represented in the city and dominance has been ascribed to
both the Maya and the Totonac.
 Temple
of the Inscriptions, Palenque

The Classic Maya Period: 250-950 CE – This is the era which saw the consolidation
of power in the great cities of the Yucatec Maya such as Chichen Itza and Uxmal.
Direct cultural influences may be seen, in some sites, from the Olmecs and the
Zapotecs and the cultural values of Teotihuacan and El Tajin but, in others, a wholly
new culture seems to have emerged (such as at Chichen Itza where, though there is
ample evidence of cultural borrowing, there is a significantly different style to the art
and architecture). This period was the height of the Maya civilization in which they
perfected mathematics, astronomy, architecture and the visual arts and also refined
and perfected the calendar. The oldest date recorded in this era is on Stele 29 in the
city of Tikal (292 CE) and the latest is from an inscription on the Stele at the site of
Tonina (909 CE). The city-states of the Mayan civilization stretched from Piste in the
north all the way down to modern-day Honduras.

The Post-Classic Period: 950-1524 CE – At this time the great cities of the Maya were
abandoned. Thus far, no explanation for the mass exodus from the cities to outlying
rural areas has been determined but climate change and over population have been
strongly suggested among other possibilities. The Toltecs, a new tribe in the region,
took over the vacant urban centers and re-populated them. At this time, Tula and
Chichen-Itza became dominant cities in the region. The widely popular conception
that the Maya were driven from their cities by the Spanish Conquest is erroneous as
the cities were already vacant by the time of the Spanish invasion (in fact, the Spanish
conquerors had no idea the natives they found in the region were responsible for the
enormous complexes of the cities). The Quiche Maya were defeated at the Battle of
Utatlan in 1524 CE and this date traditionally marks the end of the Maya Civilization.

MAYA Culture

The height of the Maya Civilization in the Classic Period produced the incredible
cultural advances for which they are well known. The Maya believed deeply in the
cyclical nature of life – nothing was ever `born’ and nothing ever `died’ – and this
belief inspired their view of the gods and the cosmos. Their cosmological views, in
turn, encouraged their imaginative efforts in architecture, mathematics, and astronomy.
Beneath the earth was the dark realm of Xibalba (pronounced `shee-Bal-ba’ and
translated as `place of fear’) from whence grew the great Tree of Life which came up
through the earth and towered into the heavens, through thirteen levels, to reach the
paradise of Tamoanchan (`place of the misty sky’) where beautiful flowers bloomed.
In Mayan belief, however, one did not die and go to a `heaven’ or a `hell’ but, rather,
embarked on a journey toward Tamoanchan. This journey began in the dark and
treacherous underworld of Xibalba where the Xibalbans who lived there were more
apt to trick and destroy a soul than help one.

If one could navigate through Xibalba, however, one could then find the way to
ascend through the nine levels of the underworld, and the thirteen levels of the higher
world, to paradise. The only ways in which a soul could by-pass Xibalba and travel
instantly to Tamoanchan were through death in childbirth, as a sacrificial victim, in
warfare, on the ball court, or by suicide (the Maya had a special goddess of suicide
named Ixtab who was depicted as the rotting corpse of a woman hanging by a noose
in the heavens). Once one reached Tamoanchan there was eternal happiness but, it
must be noted, this paradise was not thought to actually exist in the sky but on the
earth. After ascending through the thirteen levels, one did not live in the air but, rather,
on a mystical mountain back on the planet. It was because of this cyclical view that
the Maya did not believe there was anything wrong with human sacrifice. Those
people who were offered to the gods did not `die' but simply moved on. This
cosmological belief influenced every aspect of the Mayan civilization and rituals were
performed regularly in caves, evoking the darkness of Xibalba, and on hills or high
temples which symbolized the heights of Tamoanchan.

