Education in India

Education in India is provided by public

schools (controlled and funded by three
levels: central, state and local) and private
schools. Under various articles of the
Indian Constitution, free and compulsory
education is provided as a fundamental
right to children between the ages of 6 and
14. The approximate ratio of public
schools to private schools in India is 7:5.
 Education in the Republic of India
Minister of Human Prakash Javadekar
Resource Development

Budget ₹99,100 crore

(US$14 billion)

Primary languages Indian languages,

English

System type Federal, State or Private

Established 1 April 2010

Compulsory Education

Total 74% [1]

Male 82.2%

Female 69.5%

Total (N/A)

Primary 95%

Secondary 69%
Post secondary 25%

India has made progress in increasing

the attainment rate of primary education.
In 2011, Approximately 75% of the
population, aged between 7 to 10 years,
[5]
was literate. India's improved education
system is often cited as one of the main
contributors to its economic development.
[6]
Much of the progress, especially in
higher education and scientific research,
has been credited to various public
institutions. While enrollment in higher
education has increased steadily over the
past decade,
reaching a Gross Enrollment Ratio of
[7]
24% in 2013, there still remains a
significant distance to catch up with
tertiary education enrollment levels of
[8]
developed nations, a challenge that
will be necessary to overcome in order to
continue to reap a demographic dividend
from India's comparatively young
population.

At the primary and secondary level, India

has a large private school system
complementing the government run
schools, with 29% of students receiving
private education in the 6 to 14 age group.
[9]
Certain post-secondary technical
schools are also private. The private
education market in India had a revenue
of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected
[10]
to be a US$40 billion market.

As per the Annual Status of Education

Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural
children between the ages of 6-14 were
enrolled in school. This is the fourth
annual survey to report enrollment above
96%. Another report from 2013 stated that
there were 229 million students enrolled in
different accredited urban and rural
schools of India, from Class I to XII,
representing an increase of 23 lakh
students over 2002 total enrollment, and a
 [11]
19% increase in girl's enrollment. While
quantitatively India is inching closer to
universal education, the quality of its
education has been questioned
particularly in its government run school
system.While more than 95 percent of
children attend primary school, just 40
percent of Indian adolescents attend
secondary school (Grades 9-12). Since
2000, the World Bank has committed over
$2 billion to education in India. Some of
the reasons for the poor quality include
absence of around 25% of teachers every
[12]
day. States of India have introduced
tests and education assessment system
[13]
to identify and improve such schools.
Although there are private schools in
India, they are highly regulated in terms of
what they can teach, in what form they
can operate (must be a non-profit to run
any accredited educational institution) and
all other aspects of operation. Hence, the
differentiation of government schools and
[14]
private schools can be misleading.

In January 2019, India had over 900

[15]
universities and 40,000 colleges. In
India's higher education system, a
significant number of seats are reserved
under affirmative action policies for the
historically disadvantaged Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other
Backward Classes. In universities,
colleges, and similar institutions affiliated
to the federal government, there is a
maximum 50% of reservations applicable
to these disadvantaged groups, at the
state level it can vary. Maharashtra had
73% reservation in 2014, which is the
highest percentage of reservations in

India.[16][17][18][19]

School education

University of Calcutta, established on 1857, was the

first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style
institution in Asia.

The central board and most of the state

boards uniformly follow the "10+2+3"
[20]:3
pattern of education. In this pattern,
study of 10 years is done in schools and 2
[20]:44
years in Junior colleges, and then 3
[21]
years of study for a bachelor's degree.
The first 10 years is further subdivided into
4 years of primary education, 6 years of
High School followed by 2 years of Junior
[20]:5
colleges. This pattern originated from
the recommendation of the Education
[22]
Commission of 1964–66.

Administration
Policy

Education Policy is prepared by the Centre

Government and State Governments at
national and state levels respectively. The
National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986,
has provided for environment awareness,
science and technology education, and
introduction of traditional elements such as
Yoga into the Indian secondary school
[23]
system. A significant feature of India's
secondary school system is the emphasis
on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections
of the society. Professionals from
established institutes are often called to
support in vocational training. Another
feature of India's secondary school system
is its emphasis on profession based
vocational training to help students attain
skills for finding a vocation of his/her
[24]
choosing. A significant new feature has
been the extension of SSA to secondary
education in the form of the Rashtriya
[25]
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan.

Curriculum and School

Education Boards

School boards set the curriculum, conduct

board level exams mostly at 10th and 12th
level to award the school diplomas.
Exams at the remaining levels (also called
standard, grade or class, denoting the
years of schooling) are conducted by
the schools.

National Council of Educational

Research and Training (NCERT): The
NCERT is the apex body located at
New Delhi, Capital City of India. It
makes the curriculum related matters
[26]
for school education across India.
The NCERT provides support,
guidance and technical assistance to a
number of schools in India and
oversees many aspects of
[27]
enforcement of education policies.
There are other curriculum bodies
governing school education system
specially at state level.
State Government Boards of Education:
Most of the state governments have at
least one "State board of secondary
school education". However, some
states like Andhra Pradesh have more
than one. Also the union territories do
not have a board. Chandigarh, Dadra
and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, and
Lakshadweep and Puducherry
Lakshadweep share the services with a
larger state. The boards set curriculum
from Grades 1 to 12 and the curriculum
varies from state to state and has more
local appeal with examinations
conducted in regional languages in
addition to English - often considered
less rigorous than central curriculums
such as CBSE or ICSE/ISC. Most of
these conduct exams at 10th and 12th
level, but some even at the 5th, 6th
and 8th level.
Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE): The CBSE sets curriculum
from Grades 1 to 12 and conducts
examinations at the 10th and 12th
standards that are called board exams.
Students studying the CBSE
Curriculum take the All India Secondary
School Examination (AISSE) at the end
of grade 10 and All India Senior School
Certificate Examination (AISSCE) at the
end of grade 12. Examinations
are offered in Hindi and English.
Council for the Indian School Certificate
Examinations (CISCE): CISCE sets
curriculum from Grades 1 to 12 and
conducts three examinations, namely,
the Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE - Class/Grade 10);
The Indian School Certificate (ISC -
Class/Grade 12) and the Certificate in
Vocational Education (CVE -
Class/Grade 12). CISCE English level
has been compared to UK's A-Levels;
this board offers more choices of
subjects. CBSE exams at grade 10 and
12 have often been compared with
CICSE and ISC examinations. CICSE
is generally considered to be more
rigorous than the CBSE AISSE (grade
10) but the CBSE AISSCE and ISC
examinations are almost on par with
each other in most subjects with ISC
including a slightly more rigorous
English examination than the CBSE
12th grade examination. The CBSE and
ISC are recognized internationally and
most universities abroad accept the
final results of CBSE and ISC exams for
admissions purposes and as proof of
completion of secondary school.
National Institute of Open Schooling
(NIOS): The NIOS conducts two
examinations, namely, Secondary
Examination and Senior Secondary
Examination (All India) and also some
courses in Vocational Education.
National Board of education is run by
Government of India's HRD Ministry to
provide education in rural areas and
challenged groups in open and distance
education mode. A pilot project started
by CBSE to provide high class affordable
education, provides education up to 12th
standard. Choice of subjects is highly
customisable and equivalent to CBSE.
Home-schooled students usually take
NIOS or international curriculum
examinations as they are ineligible to
write CBSE or ISC exams.
Islamic Madrasah: Their boards are
controlled by local state governments, or
autonomous, or affiliated with Darul
Uloom Deoband or Darul Uloom
Nadwtul Ulama .
Autonomous schools: Such as
Woodstock School, Sri Aurobindo
International Centre of Education
Puducherry, Patha Bhavan and
Ananda Marga Gurukula.
International Baccalaureate (IB) and
Cambridge International Examinations
(CIB): These are generally private
schools that have dual affiliation with
one of the school education board of
India as well as affiliated to the
International Baccalaureate (IB)
Programme and/or the Cambridge
International Examinations (CIB).
International schools, which offer
10th and 12th standard examinations
under the International Baccalaureate,
Cambridge Senior Secondary
Examination systems or under their
home nations school boards (such as
run by foreign embassies or the expat
communities).
 Special education: A special Integrated
Education for Disabled Children
(IEDC) programme was started in
1974 with a focus on primary
[26]
education. but which was
converted into Inclusive Education at
[28]
Secondary Stage
Midday Meal Nutrition Scheme

