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School of Information Systems
A Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan
Umera Imtinan
This thesis is presented for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
of
Curtin University
February 2014
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DECLARATION
This thesis contains no materials which have been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in any university.
To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no materials previously
published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made.
Umera Imtinan
2014
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ABSTRACT
Mobile learning is a method of learning that is independent of time and location.
Mobile devices can add flexibility to learning environments; researchers around the
world, particularly in developed countries, have been experimenting with mobile
learning at different educational levels from elementary schools to higher education
and workplace training. Mobile learning is also being researched and tested in
several developing countries including South Africa, India, Indonesia, Kenya and
Latin America. These projects have shown positive results in being able to provide
education to the underprivileged populations living in remote and backward areas.
However, only a few research projects have evaluated the feasibility of introducing
mobile learning in university environments and the higher education sectors in
developing countries. This research aims at identifying mobile learning
characteristics and developing a mobile learning framework for university
environments in Pakistan.
Exploratory case study was chosen as the research method, including qualitative
research approaches such as focus groups of students and teachers from three
Pakistani universities, and individual interviews with administrative stakeholders of
those universities. Data was analyzed using NVivo 10 qualitative data analysis
software which involved an iterative coding process to categorize main themes,
subthemes and building relationships among themes. Findings of the research
indicate that all of the participants including students, teachers, IT managers,
educational designers and senior administrators in policy-making roles demonstrated
a positive and optimistic attitude towards the introduction of mobile learning in
Pakistani university environments. Findings derived from the data analysis show
that pedagogical aspects of mobile learning were already being applied informally by
a number of students and teachers in their teaching and learning practices in the form
of many mobile learning activities. Therefore, participants were motivated to
embrace mobile learning in a blended learning environment in Pakistani universities.
However, the analysis of data gathered from focus groups and interviews also
revealed that there were several socio-cultural factors that would impact on any
proposed mobile learning implementations in Pakistani university environments in
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the future. These socio-cultural factors include the need to raise awareness of mobile
learning in Pakistani university environments before its formal inclusion in teaching
and learning practices. Furthermore, the issue of cost and affordability for students
from underprivileged social and financial backgrounds need to be addressed. In
addition, the findings strongly revealed the need to meet the training requirements of
teachers and students prior to engagement in formal mobile learning activities and
potential negative exploitation of mobile learning opportunities by some stakeholders
in teaching and learning environments in Pakistani universities.
Based on the outcomes of this research, a mobile learning framework for universities
in Pakistan has been developed. This framework addresses the pedagogical as well
as technological characteristics of mobile learning along with the participation of key
stakeholders from the university environment. Socio-cultural factors potentially
affecting the mobile learning implementation have also been presented in the
framework. Higher education providers may be able to use this framework to
implement mobile learning in Pakistani university environments in the future. There
is also potential to use this framework in developing countries with attributes similar
to the Pakistan higher education environments. Educational designers would be able
to use this framework to include the pedagogical characteristics of mobile learning
when designing mobile learning content. IT managers would be able to utilize this
model to understand students’ and teachers’ perceptions of connectivity, and their
need for training and ongoing technical support. Senior executives would be able to
address key challenges associated with the costs of implementing and
operationalizing mobile learning, This includes, the development of mobile learning
content, infrastructural investments and of the acquisition of mobile devices for
students and teachers.
As alluded earlier, the findings of this research may be generalized to other

developing countries with similar higher education environment and socio-cultural
environments. Developed countries could also benefit from the findings of this
research in persuit of mobile learning implementation in university environments,
particularly with cohorts of students from international backgrounds. Future research
directions include a trial implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
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environments and mobile learning research projects for underprivileged populations
to provide them with basic education facilities using low cost mobile devices.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, my gratitude and thanks to Allah, The God Almighty for all the
blessings of faith, health, intellect and motivation to pursue a journey towards
seeking and creating knowledge.
I would like to thank Professor Vanessa Chang, my PhD Supervisor, for her expert
advice, academic mentoring and guidance for my research, from accepting me as a
PhD student at Curtin University and helping me to shape and work through my
research topic to getting me through the whole journey of candidature. Her
encouragement for me to learn and grow in the university’s research and training
environment is highly appreciated. Dr Chang’s knowledge of Information Systems
and her teaching and learning expertise have assisted me to drive my research in the
right direction. Thank you Dr Chang for not only supporting me in my academic
endeavours, but also providing me with enormous moral support through difficult
times and personal illness. Especially, thank you for suggesting that I should stop
sometimes and smell the roses!
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr Tomayess Issa, my PhD Co-

supervisor for mentoring me in my research and publications. I must say that
without her support and input, many of my publications would not have been
accepted. Special thanks for rescuing me from formatting and referencing, designing
of diagrams and presentations. Indeed, God has blessed you with a great and humble
heart regardless of your many achievements. Having you as my mentor was an
honour.
My sincere thanks to AusAID Canberra and Australian Government for sponsoring

my PhD research. I would also like to extend my thanks and compliments to all
AusAID staff at Curtin International including Julie Craig, Chris Kerin, Sarah
Treadgold, Kisten Soon and Gail Fisher for their timely support and advice whenever
I needed throughout this journey. Thanks to Dr Ananda Jeeva, Chairperson of the
thesis committee for his support during my candidacy proposal submission. Thanks
to all staff at School of Information Systems for their administrative support and
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making me feel the School of IS at my second home in Australia. My sincere thanks
go to Dr Alison Hogg and all staff at Curtin Health Centre.
I want to thank the students, teachers, academic leaders, IT managers and senior
executives from three Pakistani universities for participating in my research
voluntarily and sharing with me their experiences and opinions during the data
collection phase. I would like to say a special thank you to all anonymous reviewers
and readers of my publications for giving me useful feedback to improve my work.
Another very special thanks goes to Professor Laurie Dickie for research training
seminars about doctoral process and reading my work voluntarily, Professor Graham
Pervan and Professor Heinz Dreher from the School of Information Systems for
scholarly advice on Information Systems research methods.
My gratitude also goes to my father, Imtinan M. M. Latif, for being a source of

inspiration and knowledge for me and for those countless early morning prayers
throughout his life. May he be blessed in Heavens! Amen. I believe words cannot
express my gratitude for my mother Mumtaz Kausar for always having been my best
teacher, my role model and my best friend. Her help and support during my PhD
journey is beyond thanks, particularly during my own experience of motherhood.
My deepest love and gratitude to my husband Muhammad Iqbal for being with me,
providing me with unconditional support in all matters, bearing with my emotional
stress and taking me to Kings Park countless times for relaxation and some peace;
and not to mention the weekly tours to explore Western Australia. I must
acknowledge that I have enjoyed my PhD years as an extended honeymoon period
just because of you as my soul mate. I would love to express thanks to my daughter
Tazkia Iqbal for coming into my world and sharing with me the joys of heavenly
smiles. I acknowledge her sacrifice of staying at Child Care for long hours so that
mummy can study and complete her PhD. Tazkia! You are my precious! I would
also like to extend many thanks to my siblings, all friends and family members
including Uzma Rana, Amna Imtinan, Khadija Imtinan, Abdul Ahad Rana,
Muhammad Bilal, Sobia Imtinan, Dr. Hammad Raza, Sobia Zaheer, Zahoor Ahmad
and Kausar Perveen for their love, support and countless prayers.
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PUBLISHED WORK
1. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2014. "Envisioning Mobile Learning as
the Future of Teaching and Learning Via Technology: A Literature Review of
Mobile Learning". In Multicultural Awareness and Technology in Higher
Education: Global Perspectives, eds Tomayess Issa, Pedro Isaias and Piet
Kommers. IGI Global.
2. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2013. "Offline Mobile Learning: A

Proposal to Promote Literacy in Pakistani Rural Areas". Electric Dreams, 30th
Ascilite Conference, Sydney, Australia, 2013. Macquarie University.
3. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2013. Usability issues in mobile learning:
Students’ perceptions in Pakistani universities. QScience Proceedings: Vol.
2013, 12th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn
2013), 19.
4. Imtinan, U. 2013. “Mobile learning characteristics and challenges for

developing countries – a case study of Pakistani universities”. In Proceedings of
CBS Doctoral Students' Colloquium 2013, October 1, 2013, Curtin Business
School, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia.
5. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2013. “Common Mobile Learning

Characteristics - An Analysis of Mobile Learning Models And Frameworks.” In
Mobile Learning 2013, Mar 14, 2013, Lisbon, Portugal: IADIS Press.
6. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2012. “Characteristics of mobile learning

environments in developing countries”. The International Journal of Learning
(18) (5): 163-173 (5).
7. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2012. “Mobile Learning-Theoretical

Underpinnings.” Paper presented at IADIS International Conference - Internet
Technologies & Society 2012, Nov 28, 2012, Perth, Australia.
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8. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2011 "Literature review of mobile learning
in developing countries". The Eighteenth International Conference on Learning,
Mauritius, July 5, 2011.
9. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. "Developing a mobile learning conceptual

model for universities in Pakistan". In Proceedings of the IADIS International
Conference: Internet Technologies and Society 2010, edited by Piet
Kommers, Tomayess Issa and Pedro Isaias, 316-320, Perth, Australia: IADIS
press, 2010
10. Imtinan, U. 2010. “Identifying Mobile Learning Characteristics for Universities

in Pakistan”. In Proceedings of CBS Doctoral Students' Colloquium 2010,
October 1, 2010, Curtin Business School, Curtin University, Perth, Western
Australia.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................. 2
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. 6
PUBLISHED WORK ........................................................................................................................... 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................... 10
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... 16
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS.................................................................................................. 1
1.2 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 DEFINITION OF MOBILE LEARNING .................................................................................. 3
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF MOBILE LEARNING ............................................................................... 3
1.5 MOBILE LEARNING AND EDUCATION .............................................................................. 5
1.6 NEED FOR MOBILE LEARNING THEORY BUILDING ...................................................... 5
1.7 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS ...................................................................... 6
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH .................................................................................... 7
1.10 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH APPROACH ........................................................................... 8
1.11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FOR PUBLISHED WORK ........................................................... 8
1.12 THESIS OUTLINE AND STRUCTURE ................................................................................. 9
1.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................... 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 SCOPE OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 12
2.3 DEFINITIONAL ASPECTS OF MOBILE LEARNING ......................................................... 14
2.3.1 TECHNO-CENTRIC ............................................................................................................. 15
2.3.2 LEARNER-CENTRED MOBILITY ......................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 AUGMENTING WITH LEARNING THEORIES ........................................................................ 17
2.4 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF MOBILE LEARNING .............................................. 19
2.5 REVIEW OF CURRENT MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORKS AND MODELS ............ 20
2.6 MOBILE LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................ 31
2.6.1 USABILITY ........................................................................................................................ 31
2.6.2 COLLABORATION .............................................................................................................. 32
2.6.3 CONTEXT .......................................................................................................................... 32
2.6.4 CONTROL .......................................................................................................................... 33
2.6.5 CONNECTIVITY ................................................................................................................. 34
2.6.6 MOBILITY ......................................................................................................................... 35
2.6.7 BLENDING ......................................................................................................................... 36
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2.6.8 CONTENT .......................................................................................................................... 37
2.6.9 IT OR TECHNICAL SUPPORT .............................................................................................. 37
2.6.10 COST ............................................................................................................................... 38
2.7 MOBILE LEARNING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ......................................................... 40
2.8 MOBILE LEARNING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ....................................................... 41
2.9 RESEARCH GAPS IN EXISTING LITERATURE ................................................................ 47
2.10 THE INITIAL MOBILE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL MODEL ......................................... 51
2.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD ......................................................................................... 55
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 55
3.2 MOBILE LEARNING RESEARCH AS INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH ............ 55
3.3 INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH PARADIGMS ..................................................... 57
3.3.1 POSITIVIST RESEARCH ...................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2 INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH ................................................................................................. 57
3.3.3 CRITICAL RESEARCH ........................................................................................................ 59
3.3.4 RESEARCH PARADIGM CHOICE FOR THIS RESEARCH ......................................................... 59
3.4 INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS .............................. 60
3.4.1 RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN CHOICE FOR THIS RESEARCH ....................................... 61
3.5 OVERVIEW OF CASE STUDY RESEARCH METHOD IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS . 63
3.6 RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................................. 65
3.6.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 66
3.6.2 UNITS OF ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 67
3.6.3 DATA COLLECTION ........................................................................................................... 67
3.6.3.1 Case Studies - Rationale for the Selected Universities ............................................ 68
3.6.3.2 Instrument Preparation and Validation .................................................................. 69
3.6.3.3 Construct Validity.................................................................................................... 69
3.6.3.4 Content Validity....................................................................................................... 69
3.6.3.5 External Validity ..................................................................................................... 70
3.6.3.6 Reliability ................................................................................................................ 70
3.6.3.7 Contacting the Organizations.................................................................................. 71
3.6.3.8 Participants’ Recruitment ....................................................................................... 71
3.6.3.9 Field Procedures ..................................................................................................... 71
3.6.3.10 Pilot Study ............................................................................................................. 72
3.6.3.11 Focus Groups ........................................................................................................ 72
3.6.3.12 Interviews .............................................................................................................. 74
3.6.3.13 Documents ............................................................................................................. 76
3.6.3.14 Direct Observation ................................................................................................ 76
3.6.4 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS ................................................................................................ 77
3.6.4.1 Choosing Data Analysis Strategies ......................................................................... 78
3.6.4.2 Choosing Data Analysis Tools ................................................................................ 81
3.6.4.3 Preparing Data ....................................................................................................... 81
3.6.4.4 Organizing Data ...................................................................................................... 82
3.6.4.5 Coding Data ............................................................................................................ 83
3.6.4.6 Identification of Themes .......................................................................................... 85
3.6.4.7 Synthesizing Data .................................................................................................... 86
3.6.4.8 Interpreting Data ..................................................................................................... 88
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3.6.4.9 Writing the Results .................................................................................................. 89
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................................................. 89
3.8 RESEARCH PROCESS FLOW CHART ................................................................................ 90
3.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER 4 STUDENTS’ FOCUS GROUPS: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS 92
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 92
4.2 COLLABORATION - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................... 93
4.2.1 COLLABORATION WITH PEERS .......................................................................................... 93
4.2.2 COLLABORATION WITH TEACHERS ................................................................................... 94
4.2.3 COLLABORATION USING SOCIAL MEDIA VIA MOBILE DEVICES .......................................... 96
4.2.4 COLLABORATION - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .......................................... 97
4.3 USABILITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................... 98
4.3.1 USABILITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................. 101
4.4 CONTEXT - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 102
4.4.1 CONTEXT - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................... 104
4.5 BLENDING - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................... 104
4.5.1 BLENDING - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................. 106
4.6 CONTROL - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 107
4.6.1 CONTROL - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................... 109
4.7 CONNECTIVITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 110
4.7.1 MOBILE INTERNET USAGE .............................................................................................. 110
4.7.2 MOBILE INTERNET AND WI-FI ........................................................................................ 111
4.7.3 MOBILE DEVICES FOR LEARNING ................................................................................... 113
4.7.4 CONNECTIVITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ........................................... 115
4.8 FLEXIBILITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 116
4.8.1 FLEXIBILITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ............................................... 119
4.9 TECHNICAL SUPPORT-RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................... 119
4.9.1 TECHNICAL SUPPORT - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS.................................. 121
4.10 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND APPLICATIONS - RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................... 121
4.10. 1 ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES ...................................................................................... 122
4.10. 2 COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................... 123
4.10. 3 INFORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES................................................................................ 124
4.10. 3 LEARNING SUPPORT ACTIVITIES .................................................................................. 125
4.10.4 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES BY STUDENTS –OVERALL SUMMARY .......................... 126
4.10.5 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND APPLICATIONS - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 128
4.11 COST - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 129
4.11.1 COST OF MOBILE DEVICES WITH ADVANCED FEATURES .............................................. 129
4.11.2 COST OF USING MOBILE INTERNET ............................................................................... 131
4.11.3 COST - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS......................................................... 133
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4.12 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................. 134
4.12.1 AWARENESS.................................................................................................................. 135
4.12.2 MOTIVATION................................................................................................................. 136
4.12.3 NEGATIVE USES ............................................................................................................ 137
4.12.4 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ..................... 139
4.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 5 TEACHERS’ FOCUS GROUPS: RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS .
................................................................................................................................. 143
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 143
5.2 COLLABORATION - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................ 144
5.2.1 COLLABORATION - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ........................................ 146
5.3 USABILITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................... 146
5.3.1 USABILITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................. 149
5.4 CONTEXT - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 149
5.4.1 CONTEXT - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................................................... 151
5.7 CONNECTIVITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 156
5.7.1 CONNECTIVITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ........................................... 158
5.8 FLEXIBILITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................... 159
5.9 TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND TRAINING NEEDS - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..... 163
5.9.1 TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND TRAINING NEEDS: SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS 166
5.10 COST - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 167
5.10.1 COST - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS......................................................... 169
5.11 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND APPLICATIONS - RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................... 170
5.11.1 ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................... 171
5.11.2 COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES........................................................................................ 172
5.11.3 INFORMAL TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES ....................................................... 173
5.11.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING SUPPORT ACTIVITIES .......................................................... 174
5.11.5 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES BY TEACHERS – BIG PICTURE ..................................... 175
5.11.6 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND APPLICATIONS: SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 178
5.12 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................. 179
5.12.1 AWARENESS.................................................................................................................. 179
5.12.2 MOTIVATION................................................................................................................. 181
5.12.3 NEGATIVE USES ............................................................................................................ 184
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5.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 190
CHAPTER 6 ADMINISTRATIVE STAKEHOLDERS’ INTERVIEWS: RESULTS,
DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 192
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 192
6.2 COLLABORATION AND CONTEXT - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................... 194
6.2.1 COLLABORATION AND CONTEXT - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ................ 198
6.3 USABILITY, TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND TRAINING NEEDS - RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................... 199
6.3.1 USABILITY, TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND TRAINING NEEDS - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 205
6.4 FLEXIBILITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 206
6.6 USAGE AND CONNECTIVITY - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................... 213
6.6.1 USAGE AND CONNECTIVITY - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS ....................... 216
6.7 COST - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 217
6.7.1 COST - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS........................................................... 221
6.9 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................. 228
6.9.1 MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES - SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS .................. 234
6.10 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................. 235
6.10.1 AWARENESS AND MOTIVATION .................................................................................... 235
6.10.2 NEGATIVE USES AND RISKS .......................................................................................... 238
6.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 242
CHAPTER 7 MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN ..
................................................................................................................................. 245
7.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 245
7.2 THE INITIAL MOBILE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL MODEL ......................................... 245
7.3 NEW FRAMEWORK VS. INITIAL MODEL ..................................................................... 246
7.3.1 MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK – STAKEHOLDERS CATEGORY .................................... 248
7.3.2 MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK – INTERACTIVITY CATEGORY..................................... 252
7.3.3 MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK – TECHNOLOGY CATEGORY ....................................... 255
7.3.4 ADDITIONAL NEW FINDINGS FROM THIS RESEARCH: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS ......... 259
7.3.5 MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN ................................ 264
7.4 ANSWERING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................... 270
7.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 272
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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................... 274
8.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 274
8.2 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS .......................................................................................... 274
8.2.1 KEY STAKEHOLDERS IN A MOBILE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ....................................... 275
8.2.2 MOBILE LEARNING PEDAGOGY ...................................................................................... 276
8.2.3 HARNESSING THE POWER OF TECHNOLOGY .................................................................... 278
8.2.4 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IMPACTING ON MOBILE LEARNING IMPLEMENTATION IN
PAKISTAN ................................................................................................................................ 279
8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................ 281
8.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................... 284
8.5 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS .................................................................................. 286
8.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 288
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 290
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................. 310
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................... 311
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET ................................................................................... 311
APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................................... 313
COVER LETTER ............................................................................................................................ 313
APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................................... 316
CONSENT FORM ........................................................................................................................... 316
APPENDIX D ................................................................................................................................... 317
FOCUS GROUPS QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS IN PAKISTANI UNIVERSITIES ........... 317
APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................................... 318
FOCUS GROUPS QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS IN PAKISTANI UNIVERSITIES .......... 318
APPENDIX F .................................................................................................................................... 320
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR ADMINISTRATORS IN PAKISTANI UNIVERSITIES ... 320
APPENDIX G ................................................................................................................................... 321
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR IT MANAGERS IN PAKISTANI UNIVERSITIES ........... 321
APPENDIX H ................................................................................................................................... 322
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNERS IN PAKISTANI
UNIVERSITIES ............................................................................................................................... 322
APPENDIX I .................................................................................................................................... 323
COPYRIGHT PERMISSIONS ....................................................................................................... 323
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE LEARNING.................................................................... 21
FIGURE 2: A MODEL FOR M-LEARNING ADOPTION (BARKER, KRULL, AND MALLINSON 2005) ............. 23
FIGURE 3: TASK MODEL FOR MOBILE LEARNING (TAYLOR ET AL. 2006; SHARPLES ET AL. 2007B) ....... 24
FIGURE 4: A MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK (MOTIWALLA 2007) ...................................................... 26
FIGURE 5: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNING MOBILE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
(DANAHER, GURURAJAN, AND BAIG 2009) .................................................................................. 27
FIGURE 6: A FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNING LEARNING SPACES (PARSONS AND RYU 2009).................... 28
FIGURE 7: THE FRAME MODEL (KOOLE 2009) .................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 8: RESEARCH GAPS- A LITERATURE SNAPSHOT ........................................................................ 50
FIGURE 9: MOBILE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL MODEL. .......................................................................... 52
FIGURE 10: INITIAL MOBILE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL MODEL. (ADAPTED FROM DANAHER ET AL.
(2009), SHARPLES ET AL. (2005), BARKER ET AL. (2005) AND KOOLE (2009). ............................. 79
FIGURE 11: MAIN CODED THEMES FOR STUDENTS FOCUS GROUPS ANALYSIS ..................................... 84
FIGURE 12: MANUALLY CODED NODES FOR MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND APPLICATIONS FROM
STUDENTS FOCUS GROUPS ........................................................................................................... 85
FIGURE 13: CHILD NODES FOR SUB-THEMES FOR STUDENTS FOCUS GROUPS ANALYSIS ..................... 86
FIGURE 14: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEMES FOR STUDENT FOCUS GROUPS ANALYSIS ..................... 86
FIGURE 15: USABILITY TREE – AN EXAMPLE OF NODE STRUCTURE..................................................... 87
FIGURE 16: FACTORS IMPACTING ON STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF USABILITY - AN EXAMPLE OF
MODELLING THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG MULTIPLE NODES ...................................................... 88
FIGURE 17: MEMOS WRITTEN DURING STUDENTS FOCUS GROUPS ANALYSIS ...................................... 89
FIGURE 18: FLOW OF RESEARCH PROCESS ............................................................................................ 90
FIGURE 19: ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY STUDENTS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES . 123
FIGURE 20: COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY STUDENTS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES .. 124
FIGURE 21: INFORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY STUDENTS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES
................................................................................................................................................... 124
FIGURE 22: INFORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY STUDENTS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES
................................................................................................................................................... 125
FIGURE 23: CATEGORY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY STUDENTS
USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES .................................................................................................... 126
FIGURE 24: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS FROM STUDENTS' FOCUS GROUP SESSIONS ................................ 142
FIGURE 25: ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TEACHERS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES . 171
FIGURE 26: COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TEACHERS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES.. 172
FIGURE 27: INFORMAL TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TEACHERS USING THEIR
MOBILE DEVICES ........................................................................................................................ 173
FIGURE 28: LEARNING SUPPORT ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TEACHERS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES
................................................................................................................................................... 174
FIGURE 29: CATEGORY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY
TEACHERS USING THEIR MOBILE DEVICES ................................................................................... 175
FIGURE 30: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS FROM TEACHERS' FOCUS GROUP SESSIONS ................................ 191
FIGURE 31: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS FROM STAKEHOLDERS' INTERVIEWS........................................... 243
FIGURE 32: MOBILE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL MODEL ....................................................................... 246
FIGURE 33: PEOPLE CATEGORY: INITIAL MODEL ............................................................................... 249
FIGURE 34: STAKEHOLDERS CATEGORY: MLF ................................................................................... 249
FIGURE 35: INTERACTIVITY CATEGORY: INITIAL MODEL .................................................................. 252
FIGURE 36: INTERACTIVITY CATEGORY: MLF .................................................................................... 252
FIGURE 37: TECHNOLOGY CATEGORY: INITIAL MODEL...................................................................... 256
16
FIGURE 38: TECHNOLOGY CATEGORY: MLF ...................................................................................... 256
FIGURE 39: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IMPACTING MOBILE LEARNING IN PAKISTANI UNIVERSITIES 260
FIGURE 40: MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN .................................. 265
FIGURE 41: ABSTRACT VIEW OF MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN . 266
FIGURE 42: COMPONENTS OF MOBILE LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN
CONTRIBUTING TOWARDS MOBILE PEDAGOGY .......................................................................... 267
FIGURE 43: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS OF MOBILE LEARNING SUCCESS IN PAKISTAN..................... 269
17
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF MOBILE LEARNING MODELS AND FRAMEWORKS IN LITERATURE ................... 30
TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF MOBILE LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................... 39
TABLE 3: STUDIES OF MOBILE LEARNING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES .................................................. 44
TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND ASSOCIATED BELIEFS:
ADAPTED FROM (CHEN AND HIRSCHHEIM 2004; KLEIN AND MYERS 1999; ORLIKOWSKI AND
BAROUDI 1991) ............................................................................................................................ 58
TABLE 5: FOCUS GROUPS SCHEDULE AND PARTICIPANTS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION .................... 74
TABLE 6: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE AND PARTICIPANTS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ........................... 75
TABLE 7: STAGES IN DATA ANALYSIS FOR THIS RESEARCH (ADAPTED FROM: BOGDEN AND BIKLEN
(1982), MILES AND HUBERMAN (1994), YIN (2009), RYAN AND BERNERD (2003), LACEY AND
DONNA (2001)) ............................................................................................................................ 78
TABLE 8: MAPPING OF CATEGORIES OF MOBILE LEARNING ACTIVITIES FROM THIS RESEARCH WITH THE
THEMES BY NAISMITH ET AL. (2004B) (ADAPTED FROM: NAISMITH ET AL. (2004B, 18)............. 127
TABLE 9: MAPPING OF CATEGORIES OF MOBILE TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES FROM THIS
RESEARCH WITH THE THEMES BY NAISMITH ET AL. (2004) (ADAPTED FROM: NAISMITH ET AL.
(2004, 18) .................................................................................................................................. 176
TABLE 10: DETAILS OF THEMES DIFFERENTLY DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER 4, CHAPTER 5 AND CHAPTER 6
................................................................................................................................................... 193
TABLE 11: MOBILE LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS: DEVELOPED COUNTRIES VS DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES ................................................................................................................................ 337
18
Chapter One – Introduction
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the Thesis
Teaching and learning in higher education around the world are being transformed to
embed appropriate technologies and pedagogies suitable for a diverse range of
students and teachers from multiple social and cultural backgrounds. Technology is
a key player in today’s higher-education environments with a huge potential to
transform the future of university teaching and learning environments (Jeffrey 2009).
It is important to research and conceptualize the latest technologies with reference to
the appropriate pedagogies before introducing them into mainstream education. For
the past two decades, mobile devices have found their way into formal and informal
spaces of the teaching and learning community. Since mobile learning has surged in
higher education as a silent revolution, there are pressing needs to research and
conceptualize mobile learning to assist education providers and administrators to
include mobile learning in mainstream education (Traxler 2009).
Current mobile learning literature indicates that most of the mobile learning theories
and implementation trials are based on studies conducted in the developed world.
However, developing countries are in need of mobile learning research as the
increase in the number of mobile users and mobile technologies is significant, but
these countries need to upgrade educational ICTs in order to progress (Barker, Krull,
and Mallinson 2005). Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme (2005) identify a number of
problems that impede the adoption of mobile learning in developing countries, such
as the lack of uninterrupted power supply and poor computing facilities. Currently,
there are several mobile learning conceptualizations for developing countries, and
mobile learning pilot projects in India, Kenya and South Africa have shown positive
results so far. Results of mobile learning studies in other developing countries were
used to inform mobile learning research in Pakistani university environments.
This research will make a conceptual contribution to the mobile learning literature
and pracitical contribution to the university enviornments in Pakistan. Conceptual
1
contribution will be made by developing a mobile learning framework for Pakistani