Tikal
Main Plaza

The great pyramids which characterize so many Mayan sites are replicas of the great
mountain of the gods known as the Witzob. The cyclical nature of human existence is
mirrored in the famous Maya calendar. The depictions of the many gods and
goddesses all go toward their function in helping one through the cycles of life or
hindering. The great religious book of the Quiche Maya, the Popol-Vuh, tells
precisely this story of the cyclical nature of life through the tale of the Hero Twins
Hunahpu and Xbalanque and their victory over the forces of chaos and darkness
symbolized by the Lords of Xibalba. The game the twins are famous for playing,
Poc-a-Toc, serves the same purpose.

Poc-a-Toc was the most popular game among the Maya and was far more than `just a
game’ as it symbolized the human struggle and reflected the way the Maya viewed
existence. Two opposing teams of seven men each would face each other on a ball
court and try to score a small rubber ball through a vertical hoop affixed to a wall
(sometimes as high as twenty feet in the air, sometimes higher) while defending their
own goal. What makes the game even more impressive is that a player could not use
the hands or the feet, only the hips, shoulders, head and knees. The Spanish bishop
Diego de Landa wrote that watching the Maya play Poc-a-Toc was like watching
lightning strikes, they moved so quickly. It has long been believed that the losing
team (or the captain of the losing team) would be killed at the end of the match but
recent advances in deciphering the Mayan glyphs, together with archaeological
evidence, suggests it may have been the winning team or the winning captain who
was given the honor of a quick death and instant passage to paradise. The game is
thought to have been symbolic, not only of the victory of the hero twins over darkness,
but of the cyclical nature of life. The Mayanists Schele and Matthews claim, "Many
modern myths have grown up about the ballgame. The most popular says that the
Maya sacrificed the winners so as to give a perfect gift to the gods. There is no
evidence for this interpretation in any of the ancient or historical sources" (210). This
is not quite correct, however, as glyphs at many ball courts, Chichen Itza to name only
one, could be interpreted as showing the winning team or captain being sacrificed and
modern Mayan daykeepers at both Altun Ha in Belize and Chichen Itza in the
Yucatan point to the hope of escape from the darkness of Xibalba as the reason for the
winners being executed. Whichever team was chosen to die, and under what
circumstances (since teams could not have been continually sacrificed as there is
evidence of `star' teams) the ball game was deeply meaningful to the Maya as more
than just a spectator sport. More information on the particulars of the game, and the
life of the ancient Maya in general, comes to light as more heiroglyphics are
discovered and interpreted.

Maya Tikal Glyph

MAYAN Hieroglyphics
The modern day difficulty in deciphering the Mayan hieroglyphics stems from the
actions of the same man who, inadvertently, preserved so much of what we know of
the Maya Civilization: Bishop Diego de Landa. Appointed to the Yucatan following
the Spanish conquest of the north, Landa arrived in 1549 CE and instantly set
himself to the task of routing out heathenism from among the Mayan converts to
Christianity. The concept of a god who dies and comes back to life was very familiar
to the Maya from their own deity The Maize God and they seem to have accepted the
story of Jesus Christ and his resurrection easily. Even so, Landa believed that there
was a subversive faction growing among the Maya which was seducing them `back to
idolatry’ and, having failed to crush this perceived rebellion through the avenues of
prayer and admonition, chose another more direct method.

On 12 July 1562 CE, at the church at Mani, Landa burned over forty Mayan Codices
(books) and over 20,000 images and stele. In his own words, “We found many books
with these letters, and because they contained nothing that was free from superstition
and the devil’s trickery, we burnt them, which the Indians greatly lamented.” Landa
went further, however, and resorted to torture to extricate the secrets of the
subversives among the natives and bring them back to what he saw as the true path of
the church. His methods were condemned by the other priests and he was called back
to Spain to explain his actions. Part of his defense was his 1566 CE work Relacion de
las Cosas de Yucatan which has preserved much of the culture Landa tried to destroy
and has proved to be a valuable asset in understanding ancient Maya culture, religion,
and language.