The Midday Meal Scheme is a school meal

programme of the Government of India
designed to improve the nutritional status
[29]
of school-age children nationwide, by
supplying free lunches on working days for
children in primary and upper primary
classes in government, government aided,
local body, Education Guarantee Scheme,
and alternative innovative education
centres, Madarsa and Maqtabs supported
under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and
National Child Labour Project schools run
[30]
by the ministry of labour. Serving
120,000,000 children in over 1,265,000
schools and Education Guarantee
Scheme centres, it is the largest such
[31]
programme in the world.

Teachers education

In addition, NUEPA (National University

of Educational Planning and
[32]
Administration) and NCTE (National
Council for Teacher Education) are
responsible for the management of the
education system and teacher
[33]
accreditation.

Levels of schooling

Pre-Primary education

Indian Pre-Primary School children (Divine

Orchids International Preschool, Jawhar)
The pre-primary stage is the foundation of
children's knowledge, skills and behaviour.
On completion of pre-primary education,
the children are sent to the primary stage
but pre-primary education in India is not a
fundamental right. In rural India, pre-
primary schools are rarely available in
small villages. But in cities and big towns,
there are many established players in the
pre-primary education sector. The demand
for the preschools is growing considerably
in the smaller towns and cities but still only
1% of the population under age 6 is
enrolled in preschool education.
Play group (pre-nursery): At play
schools, children are exposed to a lot of
basic learning activities that help them
to get independent faster and develop
their self-help qualities like eating food
themselves, dressing up, and
maintaining cleanliness. The age limit
for admission into pre-nursery is 2 to 3
years. Anganwadi is government
funded free rural childcare &
mothercare nutrition and learning
program also incorporating the free
Midday Meal Scheme.
Nursery: Nursery level activities help
children unfold their talents, thus
enabling them to sharpen their mental
 and physical abilities. The age limit for
admission in nursery is 3 to 4 years.
LKG: It is also called the Junior
Kindergarten (Jr. kg) stage. The
age limit for admission in LKG is 4
to 5 years.
UKG: It is also called the Senior
Kindergarten (Sr. kg) stage. The
age limit for admission in UKG is 5
to 6 years.
LKG and UKG stages prepare and help
children emotionally, mentally, socially and
physically to grasp knowledge easily in the
[34]
later stages of school and college life.
A systematic process of preschool
education is followed in India to impart
knowledge in the best possible way for
better understanding of the young
children. By following an easy and
interesting curriculum, teachers strive hard
to make the entire learning process
enjoyable for the children.

Primary education

School children reading books in government primary

school library, in Goa
The Indian government lays emphasis on
primary education, also referred to as
elementary education, to children aged 6 to
[35]
14 years old. Because education laws
are given by the states, duration of primary
school visit alters between the Indian
states. The Indian government has also
banned child labour in order to ensure that
the children do not enter unsafe working
[35]
conditions. However, both free
education and the ban on child labour are
difficult to enforce due to economic
[35]
disparity and social conditions. 80% of
all recognised schools at the elementary
stage are government run or supported,
making it the largest provider of education
[36]
in the country.

However, due to a shortage of resources

and lack of political will, this system
suffers from massive gaps including high
pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of
infrastructure and poor levels of teacher
training. Figures released by the Indian
government in 2011 show that there were
5,816,673 elementary school teachers in
[37]
India. As of March 2012 there were
2,127,000 secondary school teachers in
[38]
India. Education has also been made
[35]
free for children for 6 to 14 years of
age or up to class VIII under the Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory
[39]
Education Act 2009.

There have been several efforts to

enhance quality made by the government.
The District Education Revitalisation
Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994
with an aim to universalise primary
education in India by reforming and
vitalising the existing primary education
[40]
system. 85% of the DERP was funded
by the central government and the
remaining 15% was funded by the
[40]
states. The DERP, which had opened 1.6
lakh new schools including 84,000
alternative education schools delivering
alternative education to approximately 35
lakh children, was also supported by
UNICEF and other international
[40]
programmes. In January 2016, Kerala
became the 1st Indian state to achieve
100% primary education through its
[41]
literacy programme Athulyam.

This primary education scheme has also

not shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio
of 93–95% for the last three years in
[40]
some states. Significant improvement
in staffing and enrollment of girls has also
[40]
been made as a part of this scheme.
The current scheme for universalisation of
Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan which is one of the largest
education initiatives in the world.
Enrollment has been enhanced, but
the levels of quality remain low.

Secondary education

Secondary school girls in Delhi.

