The Copernican Revolution

Frank Verbunt
Department of Astrophysics / IMAPP
Radboud University

Main sources
Outline Albert van Helden, Jan
the Aristotelian Universe Hogendijk, 2006, Lectures in
Copernicus: change course History of Astronomy
perspective Arthur Koestler, The
Brahe: accurate Sleepwalkers 1959
measurements Albert van Helden,
Kepler: accurate theory Measuring the Universe.
Cosmic dimensions from
Aristarchus to Halley 1985,
University of Chicago Press

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 1 / 18

The Aristotelian Universe

The universe according to Spherical

Aristoteles the Earth is spherical
finite celestial objects return to the
spherical same place: placed on
a plenum (=full) spheres
based on spaces

Apianus 1529
two regions

Finite
the Universe contains
everything; there is nothing
outside
Christian thinkers add a
Heaven where God resides

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 2 / 18

The Aristotelian Universe

Plenum Two regions

there are no empty places sublunar (below the Moon)
in the Universe earth, water, air, fire
planets and stars changing: corrupt
attached to material
natural motion straight up or
spheres and shells that fill
down
all space
supralunar (above the Moon)
Spaces the fifth element (quintessens,
Earth ‘naturally’ in center aether)
heavy objects naturally unchanging: perfect
move downward natural movement in circles
fire moves upward ⇒ the laws of nature are different in
hierarchy of supralunar and sublunar regions
elements/spaces
Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 3 / 18
Hipparchos (190-120 BC) & Ptolemaios 90-168 AD

Planetary theory Position of outer planet

planet P on epicycle
center C of epicycle moves
on circle centered on M:
‘excentric’
motion C uniform with
respect to equant Eq
(‘= cheating’)
direction CP parallel to
direction Earth-Sun ES
(why?) mathematics: computational rules
‘algorithm’

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 4 / 18

Hipparchos (190-120 BC) & Ptolemaios 90-168 AD

Planetary theory Planetary Hypothesis

planet P on epicycle
center C of epicycle moves
on circle centered on M:
‘excentric’
motion C uniform with
respect to equant Eq
(‘= cheating’)
direction CP parallel to
direction Earth-Sun ES
(why?)

physics: filled spheres and shells

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 4 / 18

Two separate disciplines

‘Physics’ ‘Mathematics’
cosmology is part of use Ptolemaean models to
philosophy of nature compute positions of planets
it describes the Universe in a separately for each planet
coherent way physical / philosophical
based on Aristotelian physics background less important
as described above accuracy important because
taught at universities of astrological impact
precise position of planets astrologers also outside
less important universities
usually represented in requires revision of
simplified manner Ptolemaean parameters
Fundamental to understanding of Just computational tricks to get
Universe positions right

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 5 / 18

Back to the sources: redo Ptolemaios
Germany in the 15th century De Revolutionibus Manuscript
Greek manuscripts available
mathematics at required level
Regiomontanus: Epitome in
Ptolemoei Almagestum (1496)
Nicolaus Copernicus

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 6 / 18

The Copernican revolution: Copernicus 1473-1543

The three motions of the Earth An important simplification

1 rotation around its own axis in 24 h
2 revolution around the Sun in 1 y
3 motion of Earth axis on cone in 1 y

In Ptolemaios the direction

Earth-Sun (ES) is required
for every planet: CP//ES
the 3rd motion is necessary to keep In Copernicus the position of
Earth axis in fixed direction, when it is the planet does not depend
fixed on a rotating sphere on the position of the Earth

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 7 / 18

The Copernican revolution: major gains

Explanation retrograde motion Angular proximity of Venus

As Earth overtakes outer planet, the and Mercury to Sun
latter appears to change the direction of
its motion
Example: Mars

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 8 / 18

The Copernican revolution: other gains; problems

Other gains Remaining problem

order of planets uniquely large number of epicycles
determined (extra ones to replace equant)
the largest object (Sun) is in
Added problems
the centre (argument of
Aristarchos !) no measureable motion of the
stars
newly determined orbital
physics of Aristotle destroyed,
parameters lead to better
but no replacement with new
positions of planets physics
I why don’t we feel the
Note: (Viktor Blåsjö 2016) motion(s) of the Earth?
Method for describing Mercury
not copied from Nası̄r al-Dı̄n
al-Tūsı̄ (b.1201)