universities which could also be generlized in other developing countries having
similar university environments as of Pakistan. Practical contribution will include
the recommendations for the key stakeholders within the university environments for
future implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani universities. In Pakistan, to
date, no mobile learning project has been implemented particularly in university
environments; based on the researcher’s 10 years experience and observation in
university environment, there is lack of research in this area. Since a decade,
Universities and Higher Education Commision of Pakistan have started allocating
funds separately for research in innovative ways to capitalize on ICTs for university
environments so that students would be trained in latest technologies and teachers
may utilize ICT resources for teaching and research (PERN 2009; HEC 2009).
Moreover, a rigorous literature search about mobile learning, mobile learning in
developing countries and mobile learning in Pakistan did not yeild any publication
revealing the implementation of conceptualization of mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments. This research focuses on filling these gaps so that the
research outcomes can assist Pakistani universities to upgrade educational
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and provide graduates with
facilities and resources that meet international standards as well as add flexibility for
the stakeholders in university teaching and learning enviornments.
1.2 Purpose of Research
The main purpose of the study is twofold; firstly, to conceptualize mobile learning
for Pakistani universities and secondly to provide practical recommendation to the
stakeholders in Pakistani university environments in order to make future
implementation of mobile learning a success in Pakistani universities. The
characteristics of mobile learning will be identified in terms of Pakistani universities
and a mobile learning framework for these universities will be developed. To
characterize mobile learning for Pakistani universities, important stakeholders such
as students, teachers, administrators, instructional designers and IT managers from
Pakistani universities will be invited to participate in the research. Mobile learning
characteristics for Pakistani universities will be identified by using the perceptions
2
and expectations of these key stakeholders. The result of this research is a mobile
learning framework and the stakeholders referred to in this resarch will be the
beneficiaries of this work. The formation of a mobile learning framework for
Pakistani university environments is indeed the theorization of mobile learning for
Pakistani universities. Researchers would be able to use this model and associated
recommendations to build upon for future research projects and studies.
In addition, this framework will provide the conceptual foundation for future
research in mobile learning in Pakistani universities and other higher education
institutions in other developing countries as well.
1.3 Definition of Mobile learning
Mobile learning -sometimes referred to as mlearning- has different meanings

according to different schools of thought. A very basic definition, sometimes called
a techno-centric definition of mobile learning, is ‘any educational provision where
the sole or dominant technologies are handheld or palmtop devices’ (Traxler 2005,
262). Winters (2007) identified different aspects of mobile learning with respect to
defining and conceptualizing mobile learning including techno-centric, blending this
with other learning spaces such as e-learning and traditional formal face-to-face
learning, and knowledge creation by the learner who is proactive instead of just
being a passive recipient of information.
1.4 Importance of Mobile learning
As e-learning constitutes a substantial part of the educational ICTs in modern higher-

education environments, it has already become popular among the teaching and
learning community around the world (Anderson 2008). E-learning offers flexibility
and interactivity to the learners and educators beyond the limits of time and space.
The adoption of e-learning by education providers around the world has
revolutionized the education industry in recent decades. The popularity of e-learning
extends to mobile learning as it not only inherits flexibility and interactivity from e-
learning, but offers portability, connectivity, context sensitivity and collaboration
3
(Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2010). Mobile learning is a step forward from e-
learning as it provides a higher degree of flexibility in learning (Chao and Chen
2009; Low 2007; Peters 2009). Traxler (2005) argues that mobile learning is more
spontaneous, portable, informal, bite-sized and interactive which makes it distinct
from e-learning. Mobile learning research is needed to investigate how its unique
attributes could contribute to the teaching and learning environments for different
educational levels and settings.
Brown et al. (2008, 1) consider mobile learning as a window of opportunity for

learning environments as it ‘invite(s) the learning field to think ‘out of the box’ and
take an evidence-based approach to exploring these capabilities’. Furthermore,
Oliver and Goerke (2007) argue that future university graduates can keep pace with
technological advancements only if universities encourage them to be advanced
digital learners by providing learning options on mobile devices and using social
networking forums for learning. By having learning content made available on
mobile devices, students and teachers can have flexible learning options while on the
move. Students can download lecture slides, listen to podcasts, participate in class
wikis and project blogs using their mobile devices (Akhshabi, Khalatbari, and
Akhshabi 2011; Copley 2007; Lan and Sie 2010). The range of learning activities
can be undertaken by students irrespective of time and location gives mobile learning
a huge potential in future for the teaching and learning environments in future.
In Pakistani universities as well as universities around the world, a number of

students bring their own mobile devices to the university campuses every day. In
light of this development, universities could introduce a Bring Your Own Device
(BOYD) policy to save enormous costs and redirect students’ time spent merely on
social networking activities to mobile learning activities. Cristol and Gimbert (2013)
reported that students who brought their own devices to school for learning purposes,
performed better academically than those who did not use mobile devices. Similarly,
Song (2014) experimented using students’ own devices in primary school in Hong
Kong and found that students developed a better attitude towards seamless science
exploration when they also used their mobile devices for learning, rather than just
their textbooks. However, Stead (2014) and Smith et al. (2014) have recommended
4
that organizations and education providers need to establish their own customized
BYOD policies before implementing this practice.
1.5 Mobile Learning and Education
The advent of sophisticated and user-friendly mobile devices with hundreds of

thousands of compatible apps and faster access technologies (such as 3Gs and 4Gs)
has already revolutionized industries such as banking, finance, travel planning,
tourism, healthcare, social networking and entertainment. However, to date,
education providers have been reluctant to use mobile technologies in formal
teaching and learning environments and, thus, the education industry is far behind in
adopting the mobile technologies and reaping the potential benefits on a larger scale.
However, many top-ranking universities around the world have embraced mobile
devices as an important and cutting-edge part of the educational ICTs (Brown,
Metcalf, and Christian 2008; Hooft 2013; Keengwe and Bhargava 2013; Keskin and
Metcalf 2011). In particular, researchers in developed countries such as USA, UK,
Australia and a number of European countries have focused on implementing,
theorizing and conceptualizing mobile learning. Mobile learning research projects
such as Mobiled have demonstrated positive results in respect to learning objectives,
learner’s performance, motivation and effective use of learning resources beyond the
limits of time and space (Pachler, Bachmair, and Cook 2010). Developing countries
are even far behind in this persuit than developed world although mobile learning
could become a possibility for developing countries to provide flexible learning
options to their masses even in the backward areas.
1.6 Need for Mobile Learning Theory Building
Both in developed and developing world, mobile learning has been tested in trial
implementations without having a solid theoretical stance of its own to inform the
design of mobile learning research. Theory building and conceptualization of mobile
learning have not yet been seriously considered by researchers (Sharples, Taylor, and
Vavoula 2010; Traxler 2009). Mobile learning researchers have been using
theoretical notions adapted from other learning fields, including traditional learning
5
and e-learning; however, Traxler (2009) stresses that mobile learning should be
conceptualized distinctively and separately from other learning forms. Moreover, as
Traxler (2009) argues that mobile learning is informal, spontaneous, bite-sized and
just-in-time - attributes that makes mobile learning distinct from e-learning,
traditional classroom learning and the other technologies available in higher
education learning environments. Based on these built-in capabilities of mobile
learning and to fill the major gap in theory building area of the current mobile
learning literature, this research is an effort to theorize mobile learning for formal
university environments in a developing country Pakistan.
1.7 Research Objectives and Questions
The study will focus on theorizing mobile learning for the Pakistani universities.
Characteristics for mobile learning will be identified in the context of Pakistani
universities and a mobile learning framework for universities in Pakistan, will be
developed. The framework will assist students, teachers and administrative
stakeholders to utilize mobile learning characteristics in universities in Pakistan and
possibly other developing countries. In addition, this framework will provide the
conceptual foundation for future research in mobile learning in Pakistani universities
and other higher education institutions. The major objectives of the research are to:
 identify the characteristics for mobile learning in Pakistani universities’

environment.
 investigate the perceptions and expectations of students, teachers and

university administrators about mobile learning characteristics in Pakistani
universities.
 develop a mobile learning framework for Pakistani universities.
Based on the research objectives, the following research questions have been framed
in order to develop a mobile learning framework for Pakistani universities:
RQ1: What do the students perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani
universities?
6
RQ2: What do the teachers perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani
universities?
RQ3: What do university administrative stakeholders perceive and expect of mobile

learning in Pakistan?
RQ4: What are the common mobile learning characteristics to consider when
designing a mobile learning environment for Pakistani universities?
1.8 Significance of the Research
The outcomes of this research will contribute conceptually to the knowledge of the
mobile learning field and in practical application it will reshape the way ICT is being
used in university education in Pakistan. The mobile learning framework for
Pakistani universities will provide guidelines for instructional designers and teachers
when designing mobile learning activities and blending these with existing learning
and teaching practices. The stakeholders will benefit from this research; in particular:
 Students will be engaged in learning process anywhere-anytime and utilizing

their idle time for learning activities;
 Educational managers and IT managers will provide support to teachers and

students;
 Educational administrators will be able to make decisions and direct

resources by providing students and teachers with remote access to teaching
and learning resources.
By introducing and promoting mobile learning, and endorsing up-to-date technology

in education, universities can attract more students and ensure that the education they
provide is up to international standards. A mobile learning framework can work as a
blueprint for mobile learning project implementation and testing not only in Pakistan,
but in other developing countries with similar needs for mobile learning in future.
7
1.10 Overview of Research Approach
For this research, a case study research method was chosen involving qualitative
research techniques comprising focus groups and individual interviews. Focus group
interviews were conducted with groups of students and teachers from selected
Pakistani universities followed by individual interviews with a number of
administrative stakeholders of the universities such as Deans of teaching and learning
faculties, Head of the Departments, IT Managers and instructional designers. As
there were no significant mobile learning theories and conceptualizations for
Pakistani universities, this research is ground-breaking and exploratory in nature. In
an exploratory case study approach, the researcher is able to study the problem
situation through qualitative research techniques such as focus groups and interviews
to enrich the research output (Yin 2009). The focus group is a qualitative research
technique used to collect data through group interaction where the researcher
provides the focus or theme and sometimes plays the role of moderator during
discussions. Focus groups can be combined with individual interviews as one
method complements the other in order to obtain a richer insight into the problem
domain (Morgan 1997).
1.11 Acknowledgement for Published Work
It is important to acknowledge that several publications have been made out of

different chapters and sections of this thesis. For instance, several publications
including Imtinan, Chang, and Issa (2014), Imtinan (2013), Imtinan, Chang, and Issa
(2013a), Imtinan, Chang, and Issa (2012a), Imtinan, Chang, and Issa (2012b),
Imtinan, Chang, and Issa (2011), Imtinan, Chang, and Issa (2010) and Imtinan (2010)
arose from litertature review and research methods chapters of the thesis. One
conference paper was published out of results and findings of students’ focus groups
or chapter 4 of the thesis (Imtinan, Chang, and Issa 2013c). Another conference
paper was published out of chapter 6 (Imtinan, Chang, and Issa 2013b). A detailed
list of publications out of this theses can be reviewed on page ix of the thesis.
8
1.12 Thesis Outline and Structure
This section outlines the thesis organisation. This thesis has been organized in eight
chapters. Details of theis organization and chapters are as follows:
 The introductory chapter provides an overview of the study and thesis
organization.
 A comprehensive and critical review of extant literature in the mobile
learning field will be presented in Chapter 2.
 After the literature review, the research methodology chapter contains a
detailed account of methodological alternatives and the methodology chosen
as the most appropriate for this research. Chapter 3 also contains information
about data collection techniques, participant demographics, data analysis
strategies, data analysis tools, data analysis stages and ethical considerations
for this research.
 Chapters 4, 5 and 6 include results, discussion and findings from the analysis
of students’ focus groups, teachers’ focus groups and individual interviews
from administrative stakeholders in universities.
 Chapter 7 presents a new mobile learning framework, theoretical and
practical contributions of this research into knowledge-base and answers for
the research questions.
 Chapter 8 includes conclusions, recommendations and future research
directions followed by references and appendices.
1.12 Chapter Summary
Mobile learning is a new addition to the realm of teaching and learning via
technologies. Many industries such as banking, finance and tourism have already
added mobile devices to their routine business practices. The education sector is
embarking on adapting this innovation to formal teaching and learning practice as
many universities in developed countries have already included mobile devices in
their formal educational technologies. Unlike the other industries, the education
sector needs research into and theorization of mobile learning in order for it to be
successfully integrated into formal learning environments and to harness its potential
9
benefits. This research is an effort to theorize mobile learning for a developing

country, Pakistan. Using the case study research method, qualitative research
techniques are used to collect and analyze data. The outcomes of the research will
contribute conceptually to advancing the body of knowledge in the field of mobile
learning and will provide practical assistance to reshape the way technology is used
in university environments in Pakistan.
10
Chapter Two – Literature Review
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Mobile learning has been in practice in multiple contexts, including formal and
informal learning spaces (Pachler, Bachmair, and Cook 2010; Pachler, Cook, and
Bachmair 2012). The term ‘mobile learning’ was coined in the late 1990s, when
advancements in smart phones and mobile devices gave mobile learning researchers
new opportunities to run mobile learning pilot projects (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler
2005; Ozdamli 2012). The idea of mobile learning is not new; nor did it emerge only
with the advent of smart phones. As Laurillard (2007) argues, the idea of a printed
book was the beginning of mobile learning as it introduced the concept of mobility in
learning; and now, the device is replaced by smart phones or tablet mobile devices
used by today’s learners (Vavoula, Pachler, and Kukulska-Hulme 2009).
A review of the extant mobile learning research literature shows that researchers may
have borrowed the theoretical stance from other disciplines such as Education,
Engineering, Information Systems and Human-Computer Interaction, with already-
established theoretical bases (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2005). However, the
development of mobile learning theory is also under way as a number of researchers
have proposed theories and conceptualizations of mobile learning in the form of
frameworks and models (Keskin and Metcalf 2011; Ozdamli 2012).
In the case of mobile learning theory development, there are a number of challenges
other than just adapting learning theories from already-established disciplines. As
Traxler (2009) states, mobile learning theorists and researchers should consider the
scalability of mobile learning implementations and blend mobile learning with other
forms of learning. Previously, mobile learning researchers were focusing only on
differentiating technology-oriented mobile learning from pedagogy-oriented mobile
learning. Traxler (2009) further argues that mobile learning theorists should
11
carefully test the adaptation of theories from other disciplines such as Education,
Information Systems, Engineering and Human Computer Interaction – together with
the contributions of mobile learning’s unique characteristics in order to come up with
the mobile learning theories to be generalized on a large scale.
It is important to point out from the outset that different mobile learning studies may
have used different terminology for the same mobile learning characteristics. For
example, ‘mobility’ and ‘flexibility’ have been used interchangeably in many
studies; the same goes for ‘connectivity’ and ‘network access point’ in the same
context (Frohberg, Göth, and Schwabe 2009; Koole 2009). Therefore, similar
characteristics have been grouped under the one name or terminology predominantly
used in the literature to represent each concept and have been used in the subsequent
sections of this chapter and the rest of the thesis in order to maintain consistency and
avoid confusion for the reader.
This chapter has been organized according to the following sections. The scope of
the literature review is discussed in Section 2.2. Section 2.3 contains the discussion
of various mobile learning definitions. In Section 2.4, a review of theoretical
perspective has been presented. Sections 2.5 presents a detailed account of mobile
learning models and frameworks from the extant literature followed by mobile
learning characteristics individually discussed in Section 2.6. Section 2.7 and
Section 2.8 examine mobile learning in developed and developing countries and
provide a summary of mobile learning studies in developing countries. Section 2.9
identifies the gaps in the existing literature that this research aims to address, and
Section 2.10 presents an initial mobile learning model based on the literature review
followed by the chapter summary.
2.2 Scope of the Literature Review
For the purpose of a comprehensive literature review, certain topics in particular

were included in this chapter: mobile learning definitional aspects, mobile learning
theoretical perspectives, existing mobile learning studies proposing models and
frameworks, mobile learning characteristics incorporated in those studies and the
current state of mobile learning in developing countries. A number of scholarly
12
databases were examined including Science Direct, ACM Digital Library, Proquest
(ABI-INFORM) and SpringerLink. Further, several internationally reputed journals
which regularly publish mobile learning research, were consulted manually. Some of
these journals include: International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organizations,
International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, Computers and Education,
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning and British Journal of Educational
Technology.
Since there are relatively few research articles that focus in particular on the
conceptualization of mobile learning, the proceedings of a few popular conferences
such as the MLearn series and IADIS Mobile Learning conferences were also
examined. Most important of all, approximately 25 to 30 of the latest books
published on the topics of mobile learning, online learning, e-learning, blended
learning and technology in learning were read and consulted manually; a number of
book chapters from these books have been referenced in this chapter and the rest of
the thesis. The list of books includes, but is not limited to mobile learning are:
 Mobile Learning: essays on philosophy, psychology and education by Kristóf