See also: Gender inequality in India

Secondary education covers children aged

14 to 18, a group comprising 8.85 crore
children according to the 2001 Census of
India. The final two years of secondary is
often called Higher Secondary (HS),
Senior Secondary, or simply the "+2"
stage. The two halves of secondary
education are each an important stage for
which a pass certificate is needed, and
thus are affiliated by central boards of
education under HRD ministry, before one
can pursue higher education, including
college or professional courses.
UGC, NCERT, CBSE and ICSE directives
state qualifying ages for candidates who
wish to take board exams. Those at least
15 years old by 30 May for a given
academic year are eligible to appear for
Secondary board exams, and those 17 by
the same date are eligible to appear for
Higher Secondary certificate board exams.
It further states that upon successful
completion of Higher Secondary, one can
apply to higher education under UGC
control such as Engineering, Medical, and
Business Administration.

Secondary education in India is

examination-oriented and not course-
based: students register for and take
classes primarily to prepare for one of the
centrally-administered examinations.
Senior school or high school is split into 2
parts (grades 9-10 and grades 11-12) with
a standardized nationwide examination at
the end of grade 10 and grade 12 (usually
informally referred to as "board exams").
Grade 10 examination results can be used
for admission into grades 11-12 at a
secondary school, pre-university program,
or a vocational or technical school.
Passing a grade 12 board examination
leads to the granting of a secondary
school completion diploma, which may be
used for admission into vocational
schools or universities in the country or
the world. Most reputable universities in
India require students to pass college-
administered admissions tests in addition
to passing a final secondary school
examination for entry into a college or
university. School grades are usually not
sufficient for college admissions in India.

Most schools in India do not offer subject

and scheduling flexibility due to budgeting
constraints (for e.g.: most students in
India are not allowed to take Chemistry
and History in grades 11-12 because they
are part of different "streams"). Private
candidates (i.e. not studying in a school)
are generally not allowed to register for
and take board examinations but there
are some exceptions such as NIOS.

10th (Matriculation or Secondary)

Exam

Students taking the grade 10 examination

usually take six subjects: English,
Mathematics, Social Studies, Science,
one language, and one optional subject
depending on the availability of teachers
at different schools. "Elective" or optional
subjects often include Computer
Applications, Economics, Physical
Education, Commerce, and
Environmental Science.
12th (Senior Secondary or
Higher Secondary) Exam

Students taking the grade 12 examination

usually take four or five subjects with
English or the local language being
compulsory. Students re-enrolling in most
secondary schools after grade 10 have to
make the choice of choosing a "core
stream" in addition to English or the local
language: Science (Mathematics/Biology,
Chemistry, and Physics), Commerce
(Accounts, Business Studies, and
Economics), or Humanities (any three of
History, Political Science, Sociology,
Psychology, Geography depending on
school). Students study Mathematics up
to single-variable Calculus in grade 12.

Types of schools

Government schools

Majority of the students study in the

government schools where poor and
vulnerable students study for free until the
age of 14. An Education Ministry data,
65.2% (113 million,) of all school students
in 20 states go to government schools (c.
[42]
2017). These include schools runs by
the state and local government as well as
the centre government. Example of large
centre government run school systems
are Kendriya Vidyalaya in urban areas,
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya for the gifted
students, Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidyalaya for girls belonging to vulnerable
SC/ST/OBC classes, Indian Army Public
Schools run by the Indian Army for the
children of soldiers.

Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for

the employees of the central government
of India, who are deployed throughout the
country. The government started the
Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to
provide uniform education in institutions
following the same syllabus at the same
pace regardless of the location to which
the employee's family has been
[26]
transferred.

Government aided private schools

These are usually charitable trust run

schools that receive partial funding from
the government. Largest system of aided
schools is run by D.A.V. College
Managing Committee.

Private schools (unaided)

Delhi Public School, Azaad Nagar

The Doon School

According to current estimate, 29% of

[9]
Indian children are privately educated.
With more than 50% children enrolling in
private schools in urban areas, the
balance has already tilted towards private
schooling in cities; and, even in rural
areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-
[43]
5 were enrolled in private schools.

La Martiniere Calcutta, regarded as one of the

best schools in the country

Global Public School, one of the top

international schools in South India
Most middle-class families send their
[43]
children to private schools, which might
be in their own city or at distant boarding
schools such as Rajkumar College, Rajkot,
the oldest private school in India. At such
schools, the medium of education is often
English, but Hindi and/or the state's official
language is also taught as a compulsory
subject. Pre-school education is mostly
limited to organised neighbourhood nursery
schools with some organised chains.
Montessori education is also popular, due
to Maria Montessori's stay in India during
World War II. In 2014, four of
the top ten pre-schools in Chennai
[44]
were Montessori.

Many privately owned and managed

schools carry the appellation "Public",
such as the Delhi Public Schools, or
Frank Anthony Public Schools. These are
modelled after British public schools,
which are a group of older, expensive
and exclusive fee-paying private
independent schools in England.

According to some research, private

schools often provide superior results at a
multiple of the unit cost of government
schools. The reason being high aims and
 [45][46][47]
better vision. However, others
have suggested that private schools fail to
provide education to the poorest families,
a selective being only a fifth of the schools
and have in the past ignored Court orders
for their regulation.

In their favour, it has been pointed out that

private schools cover the entire curriculum
and offer extra-curricular activities such as
science fairs, general knowledge, sports,
[48]
music and drama. The pupil teacher
ratios are much better in private schools
(1:31 to 1:37 for government schools) and
more teachers in private schools are
female. There is some disagreement over
which system has better educated teachers.
According to the latest DISE survey, the
percentage of untrained teachers (para-
teachers) is 54.91% in private, compared to
44.88% in government schools and only
2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive
in-service training compared to 43.44% for
government schools. The competition in the
school market is intense, yet most schools
[48]
make profit. However, the number of
private schools in India is still low - the
share of private institutions is 7% (with
upper primary being 21% secondary 32% -
source: fortress team research). Even the
poorest often go to private schools
despite the fact that government schools
are free. A study found that 65% school-
children in Hyderabad's slums attend
[47]
private schools.

International schools

As of January 2015, the International

[49]
Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed India
[50]
as having 410 international schools.
ISC defines an 'international school' in the
following terms "ISC includes an
international school if the school delivers a
curriculum to any combination of pre-
school, primary or secondary students,
wholly or partly in English outside an
English-speaking country, or if a school in
a country where English is one of the
official languages, offers an English-
medium curriculum other than the
country’s national curriculum and is
[50]
international in its orientation." This
definition is used by publications including
[51]
The Economist.