Only three books of the Maya escaped the conflagration at Mani: The Madrid Codex,
The Dresden Codex, and The Paris Codex (so named for the cities where they were
found many years after they were brought back from the Yucatan) which have
provided scholars with a great deal of information on the beliefs of the Maya and,
especially, on their calendar. The codices were created by scribes who made careful
observations in astronomy (the Dresden Codex alone devotes six pages to accurately
calculating the rising and positions of Venus) and their interpretations of the planets
and the seasons exhibit a precision unmatched by other ancient civilizations. So
important were their stories and books to the Maya that the Legend of Zamna and the
Hennequen Plant describes the great goddess telling the prophet Zamna:

I want you to choose a group of families from my kingdom, and

three of the wisest Chilames, to carry the writings which tell
the story of our people, and write what will happen in the
future. You will reach a place that I will indicate to you
and you will found a city. Under its main temple you will guard
the writings and the future writings.

The city of Izamal was founded, according to this legend, by Zamna (associated with
the deity Itzamna) of the Itzas who placed the sacred writings under the central
temple. Izamal became known as the most important pilgrimage site in the Classical
Period besides Chichen Itza. Shamans (known as Daykeepers) would interpret the
particular energy of the day or month for the people by consulting with the gods
presiding over the various months of the Maya calendar.
 The
Caracol, Chichen Itza

MAYA Calendar

There are two calendars at work simultaneously in the Maya system: the Haab, or
civil calendar of 365 days in an 18 month period of 20 days each, and the Tzolkin, or
sacred calendar, of 260 days divided into three groups of months of 20 days. The
Haab and the Tzolkin work together, like gears interlocking in a machine, to create
what is known as the Calendar Round but cannot account for dates farther in the
future than 52 days. For longer calculations, the Maya devised what is known as the
Long Count Calendar and is this which has attracted so much international attention
in recent years regarding the end of the world on 21 December 2012 CE. As the long
count calendar begins 11 August 3114 BCE, it goes into its next cycle (known as a
Baktun) on 21 December 2012 CE.

There is nothing in the extant writings of the Maya to suggest any kind of cataclysm
accompanies this transition. On 10 May 2012 CE it was reported that Boston
University archaeologist William Saturno and Boston University student Maxwell
Chamberlain, excavating at the Maya site of Xultun in Guatemala, discovered a 6x6
foot room dating to 800 CE which seems conclusively to have been a calendar
workshop for Mayan scribes. The paintings and inscriptions on the walls of the room
show the Maya calendar extending well beyond the year 2012 CE and that future
Baktuns were understood to already be underway in the great cyclic dance of time.
According to David Stuart, an expert on Maya hieroglyphs at the University of Texas
at Austin, "Baktun 14 was going to be coming, and Baktun 15 and Baktun 16. ... The
Maya calendar is going to keep going, and keep going for billions, trillions, octillions
of years into the future."

The months of the years of the Mayan calendars were governed over each by a
specific god and, as these gods were eternal, they assured the continuance of the
energy of their particular month. As all of life was considered one eternal cycle, the
western concept of an `end of the world’, so popular in Christian ideology, would
have been a completely foreign concept to a Maya scribe.

MAYA Today

In the modern age the Maya still farm the same lands and travel the same rivers as
their ancestors did from the north in the Yucatan down to Honduras. The claim that
the Maya somehow vanished, simply because their cities were found abandoned, is
not only inaccurate but insulting to the over six million Maya who carry on the
traditions of their ancestors. Though the region was Christianized in the 16th century
CE conquest and inquisition, the old ways are still observed in a hybrid between
European Catholicism and Mayan mysticism. The Daykeeper of a village still
interprets the energy of a day and rituals are still performed in caves and on hills. On
the island of Cozumel shrines to the Virgin Mary and the goddess Ixchel are
interchangeable and, often, one and the same. A great deal has been learned about the
Maya since the days when Stephens and Catherwood explored and documented the
ancient ruins but, for the Maya living today, nothing of importance has ever been
forgotten and the cycle of life continues on.

Ancient Greece
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 13 November 2013
Greece is a country in southeastern Europe, known in Greek as Hellas or Ellada, and
consisting of a mainland and an archipelago of islands. Ancient Greece is the
birthplace of Western philosophy (Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle), literature (Homer
and Hesiod), mathematics (Pythagoras and Euclid), history (Herodotus), drama
(Sophocles, Euripedes, and Aristophanes), the Olympic Games, and democracy. The
concept of an atomic universe was first posited in Greece through the work of
Democritus and Leucippus. The process of today's scientific method was first
introduced through the work of Thales of Miletus and those who followed him. The
Latin alphabet also comes from ancient Greece, having been introduced to the region
by the Phoenicians in the 8th century BCE, and early work in physics and engineering
was pioneered by Archimedes, of the Greek colony of Syracuse, among others.