Nyíri (2003)
 Mobile learning: a handbook for educators and trainers by Agnes Kukulska-
Hulme, John Traxler (2005)
 Mobile Learning: Transforming the Delivery of Education and Training by
Mohamed Ally (2009)
 The theory and practice of online learning by Terry Anderson (2008),
 Innovative mobile learning: techniques and technologies by Hokyoung Ryu
and David Parsons (2009)
 Researching Mobile Learning: Frameworks, Tools, and Research Designs by
Giasemi Vavoula, Norbert Pachler, Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, (2009)
 Mobile Learning: Structures, Agency and Practices by Norbert Pachler, Ben
Bachmair, John Cook, Gunther Kress (2010)
 Mobile Technologies and Handheld Devices for Ubiquitous Learning:
Research and Pedagogy by Wan Ng (2011)
 Appropriation of Mobile Cultural Resources for Learning by Norbert Pachler,
Ben Bachmair, John Cook (2012)
 Innovations in Mobile Educational Technologies and Applications by David
Parosns (2013)
13
 Mobile Pedagogy and Perspectives on Teaching and Learning by McConatha

et al. (2014)
The above mentioned literature sources from 2000 to 2012 were scanned for the
terms mobile learning models and frameworks, mobile learning conceptualization,
mobile learning theories, mobile learning characteristics, mobile learning in
developing countries and mobile learning research methods. The initial search of
online databases yielded approximately 700 articles using these keywords. Abstracts
of all of the downloaded articles were scanned manually for relevance.
Approximately 300 articles were selected for inclusion in this literature review based
on their relevance to the topic of this research. As the mobile learning field is
encountered by numeruous studies and research projects each year resulting in a
number of new publications and developments in the field. Therefore, a number of
scholarly articles from books and journals published in 2013 and 2014 have also
been included in order to reflect the latest happenings and trends in the field of
mobile learning.
2.3 Definitional Aspects of Mobile Learning
As indicated by the literature, early definitions of mobile learning are somewhat

influenced by advanced mobile technologies, and therefore represent a techno-centric
view (Traxler 2005). More recently, the concept of mobility in learning has been
redefined with respect to the digital and mobile technologies governing the social
and personal spaces of a learner’s life, as explained by Pachler et al. (2010, 6):
‘Definitions of mobile learning in the literature are manifold, but they tend to
revolve around the mobility of the technology or the mobility of the learner
with a clear change of emphasis of late from former to the latter.’
Therefore, it was noted that mobile learning has shifted the focus from technology to
mobility. Another important aspect of mobile learning has been entertained by a
number of researchers in the definition space of mobile learning and that is to
illustrate the orientation of mobile learning with learning theories (Ally 2004). This
aspect is of substantial importance in the growth and acceptance of mobile learning
by education providers as they can be convinced to allow mobile learning into formal
14
and mainstream education only if they find enough evidence that traditional learning
and cognitive theories not only support mobile learning but also demonstrate better
results in terms of learning and innovation (Palfrey and Gasser 2008). The following
sub-sections provide detailed information from the literature about the three
definition perspectives identified in this section; viz., techno-centric, learner-centred
and augmentation of learning theories with mobile learning.
2.3.1 Techno-Centric
Mobile learning is a way to learn, independent of time and space, by virtue of the
advancement in mobile technologies (Ally 2009; Kukulska-Hulme 2005a).
O’Malley et al. (2003, 6) defined mobile learning as:
‘Any sort of learning that happens when the learner is not at a fixed,
predetermined location, or learning that happens when the learner takes
advantage of learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies.’
Similarly, Keegan (2005, 3) defines mobile learning as:
‘The provision of education and training on PDAs/palmtops/handhelds, smart

phones and mobile phones.’
‘Mobile technologies and devices tend to change rapidly; therefore, when

defining mobile learning, it is necessary to think beyond a specific mobile
device and a particular mobile technology.’
The importance and role of mobile technologies, however, cannot be denied. Traxler
(2009, 14) has called mobile technology the ‘defining characteristic of mobile
learning’. Popular usages, pervasive access, portability of devices and cheaper
prices of mobile technologies available to the common man have expanded the
number and range of learning opportunities. The introduction of mobile technologies
and mobile devices has redirected learning to “finding information rather than
possessing it or knowing it” which provides equal opportunity for members within a
community or society to access learning resources. Furthermore, the affordability of
15
mobile technologies has introduced the concept of connectedness of the society in

particular, and a connected world in general (Denk, Weber, and Belfin 2007; Traxler
2009).
2.3.2 Learner-Centred Mobility
Pachler et al. (2010, 6) define mobile learning from the social perspectives of the
learner and state this clearly as follows:
‘Mobile learning - as we understand it - is not about delivering content to

mobile devices but, instead, about the processes of coming to know and being
able to operate successfully in, and across, new and ever-changing contexts
and learning spaces. And, it is about understanding and knowing how to
utilize our everyday life-worlds as learning spaces. Therefore, in case it
needs to be stated explicitly, for us mobile learning is not primarily about
technology.’
Literature suggests that the popularity of mobile learning is not merely due to more
advanced technology and extensive use of mobile devices but, rather, the concept of
mobility and learning has suggested the possibility of using mobile technologies in
learning environments. Vavoula and Sharples et al. (2002) discuss learning as a
dynamic process because individuals learn, and they are capable of learning, even
when not in formal academic settings. Laurillard (2007) mentions that the very
concept of mobility has been built into learning environments since the advent of
printed books, pencils and notebooks; learning has been mobile in different spheres
of life; and it is the technology that is ever-changing. Today, a mobile device
combines the benefits of a book (eBooks and other electronically published
material), a pencil (word processing capabilities), notebooks (note-taking software
applications) and numerous other features for the learner to enjoy the greater benefits
of mobility.
Mobile learning has scope for individual, collaborative and situated learning. It is a
ubiquitous learning solution which inherently combines the benefits of existing
learning domains such as e-learning, in-person learning and contextual learning
(Frohberg, Göth, and Schwabe 2009; Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2005). In
16
general, learning occurs at different times during the day, and it is mobile in terms of
space as it happens in the workplace, at home and at places of leisure. Furthermore,
learning is ‘just-in-time’ as discussed by Kambil and Eselius (2000), no matter what
you do or where you are. It is mobile between different areas of life such as work
demands or self-improvement. Learning is continuous improvement gained through
life-long practice of knowledge and skills. Mobile learning cannot be separated from
face-to-face learning and e-learning (Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2005; Vavoula
and Sharples 2002). Mobility empowers the learning process by redefining
traditional and formal learning to informal, contextual and lifelong learning.
2.3.3 Augmenting with Learning Theories
Mobile learning is not just about advanced technology. As Litchfiled et al. (2007)
have discussed, there is great confusion among teachers and administrators regarding
the use of mobile devices in learning environments. Mifsud (2002a, 1) points out
that dilemma is being faced also by education providers as to whether this
’technological intruder’ should or should not be allowed in universities. However,
Palfrey et al. (2008) argue that teachers and educational authorities should allow the
use of mobile technology in education and should design learning activities
conforming to pedagogical principles. Motiwalla (2007) discusses mobile learning
from the perspective of learning theories such as social constructive theory of
learning and conversation theory.
According to Naismith, et al. (2004b), mobile technologies enable people to learn

and reflect in certain environments conforming to the social constructive theory of
learning. Also, mobile learning provides enhanced collaboration and interactivity
among learners and teachers, thereby achieving the benefits of conversational
learning. Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula (2007) define mobile learning as a
conversational learning process when people move to different places and use
different technologies for the purpose. Laurillard’s (2007) conversational framework
for learning also supports mobile learning. Naismith et al. (2004b) have categorized
theories of learning as behaviourist, constructivist or collaborative, to explain how
mobile learning is supported by a number of learning theories.
17
Rochelle (2003) argues that when it comes to using mobile devices for learning, the
nature of learning will be changed to the conversational and collaborative as will be
the representation of the learning resources. He further comments that mobile
devices provide teachers and students with another opportunity to socially
communicate and collaborate besides the classroom. Traxler (2009) discusses that
the popularity of mobile technologies and devices has made it imperative to explore
and redefine the complex relationship between learner, society and technologies. He
argues that mobile learning - with some distinguishing characteristics (see Section 6
for details of mobile learning characteristics) of its own - resides more in the realm of
informal learning than formal learning; therefore, the conceptual and theoretical
stance of mobile learning may be distinct from other forms of learning.
Pachler et al. (2010, 19) refer to Vygotsky’s theory of child development, which
considers that a child or learner has different ‘zones of proximal development’ (ZPD)
where the environment is more conducive to learning; these ZPDs are not necessarily
formal educational premises such as classrooms and schools; rather, a learner’s
‘responsive phases’ may include socio-cultural backgrounds and spaces such as
home, community and playground. Pachler et al. (2010) emphasize that the concept
of ZPD needs to be redefined with respect to mobile learning, which provides the
opportunity for learning across contexts and without the limitation of formal
institutional boundaries and timings. A number of mobile learning researchers have
used activity theory (Vygotsky 1978) and activity system (Engeström 1987) as
theoretical foundations for mobile learning research.
It may be concluded that mobile learning is not merely an outcome of technological

advancement; rather, it has been augmented with learning theories as a pedagogical
stance. It also considers the learner to be more independent as well as collaborative
in the learning process. These arguments may pave the way for education providers
to include mobile learning in mainstream education, blending it with other existing
forms of learning. Current literature about mobile learning definitions, however,
lacks the inclusion of pedagogical aspect in rigourous way to make mobile learning
defintions stronger and complete in variety of educational arenas.
18
2.4 Theoretical Perspectives of Mobile Learning
A number of mobile learning researchers have discussed the ZPD of Vygotsky

(1978) as one of the mobile learning foundational theories (Liaw, Hatala, and Huang
2010; Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2005; Uden 2007). Although there is no
consensus in the field of mobile learning regarding foundational theories, researchers
are experimenting with multi-disciplinary theoretical foundations for a variety of
mobile leaning research projects across the world (Traxler 2009). This is a process
of natural evolution and growth for a new field of knowledge, although sometimes it
takes centuries for a knowledge base to become enriched with established theories
(Pachler, Bachmair, and Cook 2010; Vavoula, Pachler, and Kukulska-Hulme 2009).
A significant attempt to define the theoretical perspectives of mobile learning was
made by Naismith et al. (2004b) who categorized mobile learning from the
theoretical perspectives of learning on the basis of learning activities such as
behaviourist, constructivist, situated, collaborative, informal and lifelong learning.
The theoretical perspectives identified by Naismith et al. (2004b) became very
popular among mobile learning researchers.
Many mobile learning researchers have cited and used theoretical perspectives by
Naismith et al. (2004b) as a foundation for their own research studies and projects
(Herrington and Herrington 2007). By using existing learning theories, Naismith et
al. (2004b) have populated emerging learning practices by today’s learners and
justified how mobile learning is oriented towards existing learning theories while
addressing the new and unique needs of today’s learner who is born as a digital
native (Palfrey and Gasser 2008).
Keskin and Metcalf (2011) included a number of theoretical perspectives popular

among mobile learning researchers such as context awareness, socio-cultural theory,
conversational learning and problem-based learning in addition to the perspectives
presented in Naismith et al. (2004b) (Laurillard 2007; Pachler, Bachmair, and Cook
2010). Furthermore, there are a number of other theories underlying the
experimentations of mobile learning researchers including, but not limited to, the
theory of planned behavior, self-regulated learning and the Technology Adoption
Model (Chen et al. 2011; Chen 2009; Cheon et al. 2012). The concept of mobile
19
learning as micro-learning has also been discussed by several researchers (Hug 2012;
Oliver 2007).
Despite the numerous and various theoretical perspectives explored and presented by
mobile learning researchers discussed in earlier paragraphs of this section, there are
several aspects of mobile learning that still need to be discussed from a theoretical
stance. For instance, Traxler (2009, 10) argues that mobile learning has multiple
novel dimensions that must be considered by researchers of mobile learning:
‘Attempts to develop the conceptualizations and evaluation of mobile

learning, however, must recognize that mobile learning is essentially
personal, contextual, and situated; this means it is ‘noisy’, which is
problematic both for definition and for evaluation.’
These novel dimensions indicate the need for further research in order to develop
definitions for mobile learning distict from eLearning and other forms of learning.
Furthermore, the theoretical perspectives borrowed from other diciplines and other
forms of learning need to be reconsidered and researched again in order to adapt
them for mobile learning research and implementation in mainstream education.
2.5 Review of Current Mobile Learning Frameworks

and Models
This section presents a discussion on the theorization and conceptualization of

mobile learning by mobile learning researchers who have proposed their models and
frameworks. However, these models and frameworks are theory-informed as these
researchers have taken a strong theoretical stance based on those of other disciplines
including Education, Information Systems, Engineering and Human Computer
Interaction (Calbraith and Dennick 2011; Kukulska-Hulme 2009).
Activity theory has been quite popular among mobile learning researchers in
informing mobile learning research designs (Petrova 2010; Uden 2007). Other than
activity theory as a theoretical basis for mobile learning research, a number of
researchers have formulated models and frameworks derived from mobile learning
20
action research projects, trial implementations and theoretical reviews. Most of these
frameworks and models incorporate mobile learning characteristics such as usability,
engagement, interactivity, collaboration, context and mobility. These characteristics
-also referred to as the criteria for mobile learning design by some researchers- have
been used by mobile learning researchers to theorize mobile learning for a variety of
learning environments from elementary schools to higher educational institutions and
across multiple disciplines. Figure 1 has been derived from the mobile learning
characterisitics found in the mobile learning literature in order to portray what other
researchers have emphasized upon in mobile learning literatrure.
Collaborat
ion
Control Usability
Mobile
Learning
Content Mobility
Communic
Context
ation
Figure 1: Key Characteristics of Mobile Learning
The key characteristics of mobile learning (see Figure 1) which have emerged from
the literature include: usability, collaboration, communication, context, content,
control (authenticity/ administrative checks and teacher’s control on learning
process), mobility (sometimes referred as flexibility), portability, interface and
availability of mobile learning applications (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005;
Danaher, Gururajan, and Baig 2009; Denk, Weber, and Belfin 2007; Frohberg, Göth,
and Schwabe 2009; Chao et al. 2009; Koole 2009; Naismith et al. 2004b; Parsons
21
and Ryu 2009). The mobile learning models and frameworks in this section have
been discussed with respect to the mobile learning characteristics incorporated in
them. These models and frameworks were reviewed for inclusion in this section.
However, the most relevant models and frameworks were selected to address the
research aims and objectives based on the frequency with which they are citerd in the
literature. A list of mobile learning models and frameworks has also been presented
in Table 1 towards the end of this section.
Barker et al. (2005) have proposed a model (See Figure 2) for mobile learning
adoption in developing countries. According to Barker et al. (2005), the main
players in a mobile learning environment include a communication infrastructure,
learners, teachers and IT staff. Parents, system designers and device vendors play an
indirect role outside of the system entities.
A key component of Barker’s model is the issue of policies and guidelines for mobile
learning. These policies and guidelines may ultimately play a key role in mobile
learning instructional design which can lead to acceptance of mobile learning in
mainstream education by education providers.
22
Figure 2: A model for M-learning adoption (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005)
23
Sharples, Taylor and Vavoula (2005) used the activity theory of Engeström (1987) to
formulate a theory of mobile learning and presented an adapted version of
Engeström’s activity diagram for analyzing mobile learning environments, named
the ‘task model for mobile learning’. The ‘task model for mobile learning’ (Taylor et
al. 2006) (See Figure 3) provides an analytical framework and design rationale for
mobile learning using subject, tool, control, context, communication and object as an
adaptation of the original components of the activity system.
Figure 3: Task model for mobile learning (Taylor et al. 2006; Sharples et al. 2007b)
In line with the model shown in Figure 3, the mapping for each component has been
included in the model:
1. Subject refers to mobile learners.
2. Tool is device or means that assists the learner or helps mediate the learning
process, for example, mobile devices and technologies are tools in the case of
mobile learning.
24
3. Context refers to the physical environment of the learner or where the learning
takes place: a mobile learner would be able learn in a variety of contexts due to
the mobility of the technology Control represents rules in the activity system:
how the learning process is mediated or controlled by teachers, administrators
and learners.
4. Communication demonstrates the level of collaborative work and interactive

learning between the learner, the teacher, peers and other stakeholders in the
learning environment.
5. Objective is the learning outcome and assessment of improvement in acquired

skills and enhanced knowledge.
Frohberg et al. (2009) have used Taylor et al. (2006) task model as an analysis
framework to categorize different mobile learning studies by mobile learning
researchers around the world. This mapping validates the notion of activity theory
for mobile learning as an inherent framework. The adaptation of the activity theory
for mobile learning by a number of researchers has made it a key theoretical
foundation for mobile learning research. Uden (2007, 99) analyzes activity theory
for designing mobile learning environments and concludes that ‘activity theory can
help designers to better understand the social and material relations that affect
complex human learning and learners’ interaction with others as mediated by tools’.
Uden’s framework (no figure available, a multi-step process) analyzes and maps the
activity theory to mobile learning activities by introducing a number of steps such as
understanding the purpose of the learning activity, designing an interface to perform
that activity, ensuring the relevance of the context where learning is happening,
understanding of activity structure and investigating possible contradictions within
the learning environment itself. Every step poses a number of questions addressing
detailed criteria for mobile learning design including engagement of learners,
collaborative activities, learning across multiple contexts, available resources, role of
technology, expectations of learners and potential contradictions in dealing with
mobile learning design to blend with other modes of learning.
25
Motiwalla (2007) presented a comprehensive mobile learning framework (see Figure

4) that includes the concepts of isolation and interaction in relation to the type of
mobile learning applications and access technologies.
Figure 4: A mobile learning framework (Motiwalla 2007)
Motiwalla’s framework has been researched in terms of pedagogical considerations

for mobile learning. Motiwalla’s (2007) framework uses the mobile learning
content-type to illustrate mobile learning characteristics, technological resources and
the role of teachers and administrators. Personalized and collaborative learning have
been included as key themes to demonstrate that the learner can fully utilize the
benefits of mobile learning as an independent learner and as a member of a peer-
group. Mobile learning applications such as SMS, instant messaging, calendars,
discussion boards and chat forums are appropriately designed to match pedagogical
expectations.
Another mobile learning framework (see Figure 5) developed by Danaher et al.

(2009) demonstrates how to design mobile learning environments for higher
education.
Engagement, presence and flexibility have been proposed as fundamental and driving
characteristics for mobile learning for higher education in Danaher et al.’s (2009)
conceptual framework for designing mobile learning environments. Each of the
characteristics employed in this framework is equally important in the mobile
26
learning environment; thus, it is important to consider these components when

designing mobile learning environments for university students.
Figure 5: A conceptual framework for designing mobile learning environments

(Danaher, Gururajan, and Baig 2009)
‘Engagement’ is related to the collaboration between learners and their mentors or

teachers. ‘Presence’ refers to the physical context and enhanced awareness of the
learning environment. ‘Flexibility’ reflects one’s ability to be involved in learning
activities regardless of time and space. All three components combine to create an
optimal opportunity for the mobile learner to achieve learning goals (Danaher,
Gururajan, and Baig 2009).
As shown in Figure 6, Parsons and Ryu (2009) formulated a framework that guides
the design process of mobile learning activities. Most importantly, the components
of this framework take into account the nature of mobile devices, learning context of
these devices, possible learning activities and most important of all, the learning
objectives.
27
Figure 6: A framework for designing learning spaces (Parsons and Ryu 2009)
28
By including learning objectives, mobile learning is actively evaluated. Learning

activities have been categorized as individual, collaborative or situated. These
learning activities, considered from both the technical and learning perspectives,
include types of mobile devices, mobile learning context, participatory learning
activities and learning objectives.
Koole (2009) has formulated a Framework for Rational Analysis of Mobile