Home-schooling

Home-schooling is legal in India, though it

is the less explored option. The Indian
Government's stance on the issue is that
parents are free to teach their children at
home, if they wish to and have the means.
The then HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has
stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009,
if someone decides not to send his/her
children to school, the government would
[52]
not interfere.

Higher education
Students may opt for vocational education
or university education.

Vocational education

India's All India Council of Technical

Education (AICTE) reported, in 2013,
that there are more than 4,599 vocational
institutions that offer degrees, diploma
and post-diploma in architecture,
engineering, hotel management,
infrastructure, pharmacy, technology, town
services and others. There were 17.4 lakh
[53]
students enrolled in these schools.
Total annual intake capacity for technical
diplomas and degrees exceeded 34 lakh
in 2012.

According to the University Grants

Commission (UGC) total enrollment in
Science, Medicine, Agriculture and
Engineering crossed 65 lakh in 2010. The
number of women choosing engineering
has more than doubled since 2001.
University education

Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata.

Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

Forest Research Institute

After passing the Higher Secondary

Examination (the Standard 12 examination),
students may enrol in general degree
programmes such as bachelor's degree
(graduation) in arts, commerce or science,
or professional degree programme such as
engineering, medicine, pharmacy, and law
[54]
graduates. India's higher education
system is the third largest in the world, after
China and the
 [55]
United States. The main governing body
at the tertiary level is the University Grants
Commission (India) (UGC), which enforces
its standards, advises the government, and
helps coordinate between the centre and
the state up to Post graduation and
[56]
Doctorate (Ph.D). Accreditation for
higher learning is overseen by 12
autonomous institutions established by the
[57]
University Grants Commission.

All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi

 [58]
As of 2012, India has 152 central
universities, 316 state universities, and
191 private universities. Other institutions
[59]
include 33,623 colleges, including
1,800 exclusive women's colleges,
functioning under these universities and
[56]
institutions, and 12,748 Institutions
offering Diploma Courses. The emphasis in
the tertiary level of education lies on
[60]
science and technology. Indian
educational institutions by 2004 consisted
of a large number of technology institutes.
[61]
Distance learning is also a feature of
[61]
the Indian higher education system.
The Government has launched
Rashtriya Uchchattar Shiksha Abhiyan to
provide strategic funding to State higher
and technical institutions. A total of 316
state public universities and 13,024
[62]
colleges will be covered under it.

Some institutions of India, such as the

Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs),
Indian Institute of Science and National
Institutes of Technology (NITs) have been
globally acclaimed for their standard of
under-graduate education in engineering.
Several other institutes of fundamental
research such as the Indian Association
for the Cultivation of Science (IACS),
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR),
Harish-Chandra Research Institute (HRI),
Indian Institute of Science Education and
Research (IISER) are also acclaimed for
their standard of research in basic
sciences and mathematics. However,
India has failed to produce world class
universities both in the private sector or
[63]
the public sector.

Besides top rated universities which

provide highly competitive world class
education to their pupils, India is also
home to many universities which have
been founded with the sole objective of
making easy money. Regulatory
authorities like UGC and AICTE have been
trying very hard to extirpate the menace of
private universities which are running
courses without any affiliation or
recognition. Indian Government has failed
to check on these education shops, which
are run by big businessmen & politicians.
Many private colleges and universities do
not fulfil the required criterion by the
Government and central bodies (UGC,
AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.) and take students
for a ride. For example, many institutions in
India continue to run unaccredited courses
as there is no legislation strong enough to
ensure legal action against them. Quality
assurance mechanisms have failed to stop
misrepresentations and malpractices in
higher education. At the same time
regulatory bodies have been accused of
corruption, specifically in the case of
[64]
deemed-universities. In this context
of lack of solid quality assurance
mechanism, institutions need to step-up
and set higher standards of self-
[65]
regulation.

Our university system is, in

many parts, in a state of
disrepair...In almost half the
districts in the country, higher
education enrollments are
abysmally low, almost two-third of
our universities and 90 % of our
colleges are rated as below
average on quality parameters...
I am concerned that in many
states university appointments,
including that of vice-
chancellors, have been
politicised and have become
subject to caste and communal
considerations, there are
complaints of favouritism and
corruption.
 — Prime Minister
[66]
Manmohan Singh in 2007

The Government of India is aware of the

plight of higher education sector and has
been trying to bring reforms, however, 15
bills are still awaiting discussion and
[67]
approval in the Parliament. One of the
most talked about bill is Foreign
Universities Bill, which is supposed to
facilitate entry of foreign universities to
establish campuses in India. The bill is still
under discussion and even if it gets
passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is
questionable as it misses the context,
diversity and segment of international
 [68]
foreign institutions interested in India.
One of the approaches to make
internationalisation of Indian higher
education effective is to develop a
coherent and comprehensive policy
which aims at infusing excellence,
bringing institutional diversity and aids in
[69]
capacity building.

The American college in Madurai, started in 1881 CE –

One of the first five colleges in India to get
autonomous status
Three Indian universities were listed in the
Times Higher Education list of the world's
top 200 universities — Indian Institutes of
Technology, Indian Institutes of
Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru
[70]
University in 2005 and 2006. Six
Indian Institutes of Technology and the
Birla Institute of Technology and Science
— Pilani were listed among the top 20
science and technology schools in Asia by
[71]
Asiaweek. The Indian School of
Business situated in Hyderabad was
ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings
by the Financial Times of London in
[72]
2010 while the All India Institute of
Medical Sciences has been recognised as
a global leader in medical research and
[73]
treatment. The University of Mumbai
was ranked 41 among the Top 50
Engineering Schools of the world by
America's news broadcasting firm
Business Insider in 2012 and was the only
university in the list from the five emerging
BRICS nations viz Brazil, Russia, India,
[74]
China and South Africa. It was ranked
at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings
[75]
for 2013 and was India's 3rd best Multi-
Disciplinary University in the QS University
ranking of Indian Universities after
University of Calcutta and Delhi University.
[76]
Loyola College, Chennai is one of the
best ranked arts and science
college in India with the UGC award
of College of Excellence tag.

Technical education

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli

From the first Five-year Plan onwards,
India's emphasis was to develop a pool of
[77]
scientifically inclined manpower. India's
National Policy on Education (NPE)
provisioned for an apex body for regulation
and development of higher technical
education, which came into being as the
All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the
[78]
Indian parliament. At the federal level,
the Indian Institutes of Technology, the
Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology, the National Institutes of
Technology and the Indian Institutes of
Information Technology are deemed of
[78]
national importance.
The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)
and National Institutes of Technology
(NITs) are among the nation's premier
[78]
education facilities.