Mainland Greece is a large peninsula surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean

Sea (branching into the Ionian Sea in the west and the Aegean Sea in the east) which
also comprises the islands known as the Cyclades and the Dodecanese (including
Rhodes), the Ionian islands (including Corcyra), the isle of Crete, and the southern
peninsula known as the Peloponnese.

The geography of Greece greatly influenced the culture in that, with few natural
resources and surrounded by water, the people eventually took to the sea for their
livelihood. Mountains cover eighty percent of Greece and only small rivers run
through a rocky landscape which, for the most part, provides little encouragement for
agriculture. Consequently, the early ancient Greeks colonized neighboring islands and
founded settlements along the coast of Anatolia (also known as Asia Minor, modern
day Turkey). The Greeks became skilled seafaring people and traders who, possessing
an abundance of raw materials for construction in stone, and great skill, built some of
the most impressive structures in antiquity.

Greece reached the heights in almost every area of human learning.

Etymology of Hellas

The designation Hellas derives from Hellen, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha who
feature prominently in Ovid's tale of the Great Flood in his Metamorphoses. The
mythical Deucalion (son of the fire-bringing titan Prometheus) was the savior of the
human race from the Great Flood, in the same way Noah is presented in the biblical
version or Utnapishtim in the Mesopotamian one. Deucalion and Pyrrha repopulate
the land once the flood waters have receded by casting stones which become people,
the first being Hellen. Contrary to popular opinion, Hellas and Ellada have nothing to
do with Helen of Troy from Homer's Iliad. Ovid, however, did not coin the
designation. Thucydides writes, in Book I of his Histories:

I am inclined to think that the very name was not as yet given
to the whole country, and in fact did not exist at all before
the time of Hellen, the son of Deucalion; the different tribes,
of which the Pelasgian was the most widely spread, gave their
own names to different districts. But when Hellen and his sons
became powerful in Phthiotis, their aid was invoked by other
cities, and those who associated with them gradually began
 to be called Hellenes, though a long time elapsed before the
name was prevalent over the whole country. Of this, Homer
affords the best evidence; for he, although he lived long
after the Trojan War, nowhere uses this name collectively,
but confines it to the followers of Achilles from Phthiotis,
who were the original Hellenes; when speaking of the entire
host, he calls them Danäans, or Argives, or Achaeans.

Minoa
n Bull Leaping

Early History of ancient Greece

Ancient Greek history is most easily understood by dividing it into time periods. The
region was already settled, and agriculture initiated, during the Paleolithic era as
evidenced by finds at Petralona and Franchthi caves (two of the oldest human
habitations in the world). The Neolithic Age (c. 6000 - c. 2900 BCE) is characterized
by permanent settlements (primarily in northern Greece), domestication of animals,
and the further development of agriculture. Archaeological finds in northern Greece
(Thessaly, Macedonia, and Sesklo, among others) suggest a migration from Anatolia
in that the ceramic cups and bowls and figures found there share qualities distinctive
to Neolithic finds in Anatolia. These inland settlers were primarily farmers, as
northern Greece was more conducive to agriculture than elsewhere in the region, and
lived in one-room stone houses with a roof of timber and clay daubing.

The Cycladic Civilization (c. 3200-1100 BCE) flourished in the islands of the Aegean
Sea (including Delos, Naxos and Paros) and provides the earliest evidence of
continual human habitation in that region. During the Cycladic Period, houses and
temples were built of finished stone and the people made their living through fishing
and trade. This period is usually divided into three phases: Early Cycladic, Middle
Cycladic, and Late Cycladic with a steady development in art and architecture. The
latter two phases overlap and finally merge with the Minoan Civilization, and
differences between the periods become indistinguishable.