Education (FRAME) (see Figure 7) with three main aspects of: 1) the device aspect
representing mobile devices and mobile technologies, 2) the learner aspect referring
mainly to the learner, and 3) the social aspect indicating other participants in the
learning community who influence the learning process directly and/or indirectly.
Figure 7: The FRAME model (Koole 2009)
In this model, the mobile technologies mediate the learning process for learners,
facilitate social interaction within the community of learners for collaborative
projects, and enhance learning outcomes. For each aspect, the FRAME model
encapsulates in detail the characteristics such as device features, portability, and
29
motivation, learners’ prior knowledge about mobile technologies, device usability

issues and collaborative tools.
Table 1: Summary of Mobile learning Models and Frameworks in Literature
Model/Framework Authors
Pedagogical Framework of Mobile Learning (Ozdamli 2012)
A scalable framework to quantitatively evaluate success (Issa, Al–Bahadili, and
factors of mobile learning systems Abuhamdeh 2011)
Mobile Learning Framework for Lifelong Learning (Nordin, Embi, and Yunus
2010)
The Framework for the Rational Analysis of Mobile (Koole 2009)
Education (FRAME)
(Danaher, Gururajan, and Baig
The Framework for designing m-learning environments
2009)
The Framework for designing mobile learning spaces (Parsons and Ryu 2009)
The Framework for collaboration in context (Spikol, K., and M. 2009)
Framework to integrate m-learning into e-learning (Wains and Mahmood 2008)
An Interactive M-Learning Model (Wei, Zhuo, and Zhang 2008)
Framework for analysing mobile learning (Wali, Winters, and Oliver
2008)
A framework for enabling on-demand personalixed (Meawad and Stubbs 2008)
mobile learning
A framework for designing mobile learning (Uden 2007)
Conceptual framework for mobile CSCL (Zurita and Nussbaum 2007)
Australian Flexible Learning Framework (Low 2007)
the conceptual framework for m-learning design (Barbosa et al. 2007)
requirements
(Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula
Task model for mobile learning
2007b)
Mobile Learning Framework (Motiwalla 2007)
A proposed theoretical model for m-learning adoption in (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson
developing countries 2005)
Low-Key m-learning: a realistic introduction of m- (Masters 2005)
learning to developing countries
As it is not possible to discuss all available mobile learning models and frameworks
individually, only the most relevant and prominent models/frameworks have been
discussed in detail. Table 1 provides a summary of a number of popular and
30
frequently-cited mobile learning models and frameworks available in published

mobile learning research.
2.6 Mobile Learning Characteristics
Current mobile learning literature shows that mobile learning researchers have been
experimenting on a number of mobile learning characteristics (Cobcroft 2006;
Danaher, Gururajan, and Baig 2009; Frohberg, Göth, and Schwabe 2009; Koole
2009; Kwon and Lee 2010; Ozdamli and Cavus 2011; Parsons 2013; Traxler 2009).
After the rigorous process of scanning and reviewing literature for this study, it was
concluded that usability, collaboration, context, control, connectivity, mobility,
content, blending, technical support and cost are the common mobile learning
characteristics. It appears from the literature that these characteristics have been
incorporated and researched in one way or another in most of the mobile learning
studies dealing with the subject so far. The following sub-sections contain the
discussion of each of these mobile learning characteristics in detail.
2.6.1 Usability
Usability relates to the ease of using mobile devices for learning purposes in respect
to screen size, battery life, size, weight, memory, processing power, compatible
applications and user interface (Koole 2009; Kukulska-Hulme 2005b). Other than
these basic usability issues, Koole (2009) includes a number of other factors such as
aesthetic appeal of the device, simplified display, fewer steps required to perform a
task, ease of navigation, customization options and environment or climate of the
place where the learner is located. Besides the usability features of mobile devices,
Kuen (2006) provides a usability guidelines framework for designing mobile
learning portals which focuses on analyzing the learner’s usage skills, human-mobile
interaction and interface design as main categories to develop usability guidelines for
designing mobile learning portals containing mobile learning content and
applications. Bearing in mind the fact that current mobile devices, and the ones used
in previous pilot projects such as PDAs and smart phones, are not built for learning
purposes, it is more likely that learners will face usability problems. Therefore,
researchers such as Kuen (2006) recommended guidelines for designers of mobile
31
learning portals. However, as the mobile devices are becoming multi-purpose and
more sophisticated in design and functionality, the basic usability problems such as
battery life, memory capabilities and screen size limitations, will diminish (Wu et al.
2012).
2.6.2 Collaboration
Collaboration demonstrates the level of communication and interaction between the

learner and the teacher as well as among other learners (Ryu and Parsons 2009). A
number of studies around the world have shown that mobile learning will make
learning processes more informal and collaborative (Mifsud 2002). Collaboration in
learning has been proven to enhance learning outcomes. Parsons et al. (2009) argue
that collaborative learning gives a better understanding of the subject matter to all
contributors or group members and this in itself is a good reason for accepting
mobile technologies in learning environments. Palfrey et al. (2008, 248) relate
mobile technologies to collaborative learning because the former can be utilized the
best in order to reap the benefits of ‘team-based learning’. Spikol et al. (2009, 174)
refer to Piagetian theories of collaborative learning based on ‘conversations that can
result in cognitive restructuring’ and Vygotskian views about ‘peer-to-peer
interaction’ which facilitate knowledge sharing and knowledge creation. Mobile
learning encourages collaboration among learners, teachers and other stakeholders in
learning environments (Barker et al., 2005). A number of mobile learning projects
have been implemented around the world showing improved learning outcomes by
students when engaged in a range of collaborative activities including field work,
group projects and classroom activities. Furthermore, most mobile learning theorists
in the current literature have included collaboration or collaborative learning
activities as one of the driving factors in the adoption and/or acceptance of mobile
learning by education providers at the elementary school level, college level or
university level (Danaher et al. 2009; Ford and Leinonen 2009; Motiwalla 2007).
2.6.3 Context
Context refers to the physical environment of the learner or where the learning takes
place (Frohberg et al. 2009). Mobile learning presents learners with a variety of
32
contexts where they can learn and experiment in real-world situations (Geddes
2004). Learners can interact with the environment and make sense of the objects
with location awareness of mobile devices such as museum tours; an example is the
Tate Modern Multimedia Tour pilot project and MobiLearn project where learners
experienced contextualized learning using mobile devices during the tour that
provide information about objects on display(Attewell et al. 2003; Proctor and
Burton 2003b). A study by Chen et al. (2003) reporting on the observation of birds
on a farm is another example of context in the mobile environment where students,
on a field trip, learn about birds by observing the physical activities of birds and use
mobile devices to record information and identify objects. The context of the learner
can be a classroom or any other controlled learning environment such as a mobile
learning study conducted by Lowery (Lowery 2005) where a teacher uses a quiz in
the classroom and relies on responses from the students to proceed with the learning
session. Spikol et al. (2009, 174) discuss context in relation to collaboration for
mobile learning and define context as ‘information and content in use to support a
specific activity (being individual or collaborative) in a particular physical
environment’. In mobile learning, the context of the learner is a key construct as
mobile devices allow the learner to access, navigate and make sense of information
where and when it is needed.
2.6.4 Control
Control refers to the amount of grip a teacher or a learner has on the learning process
for smooth continuity and best outcomes (Frohberg et al. 2009). When designing
mobile learning environments, it is very important to emphasize the role of the
moderator who mediates the learning process, controls it to a certain extent and
creates the learning environment which nourishes learners with guided reflection;
otherwise, learners may be at risk of losing direction (Sharples et al. 2005). As a
theoretical foundation for their mobile learning research, Herrington et al. (2009)
discuss the concept of authentic learning where students are able to resolve real-time
complex problems in professional environments and by reflection create new
knowledge, at times guided by teachers. The teacher’s role and intervention in the
learning process is of vital importance. Pachler et al. (2010, 160) refer to ‘the
conversational framework for supporting the formal learning process’ suggested by
33
Laurillard (2007, 160) which shows the notion of ‘the world of experience’ for the
role of teacher in the learning process; they present a further critical analysis of the
conversational framework: ‘Learning is viewed as a series of iterative conversations
with the external world and its artefacts, with oneself, with other learners and, of
course, teachers’. Frohberg et al. (2009) have categorized mobile learning projects
(published up to 2007) from a fully teacher-controlled learning scenario to a fully
learner-controlled learning scenario and recommend scaffolding as an optimized
option in the middle of the two extremes; their reasons for scaffolding
recommendations include:
1. Learners are from a variety of backgrounds and have distinct learning needs.
2. Different phases of the learning process may vary in terms of need for
scaffolding.
3. Scaffolding may be very appropriate for individual learning and team-based

learning.
4. Learners may encounter unexpected problems or opportunities and may need

to take the initiative when making decisions by themselves at times.
In mobile learning environments, it is crucial to decide how autonomous a learner

should be so that the best learning outcomes can be achieved, Therefore, it is
important to consider the necessary level of control when designing mobile learning
environments.
2.6.5 Connectivity
Connectivity, in respect of mobile technologies, refers to how mobile devices can

have wireless connectionusing a variety of cellular and wireless access technologies
such as GPS, EDGE, GPRS, GSM, 3Gs, 4Gs, WiMAX, WiFI, WLAN (Ambient-
Insight's 2008; Greer 2013; Roschelle 2003). Mobile connectivity includes voice
telephony and internet access for data transmission. Connectivity, as a mobile
learning characteristic, relates to how effectively a learner can access the required
information or learning material on a mobile device (Koole 2009).
34
Network access technologies work as an interface between users, mobile devices and
learning resources. Learning resources may be accessible through a wide range of
mobile technologies and devices. In the mobile learning arena, a few researchers
have used the term ‘accessibility’ for network access capabilities and access
technologies; however, accessibility is generally referred to in relation to the
provision of proper facilities for people with disabilities (Rainger 2005).
Connectivity enables mobile learning to be more ubiquitous and portable (Traxler
2005). As the network coverage continues to expand and develop better quality,
more learners are likely to be attracted to mobile learning. Traxler (2005) also
differentiates mobile learning from e-learning on the basis of connectivity and
presence as he posits that mobile learning provides more opportunities for the
learners to discover the knowledge-world in unique ways, which makes it distinct
from e-learning and other forms of technology-mediated learning.
2.6.6 Mobility
Mobility is sometimes used as an interchangeable term with flexibility and

portability (Koole 2009). It is the ease of accessing learning material and
collaborating with peers regardless of time and space (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler
2005). Mobility is one of the key constructs in the design of mobile learning systems
and environments because mobility is, as noted by Sharples (2002), a shared attribute
of mobile devices and the conceptions of learning; students learn in different places
and different times when mobile devices support them to learn anywhere-anytime
(Pachler et al. 2012). Naismith et al. (2004b, 4) define mobility as:
‘The ability to link to activities in the outside world also provides students with the
capability to ‘escape’ the classroom and engage in activities that do not correspond
with either the teacher’s agenda or the curriculum’
Koole (2009) has used the term ‘portability’, meaning ‘mobility’, which means that
mobile devices can be taken to different locations and environments and even to
remote or far-flung places. Subject to mobility characteristics, mobile learning is
called spontaneous, contextual, on-demand, flexible, just-in-time, situated, portable
and mobile (Traxler, 2009). Brown (Brown 2009) points out that mobility is
becoming a way of life as it has made most mobile users keen to access resources
35
and turned them into implicit learners. Further, Brown (2009) recommends that the
mobility of the devices should be exploited to enrich the learning experience of
learners.
2.6.7 Blending
Blended learning is a ubiquitous learning solution which combines the benefits of

various learning domains such as mobile learning, e-learning, face-to-face learning
and contextual learning (Chao and Chen 2009; Peters 2009). Ally (2009) defines
blended learning as a variety of learning approaches with virtual and physical
learning resources combined appropriately. Accessing learning content via mobile
devices is an advancement in the blended learning arena as it makes the learning
experience life-long and informal (Pieri and Diamantini 2009). Wan and Wan and
Howard (2007, 187) mention that the ubiquity of mobile devices enables blended
learning in terms of resources available on mobile devices and a number of learning
activities that a learner can perform such as:
‘Concept-mapping, organization, note-taking, writing, researching, reading e-

documents, doing worksheets and submitting them for checking, watching
animations and movies, drawing graphs, calculating mathematical problems, data
collecting, doing their homework, keeping a reflective log, undertaking recording
(voice and stylus) and interacting with simulations and multimedia educational
materials. Having access to a hand-held device all the time is like having all-in-one
access to the pens, text books or other written resources, cameras, calculators, voice
recorders, clocks and Internet’.
Naismith et al. (2004b) also consider that adapting the blended approach to mobile
learning is imperative because of its orientation with multiple theoretical and
practical perspectives. Literature shows that mobile learning, when blended with
other forms of learning, makes the learning experience more fruitful, rigorous and
collaborative (Fuchs 2012; Hooft 2013; Wang et al. 2009). Mobile learning provides
an opportunity to support and enhance the performance of learners and engage them
in learning activities. To include mobile learning in mainstream education, blending
it with existing learning forms such as face-to-face learning and e-learning, is the
rational solution for education providers.
36
2.6.8 Content
Mobile learning content refers to the learning resources for students in a format
compatible with mobile devices (Frohberg et al., 2009). Low (2007) has formulated
a set of mobile learning standards in the Australian Flexible Learning Framework for
creating, adapting, accessing and modifying learning content or learning material for
mobile devices. Mobile learning content development depends on the kinds of
learning activities that are required for a specific learning scenario. The literature
suggests a range of mobile learning activities such as accessing information
remotely, file sharing, taking photos, recording and playing audio and video files and
sharing these files remotely and creating collaborative content online (Parsons and
Ryu 2009; Naismith et al. 2004b). Traxler (2005, 264) in his definition of mobile
learning, calls it ‘spontaneous, informal, bite-sized, light-weight, context aware,
connected, personalized, interactive’ these terms indicate the type of content suitable
for mobile learning. Mobile learning content can be custom-built by education
providers following individual institutional preferences; however, packaged content
(usually called mobile learning applications or apps, as activities, are translated to
apps by software developers) is also available in the market (Ambient-Insight's 2008;
Greer 2013; Parsons, Hokyoung, and Cranshaw 2006).
2.6.9 IT or Technical Support
Making mobile learning a seamless learning opportunity is not possible without

providing technical support for teachers and students. Chen et al. (2010) suggest that
the lack of appropriate technical and administrative support is one of the biggest
factors influencing teachers’ adoption of mobile learning. In particular, if teachers
are digital immigrants and have to re design courses for mobile learning, they would
need quite a lot of support. In addition to instructional design support, they would
also require technical support if they face any problems with uploading and
maintaining mobile learning content (Chen et al. 2010; Prensky 2009). Similarly, if
students are faced with difficulties in accessing and downloading learning resources,
immediate technical support would be required. Literature shows that mobile
learning implementation at different educational levels such as schools, colleges and
37
universities requires extensive IT or technical support in order to make the mobile

learning implementation successful and reliable (Ford and Leinonen 2009).
2.6.10 Cost
Mobile learning design and implementation produce heavy costs for institutions, and
learners may also need to pay for the use of mobile data. Dyson et al. (2009) point
out that the cost of mobile learning adoption is a considerable hindrance for many
education providers. The cost of mobile technologies for learning has been divided
into four main categories by Dyson et al. (2009). These are: 1) costs incurred by the
education providers and the students in various areas including usage charges, 2)
mobile hardware costs, 3) mobile software costs, and 4) costs of networks utilized by
education providers.
Usage charges refer to the telecom providers’ bills for the data usage; these charges
are invoiced to the learners directly and most of the education providers are not
willing to approve any grants to cover the usage charges. These charges are quite
high and expensive for students even in many developed countries (Scornavacca,
Huff, and Marshall 2009). Dyson et al. (2009) suggest that students could avoid
extensive data charges by downloading learning material on a PC and transferring it
to a mobile device and they would most likely prefer to use WI-Fi networks provided
by institutions free of cost; however, avoiding costs for data usage may prevent them
from using a number of opportunities provided by mobile learning on the move and
outside the institutional premises.
The cost of purchasing a mobile device for learning is also quite high, but education
providers often receive funding to purchase mobile devices for research purposes.
Interestingly, in a study conducted in a European country, Economides and
Grousopoulou (2009) found that students are willing to purchase even an expensive
mobile device with advanced features. Similarly, Lundin et al. (2010) propose that
education providers should exploit the students’ personal devices for educational
uses as they bring them to institutions and already use them for communication and
social networking. As argued earlier in this chapter, universities could establish
BYOD policies to allow students to integrate their own devices with LMS, thereby
saving a significant amount of financial and other resources.
38
Table 2: Summary of Mobile Learning Characteristics
Mobile Learning
Model/Framework Authors
Characteristics
Pedagogical Framework of Mobile
Collaboration (Ozdamli 2012)
Learning
A scalable framework to quantitatively (Issa, Al–Bahadili,
evaluate success factors of mobile learning Usability, Mobility and Abuhamdeh
systems 2011)
Mobile Learning Framework for Lifelong Mobility, Usability, (Nordin, Embi, and
Learning Collaboration Yunus 2010)
The Framework for the Rational Analysis
Usability, Mobility (Koole 2009)
of Mobile Education(FRAME)
The Framework for designing m-learning Collaboration, (Danaher, Gururajan,
environments Mobility and Baig 2009)
The Framework for designing mobile Mobility, Context, (Parsons and Ryu
learning spaces Usability 2009)
The Framework for collaboration in Collaboration, (Spikol, K., and M.
context Context 2009)
Mobility,
Framework to integrate m-learning into e- (Wains and
Collaboration,
learning Mahmood 2008)
Content
Usability, (Wei, Zhuo, and
An Interactive M-Learning model
Collaboration Zhang 2008)
Context, (Wali, Winters, and
Framework for analysing mobile learning
Collaboration Oliver 2008)
A framework for enabling on-demand Content, (Meawad and Stubbs
personalized mobile learning Communication 2008)
A framework for designing mobile learning Usability, Context (Uden 2007)
(Zurita and
Conceptual framework for mobile CSCL Collaboration
Nussbaum 2007)
Australian Flexible Learning Framework Mobility (Low 2007)
The conceptual framework for m-learning Mobility, Usability
(Barbosa et al. 2007)
design requirements Collaboration,
Control, Context, (Sharples, Taylor &
Task model for mobile learning
Communication Vavoula 2007b)
Mobile Learning Framework Collaboration (Motiwalla 2007)
A proposed theoretical model for m- Mobility, (Barker, Krull, and
learning adoption in developing countries Collaboration Mallinson 2005)
Low-Key m-learning: a realistic
Context,
introduction of m-learning to developing (Masters 2005)
Collaboration
countries
39
A summary of mobile learning characteristics identified by mobile learning studies,

including the mobile learning models and frameworks discussed in Section 5, have
been included in Table 2. It is evident that mobile learning researchers have
considered a number of mobile learning characteristics in these studies. However,
very few researchers have focused on more than a few particular characteristics in a
single study. Therefore, it is noteworthy that although most of these frameworks and
models have addressed a number of mobile learning characteristics, none of these
studies includes a comprehensive list of mobile learning characteristics; therefore,
there is a major gap in the current mobile learning research literature.
2.7 Mobile Learning in Developed Countries
Mobile learning studies involving mobile learning projects and trial implementations
have been conducted in many universities in developed countries such as USA, UK,
Europe and Australia. The majority of these projects have been pilot-tested in
various educational settings such as classroom response systems, intelligent tutoring
systems, collaborative learning systems and contextual learning systems (field trips)
(Frohberg, Göth, and Schwabe 2009).
Researchers have implemented mobile learning pilots at different levels in

universities, colleges and schools. Various disciplines, such as medical, nursing,
business, IT, language learning and employee training, have been included.
However, a few universities in USA such as Duke University and Georgia State
University have already introduced mobile learning in some mainstream education.
Furthermore, major educational publishers including McGraw-Hill, Oxford
University Press, Encyclopaedia Britannica and Harvard Business School Publishing
have launched mobile contents for students (Ambient-Insight's 2008).
Unlike the research on mobile learning in developed countries, only a few research
projects have been undertaken in developing countries. Developed countries spend
enormous sums on research to explore and test the integration of innovative
technology in learning environments (Mifsud 2002a). On the other hand, researchers
40
in developing countries have limited access to research grants for the purpose of
conducting mobile learning trials. However, there are a few mobile learning research
projects such as MobilED that have been made possible by financial grants from
Nokia, UNESCO and several other sponsors (Ford and Leinonen 2009; Steve 2012;
UNESCO 2005). The next section contains a detailed argument for mobile learning
research in developing countries.
2.8 Mobile Learning in Developing Countries
Current literature indicates that most of the mobile learning theories and
implementation trials have been carried out in the developed world. However,
developing countries are in need of mobile learning research as the growth in the
number of mobile users and mobile technologies is significant, but to implement
mobile learning effectively, these countries need to upgrade their educational ICTs in
order to progress (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005). Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme
(2005) identify a number of problems that limit the adoption of mobile learning in
developing countries such as the lack of an uninterrupted power supply and poor ICT
facilities. To date, a number of mobile learning pilot projects have been tested in
India, Kenya and South Africa. The results of these trials have been encouraging so
far; learning environments -at elementary, secondary and higher education levels- in
developing countries can utilize the potential of mobile learning for informal and
mainstream education (Traxler 2009). Technology-based learning for developing
countries- countries with low per capita income according the WorldBank’s
classification- is an ultimate solution to improve their educational standard. The
introduction of technology in education may open new educational avenues,
particularly for those people who do not have access to the traditional educational
resources such as face-to-face learning and paper-based learning in the case of
distance education (Gulati 2008; WorldBank 2011).
Educational ICTs are becoming fast, reliable, available in remote areas and
affordable for everybody, particularly in underprivileged communities (Kim 2009).
It is important to note that social circumstances and infrastructural conduciveness are
not similar even in all of the developing countries. For instance, Gulati (2008), in
her review of technology-enhanced learning in developing nations, points out that in
41
South Africa, distance education programs are being preferred over e-learning-based
programs because of the cost of Internet connections in remote areas. On the other
hand, distance education students in Pakistan found that it was more convenient for
them to access learning resources online than it was to be taught through satellite TV.
Further, Indonesia, India and Bangladesh are also managing to provide education to
the people of rural and remote areas by providing them with ICT support and
introducing online degrees and courses.
These successful implementations of e-learning in education provide a sound basis

for the introduction of mobile learning in developing countries. For the people of
developing countries, mobile learning may help to eliminate certain barriers such as
cost and slow speed of dial-up internet connections. The introduction of mobile
learning into developing nations may provide education to children in
underprivileged communities. Mobile learning may be more cost effective and
efficient with flexible learning solutions provided to students who need to manage
both work and study, thus reaching more learners who are required to support their
livelihood. Training could also be provided to teachers using their mobile devices at
a time and location convenient for them (Adesope, Olubunmi, and McCracken 2007;
Motlik 2008). Traxler (2009, 17) emphasises the emergent need for implementation
of mobile learning in developing countries despite the limited ICT resources and
relatively unstable infrastructure as compared to technologically advanced societies
in the developed world:
‘It is entirely possible that the emergence of mobile learning in developing

countries will take the evolution of e-learning along a trajectory that is very
different from that in developed countries, where it has been predicated on
massive, static, and stable resources’
A number of mobile learning pilot projects and studies have shown encouraging
outcomes in developing countries. These results motivate further research and make
a conceptual contribution to research into mobile learning for developing countries.
Most of the mobile learning research is being carried out in the developed world as
these countries spend far more of their national budget on research, development and
experimentation with new technologies in the educational realm (Ambient-Insight's
42
2008; Mifsud 2002a). Conversely, few research projects have been carried out in
developing countries in this context. The lack of a research budget for educational
ICTs is one of the factors that impede the mobile learning conceptualizations and
implementations in developing countries. However, the literature presented in Table
3 shows a number of implementations of mobile learning in developing countries
including India, Kenya, Latin America, Africa, Indonesia and Pakistan.
Most of these implementations have been limited to the pilot projects and trials.
Early efforts show positive research outcomes in several ways such as participants’
motivation, added flexibility in learning environments and support in fieldwork.
More importatnly, telecommunication and cellular networks were used for provision
of learning resources to the underprivileged and indigenous communities and people
in remote, hard-to-reach places.. In addition, another aspect is that projects have
been tested by vast numbers of students including elementary, K-12 and higher
education participants. In addition, a variety of stakeholders such as students,
teachers, educational administrators and IT managers have participated in these
projects (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005). Mobile learning research has been
conducted across multiple educational disciplines such as medicine, business
education, computer science and game-based learning. Mobile learning is applicable
to both distance education and traditional face-to-face learning; both of these modes
have been included in the case studies of the developing world (Wains and Mahmood
2008).
43
Table 3: Studies of mobile learning in developing countries
Study Brief Significance Research Characteristics Research Sample Target Country

description Outcomes considered method Audience
Barker, Proposes a Conceptual Developed a Portability, Literature N-A Key stake- South Africa
Krull, and theoretical model model for the collaboration, Review/Model holders from
Mallinson for mobile adoption of motivation development education
(2005) learning adoption mobile sectors
in developing learning in
countries. developing
countries.
Facer K. Groups are Practical Developed Engagement, Pilot project/ Ten children Elementary Sub-Saharan Africa
et al. supposed to and tested a mobile gaming, Action research aged 11 and level school
(2004) communicate mobile tool to support 12 children
with each other learning game learning
while acting as for school
lions in African aged children.
Savannah.
(Fotouhi- Explores the Practical Concluded Usability, Surveys 181 high School Iran
Ghazvini potential use of that mobile Cost, mobile school students
et al. mobile devices learning is learning activities students
(2008) for learning in best suited to
Iran. informal
learning
Ford and Examines the use Practical Developed a Cost, cultural Action research Students Schools and South Africa, India,
Leinonen of mobile set of contexts, (Series of pilot from colleges Brazil, Finland
(2009) devices in guidelines for collaboration, projects called elementary from public
educational mobile device flexibility MobilED) and middle and private
environment in usage in and schools and sectors
developing out of school college
countries.
44
Table 3: Studies of mobile learning in developing countries (continued)