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 9 / 18

How to judge Copernicus? Koestler vs. Gingerich

De revolutionibus orbium Owen Gingerich 2004: The

coelestium 1543 book that nobody read
posthumously investigates all remaining
introduction by Osiander: copies of 1st and 2nd edition
‘mathematics, not physics’ passages forbidden by
Inquisition only deleted in
Arthur Koestler 1959: The Italy (!)
sleepwalkers
many annotations, in
Copernicus is conservative technical part of book
retains mishmash of book widely read
epicycles
FV: but not the chapter on
De revolutionibus: The book
heliocentrism. . .
that nobody read

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 10 / 18

Exit Aristoteles: Brahe and the new star of 1572

No daily parallax: supralunar ⇒

supralunar is variable
(Same conclusion for comet of 1577)

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 11 / 18

Accurate measurements: Tycho Brahe 1546-1601
Developments in Europe
improved metal technique
book printing

Tycho Brahe
astronomical Tables for
planets can be wrong by a
month
problem for astrology. . .
new, accurate
measurements necessary
I special observatory
I special instruments
taught by Wilhelm IV,
Landgraf of Hessen (1575)

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 12 / 18

Accurate measurements: Tycho Brahe 1546-1601

Observational material
Brahe determined many
planetary positions
very high accuracy: 20
hired Kepler for
mathematical analysis
both in Prague: 1600-1601
Brahe dies in 1601
emphasis on accuracy his heirs don’t want to give
own printing press Kepler the data
training-centre, e.g. Joan so he just took the
Blaeu observation notebooks. . .
Astronomia Instaurata 1602

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 13 / 18

Accurate theory: Johannes Kepler 1571-1630

Astronomia Nova 1609 Astronomia Nova

Kepler computes the ‘But for us, who, by divine
eccentric circle of the orbit of kindness were given an accurate
Mars from four observed observer such as Tycho Brahe,
oppositions for us it is fitting that we should
these computations fill 900 acknowledge this divine gift and
pages folio, in small print! put it to use. . . If I had believed
that I could ignore these 8
the four oppositions match
minutes, I would have patched up
computation within 20
my hypothesis accordingly. But
the six other oppositions since it was not permissible to
measured match as well ignore them, those 8 minutes
two measurements away point the road to a complete
from opposition deviate by 80 reformation of astronomy.’

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 14 / 18

Accurate theory: Johannes Kepler

The orbit of Mars Mathematics of ellipse

use observations from same
location of Earth
assume constant increase of
angle from equant
⇒ orbit of Mars
not a circle, not an oval. . .
distance of Sun to center:
‘ex-centricity’ 0.0926
flattening (d in figure):
0.00429
0.5 × 0.09262 = 0.00429
Orbit of Mars is ellipse!
p e2
d =1− 1 − e2 '
2
Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 15 / 18
Accurate theory: Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler
Astronomia Nova
‘Ye physicists, prick your ears! for
now we are going to invade your
territory.’
The Sun sweeps the planets
forward in their orbits with a force,
that diminishes with distance.
Hence the velocity diminishes
with distance to the Sun.
Mathematics now united with
physics.
1610

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 16 / 18

Accurate theory: Johannes Kepler
The laws of Kepler
1 the orbit of a planet is an The law of equal areas
ellipse with the Sun in a focal
point
2 the radius sweeps equal
surfaces in equal times
3 the orbital period P and
semi-major axis a are related

P 2 = constant a 3

The true revolution

Kepler refuses to ignore a
non-fitting observation
he reasons physically: the
force of the Sun
Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 17 / 18
Conclusions, an opinion, and a book

The Copernican Revolution A conclusion and an opinion

The most important step Plato and Aristoteles are wholly
(Copernicus): absent from the story:
the Earth is not the center of a history of science may
the Universe safely ignore them
hence human beings are not
central to the Universe
Important for science: Excellent book
measurements as accurate Steven Weinberg (2016)
as technically possible To explain the world
(Brahe) The discovery of modern science
theory as accurate as
required by measurements
(Kepler)

Frank Verbunt (Astronomy, IMAPP) The Copernican revolution 9 december 2016 18 / 18