The Minoan Civilization (2700-1500 BCE) developed on the island of Crete, and
rapidly became the dominant sea power in the region. The term `Minoan' was coined
by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, who uncovered the Minoan palace of Knossos
in 1900 CE and named the culture for the ancient Cretan king Minos. The name by
which the people knew themselves is not known. The Minoan Civilization was
thriving, as the Cycladic Civilization seems to have been, long before the accepted
modern dates which mark its existence and probably earlier than 6000 BCE.

The Minoans developed a writing system known as Linear A (which has not yet been
deciphered) and made advances in ship building, construction, ceramics, the arts and
sciences, and warfare. King Minos was credited by ancient historians (Thucydides
among them) as being the first person to establish a navy with which he colonized, or
conquered, the Cyclades. Archaeological and geological evidence on Crete suggests
this civilization fell due to an overuse of the land causing deforestation though,
traditionally, it is accepted that they were conquered by the Mycenaeans. The eruption
of the volcano on the nearby island of Thera (modern day Santorini) between 1650
and 1550 BCE, and the resulting tsunami, is acknowledged as the final cause for the
fall of the Minoans. The isle of Crete was deluged and the cities and villages
destroyed. This event has been frequently cited as Plato's inspiration in creating his
myth of Atlantis in his dialogues of the Critias and Timaeus.

Death
Mask of Agamemnon

The Mycenaeans & Their Gods

The Mycenaean Civilization (approximately 1900-1100 BCE) is commonly

acknowledged as the beginning of Greek culture, even though we know almost
nothing about the Mycenaeans save what can be determined through archaeological
finds and through Homer’s account of their war with Troy as recorded in The Iliad.
They are credited with establishing the culture owing primarily to their architectural
advances, their development of a writing system (known as Linear B, an early form of
Greek descended from the Minoan Linear A), and the establishment, or enhancement
of, religious rites. The Mycenaeans appear to have been greatly influenced by the
Minoans of Crete in their worship of earth goddesses and sky gods, which, in time,
become the classical pantheon of ancient Greece.

The gods and goddesses provided the Greeks with a solid paradigm of the creation of
the universe, the world, and human beings. An early myth relates how, in the
beginning, there was nothing but chaos in the form of unending waters. From this
chaos came the goddess Eurynome who separated the water from the air and began
her dance of creation with the serpent Ophion. From their dance, all of creation sprang
and Eurynome was, originally, the Great Mother Goddess and Creator of All Things.

By the time Hesiod and Homer were writing (8th century BCE), this story had
changed into the more familiar myth concerning the titans, Zeus' war against them,
and the birth of the Olympian Gods with Zeus as their chief. This shift indicates a
movement from a matriarchal religion to a patriarchal paradigm. Whichever model
was followed, however, the gods clearly interacted regularly with the humans who
worshipped them and were a large part of daily life in ancient Greece. Prior to the
coming of the Romans, the only road in mainland Greece that was not a cow path was
the Sacred Way which ran between the city of Athens and the holy city of Eleusis,
birthplace of the Eleusinian Mysteries celebrating the goddess Demeter and her
daughter Persephone.

By 1100 BCE the great Mycenaean cities of southwest Greece were abandoned and,
some claim, their civilization destroyed by an invasion of Doric Greeks.
Archaeological evidence is inconclusive as to what led to the fall of the Mycenaeans.
As no written records of this period survive (or have yet to be unearthed) one may
only speculate on causes. The tablets of Linear B script found thus far contain only
lists of goods bartered in trade or kept in stock. No history of the time has yet
emerged. It seems clear, however, that after what is known as the Greek Dark Ages
(approximately 1100-800 BCE, so named because of the absence of written
documentation) the Greeks further colonized much of Asia Minor, and the islands
surrounding mainland Greece and began to make significant cultural advances.
Beginning in c. 585 BCE the first Greek philosopher, Thales, was engaged in what,
today, would be recognised as scientific inquiry in the settlement of Miletus on the
Asia Minor coast and this region of Ionian colonies would make significant
breakthroughs in the fields of philosophy and mathematics.
 The
Parthenon