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

[78] The UGC has inter-university centres at

a number of locations throughout India to
promote common research, e.g. the
Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal
[79]
Nehru University, New Delhi. Besides
there are some British established
colleges such as Harcourt Butler
Technological Institute situated in Kanpur
and King George Medical University
situated in Lucknow which are important
centre of higher education.

Central Universities such as Banaras

Hindu University, Jamia Millia Islamia
University, Delhi University, Mumbai
University, University of Calcutta,
Jadavpur University etc. too are pioneers
of technical education in the country.
In addition to above institutes, efforts
towards the enhancement of technical
education are supplemented by a
number of recognised Professional
Engineering Societies such as:

1. Institution of Engineers (India)

2. Institution of Civil Engineers (India)
3. Institution of Mechanical Engineers
(India)
4. Institution of Chemical Engineering
(India)
5. Institution of Electronics and Tele-
Communication Engineers (India)
6. Indian Institute of Metals
7. Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
8. Institute of Town Planners (India)
9. Indian Institute of Architects

that conduct Engineering/Technical

Examinations at different levels
(Degree and diploma) for working
professionals desirous of improving
their technical qualifications.

The number of graduates coming out of

technical colleges increased to over 7 lakh
[80][81]
in 2011 from 5.5 lakh in FY 2010.
However, according to one study, 75% of
technical graduates and more than 85% of
general graduates lack the skills needed in
India's most demanding and high-growth
global industries such as Information
[82]
Technology. These high-tech global
information technologies companies
directly or indirectly employ about 23 lakh
people, less than 1% of India's labour
[83]
pool. India offers one of the largest
pool of technically skilled graduates in the
world. Given the sheer numbers of
students seeking education in engineering,
science and mathematics, India faces
daunting challenges in scaling up capacity
[84][85]
while maintaining quality.

Open and distance learning

At the school level, National Institute of
Open Schooling (NIOS) provides
opportunities for continuing education to
those who missed completing school
education. 14 lakh students are enrolled
at the secondary and higher secondary
level through open and distance learning.
In 2012 Various state governments also
introduced "STATE OPEN SCHOOL" to
[86]
provide distance education.

At higher education level, Indira Gandhi

National Open University (IGNOU) co-
ordinates distance learning. It has a
cumulative enrollment of about 15 lakh,
serviced through 53 regional centres and
1,400 study centres with 25,000
counselors. The Distance Education
Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is
co-coordinating 13 State Open
Universities and 119 institutions of
correspondence courses in conventional
universities. While distance education
institutions have expanded at a very rapid
rate, but most of these institutions need an
up gradation in their standards and
performance. There is a large proliferation
of courses covered by distance mode
without adequate infrastructure, both
human and physical. There is a strong
[87]
need to correct these imbalances.
Massive open online course are made
available for free by the HRD ministry
and various educational institutes.

Extracurricular activities
Extracurricular activities include sports,
arts, National Service Scheme,
National Cadet Corps, The Bharat
Scouts and Guides, etc.

Quality
Literacy

According to the Census of 2011, "every

person above the age of 7 years who can
read and write with understanding in any
language is said to be literate". According to
this criterion, the 2011 survey holds the
[88]
National Literacy Rate to be 74.04%. The
youth literacy rate, measured within the age
group of 15 to 24, is 81.1% (84.4% among
[89]
males and 74.4% among females), while
86% of boys and 72% of girls are literate in
[90]
the 10-19 age group.

Within the Indian states, Kerala has the

highest literacy rate of 93.91% whereas
[88]
Bihar averaged 61.8% literacy. The 2001
statistics indicated that the total number of
'absolute non-literates' in the country was
[88]
304 million. Gender gap in literacy
rate is high, for example in Rajasthan, the
state with the lowest female literacy rate in
[91]
India, average female literacy rate is
52.66% and average male literacy rate is
80.51%, making a gender gap of
[92]
27.85%.

Attainment

As of 2011, enrollment rates are 58%

for pre-primary, 93% for primary, 69%
for secondary, and 25% for tertiary
[3]
education.

Despite the high overall enrollment rate for

primary education among rural children of
age 10, half could not read at a basic level,
over 60% were unable to do division, and
[93]
half dropped out by the age of 14.

In 2009, two states in India, Tamil Nadu

and Himachal Pradesh, participated in the
international PISA exams which is
administered once every three years to
15-year-old's. Both states ranked at the
bottom of the table, beating out only
Kyrgyzstan in score, and falling 200 points
(two standard deviations) below the
[94]
average for OECD countries. While in
the immediate aftermath there was a
short-lived controversy over the quality of
primary education in India, ultimately India
decided to not participate in PISA for
[95] [96]
2012, and again not to for 2015.

While the quality of free, public education

is in crisis, a majority of the urban poor
have turned to private schools. In some
urban cities, it is estimated as high as two-
thirds of all students attend private
[97]
institutions, many of which charge a
modest US$2 per month.

Public school workforce

Officially, the pupil to teacher ratio

within the public school system for
[98]
primary education is 35:1. However,
teacher absenteeism in India is
exorbitant, with
 [99]
25% never showing up for work. The
World Bank estimates the cost in salaries
alone paid to such teachers who have
never attended work is US $2 billion per
[100]
year.

Indian School-Children

A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found

out that 25% of private sector teachers
and 40% of public sector medical workers
were absent during the survey. Among
teachers who were paid to teach, absence
rates ranged from 14.6% in Maharashtra
to 41.9% in Jharkhand. Only 1 in nearly
3,000 public school head teachers had
ever dismissed a teacher for repeated
[101]
absence. The same study found "only
about half were teaching, during
unannounced visits to a nationally
representative sample of government
[101]
primary schools in India."

Higher education

As per Report of the Higher education in

India, Issues Related to Expansion,
[102]
Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance, the
access to higher education measured in
term of gross enrollment ratio increased
from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960–61.
By 2006/7 the GER increased to about
11%. Notably, by 2012, it had crossed 20%
(as mentioned in an earlier section).

Vocational education

An optimistic estimate from 2008 was that

only one in five job-seekers in India ever
[103]
had any sort of vocational training.
However it's expected to grow as the CBSE
has brought changes in its education
system which emphasises inclusion of
certain number and types of vocational
subjects in classes 9th and 11th. Although
it's not mandatory for schools to go for it
but a good number of schools have
voluntarily accepted the suggestion and
incorporated the change in their
curriculum. <ref.cbse notifications 2018 >

Technical certification
Education

Demand for technical certification is

increasing every year among job
seekers and WEBNext Labs has been
imparting free technical education on
[104]
web technologies and IoT (Internet
[105]
of Things)
Issues
Facilities

As per 2016 Annual Survey of Education

Report (ASER), 3.5% schools in India had
no toilet facility while only 68.7% schools
had usable toilet facility. 75.5% of the
schools surveyed had library in 2016, a
decrease from 78.1% in 2014. Percentage
of schools with separate girls toilet have
increased from 32.9% in 2010 to 61.9%in
[106]
2016. 74.1% schools had drinking
water facility and 64.5% of the schools had
[107]
playground.