Gregson Explores the Practical Developed a Communication, Case 88 Distance Botswana,

and design and model for design access, Study, Postgraduate learning Lesotho Malawi,
Jordaan delivery of and delivery of engagement, Pilot distance universities Mauritius,
(2009) distance learning distance learning collaboration, project learning Zambia
program to diverse and mobile usability, flexibility students from Mozambique,
range of students learning South African Namibia, South
region Africa, Tanzania,
Swaziland,
Zimbabwe
Kim, Examines the use Conceptual, Literature review Mobile learning Pilot Indigenous Elementary Latin America
Miranda, of mobile learning Practical of education design project school-aged school
and technology to inequality in considerations, children level
Olaciregui serve poor Latin America; cultural sensitivity, children
(2008) indigenous Latin pilot project usability
American named ‘pocket
children. school’ for
indigenous
children.
Masters ‘Low-key m- Conceptual, Developed a Contextualized, Pilot 2nd and 3rd year Medical South Africa
(2005) learning’ Practical model for the cultural context, project, medical students at
investigates the process of pedagogy, mobility, surveys students undergrad
foundations of transition into communication, level
transition to mobile learning; a cost, ubiquity of
mobile learning pilot project has technology,
from traditional been tested in a
learning university
environments. environment.
45
Table 3: Studies of mobile learning in developing countries (continued)

Oliver and Examines Practical Observed students’ Convenience, Case studies, 54 University Ethiopia,
Goerke university use and adoption of connection, control, surveys undergrad students Malaysia
(2008) students’ mobile devices and cultural contexts students
adoption of web 2.0 applications
mobile devices
for learning.
Sari and Studies the Practical Identified potentials Communication, User-centered 650 students Students and Indonesia
Tedjasaputra potentials and and challenges of collaboration, design, and 100 teachers at Finland
(2008) challenges of mobile ICTs in mobile learning ethnographic teachers school and
mobile learning education for activities, learning action research college levels
at school and Indonesia and support
university Finland
levels.
Traxler and Reviews the Conceptual, Mobile learning Cost, usability, Case studies A university Population in India
kukulska- potential of practical implementation accessibility, and a developing
hulme (2005) mobile learning strategies and content, software countries
in developing challenges for connectivity company
countries. developing
countries identified.
Wains and Investigates the Conceptual, A framework Mobile Case study Two Distance Pakistan
Mahmood integration of practical proposed to technologies, distance learning
(2008) mobile learning integrate mobile flexibility, access, learning universities
into e-learning learning into e- personalized universities
learning
46
To continue the discussion about the list of research papers as shown in Table 3,
characteristics such as engagement, collaboration, communication and portability or
flexibility have been considered by the participants of mobile learning studies in
developing countries. Some researchers also investigated the cultural context of the
country and its level of impact on the implementation of mobile learning in that
particular country. The cost of the mobile internet and mobile devices was a matter
of concern for the student population in spite of the fact that mobile internet services
are significantly cheaper in the developing countries compared to developed
countries.
Research participants in the developing countries, particularly from indigenous and

underprivileged communities, were unfamiliar with educational ICTs; therefore, they
had concerns about the practicality of mobile devices for learning (Oliver and
Goerke 2008; Kim, Miranda, and Olaciregui 2008). Overall, most of the
researchers found that learners in the developing countries were excited and
motivated by the notion of using mobile devices for learning. In some countries,
network connectivity was also a problem, especially in remote and rural areas.
Participants in developing countries needed technical support in order to switch from
traditional learning and e-learning modes to mobile learning. They also needed
assistance and initial training by the researchers in order to undertake mobile
learning activities.
2.9 Research Gaps in Existing Literature
Mobile learning models and frameworks discussed in Section 2.5 cannot be

generalized and used for Pakistani university environments since there are certain
gaps in the current conceptualizations of mobile learning which hinder their
adaptation in developing countries like Pakistan in many ways. For instance, the
findings from the literature show that most of the studies have focused on a particular
set of mobile learning characteristics such as usability, collaboration, flexibility and
connectivity while completely ignoring the other important characteristics. Some
researchers focused only on one or two of the mobile learning characteristics; for
example, Spikol et al. (2009) pointed out context and collaboration. Some of the
47
characteristics such as context, control, engagement and the blending of mobile

learning with other forms of learning have been used by only a few of the mobile
learning researchers, while other mobile learning characteristics such as user
experience, motivation, technical support and cost have rarely been included in most
of the mobile learning models and frameworks. That is one of the major gaps in the
existing mobile learning research literature which this research aims to address.
Figure 8 gives a snapshot of the mobile learning characteristics discussed in the

most-cited mobile learning studies in the literature and other important
characteristics not mentioned in the literature. Some of the selected studies have
been used in this snapshot to demonstrate how the existing studies have been
examined, analyzed and compared for mobile learning characteristics. In Figure 8,
the inner rectangles show the main mobile learning characteristics considered in that
particular study; the outer rectangles contain the characteristics which have not been
considered in that particular study.
Another gap in the current mobile learning research literature is that some of the
existing mobile learning conceptualizations including certain models and
frameworks have been proposed after a literature review but have not yet been
evaluated using data evidence collected from any participants. Two examples are
Koole’s (2009) FRAME model and the mobile learning adoption model of Barker et
al. (2005). Moreover, very few of these frameworks have higher education as their
focus, leaving another significant gap in the mobile learning literature that needs
research to be undertaken involving higher education stakeholders. It is important to
mention the fact that many authors have worked on mobile learning research as it has
been elaborated in this literature review chapter, the work are quite disparate and a
comprehensive model and framework for mobile learning is missing. Many of the
reserachers has focused on specific areas and did not consider the other possibilities
to capitalise on the use of mobile learning technologies; that is a major gap in
existing mobile research literature. There is a dire need for a mobile learning
model/framework which this research aims to develop. UNESCO (REF UNESCO
2014) is also trying to bring scholars, reserachers, policy makers and learning
scientists together to tackle this issue to define mobile learning, build theoretical
stance for mobile learning, implementation feasibilities in different educational
48
scenarios as well as ways to evaluate mobile learning. Outcomes of this research as

well as Mobile Learning Framework released at the end of this thesis would be an
important contribution to the body of knowledge in mobile learning.
49
Figure 8: Research Gaps- a literature snapshot
50
This research takes into account existing mobile learning models and frameworks
from the literature as discussed in this chapter, and develops a mobile learning
conceptual model for Pakistani universities. An initial mobile learning conceptual
model (see Figure 9 in section 2.10) for the Pakistani university environments will be
used to inform the research design by identifying a set of common mobile learning
characteristics for Pakistani universites. Furthermore, the gaps in current literature
about definitional and pedagogical aspects of mobile learning will be considered in
the Mobile Learning Framework as outcome of this research.
2.10 The Initial Mobile Learning Conceptual Model
The initial mobile learning conceptual model (See Figure 1) has been adapted from
Danaher et al. (2009), Sharples et al. (2005), Barker et al. (2005) and Koole (2009).
People, Interactivity and Technology have been identified by these researchers who
have categorized mobile learning characteristics in mobile learning models and
frameworks. People (students, teachers, administrators, educational managers,
instructional designers and technical support staff) interact with technology to
communicate and collaborate with each other by taking advantage of the flexibility
offered by mobile technologies. In learning environments, technology plays a
mediating role to improve understanding (Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2005).
Sheng et al. (2005, 270) define mobile technologies from the perspective of strategic
use:
‘by extending computing and the Internet into the wireless medium, mobile
technology allows users to have anytime, anywhere access to information and
applications, which provides greater flexibility in communication,
collaboration, and information sharing’
People, Interactivity and Technology (see Figure 9) have been grouped into the main
categories according to mobile learning characteristics. Each leg of the model is
important as detailed characteristics have been identified. Students, teachers,
administrators, educational managers, instructional designers and IT/technical
support staff are key stakeholders in mobile learning. These stakeholders are
51
beneficiaries of mobile learning and have a great impact on the successful design of
mobile learning. Interactivity includes pedagogical aspect of mobile learning and
includes interactions between people, devices and systems. It enables collaborative
activities, especially in field work and assists learners to share information, be
involved in social networking, participate in class discussion boards, download
lecture slides, podcasts and vodcasts, get instant feedback from teachers, and receive
alerts about assignment deadlines. Technology provides access to learning resources
anywhere and at any time, and to user interface and applications (Ally 2009; Barker,
Krull, and Mallinson 2005; Becta 2008; Clough et al. 2009; Ford and Leinonen 2009;
Grosseck 2009; Spikol, K., and M. 2009; Oliver et al. 2009; Naismith et al. 2004a).
Mobile Learning
People Technology
Interactivity
• Students • Collaboration • Connectivity

• Teachers • Usability • Flexibility
• Administrators • Context • Technical
• Instructional • Blending Support
Designers • Content • Activities and
• IT support Staff • Control applications
• Cost
Figure 9: Mobile Learning Conceptual Model
(Adapted from Danaher et al. (2009), Sharples et al. (2005), Barker et al. (2005) and Koole (2009)
At a later stage of this research project, this conceptual model will be enriched by the
data collected from the key stakeholders in Pakistani universities including students,
teachers and educational administrators. A new mobile learning model will be
formulated as an outcome of the findings of this research.
52
The proposed research will reshape the way ICT is used in Pakistani universities.
The proposed mobile learning conceptual model for Pakistani universities will
provide guidelines for instructional designers and teachers to design mobile learning
activities that blend with existing learning forms. Students will engage in the
learning process anywhere-anytime and they will be able to utilize their social and
leisure time for learning activities. Moreover, the educational managers and IT
managers will provide teachers and students with the required support Finally,
educational administrators will be able to plan the on-campus resources by providing
students with remote access. By introducing and promoting mobile learning,
universities can attract more students as well as raise the level of education to
international standards by endorsing up-to-date technology in education. For further
research, the proposed mobile learning conceptual model will be enriched by data
collected from Pakistani universities. Students and teachers will be invited to
participate in focus groups and other key stakeholders will be interviewed. Also, this
conceptual model can work as a blueprint for future researchers for mobile learning
project implementation and testing in Pakistan and other developing countries.
In order to include mobile learning in mainstream education, mobile learning design

needs to be informed by certain criteria. The criteria for mobile learning design
should include mobile learning characteristics such as usability of mobile devices for
learning, enhanced collaboration among peers and teachers, learning in multiple
contexts, teachers’ control over the learning process and independence of learners,
costs involved in providing mobile learning for different stakeholders, and mobile
learning content design which includes appropriate activities and applications in
conjunction with the affordances of mobile devices.
Around the world, mobile learning researchers are investigating these characteristics
in conceptualizations and implementations in order to establish criteria for mobile
learning design. Mobile technologies certainly have a huge potential for use in
academia. The field of mobile learning is still in its infancy with respect to having its
own established theories and conceptualizations. Mobile learning researchers have
borrowed established theories from other disciplines to inform mobile learning
53
research design. A number of researchers have created mobile learning frameworks

and models which indicate that the process of theorization is progressing. This
chapter has summarized mobile learning models and frameworks with the lens of
mobile learning characteristics incorporated in those literature models. The mobile
learning researchers have included a number of mobile learning characteristics such
as usability, collaboration, context, and mobility in different research designs for
different educational levels. These characteristics are important ingredients in theory
formation for mobile learning. Based on the review of literature pertianing to mobile
learning, an intial mobile learning conceptual model has been developed to inform
this research design. The gaps in existing literature has been identified and the
critique on the literature review has been presented. The need for a mobile learning
framework has been identified.
54
Chapter Three – Research Method
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH
METHOD
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the selection of an appropriate methodology for this research.
The rationale for mobile learning research in the context of Information Systems has
been explained. A number of dominant research paradigms in the field of
Information Systems research have been discussed to determine the orientation of
this research to the appropriate research paradigm. Discussion of the research
objectives and research questions led to the selection of the research paradigm,
research method and appropriate data collection approaches for this research.
Research design considerations have been discussed in detail and the description of
data collection procedures demonstrates the transparency of the research process.
Data analysis process including data analysis tools and data analysis strategies has
been elaborated with examples and screen shots from NVivo qualitative data analysis
software. Finally, the ethical considerations are also presented followed by the
chapter summary.
3.2 Mobile Learning Research as Information

Systems Research
Mobile learning research is a multi-disciplinary research field and has its roots in a
number of other disciplines such as Information Systems, Human-Computer
Interaction, Telecommunication Engineering and Education (Vavoula, Pachler, and
Kukulska-Hulme 2009). Early researchers in the field of mobile learning have built
upon the theories, models and frameworks from these disciplines. This researcher’s
background is in the field of Information Systems which is also a multi-disciplinary
field as indicated by Khazanchi et al. (2000). King (1993) also maintains that
Information Systems is a field that has contributors from a variety of other
55
disciplines. Furthermore, Keen (1990) states that researchers from other fields have
also carried out research in the domain of Information Systems.
Keen (1991, 27) believes that Information Systems research informs businesses,
governments and societies about the practical implications of information technology
and information systems:
‘ISR can be and should be at the forefront of the intellectual debate and
investigation about the application of information technology across every
aspect of business, government and society and that it has many valuable,
original and practical recommendations to offer concerning the effective
design, development, implementation, use and impact of IT’
This statement suggests that information systems research also draws the definition
of Information Systems which may be strengthened by the definition of information
systems by Avison and Fitzgerald (1997, xix): ‘The effective design, delivery, use
and impact of information technology in organizations and society’.
The definition and description of Information Systems research by Keen (1990) has
been used as the baseline for this research to study the potential effects and benefits
of mobile devices as Information and Communication Technologies for members of
particular teaching and learning communities such as higher education sectors or
universities. In addition to the conceptualization of mobile learning for Pakistani
university environments, this research concludes with practical recommendations and
implications for the relevant stakeholders within that community which may
ultimately assist them to design and implement mobile learning in university
environments. As mobile learning has similar connotation as those of Information
Systems, the research method and design of this study are discussed within the
context of the field of Information Systems. The next section provides a detailed
review of Information Systems Research Paradigms followed by the paradigm
chosen for this research.
56
3.3 Information Systems Research Paradigms
In the field of Information Systems (IS), there are three major paradigms: 1)
Positivist 2) Interpretivist and 3) Critical (Galliers 1991; Hirschheim 1985). The
following subsections provide a brief description of each of these IS paradigms.
3.3.1 Positivist Research
Positivists believe that reality is objective and can be studied through numbers by the
researcher who is independent of the phenomena being studied (Chen and
Hirschheim 2004; Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991). Klein and Myers (1999, 69) state
that IS research is positivist if:
‘there is evidence of formal propositions, quantifiable measures of

variability, hypothesis testing, and the drawing of inferences about a
phenomenon from a representative sample to a stated population’
IS researchers working with quantitative data, testing a well-formed theory,

generating hypotheses, working with dependent and independent variables and being
independent of the research context, generally consider themselves to be positivists.
3.3.2 Interpretive Research
Walsham (1995) considers interpretivism as the opposite of positivism as it does not

rely on objective data. Interpretivists believe in subjective reality and the study of
research phenomena in their natural settings (Oates 2006). Orlikowski and Baroudi
(1991) maintain that:
‘Interpretive studies assume that people create and associate their own
subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact with the world
around them. Interpretive researchers thus attempt to understand
phenomena through accessing the meanings that participants assign to them’
The views of Chen and Hierchheim (2004) and Myers and Klein (1999) regarding
interpretivists’ beliefs are included in Table 4.
57
Table 4: Summary of Information Systems Research Paradigms and Associated Beliefs: Adapted from (Chen and Hirschheim 2004; Klein and
Myers 1999; Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991)
IS
Research Ontological Beliefs Epistemological Beliefs Methodological Beliefs
Paradigms
Positivist  Reality or phenomenon  Making hypotheses  Working with statistical data
Research being studied is objective  Testing theories  Use of quantitative methods
and quantifiable
 Accepting or rejecting  Working with independent and
 The researcher is theories dependent variables
independent of the  Generalizing results
phenomena being studied
Interpretive  Reality exists subjectively  Knowledge is gained  Researcher’s interaction with the
Research  The phenomena being through understanding the participants
studied needs human phenomenon in natural  Understanding of the phenomena from
involvement; the researcher settings (cultural and participants’ viewpoints
cannot be secluded from the contextual)  Working with qualitative data mostly;
context of the research  Multiple interpretations and however quantitative data may also be
insights from the data used in some cases
collected
 No predefined variables; themes have
emerged from the data
Critical  The reality is built  Knowledge is gained by  Critique of the contradictory social
Research historically understanding society and practices
 The reality is shaped by the the history of that society  Tend to be longitudinal and
people  Knowledge of social- ethnographic studies
 Humans and organizations cultural conditions of the  Both qualitative and quantitative data
do change over the time and people are also required as it are used
strive to change their social indirectly shapes the way
conditions they perceive and believe
about reality
58
Chapter Four – Students’ Focus Groups
3.3.3 Critical Research
The critical paradigm consists of studies presenting critiques of social injustice and
how this shapes the beliefs and norms of society. Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991, 5)
define the critical paradigm as:
‘Critical studies aim to critique the status quo, through the exposure of what
is believed to be deep-seated, structural contradictions within social systems
and thereby to transform these alienating and restrictive social conditions’
The ontological, epistemological and methodological perspectives of the critical

paradigm are summarised in Table 4.
3.3.4 Research Paradigm choice for this research
The criteria for different research paradigms presented in Table 4 provide a basic
understanding of the building blocks of a research paradigm; however, the
paradigmatic choice for a particular research needs to be carefully selected by the
researcher. In addition, the choice of research method and particular design makes it
more complex. After understanding the historical evolution of IS research
paradigms, this research topic was evaluated under each paradigmatic lens.
Ontologically, this research needs the researcher’s involvement and interaction with
participants; therefore, this research tends to focus on interpretivism as this particular
phenomenon is neither objective nor developed historically. Epistemologically, the
phenomenon is being researched in natural settings; this involves the understandng
and knowledge of the interpretive paradigm. However, catching the context of
socio-cultural environment takes the epistemology of the critical paradigm.
Similarly, the absence of hypotheses rules out the choice of a positivist paradigm, the
possibility of analytical generalization of results to a larger community such as all
universities in Pakistan or other developing countries tends towards positivism (Yin
2009). Methodologically, this research does not pre-establish independent and
dependent variables, since themes emerge as the data is collected by the researcher’s
interaction with the participants. This research does not present a critique of social
practices; however, the participants’ socio-cultural backgrounds have been discussed
59
to give the reader a clearer understanding of the phenomenon being studied. After
considering the phenomenon being studied in terms of epistemology, ontology and
methodology, the characteristics of this research approach place it within the realm
of the interpretive paradigm (Chen and Hirschheim 2004).
3.4 Information Systems Research Methods and

Designs
The literature shows that a variety of terms have been used to describe research
methods in the field of Information Systems. For instance, terms such as research
approach, research method, research methodology, research strategy, and research
technique have been frequently used in discussions of research methods (Chen and
Hirschheim 2004; Galliers 1991; Oates 2006). Research design, however, is a
detailed plan that is followed by the researcher when conducting a study. Yin (2009,
26) defines the research design as:
‘The logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial
research questions and, ultimately, to its conclusions’
Most of the literature including (Chen and Hirschheim 2004; Klein and Myers 1999)
on Information Systems research methods divides IS research methods into
qualitative and quantitative research methods and compares the characteristics of the
two. Galliers (1991) presented a comprehensive review of around ten possible
research methods in the field of Information Systems; these research methods include
theorem proof, laboratory experiment, field experiment, case study, survey,
forecasting and future research, simulation, game playing, subjective, descriptive,
and action research.
Chen and Hirschheim (2004) identified six popular research designs in IS research
following the criteria established by Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991) who considered
both IS research methodology and IS research paradigms. These research designs
include survey studies, case studies, lab experiments, field experiments and action
research. Myers (2009) has also included ethnography and grounded theory.
Surveys and lab experiments tend to be in the realm of quantitative research methods
60
and designs; case studies, ethnographies and grounded theories are categorized as
qualitative studies. Yin (2009) argues that the triangulation of research techniques is
important for some research designs and provides a rationale for using a survey
method when designing a case study and including a case study within a large survey
research design.
3.4.1 Research Method and Design Choice for this Research
A researcher needs to consider a number of approaches before choosing the one most
appropriate for the research purpose(s), including: paradigms, research method and
design, qualitative or quantitative approaches for data collection, or triangulation of
both. Being a positivist researcher does not mean that one relies solely only
quantitative methods; quantitative, qualitative or a triangulation of both methods can
be applied; the same is true for an interpretive researcher (Dubé 2003). There is no
set rule that dictates how the researcher should design the research. In this instance,
the review of mobile learning literature revealed that the researchers in the field of
mobile learning have used similar historical perspectives of existing paradigms,
methods, designs and data collection techniques as those practised by IS researchers
(Galliers 1991; Vavoula 2009; Yin 2009). As the chosen paradigm for this research
was interpretivism, there were a number of possible research approaches for its
design. Considering the variety of research methods and design approaches available
in Information Systems research literature as discussed in the earlier sections of this
chapter, it was important to compare the various approaches prior to choosing the
most appropriate method and design for this research. To this end, a number of
possible research methods and designs were considered including surveys,
ethnographies, action research and case studies. The following section justifies the
choice of research approach for this research, and explains the reasons for accepting
an approach and rejecting others.
Surveys are conducted for the larger population sample usually testing a well-
established theory, and results of the survey research are generalizable to a mass
audience (Chen and Hirschheim 2004; Klein and Myers 1999). The survey research
method was not appropriate for this research because the theory is in early stages in
the field of mobile learning. This research intends to explore the viewpoints of
61
stakeholders of university learning environments in Pakistan to determine the

likelihood of future implementation of mobile learning. Once the basic feasibility
has been assessed, a survey may be an appropriate approach in future extensions of
this research.
Ethnography is a popular research technique in the interpretive paradigm to study

people’s cultural interpretations of a certain research problem (Goulding 2005; Oates
2006). Understanding of the cultural backgrounds and interpretations of the different
stakeholders may contribute to this research; however, ethnography was not an ideal
approach for this research as it takes a long time and this research was limited by the
time constraints of the PhD program. Furthermore, ethnographers do not interact
with the participants, whereas this research involves a considerable amount of
interaction between the researcher and the participants in order to elicit answers to
the research questions (Mahmood 2005).
Action research could be an ideal choice for this research as the action researcher
introduces a change to the phenomenon and studies the effects of the intervention
(Baskervillea and Pries-Hejeb 1999; Miles and Huberman 1994). As discussed in
Table 3 from Chapter 2, a number of researchers have successfully completed similar
research projects when introducing mobile learning in schools or universities around
the world (Ford and Leinonen 2009; Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2005; Pachler,
Bachmair, and Cook 2010). However, only a few of mobile learning researcher have
used action research as a method. This research could begin as an action research by
conducting a mobile learning pilot project involving a course, an instructor and a
number of students in one of the universities. However, the action research approach
was rejected for two reasons: 1) it was important to conduct a study to assess the
feasibility of future implementation of mobile learning in mainstream eduction in
Pakistani universities by investigating opinions of key stakeholders in university
environments such as students and teachers. This research is a ground breaking study
of mobile learning in Pakistani universities as no previous study has been conducted
by any researcher to determine the feasibility of implementing mobile learning in
university education in developing countries specifically in Pakistani universities 2)
an action research project would have needed a number of resources including a
large budget, human resources, official approval of the project and funding from the
62
university and the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan which involves lengthy
paperwork and time delays (Mifsud 2002b). Apart from the time constraint, there
were limitations regarding access to the resources required for the action research,
such as approval from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.
The case study approach was another ideal candidate for this research and was
carefully considered. Case studies provide researchers with the opportunity to
understand the phenomenon in detail by interacting with the participants so that the
interpretation of data is more meaningful and a reflection of the reality (Kaplan and
Duchon 1988; Yin 2009). The case study approach is ideal for a research problem
when the theory is in the early stages of construction; when several researchers have
looked into that research problem previously; and when the research problems are
new or innovative (Benbasat, Goldstein, and Mead 1987). For all of these reasons,
the case study approach is an appropriate choice for this research.
3.5 Overview of Case Study Research Method in