From the Archaic to the Classical Periods

The Archaic Period (800-500 BCE) is characterized by the introduction of Republics

instead of Monarchies (which, in Athens, moved toward Democratic rule) organised
as a single city-state or polis, the institution of laws (Draco’s reforms in Athens), the
great Panathenaeic Festival was established, distinctive Greek pottery and Greek
sculpture were born, and the first coins minted on the island kingdom of Aegina. This,
then, set the stage for the flourishing of the Classical Period of ancient Greece given
as 500-400 BCE or, more precisely, as 480-323 BCE, from the Greek victory at
Salamis to the death of Alexander the Great. This was the Golden Age of Athens,
when Pericles initiated the building of the Acropolis and spoke his famous eulogy for
the men who died defending Greece at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Greece
reached the heights in almost every area of human learning during this time and the
great thinkers and artists of antiquity (Phidias, Plato, Aristophanes, to mention only
three) flourished. Leonidas and his 300 Spartans fell at Thermopylae and, the same
year (480 BCE), Themistocles won victory over the superior Persian naval fleet at
Salamis leading to the final defeat of the Persians at Plataea in 479 BCE.

Democracy (literally Demos = people and Kratos = power, so power of the people)
was established in Athens allowing all male citizens over the age of twenty a voice in
government. The Pre-Socratic philosophers, following Thales' lead, initiated what
would become the scientific method in exploring natural phenomena. Men like
Anixamander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Democritus, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus
abandoned the theistic model of the universe and strove to uncover the underlying,
first cause of life and the universe.

Their successors, among whom were Euclid and Archimedes, continued philosophical
inquiry and further established mathematics as a serious discipline. The example of
Socrates, and the writings of Plato and Aristotle after him, have influenced western
culture and society for over two thousand years. This period also saw advances in
architecture and art with a movement away from the ideal to the realistic. Famous
works of Greek sculpture such as the Parthenon Marbles and Discobolos (the discus
thrower) date from this time and epitomize the artist's interest in depicting human
emotion, beauty, and accomplishment realistically, even if those qualities are
presented in works featuring immortals.
All of these developments in culture were made possible by the ascent of Athens
following her victory over the Persians in 480 BCE. The peace and prosperity which
followed the Persian defeat provided the finances and stability for culture to flourish.
Athens became the superpower of her day and, with the most powerful navy, was able
to demand tribute from other city states and enforce her wishes. Athens formed the
Delian League, a defensive alliance whose stated purpose was to deter the Persians
from further hostilities.

The city-state of Sparta, however, doubted Athenian sincerity and formed their own
association for protection against their enemies, the Peloponnesian League (so named
for the Peloponnesus region where Sparta and the others were located). The city-states
which sided with Sparta increasingly perceived Athens as a bully and a tyrant, while
those cities which sided with Athens viewed Sparta and her allies with growing
distrust. The tension between these two parties eventually erupted in what has become
known as the Peloponnesian Wars. The first conflict (c. 460-445 BCE) ended in a
truce and continued prosperity for both parties while the second (431-404 BCE) left
Athens in ruins and Sparta, the victor, bankrupt after her protracted war with Thebes.

This time is generally referred to as the Late Classical Period (c. 400-330 BCE). The
power vacuum left by the fall of these two cities was filled by Philip II of Macedon
(382-336 BCE) after his victory over the Athenian forces and their allies at the Battle
of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. Philip united the Greek city states under Macedonian rule
and, upon his assassination in 336 BCE, his son Alexander assumed the throne.
 Alexander the
Great [Profile View]

Alexander the Great & the Coming of Rome

Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) carried on his father's plans for a full scale
invasion of Persia in retaliation for their invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. As he had
almost the whole of Greece under his command, a standing army of considerable size
and strength, and a full treasury, Alexander did not need to bother with allies nor with
consulting anyone regarding his plan for invasion and so led his army into Egypt,
across Asia Minor, through Persia, and finally to India. Tutored in his youth by
Plato’s great student Aristotle, Alexander would spread the ideals of Greek
civilization through his conquests and, in so doing, transmitted Greek philosophy,
culture, language, and art to every region he came in contact with.