Curriculum issues
Modern education in India is often
criticised for being based on rote learning
rather than problem solving. New Indian
Express says that Indian Education system
seems to be producing zombies since in
most of the schools students seemed to be
spending majority of their time in preparing
for competitive exams rather than learning
[108]
or playing. BusinessWeek criticises
the Indian curriculum, saying it revolves
[109]
around rote learning and ExpressIndia
suggests that students are focused on
[110]
cramming. Preschool for Child Rights
states that almost 99% of pre-schools do
not have any curriculum at
 [111]
all. Also creativity is not encouraged
or is considered as a form of
[112]
entertainment in most institutions.

Rural education

A primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh

Indian school children in Mizoram

Following independence, India viewed
education as an effective tool for bringing
social change through community
[113]
development. The administrative
control was effectively initiated in the
1950s, when, in 1952, the government
grouped villages under a Community
Development Block—an authority under
national programme which could control
[113]
education in up to 100 villages. A
Block Development Officer oversaw a
geographical area of 150 square miles
2
(390 km ) which could contain a
population of as many as 70,000 people.
[113]
Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of
such programmes, themselves divided
further into individual-based, community
based, or the Individual-cum-
community-based, in which microscopic
levels of development are overseen at
village level by an appointed worker:

The community development

programmes comprise
agriculture, animal husbandry,
cooperation, rural industries, rural
engineering (consisting of minor
irrigation, roads, buildings), health
and sanitation
including family welfare, family
planning, women welfare, child
care and nutrition, education
including adult education, social
education and literacy, youth
welfare and community
organisation. In each of these
areas of development there are
several programmes, schemes
and activities which are additive,
expanding and tapering off
covering the total community,
some segments, or specific target
populations such
 as small and marginal farmers,
artisans, women and in general
people below the poverty line.
[113]

Despite some setbacks the rural education

programmes continued throughout the
1950s, with support from private
[114]
institutions. A sizeable network of rural
education had been established by the
time the Gandhigram Rural Institute was
established and 5,200 Community
Development Blocks were established in
[115]
India. Nursery schools, elementary
schools, secondary school, and schools
for adult education for women were set
up.[115]

The government continued to view rural

education as an agenda that could be
relatively free from bureaucratic backlog
[115]
and general stagnation. However, in
some cases lack of financing balanced the
gains made by rural education institutes of
[116]
India. Some ideas failed to find
acceptability among India's poor and
investments made by the government
[116]
sometimes yielded little results. Today,
government rural schools remain poorly
funded and understaffed. Several
foundations, such as the Rural
Development Foundation (Hyderabad),
actively build high-quality rural
schools, but the number of students
served is small.

Education in rural India is valued

differently from in an urban setting, with
lower rates of completion. An imbalanced
sex ratio exists within schools with 18% of
males earning a high school diploma
compared with only 10% of females. The
estimated number of children who have
never attended school in India is near 100
million which reflects the low completion
levels. This is the largest concentration in
the world of youth who haven't enrolled in
school.[117][118][119][120]

Women's education

London Mission Bengali Girls' School, Calcutta

[121]
(LMS, 1869, p.12)
Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra Pradesh.

Maharanis College for Women, Mysore, India.

Women have a much lower literacy rate

than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in
the schools, and many of them drop out.
[122]
In the patriarchal setting of the
Indian family, girls have lower status
[123]
and fewer privileges than boys.
Conservative cultural attitudes prevent
[124]
some girls from attending school.

The number of literate women among the

female population of India was between 2–
6% from the British Raj onwards to the
formation of the Republic of India in 1947.
[125]
Concerted efforts led to improvement
[125]
from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.
By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded
50% of the overall female population,
though these statistics were
still very low compared to world standards
[126]
and even male literacy within India.
Recently the Indian government has
launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for
Female Literacy. This mission aims to
bring down female illiteracy by half of its
present level.

Sita Anantha Raman outlines the

progress of women's education in India:

Since 1947 the Indian

government has tried to provide
incentives for girls' school
attendance through
programmes for midday meals,
free books, and uniforms. This
welfare thrust raised primary
enrollment between 1951 and
1981. In 1986 the National Policy
on Education decided to
restructure education in tune with
the social framework of each
state, and with larger national
goals. It emphasised that
education was necessary for
democracy, and central to the
improvement of women's
condition. The new policy aimed
at social change through revised
texts, curricula, increased funding
for schools, expansion in the
numbers of schools, and policy
improvements. Emphasis was
placed on expanding girls'
occupational centres and primary
education; secondary and higher
education; and rural and urban
institutions. The report tried to
connect problems like low school
attendance with poverty, and the
dependence on girls for
housework and sibling
 day care. The National Literacy
Mission also worked through
female tutors in villages.
Although the minimum marriage
age is now eighteen for girls,
many continue to be married
much earlier. Therefore, at the
secondary level, female drop-out
[127]
rates are high.

Sita Anantha Raman also mentions that

while the educated Indian women
workforce maintains professionalism, the
men outnumber them in most fields and, in
some cases, receive higher income for the
[127]
same positions.

The education of women in India plays a

significant role in improving livings
standards in the country. A higher female
literacy rate improves the quality of life
both at home and outside the home, by
encouraging and promoting education of
children, especially female children, and in
reducing the infant mortality rate. Several
studies have shown that a lower level of
women literacy rates results in higher
levels of fertility and infant mortality, poorer
nutrition, lower earning potential
and the lack of an ability to make
[128]
decisions within a household.
Women's lower educational levels is also
shown to adversely affect the health and
living conditions of children. A survey that
was conducted in India showed results
which support the fact that infant mortality
rate was inversely related to female
[129]
literacy rate and educational level.
The survey also suggests a correlation
between education and economic growth.

In India, there is a large disparity between

[130]
female literacy rates in different states.
State of Kerala has the highest female
literacy rate of 91.98% while Rajasthan has
the lowest female literacy rate of
[131][132]
52.66. This correlates to the
health levels of states, Kerala has
average life expectancy at birth of 74.9
while Rajasthan's average life expectancy
[133]
at birth is 67.7 years.