Information Systems
Cavaye (1996) believes that the IS case study research conducted with an
interpretivist lens assists the researcher to understand a certain phenomenon; whereas
the positivist case study approach is intended to determine the values for certain
variables and observe the behavior of those variables. Case study research or the
case research method has been a popular approach in Information Systems research
(Eisenhardt 1989). IS case study research can be conducted as positivist,
interpretivist or critical research (Myers 2009). However, the research techniques for
the data collection have been qualitative in most of the case research designs,
therefore, the case study research approach is usually considered to be qualitative
(Benbasat, Goldstein, and Mead 1987; Eisenhardt 1989). Yin (2009) argues that case
study research should not be considered as being solely qualitative research because
the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative techniques has also yielded more
meaningful results in many IS case research studies (Dubé 2003). However, the sole
use of quantitative data collection methods in case research design is rare because
quantitative methods such as surveys are not meant to capture the context of the
63
phenomenon being studied (Yin 2009). In case studies, the context is embedded in
the phenomenon in such a way that it cannot be studied without the involvement of
the researcher. Capturing the context of the phenomenon is the most important
building block of case study research as explained by Yin (2009, 18):
‘A case study is an empirical inquiry that
Investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life

context, especially when
The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident’
Benbasat et al. (1987, 370) define that:
‘A case study examines a phenomenon in its natural settings, employing

multiple methods of data collection to gather information from one or a few
entities (people, groups or organizations)’
Case studies can be conducted in a variety of different ways, implying that case
research has many design variations. According to Yin (2009) and Benbasat et al.
(1987), a case study can be:
 Explanatory: an investigator tries to explain why and how a certain situation

has emerged
 Descriptive: the researcher describes in detail how things occur
 Exploratory: the researcher explores how and why things happen where there
is less prior knowledge about the situation
Also, case studies can be designed and conducted as single case studies to describe,
explain or explore a research problem; and a multiple case study research design may
be chosen when a cross-case synthesis is needed along with individual cases to
extract rich, detailed and multi-faceted interpretations and findings (Benbasat,
Goldstein, and Mead 1987; Eisenhardt 1989; Yin 2009).
64
3.6 Research Design
Benbasat et al. (1987, 370) claim that case research design is ideal for three possible
scenarios in information systems research: ‘1) studying information systems in
natural settings; 2) answering ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions; 3) few previous studies
have been conducted in the particular area of research.’
Benbasat et al. (1987) argues that the field of IS may be the subject of numerous new
areas of research every year, so case research design would be appropriate for a
detailed inquiry into the phenomenon. For this research, the arguments of Benbasat
et al. (1987) are applicable as mobile learning is a relatively new area of research that
emerged just a decade ago in developed countries and is still emerging in the
developing world; quite a few studies have already been conducted in this area in
developing countries (Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme 2005). This research is intended
to explore the characteristics of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments; therefore, this phenomenon cannot be studied if the researcher is
outside of the research settings. Also, the researcher is seeking answers to the
research questions, focusing on ‘how’ and ‘why’ in order to examine the matter in
depth. For this research, an exploratory case study design has been chosen given the
nature of the research problem and the phenomenon being studied.
Mobile learning is an area which has not received much attention from researchers in
Pakistan; therefore, it is important to explore the feasibility of implementing mobile
learning in Pakistani universities by discovering the important characteristics of
mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. Since this research will be
conducted according to an exploratory multiple case research design, the following
will be its major components. In developing this design, the insights derived from
Yin (2009), Chen and Hirschheim (2004), Benbasat et al. (1987), Cavaye (1996) and
Dube (2003) were used.
1. Research Objectives and Questions
2. Units of Analysis
3. Data Collection
65
4. Data Analysis
3.6.1 Research Objectives and Questions
Every study has a purpose and, particularly for exploratory case studies, the
researcher has to define the purpose of the investigation from the outset (Yin 2009).
For this study, the ultimate objective is to examine the extent to which the university
environments in Pakistan are ready to embrace the technological innovation such as
the use of mobile devices for learning, and incorporate these into traditional learning
practices. Hence, the characteristics of mobile learning need to be identified within
the context of Pakistani universities, and the development of a conceptual mobile
learning model for universities in Pakistan will be one of the outcomes of this
research. The model may assist administrators and teachers to use mobile learning
characteristics in universities in Pakistan. In addition, the model may provide the
conceptual foundation for future research on mobile learning in Pakistani universities
and other higher education institutions. In this regard, the major objectives of the
research are to:
1. Identify the characteristics of mobile learning in Pakistani university

environments.
2. Investigate the perceptions and expectations of university administrators,

students and teachers regarding mobile learning characteristics in Pakistani
universities.
3. Develop a conceptual mobile learning model for Pakistani universities.
To fulfil the research objectives, the case study researcher must first and foremost
identify and articulate appropriate research questions for the case study research. In
addition, the nature of the research questions assists the researcher to determine the
appropriate research method. hence, the following research questions have been
framed for this research to achieve the research objectives:
RQ1: What do the students perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani
universities?
66
RQ2: What do the teachers perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani
universities?
RQ3: What do university administrations perceive and expect of mobile learning in

Pakistan?
RQ4: What are the common mobile learning characteristics to consider when
3.6.2 Units of Analysis
It is important to identify units of analysis for the case study during the design phase.
Depending on the research question posed, the units of analysis may be individuals,
groups or organizations (Yin 2009). According to Yin (2009), it is also quite
common that in a case study research design, groups of people or individuals are the
units of analysis. For this research, the analysis focuses on what matters to groups of
people, not to a particular individual. Therefore, the main units of analysis would be
groups of Students, Teachers, IT Managers, Instructional Designers and
Administrators. It is important to note that although IT Managers, Instructional
Designers and Administrators from three universities have been interviewed
individually rather than as a group, their opinions have been analyzed and discussed
collectively in the discussion and findings chapters.
3.6.3 Data Collection
Benbasat et al. (1987) consider case study research to be qualitative research. Case
studies, however, can be designed in many different ways depending on the research
questions. Therefore, case study design may include qualitative data collection
techniques such as interviews and documents, and quantitative data collection
techniques such as surveys; they may follow a design where triangulation of
qualitative and quantitative research techniques is required in order to yield richer
findings (Yin 2009). Yin (2009, 115) recommends the inclusion of multiple data
sources so that case study findings are more rigorous:
67
‘The use of multiple sources of evidence in case studies allows an

investigator to address a broader range of historical and behavioural issues.
However, the most important advantage presented by using multiple sources
of evidence is the development of converging lines of inquiry, a process of
triangulation and corroboration’
For this research, a qualitative research approach has been chosen; however, multiple
sources of data have been included in the research design such as focus group
discussions, individual interviews, documents and direct observation. The following
sub-sections present the details of the selected data collection techniques for the
research design, data types, data sources and data processing along with the rationale
for case study selection, the participant recruiting process, and field procedures
during the actual data collection on case study sites.
3.6.3.1 Case Studies - Rationale for the Selected Universities
Three universities have been selected for this study based on the ranking data of the
Pakistani universities available on the Higher Education Commission Pakistan’s
website available in 2009 (HEC 2009). The students, teachers and administrative
stakeholders from the three universities were the target population for this study. In
order to have a balanced representation of a variety of socio-cultural backgrounds of
the students and teachers (the main participants in the study and therefore the
immediate beneficiaries) the universities were selected from both the public and the
private sectors (HEC 2009). Two universities have been selected from the public
sector (named University A and University B for the purposes of this research) and
one university represents the private sector (University C) so that people from
different social and financial backgrounds are represented in the population sample
representation. Sample size includes three focus groups from students, three focus
groups from teachers (average 7 participants in each focus group) and nine individual
interviews from the leadership stakeholders in three universities. This sample size is
relatively smaller than that of qualitative studies, however, appropriate for qualitative
studies as argued by Crouch, Mira, and Heather McKenzie (2006).
68
3.6.3.2 Instrument Preparation and Validation
Similar to every research design, case study design also has several parameters to
judge the quality of the case study research and reliability of the findings and
conclusions (Straub and Carlson 1989; Yin 2009). A researcher can perform a few
tests to ensure the quality of the research process such as construct validity, content
validity, internal validity (not applicable for exploratory case studies because it
measures the cause and effect relationship, therefore, it will not be discussed in this
research), external validity and reliability (Yin 2009).
The preparation of the questionnaires and discussion guides for the focus groups and
individual interviews was an iterative process. The questionnaires were developed
carefully after reviewing the literature. The questionnaires were reviewed by a panel
of experts and following multiple iterations, the final questionnaires and discussion
guides were submitted for ethics approval.
3.6.3.3 Construct Validity
Construct validity ensures that the instruments used for data collection are
appropriate for the purpose of the study, the type of data being collected, and to
answer the research questions (Yin 2009). Yin (2009) considers it a challenging task
to ensure construct validity in case study research, in particular where the case
studies design includes qualitative data collection approaches. This implies that care
must be taken to confirm the construct validity and this is completed by using
multiple sources of data. For this research, the construct validity has been assured by
multiple means such as use of focus groups and interviews in the studies of mobile
learning from published literature. The use of multiple sources of data as well as the
replication of focus groups and interviews using the same construct ensures the
validity of the construct.
3.6.3.4 Content Validity
Content is validated if the items included in the instruments successfully measure all
aspects of the construct (Straub and Carlson 1989). It is important to ensure content
validity so that the gathered data addresses the research questions. For this research,
69
the content has been created based on the themes included in the conceptual model,
which includes the underpinnings of mobile learning from the literature. Several
experienced researchers and professors checked the content validity. One case study
was conducted as a pilot study; during this case study, several changes were made to
the structure of the questions based on the participants’ responses. In addition, a bi-
lingual expert verified translated transcripts of the focus groups and interviews
because these were conducted in Urdu, the first language of the participants.
3.6.3.5 External Validity
External validity refers to the generalization of the findings of the study. In

statistical studies, often generalization is made to larger audiences; however, in case
study research, the generalization of the findings means something different. Yin
(2009) calls it analytical generalization where the results of a multiple case study
may be generalizable to the broader audience in terms of an extension to the existing
theory. A case study design that replicates two or three cases has a greater
probability of concluding generalizable results to extend the theory than does a single
case design. In this study, a multiple case study design has been chosen which gives
this study external validity. Three cases are studied in this research and the design is
replicated with the same set of operational measures being applied to each of the
selected cases. Furthermore, the findings of this research will contribute to the body
of knowledge in the field of mobile learning, particularly for developing countries
where little research has been done in this domain so far.
3.6.3.6 Reliability
The reliability of a research design allows other researchers to verify the results of
the study by applying the same data collection procedures and obtaining the same
results. The main purpose is to ensure reliability by reducing the risk of bias in data
collection, refining the data collection instruments and making the research process
transparent for the other researchers. For this research, the reliability has been
ensured by using the same data collection approaches such as focus groups and
individual interviews in each of the case investigations.
70
3.6.3.7 Contacting the Organizations
In relation to contacting the universities, it was easy to access the private sector
university; however, access to the public sector universities and their personnel was
difficult, especially in terms of securing appointments for the interviews. For the
focus groups however, the lecturers were contacted to assist with the recruitment of
the participants and facilitate the process of data collection on case study sites.
3.6.3.8 Participants’ Recruitment
Initially, the lecturers in the respective universities were contacted to assist with the
participants’ recruitment and data collection; therefore, it was a relatively easy for
them to contact their students and colleagues. Most of the student participants were
enrolled in Electrical and Telecom Engineering, Computer Science, and Dentistry
programs. The participants from Electrical and Telecom Engineering were in the 3 rd
or 4th year of their program whereas the Computer Science students were in year 1
and year 2. The Dentistry students were enrolled in year 1 of the program and had
just begun their studies. The purpose of the selection was to include a variety of
students from different programs and different levels of university studies so that the
data could reflect multiple viewpoints. The participants received an email invitation
with an information sheet (See Appendix A) outlining the purpose of the research,
assuring confidentiality of the participants’ personal information and their right to
withdraw from the research participation.
In terms of individual interviews it was more difficult to obtain appointments and

interview times with the university personnel in administrative positions such as IT
Managers and other senior administrative positions and policy making roles because
of the nature of their jobs and their busy schedules.
3.6.3.9 Field Procedures
Several field work and data collection activities were conducted simultaneously
given the time, and budget constraints. For instance, the focus group discussion
sessions were conducted with students and teachers by visiting each of the three
universities, (see Table 4 for details of focus groups discussion sessions with students
71
and teachers). In the final stage of the field procedures, the stakeholders including
administrators and IT managers were unavailable during the field visit; therefore,
their interviews were conducted on Skype later on. On-site visits for conducting
multiple focus group sessions proved to be an opportunity for detailed observation of
the organizational environment and its conduciveness to the prospective inclusion of
mobile learning.
3.6.3.10 Pilot Study
The first university was treated as a pilot study. When the data collection procedures
were completed, a summary of these procedures was provided to the supervisors.
Subsequent to the initial draft of the pilot case study report, the supervisors
recommended that several changes be made to the focus group questionnaires. These
changes involved altering the sequence of a few questions as the initial data indicated
that two related issues may be grouped together. The changes were made to the
questionnaires for the rest of the focus group sessions. Similarly, changes were made
to the questionnaires for the individual interviews.
3.6.3.11 Focus Groups
The focus group is a qualitative research technique used to collect data through group
interaction where the researcher provides the focus or theme and sometimes plays the
role of moderator during discussion. Focus groups can be used as a primary source
of data as well as a complementary data source in a research design using multiple
data collection techniques such as interviews and participant observation (Morgan
1997).
Krueger and Casey (2000) argue that focus groups are more suitable if the
researcher is interested in knowing the trends, attitudes and perceptions of people.
Both of the above arguments support the inclusion of focus group interviews as a
data collection technique in this research. The main participants of the focus groups
for this research include university students, teachers and the university
administrators; and the main objective of the study was to explore their perceptions
and expectations of mobile learning in their universities.
72
Focus groups also have some limitations; for instance, some participants may have
an influence on the point of view expressed by others in the group or may be afraid
to express their honest opinion (Morgan 1997, Krueger and Casey 2000). Other
limitations on the part of the investigator may include difficulty in settling any
conflicts between individual and group opinions, making it difficult to conclude
findings (Litoselliti 2003). It is important that the researcher acknowledge these
limitations and keep these in mind during the focus group discussions; this requires
mastering the skills of moderating the focus group discussion sessions (Morgan
1996, Krueger and Casey 2000). Further, the limitations of focus groups could
adversely affect the validity of the research findings unless the research design
includes evidence from other data sources such as interviews to substantiate the
findings from focus groups (Morgan 1997).
The focus group discussions were a key element of this case study research. Focus
groups were planned and conducted during the first phase of data collection. The
students and the teachers from the three universities were the main participants in the
focus group discussion sessions. One student focus group and one teacher focus
group were conducted for each of three selected universities comprising six focus
group discussion sessions in total. For each focus group discussion session, 13
participants were invited to participate in the focus group session. The average
attendance for students was nine participants for each focus group. The average
attendance for the teachers’ focus group sessions was 10. Teachers proved to be
more professional and responsible in terms of turning up on the day for the focus
group sessions. The students, however, produced various reasons for not showing up
such as assignment deadlines and a clash of the focus group discussion time with
lecture timings, although their availability was confirmed before scheduling the
respective focus group sessions. The participants were provided with another copy
of the participant information sheet in case they missed the soft copy emailed to them
earlier. The participants signed the consent forms before the beginning of the
sessions. Copies of Participants Information Sheet, Cover Letter and Consent Form
have been attached as Appendices A, B and C with this thesis. A copy of the
questionnaires for students and teachers was also provided to the participants for
reference during the discussion (see Appendices D and E).
73
Table 5: Focus Groups Schedule and Participants Demographic Information
Focus University Date Duration Number of Faculty

Group ID Participants
Student-FG1 University A 07-01-2011 55 10 Engineering
Minutes
Student-FG2 University B 14-12-2010 70 08 Engineering
Minutes
Student-FG3 University C 16-12-2010 50 06 Dentistry
Minutes
Teacher-FG1 University A 08-01-2011 85 08 Engineering
Minutes
Teacher-FG2 University B 09-12-2010 91 10 Engineering
Minutes
Teacher-FG3 University C 08-12-2010 86 10 Dentistry
Minutes
All of the focus group discussion sessions were audio recorded. A summary of
participants’ demographic information and data collection schedule has been
recorded in Table 5.
3.6.3.12 Interviews
Interviews are considered the most common and the most important source of data in
a case study research design. Interviews provide focused answers to the researcher’s
line of inquiry and the researcher has the opportunity to seek further explanation
from the interviewee for clarity and conciseness (Miles and Huberman 1994). Oates
(2006, 187) lists three major categories of interviews: structured, unstructured and
semi-structured. Structured interviews adhere to pre-defined questions; whereas the
other two types are guided discussions where the investigator maintains his/her own
line of inquiry while continuing the interview in a conversational manner (Yin 2009).
Unstructured and semi-structured interviews are the most suitable for exploratory
research (Oates 2006). Thus, semi-strucutred interviews have been included as an
important data collection technique in this research design. The main interviewees
are the stakeholders from the universities in order to gain an insight into the
universities’ perceptions and expectations of mobile learning implementation in the
future.
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Miles and Huberman (1994) argue that interviews have limitations, one of which is
the bias of the interviewee which may produce an inaccurate response. Also, the
investigator could ask leading questions, thereby manipulating the original and
genuine opinion of the interviewee; this problem is termed as reflexivity. An
effective way of overcoming these limitations is to triangulate with other data
sources included in the case research design such as focus groups and direct
observations (Yin 2009, 102).
For this research, interviews are a main source of data. After the focus groups
discussions with students and teachers, the semi-structured individual interviews
were conducted with the other stakeholders of the universities including
administrators, IT managers and instructional designers. Personnel were invited by
email to participate, and were provided with an information sheet, cover letter and
consent form (see Appendix A, B and C).
Table 6: Interview Schedule and Participants Demographic Information
Stakeholder Designation University Interview Duration

Title Date
Instructional Assistant Professor University A 07-05-2012 40
Designer Minutes
Administrator Managing Director University A 03-08-2012 35
Minutes
IT Manager Network Administrator University A 15-05-2012 30
Minutes
Instructional Assistant Professor University B 31-07-2012 40
Designer Minutes
Administrator Dean of Faculty University B 27-09-2012 45
(Telecommunication and Minutes
Electrical Engineering)
IT Manager Network Administrator University B 24-07-2012 30
Minutes
Instructional Medical University C 12-05-2012 40
Designer Doctor/Registrar/Lecturer Minutes
Administrator Dean of Faculty University C 23-06-2012 30
(Medicine) Minutes
IT Manager Network Administrator University C 29-05-2012 30
Minutes
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Interviews were conducted online using Skype software. Interviews were audio
recorded with the permission of the participants. However, some of the participants
did not wish to record their interview and preferred to write their responses to the
interview questions. Table 6 provides a precise picture of participants and data
collection activities during this phase of data collection. Interview questions for
administrators, IT managers and instructional designers have been included in
Appendices F, G and H with this thesis.
3.6.3.13 Documents
Documents are another important source of information for a case study researcher.
Documents may be useful for any type of case study and may take many different
forms such as emails, minutes of meetings, organizations’ internal progress reports
and other administrative documents which may assist the case study researcher to
augment the data collected by other sources and which provide additional
information on the same topic (Yin 2009, Miles and Huberman 1994, Oates 2006).
Yin (2009) recommends that the case study researcher should examine already
available documentary evidence (i.e. via internet search, browsing websites and
progress reports available online) before entering the case study site. In this
research, the websites of the selected universities were reviewed to obtain
information about the ranking of universities before the selection of case study sites.
Further, several organizational documents such as progress reports were reviewed
during the visits to the case study sites. A number of publicly available documents
such as press releases from the websites of Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
about the ICTs in Pakistan, World Bank and Pakistan Higher Education Commission
were also reviewed (PTA 2009; WorldBank 2011; HEC 2009). References to these
sources have been made in the results and discussion chapters where appropriate.
3.6.3.14 Direct Observation
A case study investigator has the advantage of being a direct observer of the case
study site during the data collection activities. Yin (2009) mentions that the
observations may be made during the whole process of conducting the case study; for
instance, the case study researcher may observe the office of the interviewees during
the interview, take photographs (with permission) of activities being carried out on
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the case study site. Direct observation is an important data source, and could assist
the researcher to confirm the findings from other sources of data. In this research,
the evidence actual observation during the data collection was also drawn upon. For
example, the use of mobile devices for learning by the students in the universities
and even during the focus group discussion sessions to demonstrate learning
activities.
3.6.4 Data Analysis Process
The establishment of modes and strategies to be used for data analysis during the
design stage is very helpful and makes the researcher mindful of the data analysis
process for the field procedures and data collection phase (Benbasat, Goldstein, and
Mead 1987). Yin (2009) has offered several data analysis strategies, techniques and
tools to embed in a variety of case study research designs such as using theoretical
framework to guide the analysis and using a pattern matching technique for coding
the data. Similarly, Bogden and Biklen (1982) have discussed several discrete steps
invovled in qualitative data analysis including working with data, organizing data,
synthesizing data and interpreting data.
Ryan and Bernerd (2003) have elaborated on the multiple techniques and strategies
used to identify themes emerging from qualitative data for different types of
qualitative data including both rich verbal narratives and brief text. Lacey and Donna
(2001) have described multiple stages of qualitative data analysis from transcription
of audio/video interviews to organizing data, followed by coding and identification
of themes and interpretation of data by the researcher.
Miles and Huberman (1994) have proposed similar techniques and strategies for the
preparation ans organization of data at this stage. By incorporating all of the
important techniques, strategies and stages from the literature suitable for the type of
data in this research, a nine-stage (see Table 7) data analysis process has been
devised for the data analysis of this research in order to ensure the rigor of the data
analysis process.
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Table 7: Stages in Data Analysis for This Research (Adapted from: Bogden and Biklen
(1982), Miles and Huberman (1994), Yin (2009), Ryan and Bernerd (2003), Lacey and
Donna (2001))
Stage No Stage Name