In 323 BCE Alexander died and his vast empire was divided between four of his
generals. This initiated what has come to be known to historians as the Hellenistic
Age (323-31 BCE) during which Greek thought and culture became dominant in the
various regions under these generals' influence. After a series of struggles between the
Diodachi (`the successors' as Alexander's generals came to be known) General
Antigonus established the Antigonid Dynasty in Greece which he then lost. It was
regained by his grandson, Antigonus II Gonatus, by 276 BCE who ruled the country
from his palace at Macedon.

The Roman Republic became increasingly involved in the affairs of Greece during
this time and, in 168 BCE, defeated Macedon at the Battle of Pydna. After this date,
Greece steadily came under the influence of Rome. In 146 BCE the region was
designated a Protectorate of Rome and Romans began to emulate Greek fashion,
philosophy and, to a certain extent, sensibilities. In 31 BCE Octavian Caesar annexed
the country as a province of Rome following his victory over Mark Antony and
Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Octavian became Augustus Caesar and Greece a
part of the Roman Empire.

Hellenistic Period
Definition

by Antoine Simonin
published on 28 April 2011

The Hellenistic Period is a part of the Ancient Period for the European and Near
Asian space. The use of this period is justified by the extent of the Hellenic culture in
most of these areas, due to the Greek political presence especially in Asia after
Alexander's conquests, but also to a new wave of Greek colonization. In consequence,
the Hellenistic Period is usually accepted to begin in 323 BC with Alexander's death
and ends in 31 BC with the conquest of the last Hellenistic kingdom by Rome, the
Lagid kingdom of Egypt. For the Asian part, we could lengthen it to 10 BC, when the
last Indo-Greek kingdom was conquered by Indo-Sakas.

Politically, the Hellenistic Period is characterized by a division and a split from

Alexander's former empire, with endless wars between the Diadochi and their
successors. Thus the Hellenistic kingdoms weakened themselves and thus gradually
created space for competing kingdoms, such as Pontus or Bactria. At the same time,
Roman power was in exponential expansion, annihilating other political presence in
Italy, and then the Carthaginian dominance of the Mediterranean in the three Punic
Wars. At the end of the Hellenistic Period the young Roman empire had almost
reached its maximum expansion, from Lusitania (modern Portugal) to Syria and from
South-Britain to Egypt.

the Hellenistic Period is characterized by a split Of Alexander's former

empire, with endless wars between the Diadochi and their successors.

Other general political evolution can be seen too: The Celts were shaken once more
by a big wave of migration (from which arose among others the famous Galatians in
Anatolia). The growing pressure of the Celts' neighbours, though, especially from
Germanic Tribes and the Romans, reduced their dominion drastically at the end of the
period. In the endless northern steppes of Asia, nomad pressures continued in a
similar way as before, Sarmatians pressuring Scythes and Yuezhei pressuring Sakas,
who increased so their attacks against the Bactrian and then Indo-Greek kingdoms.

In general, some things characterized this period in opposition of the previous one:
The model of the city-state which dominated before was replaced by the different
kinds of kingdoms, with more centralized power. Moreso, it is the basic idea of
administration which changed: It was no longer a matter of managing the civic affairs
in the name of the community, but by delegation in the name of one personal
authority. At the same time, mercenaries were more frequently used in Hellenistic
armies, in order to face the military and technical evolution which greatly increased
the cost for equip a civic army. The best example is the fame and the use of the
Galatians by the Hellenistic kingdoms.

Perseu
s, Macedonian Silver Tetradrachm
Culturally, this period is not an intermediary era between the prosperous
Classic and Imperial ones, as it was described in the past. Aristotle the
father of modern sciences, Menander the great comedies' author, Epicure
the moralist, Eratosthenes, but also Euclid, Archimedes, and Polybius
lived and worked during the Hellenistic Period. This period showed
progress in architecture, a lot of great euergetism (altruistic
donattions to the community), a multiplication of feast days and
celebrations (shown by the great number of created theatres), the
development of art and the creation of libraries, with the most famous
being in Alexandria.