In India, higher education is defined as the

education of an age group between 18 and
24, and is largely funded by the
government. Despite women making up
24–50% of higher education enrollment,
there is still a gender imbalance within
higher education. Only one third of science
students and 7% of engineering students,
are women. In comparison, however, over
half the students studying Education are
[134]
women.

Accreditation

In January 2010, the Government of India

decided to withdraw Deemed university
status from as many as 44 institutions.
The Government claimed in its affidavit
that academic considerations were not
being kept in mind by the management of
these institutions and that "they were
[135]
being run as family fiefdoms".

In February 2009,the University Grant

Commission found 39 fake institutions
[136]
operating in India.
Employer training

Only 10% of manufacturers in India offer

in-service training to their employees,
[137]
compared with over 90% in China.

Teacher Careers

In the Indian education system, a teacher's

success is loosely defined. It is either
based on a student's success or based on
the years of teaching experience, both of
which do not necessarily correlate to a
teacher's skill set or competencies. The
management of an institution could thereby
be forced to promote teachers
based on the grade level they teach or
their seniority, both of which are often not
[138]
an indicator of a good teacher. This
means that either a primary school
teacher is promoted to a higher grade, or
a teacher is promoted to take up other
roles within the institution such as Head of
Department, coordinator, Vice Principal or
Principal. However, the skills and
competencies that are required for each of
them vary and a great teacher may not be
a great manager. Since teachers do not
see their own growth and success in their
own hands, they often do not take up any
professional development. Thus, there is a
need to identify a framework to help a
teacher chart a career path based on
his/her own competency and help him/her
[139]
understand his/her own development.

Coaching

Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi

Increased competition to get seats into
reputed colleges has given rise to private
coaching institutes in India. They prepare
students for not only engineering, medical,
MBA, SAT, GRE, banking jobs' entrance
tests, but also teach subjects like English
for employment in India and abroad.

Private coaching institutes are of two

types: offline coaching and online
coaching. There are many online
coaching centres and apps available in
the market and their usage is growing,
[140]
especially in tier 2 metro cities.
A 2013 survey by ASSOCHAM predicted
the size of private coaching industry to be
$40 billion, or Rs 23.9 lakh million in
[141]
2015.

Kota in Rajasthan is the called the capital of

engineering and medical colleges'
[141]
entrance's coaching sector. In Punjab
English language is taught by coaching
institutes for foreign visa aspirants to get the
[142]
right IELTS score for their applications.
Mukherjee Nagar and Old Rajinder Nagar in
Delhi are considered the hub for UPSC Civil
[143]
Services Examination coaching. To
compete in these exams, Center and some
state governments also
provide free coaching to students,
especially to students from minority
[144]
communities.

Coaching classes are blamed for

the neglect of school education by
[145]
students.

Corruption in education

Corruption in Indian education system has

been eroding the quality of education and
has been creating long-term negative
consequences for the society. Educational
corruption in India is considered as one of
the major contributors to domestic black
[146]
money.
Grade inflation

Grade inflation has become an issue in

Indian secondary education. In CBSE, a 95
percent aggregate is 21 times as prevalent
today as it was in 2004, and a 90 percent
close to nine times as prevalent. In the ISC
Board, a 95 percent is almost twice as
prevalent today as it was in 2012. CBSE
called a meeting of all 40 school boards
early in 2017 to urge them to discontinue
“artificial spiking of marks”. CBSE decided
to lead by example and promised not to
inflate its results. But although the 2017
results have seen a small correction, the
board has clearly not discarded the
practice completely. Almost 6.5 percent of
mathematics examinees in 2017 scored 95
or more — 10 times higher than in 2004
— and almost 6 percent of physics
examinees scored 95 or more, 35
[147][148]
times more than in 2004.

Initiatives
Central government
involvement

The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in

Srirangapatna
Elementary School in Chittoor. This school is part
of the 'Paathshaala' project. The school currently
educates 70 students.

Following India's independence, a number

of rules were formulated for the backward
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes of India. In 1960, a list identifying
405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled
Tribes was published by the central
[149]
government. An amendment was
made to the list in 1975, which identified
841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled
[149]
Tribes. The total percentage of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
combined was found to be 22.5% with the
Scheduled Castes accounting for 17% and
the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the
[149]
remaining 7.5%. Following the report
many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes increasingly referred to themselves
as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology
used by B R Ambedkar which literally
[149]
means "oppressed".

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes are provided for in many of India's
 [150]
educational programmes. Special
reservations are also provided for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya
Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and
another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya
[150]
Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes. Similar
reservations are held by the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many
schemes and educational facilities in India.
[150]
The remote and far-flung regions of
North-East India are provided for under the
Non-Lapsible Central pool of Resources
[151]
(NLCPR) since 1998–1999. The
NLCPR aims to provide funds for
infrastructure development in these
[151]
remote areas.

Women from remote, underdeveloped

areas or from weaker social groups in
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila
[152]
Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989.
Apart from provisions for education this
programme also aims to raise awareness
by holding meetings and seminars at rural
[152]
levels. The government allowed
₹34 crore (US$4.7 million) during 2007–
08 to carry out this scheme over 83
districts including more than 21,000
[152]
villages.
Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and
10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the National
[153]
Bal Bhavan. The scheme involves
educational and social activities and
recognising children with a marked talent
[153]
for a particular educational stream. A
number of programmes and activities are
held under this scheme, which also
involves cultural exchanges and
participation in several international
[153]
forums.

India's minorities, especially the ones

considered 'educationally backward' by the
government, are provided for in the 1992
amendment of the Indian National Policy
 [154]
on Education (NPE). The government
initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive
Programme for Educationally Backward
Minorities and Scheme of Financial
Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa
Education as part of its revised
[154]
Programme of Action (1992). Both
these schemes were started nationwide by
[154]
1994. In 2004 the Indian parliament
passed an act which enabled minority
education establishments to seek
university affiliations if they passed the
[154]
required norms.

Legislative framework
Article 45, of the Constitution of India
originally stated:

The State shall endeavour to

provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement
of this Constitution, for free and
compulsory education for all
children until they complete the
[155]
age of fourteen years.

This article was a directive principle of

state policy within India, effectively
meaning that it was within a set of rules
that were meant to be followed in spirit
and the government could not be held to
court if the actual letter was not followed.
[156]
However, the enforcement of this
directive principle became a matter of
debate since this principle held obvious
emotive and practical value, and was
legally the only directive principle within
the Indian constitution to have a time limit.
[156]

Following initiatives by the Supreme

Court of India during the 1990s the 93rd
amendment bill suggested three separate
amendments to the Indian constitution:
[157]
The constitution of India was amended to
include a new article, 21A, which read:

The State shall provide free and

compulsory education to all
children of the age of six to
fourteen years in a such manner
as the State may, by law,
[158]
determine.