Stage-1 Choosing Data Analysis Strategies
Stage-2 Choosing Data Analysis Tools
Stage-3 Preparing Data
Stage-4 Organizing Data
Stage-5 Coding Data
Stage-6 Identification of Themes
Stage-7 Synthesizing Data
Stage-8 Interpreting Data
Stage-9 Writing the Results
The following subsections provide detailed explanation for each stage of data
analysis process for this research.
3.6.4.1 Choosing Data Analysis Strategies
Two main data analysis strategies have been chosen. Firstly, a theoretical framework
technique is used to guide the analysis of data, and secondly, the technique of pattern
matching is used to assist the researcher to code the data based on themes identified
earlier in the literature. The details of how these data analysis strategies have been
implemented in this research are presented in the following sections.
Data Analysis Strategy 1: Using Theoretical Framework/Model
Prior to conducting a case study research, the formulation of a theoretical framework

is needed to serve the multiple purposes of the research. For instance, the process of
developing the theoretical framework involves a comprehensive examination of the
literature to reveal existing theories and the possible extension of those theories. In
addition, the theoretical framework provides a blueprint as a guide for the whole
research process which includes articulating the research questions, establishing
hypotheses (if applicable), propositions or themes, determining the data type, and
data collection and data analysis techniques. Yin (2003) states that there is a lack of
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a strong theoretical base to inform the design of the exploratory case studies;
therefore, the researcher is less likely to provide theoretical statements, hypotheses
and propositions at the outset of the case study design. This logic is applicable to
this research; hence, a theoretical framework based on the existing literature on
mobile learning was developed and themes provided instead of formal propositions
to guide the research process, data collection and basis for analysis of the data.
The theoretical framework called ‘initial mobile learning conceptual model’ in this
research (see Figure 10) is a combined adaptation from Danaher et al. (2009),
Sharples et al. (2005), Barker et al. (2005) and Koole (2009). A detailed description
and rationale for this theoretical framework was presented in Chapter 2. This
theoretical framework has provided the baseline for the main building blocks of the
research design including the identification of units of analysis, the themes to be
considered when designing questionnaire/instruments, and the choice of appropriate
data collection and analysis techniques.
Mobile Learning
People Technology
Interactivity

• Cost
Figure 10: Initial Mobile Learning Conceptual Model. (Adapted from Danaher et al. (2009), Sharples
et al. (2005), Barker et al. (2005) and Koole (2009)
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This initial mobile learning conceptual model (Figure 10) assisted with the data
analysis (See details in section 3.6.4.3) process and helped to structure the
forthcoming discussion and findings chapters. Subsequent chapters that include
discussions and findings are as follows: Chapter 4 for the students’ focus groups,
Chapter 5 for the teachers’ focus groups, and Chapter 6 for the results, discussion
and findings from the individual interviews of administrative stakeholders in
Pakistani universities.
Data Analysis Strategy 2: Coding Using Pattern Matching Technique
As for the second data analysis strategy, in the literature, pattern matching has been
found to be the most popular method for analysing case study data; pattern matching
enhances the validity of the case study (Miles and Huberman 1994; Yin 2009).
Using this pattern matching data analysis technique, mobile learning characteristics
were mainly grouped and coded under the categories of ‘Interactivity’ and
‘Technology’ (following the model in Figure 10) based on the major themes from the
focus group discussion sessions and individual interviews. However, for the
‘People’ category (available in the model in Figure 10), there was no separate coding
because it contained the participants’ details which included those of students,
teachers, IT managers, instructional designers and university administrators.
Participants or ‘People’ discussed their perceptions and expectations regarding

mobile learning characteristics such as collaboration, usability, context, blending,
flexibility, connectivity and mobile learning applications; therefore, the coding for
the ‘People’ category was embedded in the coding for all other categories and
themes. It is important to note that a discussion about the ‘People’ category has not
been included separately in the discussion and findings chapters as this would have
been redundant. Furthermore, all of the discussions and findings frequently refer to
these participants.
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3.6.4.2 Choosing Data Analysis Tools
It is important for a qualitative data analyst to be mindful of the available data

analysis tools for the qualitative research given that the quantitative data has been
collected. A number of data analysis tools or computer software packages have
become popular in the qualitative research community. It is important to understand
that the data analysis tools do not perform the analysis for the researcher; their
purpose is to assist researchers to organize the data and build coding and categories
(Lacey and Donna 2001; Yin 2009). However, these tools are quite useful and assist
the researcher to plan the data analysis, manage the large amounts of text data,
categorize and code the text and ultimately help to implement the data analysis
strategies and techniques.
For this research, the tools for qualitative data analysis NVivo 9.2 and NVivo 10
versions for text analysis have been used. The appropriate training in the use of this
software was acquired during the course of the case study investigation and the skills
of data analysis were applied using this tool. NVivo software helps the researchers
to organize and understand the research data for better decision-making (QSR
International 2012). This tool helps with the organization of the text data from
sources (focus group discussion transcripts and individual interview transcripts) to
categorize themes, coding, and classification of nodes and sources of data, building
relationships and associations between nodes, and building the various models for
pictorial representation of data. QSR NVivo 10 has been used as the main data
analysis tool for this research. In addition, Microsoft Excel 2010 and Microsoft
Word 2010 have been used to assist in the data analysis for this research. An Urdu
language word processing software call InPage Urdu 2009 was used to transcribe
initial text from recorded interviews.
3.6.4.3 Preparing Data
The preparation of data is an important step in the data analysis. It has several
benefits such as saving time during the actual analysis and get the research familirize
with and knowing the data which is essential for the analysis process (Lacey and
Donna 2001; Bogden and Biklen 1982), Anne and Donna). The audio recordings
were transcribed in the Urdu text format by using InPage 2009 Urdu text editor. It
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was a long and painstaking process to learn using this software package call InPage
Urdu 2009. Transribing and writing Urdu text into the software from the recordings
was hectic and time-consuming process. After the Urdu text for all focus groups and
individual interviews had been transcribed, the transcriptions were translated into
English. The final version of the transcripts’ translation was checked, reviewed and
verified by a bi-lingual expert who is a lecturer of English as a Second Language in a
Pakistani university.
3.6.4.4 Organizing Data
In the qualitative data analysis process, organizing data is an equally important and
essential stage as that of data preparation. Organizing data involves preparing the
transcripts to be imported into analysis software and assinging meaningful codes and
titles to the files to make them ready to work with (Lacey and Donna 2001; Miles
and Huberman 1994; Bogden and Biklen 1982). For this research, data was
organized in several ways such by assigning meaningful titles to each transcript file
and compiling data colleciton information separately for each focus group session
and interview session (refer to Table 5 and Table 6 for detailes).
Furthermore, meaningful codes and titles were assigned to the Universities, focus
group participants and interviewees for indentification and referencing during the
analysis. For instance, universities were assigned the codes of University A,
University B and University C to ensure anonymity. Similarly, meaningful codes
were generated for students’ and teachers’ focus group participants such as Uni A –
Student1 and Uni B – Teacher2. Interviewees were labeled in the similar fashion
such as university code followed by designation of the interviewee e-g Uni A –
Administrator or Uni B – IT Manager. These codes were used for the data analysis
and for reporting the results in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 when quoting the participants. In
this stage, a new project file was created in NVivo software and named according to
the topic of the research. All the prepared and organized transcripts were imported
into the NVivo software as data sources.
All the raw data including original recordings, Urdu language transcripts, initially
translated transcripts, organized and labeled transcripts were organized and stored in
separate folders for each university and relevant focus groups. A back-up of all the
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data was made on a separate disc and on cloud storage (DropBox and SkyDrive)
before the start of data analysis.
3.6.4.5 Coding Data
In the data organizaiton stage, all of the transcripts were imported to NVivo software.
Data was ready to be coded respectively. According to Ryan and Bernerd (2003, 4),
coding is the process of identifying potential themes present in the data. Some of the
themes could also be pre-identified on the basis of the theoretical framework
emerging from the literature review to start with the data analysis.
‘Themes come both from the data (an inductive approach) and from the
investigator’s prior theoretical understanding of the phenomenon under study
(an a priori approach). A priori themes come from the characteristics of the
phenomenon being studied; from already agreed on professional definitions
found in literature reviews; from local, common-sense constructs; and from
researchers’ values, theoretical orientations, and personal experience’
However, pre-identified themes should not stop the qualitative research from seeking
new and emergent themes in the collected data (Ryan and Bernerd 2003; Welsh
2002). For this research, both of the techniques were used for coding data. Firstly, as
informed by one of the selected strategies for this research to use theoretical
framework, pre-identified categories and themes based on the intial mobile learning
conceptual model (refer to Figure 10 in Section 3.6.4.1) were used. During the
coding process, new and emerging categories, themes and subthemes informed by
data were acknowledged and added. The process of coding data involved several
mini-steps. Firstly, nodes were created based on the initial categories and themes
used in the theortical framework or initial mobile learning conceptual model (Figure
10).
A pattren-matching strategy was used to code the data. To code the data for
respective nodes, the option of auto-coding available in NVivo was initially used to
group the text according to the relevance of themes. However, after a detailed
review of the results of manaul auto-coding, it was apparent that auto-coding relied
on a specific algorithm of searching for similar words to group the text under each
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theme. This was not a very effective way of coding as it missed several themes and
chunks of text related to a theme where participants used colloquial language and
slang to express their opinion about an important theme.
Basit (2003) argues that electronic data analysis software packages could only assist
in managing the large amounts of textual data in qualitative research; however, the
need for and importance of deliberation and decision-making on the part of the
researcher is imperative in order to find themes and ultimate theoretical
underpinnings of data. Cope (2005) also recommends similar techniques for coding
qualitative data. Therefore, the results of auto coding were disregarded. Instead,
manual coding was used where every piece of transcribed text was read manually
and coded according to the relevant theme using the pattern-matching technique.
Figure 11 shows the screen shot of the nodes as a result of manual coding in NVivo
10 software. This example displays the data analysis process for students’ focus
groups.
Figure 11: Main Coded Themes for Students Focus Groups Analysis
Figure 12 is another exmaple of mobile learning activities and applications derived

from the data based on manual coding.
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Figure 12: Manually coded nodes for mobile learning activities and applications from Students Focus
groups
The stage of coding data and the next stage of indentification of themes are inter-
related and overlapping. As mentioned earlier in this section, some of themes were
identified based on the initial model. The next stage invovles the identification of
new themes, sub-themes and iterative process of detailed coding.
3.6.4.6 Identification of Themes
According to Ryan and Bernerd (2003), themes are the specific concepts found in the
text. Themes can be identified from several pointers in the data including
expressions, repetitions of certain concepts by the participants, indigenous typologies
or local language terminologies and similarities and differences of the opnions of the
participants. In the data analysis for this research, these techniques were applied to
delve into the data in order to identify new themes in addition to using pre-identified
categories and themes.
85
Figure 13: Child Nodes for Sub-Themes for Students Focus Groups Analysis
3.6.4.7 Synthesizing Data
The next stage involved synthesizing the data in terms of building relationships
among different nodes and themes (Bogden and Biklen 1982). After the
identification of sub-themes and the creation of child nodes, the relationships among
multiple nodes were identified.
Figure 14: Relationship between Themes for Student Focus Groups Analysis
For instance, the relationship between the user experience and usability was evident
from the participants’ opinions that the students who already possessed the smart
phones were experienced users; they reported fewer usability issues of mobile
86
devices for learning. Figure 14 shows some of the relationships constructed during
the data analysis for the students’ focus groups.
NVivo provides a feature that allows the viewing of multiple inter-connected themes
and nodes in the form of diagrams and models. A typical mode representing the
hierarchy of relationships among multiple nodes is called Node Strucure in Nvivo.
For the analysis process in this research, models were generated in order to see the
inter-dependence of different nodes from the relationships built earlier. For example,
to visualize the usability issues discussed by the students during the focus groups
interview sessions, the usability tree in Figure 15 was developed to observe the
usability node and associated child nodes.
Figure 15: Usability Tree – An Example of Node Structure
Similarly, another model was created to visualize the relationship and impact of
certain inter-related themes such as user experience, technical support, cost and
usability (see Figure 16 on the page 88)
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Figure 16: Factors impacting on students’ perceptions of usability - An Example of Modelling the
Relationships among Multiple Nodes
Building relationships and visualizing them as models and node strucuture diagrams
assisted with the next stage of the data analysis which is the interpretation of the
results.
3.6.4.8 Interpreting Data
NVivo has another key feature allowing the data analyst to record the reflective
comments and interpretation of the data at the time of coding (QSR 2013; Welsh
2002). An annotation can be written in the form of comments or sticky notes and
attached to each related node. Similarly, a memo can be written in Nvivo to write the
comments and interpretation of particular chunk of data and attached to the data to
refer to it later during the write-up. Memo writing proved to be very important from
the data analysis stage to the write-up of the research results in this thesis. Initial
thoughts were recorded as memos for each node and theme during the analysis
process; these memos were updated and used to report the results of the analysis in
the subsequent chapters (4, 5 and 6) in this thesis. Figure 17 (on page 89) presents a
screenshot of information about memos written during the analysis of data in NVivo
10.
88
Figure 17: Memos Written during Students Focus Groups Analysis
During this stage, important quotations were also selected and highlighted along with
memos for use in the results and discussion chapters of the thesis.
3.6.4.9 Writing the Results
Finally, communicating the results of the analysis to the audience is another crucial
step to conclude the data analysis process (Gurdial and Jones 2007). In this thesis,
Chapters 4, 5 and 6 have been written to present the results of this research in form
of direct quotations from the participants as an outcome of the data analysis process.
Further, the dicussion of the results has been presented with relevant references to
the literature. In order to be consistent with the selected strategy for the data analysis
process such as using theoretical framework to guide the analysis, similar strategy
was used to strutcutre the results and discussion chapters (4, 5 and 6) in this thesis.
Ultimately, a new Mobile Learning Framework (refer to Figure 40 in Chapter 7) was
developed demonstrating both the existing and new themes that emerged as
outcomes of this research.
3.7 Ethical considerations
The ethics approval policy at Curtin University was followed during the entire
process of this research. Questionnaires were prepared and subsequently approved
by the Ethics Committee of the Curtin Business School. Participants were informed
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of the research study. Information sheets were circulated before the actual data
collection procedures began. Participants gave their written consent to voluntarily
participate in the research and they were informed of the right to withdraw their
participation from the research at any stage. The contact information of the
researcher and the supervisors was provided to the participants in case of further
queries or concerns. All collected information and data were kept confidential with
the researcher and supervisors.
3.8 Research process flow chart
The flow of the research process is presented in Figure 18. This research included
four main phases. Phase 1 comprises the literature search, review and development
of the initial mobile learning conceptual mode.
Figure 18: Flow of Research Process
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Data was collected during Phase 2 and Phase 3 and included focus group discussion
sessions and individual interviews. Data from these phases was analyzed in order to
answer the research questions. The final phase comprises the conclusions drawn
from the research findings, and the development and release of the final mobile
learning conceptual model as the outcome of the research.
3.9 Chapter Summary
Mobile learning is a multi-disciplinary field of research as researchers from the

Information Systems, Human-Computer Interaction, Telecommunication
Engineering and Education disciplines have been collaborating in mobile learning
research studies. Moreover, Information Systems research is also very rich in
diversity and input from other disciplines. This research is multi-disciplinary and
relates to the Mobile Learning and Information Systems fields. With its orientation
in the Information Systems field, this research is interpretivist in nature. The case
study approach has been selected as the research method and qualitative data has
been collected through multiple data collection techniques including focus groups,
semi-structured individual interviews and observations. A number of mobile
learning researchers have used the case study approach as the research method and
qualitative data collection and analysis techniques. For the data analysis, the initial
mobile learning conceptual model from the literature has been used to guide the
analysis and structure the subsequent discussion and findings chapters. NVivo,
Inpage Urdu, Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel have been used as data analysis
tools for this research. A rigorous nine-stage data analysis process was followed
from the preparation and organization of data for the analysis to coding,
identification of themes, interpretation of the data and writing the results. The flow of
overall research process has been explained in Figure 18 (on page 90). This research
is approved by the Curtin University Ethics Committee.
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CHAPTER 4 STUDENTS’
FOCUS GROUPS: RESULTS,
DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter was dedicated to the discussion and selection of research
methods, research design issues, data collection approaches and activities including
demographic information about the three students’ focus groups, three teachers’
focus groups and nine individual interviews from university administrative
stakeholders. In this chapter, the findings from the focus group interviews conducted
with students studying in Pakistani universities are presented and discussed.
Primarily, the chapter is focussed on addressing and answering the first research
question: ‘What do the students perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani
universities?’ This chapter, and the subsequent findings/discussion chapters, follow
the conceptual model to structure the chapter (see Figure 9 in Chapter 2). A rigorous
data analysis process using NVivo qualitative data analysis software has been
followed to obtain the results and findings presented in this chapter. Section 3.6.4 in
Chapter 3 presents a detailed account of strategies, techniques and stages in the data
analysis process with examples and screen shots from NVivo to elaborate the
analysis process. This chapter is focussed on the discussion of the results and
findings of focus group interviews with students studying in universities in Pakistan.
Discussion and findings for the teachers’ focus groups and interviews with
administrative stakeholders will be presented in the subsequent chapters.
As the nature of the collected data is purely qualitative, it is important to mention at

the outset that the discussions and findings in individual sections may contain
different terminologies especially in relation to the level of agreement among
participants regarding a particular certain characteristic, concern, experience, theme
92
or expectation (Dudley and Nikita 1999). For example, weak support for or
agreement with an argument is indicated by the expression one of the participants
mentioned; moderate support is indicated by some of the participants or a few
participants and strong agreement is expressed by terms such as the majority of the
participants/all of the participants/the participants.
Each section of this chapter will present a detailed account of the students’
perceptions and expectations of mobile learning characteristics in Pakistani
university environments. The discussion may include references to the relevant
literature followed by a short summary of discussion and findings. Besides the
planned questionnaire for student focus groups based on the initial mobile learning
conceptual model, several other themes emerged during the focus group discussion
sessions. Some of these newly-emerged themes indicate socio-cultural trends and
their impacts. Section 4.12 and subsections include the details of themes that
emerged from data gathered from the students’ focus group sessions. A summary
encompassing the various findings will conclude the chapter.
4.2 Collaboration - Results and Discussion
Students from three focus groups in Pakistani universities generally talked about
various forms of collaboration for which they were using their mobile devices.
During the analysis of data, three main areas of collaboration were found:
collaboration with peers or fellow students regarding group work, collaboration with
teachers for direction and guidance, and collaboration using social media with the
peers and teachers via mobile devices. Details of the focus groups interviews
including actual and verbatim quotations from students are presented in the following
subsections.
4.2.1 Collaboration with Peers
Students from all backgrounds and universities found it very useful to be able to
communicate and collaborate with peers using mobile devices; particularly when
they were involved in a team project or group assignment. Collaboration with peers
using mobile devices was discussed by most of the mobile learning research studies
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in literature and is one of the main advantages of utilizing mobile devices in a

learning context (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005; Danaher, Gururajan, and Baig
2009; Filstad and Gottschalk 2010; Hwang et al. 2010).
Students stated that they lived far from one another, and therefore most of them were
able to communicate and collaborate by using conference calls, SMS, MMS, voice
calls and Skype in order to continue with their group work. Two students shared
their collaboration experiences with their peers using mobile devices; comments
included the following:
‘Here, I share my personal experience. A group leader sets up a conference

call to all group members and assigns the tasks to everyone regarding any
project or assignment. If any group member is facing difficulty, he or she
also shares this with everyone.’ [Uni C - Student1]
‘We use MMS in this kind of situation. If we are writing a computer program
and encounter any errors, we send that program to our teacher using MMS.
The teacher responds with feedback. Often the errors are corrected or
identified. At other times, we might make an .exe file of some program and
send it to friends so that they may do their part in checking or writing the
source code for that component. We are able to complete our assignments by
collaborating in this way.’ [Uni A - Student3]
Similar to the students’ experiences regarding collaboration with peers using mobile
devices in Pakistani universities, Motiwalla (2007) and many other mobile learning
researchers including (Cobcroft 2006; Hwang et al. 2010; Kukulska-Hulme and
Shield 2008; Kurti, Spikol, and Milrad 2008; Kwon and Lee 2010; MacCallum 2008)
also found that students’ learning outcomes, in secondary education and higher
education environments, improved as a result of using collaborative tools such as
SMS, MMS and voice calls.
4.2.2 Collaboration with Teachers
Most participants shared their positive collaboration experiences with their teachers
when working on projects, assignments and field work. They recounted how 'instant'
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communication with teachers helped them to proceed when they were at a very
critical stage of a project or when they were unable to continue because of certain
problems. They mentioned that collaboration using mobile devices had assisted
them to submit their work on time resulting in productive use of their own time and
that of their teachers. One student stated:
‘This happened to me several times, I discussed things with friends and when
we were unsure of something, I just called the teachers and we were able to
resolve the issue.’ [Uni A - Student3]
This collaboration occurred in particular when students were working away from the
university on field work projects or assignments.
‘It is beneficial for a student too. Sometimes you are at a place where there
is no access to a computer, so you can just send an SMS to your teacher and
they reply.’ [Uni C - Student1]
However, they were very clear about the extent to which they could collaborate with
the teachers using mobile devices. They found collaboration with mobile devices
helpful only when the nature of the problem or question was not too complex and did
not require a detailed discussion.
‘If the problem is small, then the teachers may be able to help immediately
but they cannot solve bigger issues via a phone call or phone message.’ [Uni
C - Student2]
‘I agree with him. We often collaborate with our teachers and friends and get
our problems solved to some extent.’ [Uni C - Student3]
The positive outcomes of collaboration between students and teachers have also been
discussed in other mobile learning studies (Cobcroft and Bruns 2006; Cortez et al.
2005; Divitini, Haugalokken, and Norevik 2002; Hwang et al. 2010). However, in
this study, some students mentioned that many teachers did not like communication
via their mobile phones as this might encroach on their time outside of working
hours. Some teachers preferred not to give their phone contact information to
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students. One student pointed out that younger teachers tend to allow students to
contact them and collaborate via mobile devices; older teachers do not have much
faith in the technology or they are not well versed in the latest technologies
themselves, so they do not encourage students to use these channels of
communication and collaboration for teaching and learning purposes.
‘Collaborating with teachers in this way can be a problem because teachers

do not use these options much.’ [Uni B - Student4]
‘Actually, this is popular among the younger generation mostly.’ [Uni B -