Article 45 was proposed to be substituted

by the article which read:
 Provision for early childhood care
and education to children below
the age of six years: The State
shall endeavour to provide early
childhood care and education for
all children until they complete
[158]
the age of sixteen years.

Another article, 51A, was to

additionally have the clause:

...a parent or guardian [shall]

provide opportunities for
 education to his child or, as the
case may be, [a] ward between
the age of six to fourteen years.
[158]

The bill was passed unanimously in the

Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian
[159]
parliament, on 28 November 2001. It
was later passed by the upper house—the
[159]
Rajya Sabha—on 14 May 2002. After
being signed by the President of India the
Indian constitution was amended formally
for the eighty sixth time and the bill came
[159]
into effect. Since then those between
the age of 6–14 have a fundamental
[160]
right to education.

Article 46 of the Constitution of India

holds that:

The State shall promote, with

special care, the education and
economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people, and in
particular of the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
and shall protect them from social
injustice and all forms of social
[88]
exploitation'.
Other provisions for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be
found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342.
[88]
Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of
the Constitution also make special
provisions for the Scheduled Castes and
[88]
Scheduled Tribes.

Central Government
expenditure on education

As a part of the tenth Five-year Plan

(2002–2007), the central government of
India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of
its total education budget of ₹43,800 crore
(US$6.1 billion) i.e. ₹28,800 crore
(US$4.0 billion) on elementary education;
9.9% i.e. ₹4,325 crore (US$600 million)
on secondary education; 2.9% i.e.
₹1,250 crore (US$170 million) on adult
education; 9.5% i.e. ₹4,176.5 crore
(US$580 million) on higher education;
10.7% i.e. ₹4,700 crore (US$650 million)
on technical education; and the remaining
1.4% i.e. ₹623.5 crore (US$87 million) on
[161]
miscellaneous education schemes.

During the Financial Year 2011-12, the

Central Government of India has allocated
₹ 38,957 crore for the Department of
School Education and Literacy which is
the main department dealing with primary
education in India. Within this allocation,
major share of ₹ 21,000 crore, is for the
flagship programme 'Sarva Siksha
Abhiyan'. However, budgetary allocation of
₹ 210,000 million is considered very low
in view of the officially appointed Anil
Bordia Committee recommendation of ₹
35,659 crore for the year 2011-12. This
higher allocation was required to
implement the recent legislation 'Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009. In recent times,
several major announcements were made
for developing the poor state of affairs in
education sector in India, the most notable
ones being the National Common
Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the
United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
government. The announcements are; (a)
To progressively increase expenditure on
education to around 6% of GDP. (b) To
support this increase in expenditure on
education, and to increase the quality of
education, there would be an imposition of
an education cess over all central
government taxes. (c) To ensure that no
one is denied of education due to
economic backwardness and poverty. (d)
To make right to education a fundamental
right for all children in the age group 6–14
years. (e) To universalise education
through its flagship programmes such as
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Midday
Meal Scheme

However, even after five years of

implementation of NCMP, not much
progress has been seen on this front.
Although the country targeted towards
devoting 6% share of the GDP towards
the educational sector, the performance
has definitely fallen short of expectations.
Expenditure on education has steadily
risen from 0.64% of GDP in 1951–52 to
2.31% in 1970–71 and thereafter reached
the peak of 4.26% in 2000–01. However,
it declined to 3.49% in 2004–05. There is
a definite need to step-up again. As a
proportion of total government
expenditure, it has declined from around
11.1% in 2000–2001 to around 9.98%
during UPA rule, even though ideally it
should be around 20% of the total budget.
A policy brief issued by [Network for Social
[162]
Accountability (NSA)] titled "[NSA
Response to Education Sector
Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule
[163]
and the Education Sector] " provides
significant revelation to this fact. Due to a
declining priority of education in the public
policy paradigm in India, there has been
an exponential growth in the private
expenditure on education also. [As per the
available information, the private out of
pocket expenditure by the working class
population for the education of their
children in India has increased by
around 1150 percent or around 12.5
[164]
times over the last decade].

History

The remnants of the library of Nalanda, built in the 5th

century BCE by Gupta kings. It was rebuilt twice after
invasion, first after an invasion from the Huns in the
5th century BCE and then after an invasion from the
Gaudas in the 7th century CE but abandoned after the
third invasion by Turkic invaders in the 12th century.
Takshasila (in modern-day Pakistan) was
the earliest recorded centre of higher
learning in India from possibly 8th Century
BCE, and it is debatable whether it could
be regarded a university or not in modern
sense, since teachers living there may not
have had official membership of particular
colleges, and there did not seem to have
existed purpose-built lecture halls and
residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to
the later Nalanda university in eastern
India. Nalanda was the oldest university-
system of education in the world in the
modern sense of university. There all
subjects were taught in Ariano -páli
[165]
Language.

Secular institutions cropped up along

Buddhist monasteries. These institutions
imparted practical education, e.g.
medicine. A number of urban learning
centres became increasingly visible from
the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE.
The important urban centres of learning
were Nalanda (in modern-day Bihar) and
Manassa in Nagpur, among others. These
institutions systematically imparted
knowledge and attracted a number of
foreign students to study topics such as
Buddhist Páli literature, logic, páli
grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin
teacher, was among the most famous
teachers, associated with founding of
Mauryan Empire.

Sammanas and Brahmin gurus historically

offered education by means of donations,
rather than charging fees or the
procurement of funds from students or their
guardians. Later, stupas, temples also
became centres of education; religious
education was compulsory, but secular
subjects were also taught. Students were
required to be brahmacaris or celibates.
The knowledge in these orders was often
related to the tasks a section of the
society had to perform. The priest class,
the Sammanas, were imparted
knowledge of religion, philosophy, and
other ancillary branches while the warrior
class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the
various aspects of warfare. The business
class, the Vaishya, were taught their
trade and the working class of the
Shudras was generally deprived of
educational advantages.

See also
Gender inequality in India
Gurukula
List of schools in India
 Macaulayism, historical background to
the implementation of English education
in India.
National Translation Mission
Open access in India
Two Million Minutes, documentary film
Dreams Choked, documentary film

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External links
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India Education Data (quandl.com)
 Socio-Economic Education Growth Data
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