Student3]
4.2.3 Collaboration using Social media via mobile devices
Another point emerged when a number of students mentioned that they frequently
use social media forums available on mobile devices such as Facebook, Skype,
Google talk, and Yahoo. Although, the majority of students were using the usual
features available on common mobile devices such as SMS, MMS, Voice calls and
internet browsing, some of them reported that it was quicker and more convenient for
them to approach some teachers or peers using social media channels. They also
reported that they were able to share larger amounts of information and learning
resources using social media forums from mobile devices in addition to SMS and
phone calls.
‘We have a group on Facebook and on Yahoo too. We share books,

assignments and other resources with members of these groups.’ [Uni B -
Student3]
Using social media for learning has been very popular among university students for
the last few years (Alistair 2009; Idrus and Ismail 2010; Kukulska-Hulme 2012);
however, not many studies on mobile learning in developing countries have reported
the use of social media for learning purposes on mobile devices other than Oliver
(2008) who did a comparative mobile learning study of students in Australia,
Ethiopia and Malaysia focusing on the use of the Web 2.0 application on mobile
devices. Oliver reported highly positive trends of using social media on mobile
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devices for learning purposes among Ethiopian students as compared with their
Australian and Malaysian counterparts.
Not every student uses social media on mobile devices for learning purposes because
social media channels are accessible on relatively expensive mobile devices. When
faced with this situation, students normally use computers at home or on campus to
access learning resources and information shared on Facebook or Yahoo groups, and
to participate in class discussion forums with their peers and teachers.
4.2.4 Collaboration - Summary of Discussion and Findings
The following points summarize the discussion and findings from data analysis
regarding collaboration:
 Students communicate and collaborate with each other frequently using mobile
devices for learning purposes, especially for group work and field assignments.
 Students communicate and collaborate with their teachers on mobile devices

when they require their support or guidance in certain situations; this helps them
to progress in their projects and assignments without waiting for teachers’ formal
face-to-face contact hours.
 Younger teachers like to communicate and collaborate on mobile devices

whereas some older teachers do not encourage the same as they might not be well
equipped or well versed in the newer technology and applications.
 Some teachers do not like to be contacted by students outside of working hours.
 Students also use social media on mobile device to collaborate with peers and
teachers. There are fewer studies and reports on the use of social media via
mobile devices in developing countries. This is an area for future work and
research.
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4.3 Usability - Results and Discussion
During the student focus group sessions, it was found that some students were not
aware of the concept of usability. They knew very little about usability of mobile
devices; however, they experienced issues related to usability of mobile devices for
learning without labelling these ‘usability issues’. When it was explained that
usability of mobile devices in the context of learning referred to the ease with which
mobile devices could be used for learning purposes, they gave reasonable responses
based on their individual experiences. However, there were mixed responses in
terms of usability-related issues. Some of them were very happy and reported that
they did not face any usability-related problems unless they were using a new device;
these few students seemed to be very experienced users of smart phones.
‘I did not encounter any problem related to usability. When I connect with
GPRS, the download speed is slow. However, WiFi works well.’ [Uni A -
Student2]
On the other hand, many students reported that they faced quite a lot of usability-
related issues when they performed learning activities using mobile devices.
‘I experience a little bit of discomfort when viewing something on my mobile

device because its viewing area is limited and very narrow which makes
scrolling difficult. Further, typing on a mobile device is very difficult
because of the tiny keypad.’ [Uni A - Student1]
‘I think using mobile internet is not quite as easy on every mobile device; for
example, typing an SMS is OK, but using internet on small screen is not that
easy.’ [Uni A - Student13]
‘I agree with the other students that there are some features which are not
available on mobile devices. For example, email attachment and
downloading is a big issue. If file is in pdf format, you can open it because it
creates problems in viewing.’ [Uni C - Student6]
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‘There is a concern relating to the ease of using the keypad of mobile devices,
it takes more time to type even an email using the keypad. For mobile
learning, mobile devices with good keypads should be used or we might be
able to attach an external keyboard to those devices.’ [Uni B - Student3]
A number of usability-related issues mentioned by students in the focus groups were

quite similar to those in the literature, including smaller screen size, rapid battery
consumption, smaller memory and storage capabilities, difficulty of attaching large
files, not being able to perform tasks requiring heavy processing, some tasks taking
more time and more steps, smaller keypad and compromised mobile internet speed at
times (Chen et al. 2010; Kiili 2002; Kukulska-Hulme 2005b; Uther 2002; Wei, Zhuo,
and Zhang 2008).
Issues related to the usability of mobile devices for learning has been divided into the
four main categories of user interface, battery capabilities, memory and storage as
well as other usability issues; and these similar usability issues were also discussed
by Churchill and Hedberg (2008).
While moderating the focus group sessions in three universities, it was observed that
there were certain students who were technology enthusiasts (generally
telecommunication engineering and computer science students) and appeared to have
fewer problems using mobile devices for learning purposes. If they encountered
problems, they generally found a solution on their own as they indicated during the
focus group discussion:
‘If one is concerned about memory, the majority of WiFi-enabled mobile

devices allow external memory to be installed in order to enhance the
memory capacity.’ [Uni B - Student6]
Usually, these technology-savvy students come from more privileged financial

backgrounds and they could afford expensive smart phones enabling them to explore
more features and experience better usability of mobile devices for general use and
for mobile learning. Koole (2009) discussed user experience as a big factor in
reference to the usability issues of mobile device when used for learning; viz. the
more users are experienced, the less usability issues they would face. Enthusiastic
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technology students were very experienced mobile device users and probably would
not require much training. Despite a lack of experience, students from relatively
underprivileged backgrounds were very excited about the idea of mobile learning.
Oliver and Goerke (2008) also found similar enthusiasm among Ethiopian students
regarding the use of mobile devices for learning.
In spite of their enthusiasm and motivation, many students reported a number of

usability problems such as poor connectivity, low memory capacity, slow processing
power and configuration issues. Similar usability issues were also reported by
Economides and Grousopoulou (2009); it was observed that the students who were
reporting usability problems did not possess modern smart phones themselves and
found usability problems due to the older phones they were using. Generally, they
were calling smart phones WiFi Enabled mobile devices which showed that many of
them did not even have a mobile device capable of connecting to their freely
available university-provided Wi-Fi and internet. Some students explicitly
mentioned that they did not have a better device; that is why they preferred to carry
out learning activities on the computer:
‘There are some mobile devices like Blackberry which have a big screen and
you can read easily, but on older mobile devices you have to scroll down to
read longer paragraphs of text. In spite of all the features of smart phones,
we cannot read as easily as we do using a desktop computer.’ [Uni C -
Student4]
In addition, there are several other factors which impact on students’ mobile device
usability experiences for learning. These factors include the extent to which they are
experienced users, the extent to which they can afford to pay for sophisticated mobile
devices or high speed mobile internet, and how much technical support they receive
inside or outside the university.
During the analysis of the reported usability issues, it was found that due to lack of
awareness and appropriate training, some students tried to accomplish activities that
were not meant to be done on mobile devices such as writing code for the website
development, writing special characters in programming assignments or trying to
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play games with heavy graphics. Students have reported these issues inaccurately as
mobile device usability problems:
‘I am currently working on a website development project. I don’t have

internet access at home; therefore, I do most of the research work on the
mobile. However, if I have to download some template or view scripts in php
or html, then it becomes difficult to read and understand on the mobile. Some
mobiles don’t support MS Office. If you have ppt slides to view, you cannot
do that because you can only view pdf files.’ [Uni C - Student5]
‘If I try to send the source code of a program to a friend, there are some
characters which do not exist and therefore cannot be viewed on the mobile
device.’ [Uni A - Student9]
‘If I have to play games, some mobile devices do not support the graphics of
a game.’ [Uni A - Student13]
In this case, awareness is required and the students might be trained and informed
that mobile learning is not to replace computer usage in educational environments,
particularly for practical courses such as computer programming or engineering.
4.3.1 Usability - Summary of Discussion and Findings
The following points are some of the outcomes as a result of the analysis of focus
group discussion on ‘Usability’:
 Experienced users and technology enthusiasts had fewer usability problems.
 Students who already had smart phones reported fewer usability problems.
 Students who did not possess smart phones reported more usability problems
which were due to the older technology phones they were using.
 Students from disadvantaged financial backgrounds were more excited about the
idea of using mobile devices for learning.
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 If all students are to be given similar smart mobile devices funded by the
university they would reap the benefits of mobile learning.
 Students tried to accomplish practical and lengthy learning tasks or assignments

on the mobile devices without appropriate training or guidance; and they
perceived it as a mobile device usability issue when they found it difficult to
complete the task.
 Students needed to be informed and trained appropriately for mobile learning

readiness.
4.4 Context - Results and Discussion
Students did not know much about the meaning of the context with reference to
mobile learning; however, when it was explained to them that mobile device could
be used in different locations and environments to collect or work with contextual
data such as displaying information of objects in museums on users’ mobile devices
and in field work to capture images or videos; they understood it well. They
answered the questions about how mobile devices were used to learn across different
contexts and locations when the questions were posed indirectly using other simpler
terms and examples. They were quite excited that mobile devices proved very useful
for gathering data at different places. They reported their own experiences of using
mobile devices in certain contexts and how they benefited from mobile learning.
‘Once we did a project on computer graphics, and we used our mobile device
camera to take pictures for that project.’ [Uni A - Student5]
The use of mobile devices in a particular context is not new. Researchers have been
experimenting with the idea of using mobile devices to collect data in a particular
context such as the observation of birds by children on a farm and recording their
observation on mobile devices (Chen et al. 2003; Santos et al. 2010; Song 2011;
Thüs et al. 2012). Students in Pakistani universities also reported their experiences
about using mobile devices for learning purposes when they were off campus for
field work or engaged in data collection for a project or assignment. They talked
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about using their mobile devices to record interviews with participants, take photos
and record videos for the purpose of assignments or projects.
‘We can take photos with the help of a mobile device.’ [Uni C - Student1]
‘These photos can afterwards be used for some assignments.’ [Uni C -

Student2]
‘You can attach a reminder with photos and mention the purpose of usage.’
[Uni C - Student1]
Literature shows that mobile devices also have been used in context-sensitive
environments and for location awareness such as identifying and learning about
objects in museums and other non-academic settings where mobile devices can sense
the object and display relevant information to the user (Bormida et al. 2002; Klopfer,
Squire, and Jenkins 2002; Könönen et al. 2010; Proctor and Burton 2003a; Wishart
and Triggs 2010). Students in the current research also have reported trying to use
mobile devices to display context-sensitive information in one of their project
exhibitions.
‘It happens in our exhibitions of projects. Information related to a specific

project is displayed on the mobile devices of audiences when they approach a
certain object.’ [Uni B - Student3]
However, only a couple of students reported that they have used mobile devices for
context sensitivity; the rest of the group was not aware of the concept of context
sensitivity or location awareness with reference to mobile devices. For those who
knew about this, it was a good experience. In general, the majority of participants
did not use their mobile devices for any context-related activity at all. There could
be two possible reasons for this: 1) they did not have a mobile device with supporting
features; or 2) they had a mobile device without realizing that they could use it for
such learning purposes. Many students admitted that they were not aware of the fact
that a mobile device could be used so effectively in different contexts. They were
excited about the idea and wanted to use it for collecting data and other information
when doing field work in the future.
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4.4.1 Context - Summary of Discussion and Findings
As an outcome of analysis of students’ focus groups, a summary of findings

regarding the use of mobile devices across different contexts and locations is as
follows:
 In general, the majority of students were unaware of the concept of contextual

use of mobile devices and of context sensitivity. However, some of them had
experienced it without knowing it.
 Some of the students shared their experiences of using their mobile devices in
different contexts.
 Students reported that they have used their mobile devices in different contexts
for purposes such as taking photos, making videos during field work and
recording interviews during data collection visits to different sites.
 A few students also reported that they have experimented with displaying
context-sensitive information on mobile devices such as presenting information
during their project exhibitions. Given that some students were unaware of the
capabilities and features of the mobile devices which would add to their learning,
the findings revealed that this could be a potential area for future work and
research.
4.5 Blending - Results and Discussion
The students who participated in the focus groups expressed that they are currently
blending traditional or face-to-face learning with mobile learning. They have
practised it somewhat, they were excited about it, and they wanted it for the future as
well. Mobile learning activities in which students were already engaged include
checking their emails, participating in the class discussion boards, sharing
information and files on Facebook and Yahoo groups, marking and checking their
attendance, checking their semester results and sending SMSs to friends about
campus activities or lecture schedules.
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‘I use eBooks the most. I download eBooks on my mobile device and read
them whenever I can. Once, a teacher gave an assignment to write a review
about a book. I did not get enough time to go to the library to get a book, so I
downloaded an eBook on my mobile device and used that instead. I used my
free time at the university to read and wrote a review about it. I also watch
video tutorials on my mobile device using YouTube. Sometimes, I download
the lectures of Indian lecturers from YouTube and learn from them. I also
record lectures and listen to them later on. I take pictures instead of copying
notes from my friends if I need to. I take notes on my mobile device and keep
reminders for different events and activities. I chat, blog and Skype using my
mobile device. I email my teachers and send them assignments. I use the
dictionary on my mobile. I am currently learning Spanish, so I also installed
a Spanish dictionary on my mobile device. I use the internet to do research
for assignments and projects.’ [Uni A - Student5]
As shown in the response above, this student is using the mobile device effectively.
Wan and Howard (2007) discussed similar learning activities that a learner can
undertake using his mobile device in a blended learning environment. In Pakistani
universities, some students were not aware of the fact that mobile learning can be
part of blended learning and they mistakenly believed, and were concerned that, a
mobile device could replace teachers. They also assumed that mobile learning could
replace computers and laptops.
‘I think that what a teacher can deliver cannot be achieved through a mobile
learning mode. We can ask questions instantly when a teacher is present.’
[Uni C - Student6]
‘I think all of these tasks could be better done on computers.’ [Uni A -

Student8]
However, after they were told that mobile learning is intended to add options to the
existing forms of learning, they were satisfied; they were open to accepting and
embracing mobile learning in Pakistani university environments if it were offered in
combination with face- to-face learning.
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‘For about 15 to 20 percent of the course, I think one must have access to
mobile learning but one must use it correctly.’ [Uni B - Student2]
Students might be able to use their own mobile devices for several learning activities
such as watching video lectures and looking up in dictionary, and administrative
tasks such as viewing their enrolment information, checking exam results and
attendance statistics. They were happy and willing to enrol in a course that offered a
partial mobile learning mode.
‘I would definitely prefer to enrol in a course offered in mobile learning mode

as it will allow us to work while travelling or anywhere else. Yes, I agree
with other students that the university should facilitate the students’
engagement in mobile learning.’ [Uni C - Student2]
The analysis of all students’ focus groups shows that blending mobile learning with
existing forms of learning is the way to start introducing mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments. Literature shows that researchers have tested mobile
learning options for the learners in blended learning environments where learners -
along with mobile learning - are able to access existing learning options such as face-
to-face interaction with teachers, using online learning tools and attending classroom
activities remotely (Gururajan et al. 2011; Pérez-Sanagustín et al. 2012; Shen, Wang,
and Pan 2008; Wang et al. 2009).
4.5.1 Blending - Summary of Discussion and Findings
The following points summarize the students’ discussion about blending mobile
learning with existing learning forms in Pakistani universities:
 Students’ experiences of mobile learning showed that they were actually mixing
many forms of learning including face-to-face learning, e-learning and mobile
learning. They talked about the activities and tasks they were currently
performing using mobile devices for learning purposes. They were willing to
embrace mobile learning only in a blended learning environment.
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 Students discussed that mixing mobile learning with existing forms of learning
may work as an introduction to mobile learning in the Pakistani university
environments.
4.6 Control - Results and Discussion
The majority of participants misunderstood the question about control by the teacher;
they assumed that mobile learning is supposed to replace the teacher with a mobile
device.
‘I think that what a teacher can deliver cannot be achieved through mobile
learning mode. We can ask questions instantly when a teacher is present.’
[Uni A - Student6]
‘Often, students do not do anything without the teacher’s intervention.’ [Uni

C - Student4]
It was explained clearly to them that mobile learning was not meant to replace the
teacher with mobile devices. However, the latter requires students to be more
independent learners as they will have to learn on their own while on the move or at
work if they wish to be involved in mobile learning (Chen et al. 2004; Chen 2009;
El-Bishouty et al. 2010; Wishart and Triggs 2010).
There were mixed responses to the question as to whether students would be able to
learn independently and be responsible, independent learners without the teacher's
intervention. Some students said that they needed the teacher's help all the time,
while others reported that they engaged in learning activities by themselves
independently of the teacher.
‘It also depends on motivation level. For example, if I like mathematics, I

will solve problems even if I have to work hard to find the solutions. For
other courses, however, I would not work so hard. What I mean is, that if you
have motivation for something, you can do it without a teacher’s help or
intervention’. [Uni A - Student11]
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‘I agree with Student11. I think no human being is dumb or too smart; it just
depends on how much effort you want to put in to achieve your goal. It does
not depend on a specific teacher’s help if somebody really wants to learn
something. If you want to learn something, you will read more books, do
intensive internet search even if you are using mobile internet to get instant
and the latest updates. You will do whatever it takes to achieve your goal.’
[Uni A - Student7]
Some students mentioned that they learn better when the teacher is involved; they
felt the guidance by the teacher and their own self-accountability led them to submit
their assignments on time. Also, they needed assurance from the teachers to guide
them on the right track. One student believed that everybody would engage in
mobile learning if they had no other choice, while others were of the opinion that
students would love to explore and try a new mode of learning such as mobile
learning as it provided so many benefits. Another student mentioned that not every
course or subject matter is so simple that it can be understood independently of the
teacher or so complex that the teacher needs to be consulted constantly; therefore,
mobile learning would be ideal for some courses and for other courses, it might only
partially be successful. Also, a student's own interest level of experience and
readiness are significant if the switch were made to mobile learning.
‘It depends on the nature of the course and nature of the student himself.
Some students pick up the concepts quickly but some students do not want to
learn even if the teacher helps them out a lot.’ [Uni A - Student3]
Students also discussed that teachers should be involved in the design of mobile
learning courses. One student suggested that mobile learning activities should be
designed in such a way that students should find it very interesting and feel
motivated to embrace it.
‘Teachers should design some activities to help motivate the students to do

their tasks.’ [Uni C - Student5]
The literature also complements the idea of teachers needing to be actively involved
in the testing and implementation of mobile learning in the higher education sector.
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Teachers also need to be motivated and appropriately trained to deliver mobile

learning courses in a blended learning environment (Chen et al. 2010; Fernandez,
Simo, and Sallan 2009; Jeffrey 2009; Wang and Ryu 2009).
One participant mentioned an important issue regarding students from different

social and academic backgrounds. For instance, some students have graduated from
private schools which mostly follow the American or Western style of schooling
system which includes A-Levels and O-Levels (British Medical Association) where
they are trained to be independent learners. However, the majority of students had
come from a traditional or government school system where students are not
encouraged to be independent learners. This underlying fact may impact
significantly on the students’ confidence in switching or adapting to a mobile
learning mode where they are required to be independent or self-learners.
‘Although I agree with all of them to some extent, I will mention something
important. In our session, students are from a matriculation background in
contrast to a few people from A-levels. A-level students are used to
completing set tasks without having to be pushed by their teachers.’ [Uni C -
Student4]
4.6.1 Control - Summary of Discussion and Findings
A summary of students’ perceptions and expectations about the role of the teacher in
a mobile learning environment is as follows:
 Some students were happy to learn independently if the subject matter was not
too complex. Students would welcome the opportunity to be independent
learners if they were given the option.
 They wanted a teacher to be involved in the process of their learning in the

university environment whether a course is offered via face to face or in mobile
learning mode; teachers’ involvement may vary in reference to the mobile
learning mode.
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 Regarding their ability to be self-learners, many students were reluctant to be

independent learners.
 Some of the students were from the public sector high school system where they
were not expected to work independently of teachers, while some students came
from private school systems where the teaching and learning style was more like
that of developed countries and students were given tasks to do on their own.
Their educational background impacted on their perceptions and expectations of
teacher’s role in the learning process in a mobile learning environment.
4.7 Connectivity - Results and Discussion
There were vibrant discussions on the topic on connectivity and network-related

issues. The students stated that network connectivity is dependent on a number of
factors such as the quality of mobile devices, the availability of Wi-Fi, the speed and
cost of the internet. The students also revealed their weekly mobile internet usage.
Most issues raised by students in relation to connectivity and mobile learning are
consistent with the findings from other studies (Economides and Grousopoulou
2009; Goyette 2005; Kukulska-Hulme 2012). Cheon et al. (2012) have
recommended that the slow speed of mobile internet and technical limitations of
mobile devices should be acknowledged and considered carefully when designing
mobile learning initiatives. The following subsections contain details of the topics
discussed in relation to connectivity issues by the student focus group participants.
4.7.1 Mobile Internet Usage
On average, students used the mobile internet infrequently due to inadequate mobile
internet access and speed. However, the majority of them used it in spite of its
slowness. They mentioned that they used it because of its convenience for checking
emails, browsing the internet and other necessary information while on the move;
and these tasks did not demand a lot of processing or heavy downloading.
‘It’s general. During lectures or during discussions with somebody, I may

come across new terminology. I can just check the meaning of that specific
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term instantly on my mobile. I use my mobile for about an hour each day.’
[Uni B - Student3]
‘I don’t use it daily but during the week whenever I find time, I use internet
via my mobile device. I browse the net if I have to search for some material
for my assignment. I check my Yahoo, Hotmail and Google mail as well.
Sometimes, I use Twitter too. Overall, I use mobile internet 12-24 hours per
week.’ [Uni C - Student6]
‘I check email and Facebook and I also browse some informative websites
regarding religion and current news.’ [Uni B - Student4]
In spite of the slow speed of the mobile internet, the students’ weekly usage indicates
their level of interest in mobile learning without any intervention or training. Barker
et al. (2005) and Oliver (2007) also have mentioned a similar enthusiasm by students
for mobile learning in spite of limited resources in African countries including South
Africa and Ethiopia; it indicates the feasibility of the possible future introduction of
mobile learning in Pakistani university environments.
4.7.2 Mobile Internet and Wi-Fi
In all of the focus groups, the students stated that they would prefer using Wi-Fi on
mobile devices as it has very good downloading speed; however, Wi-Fi cannot be
used or relied upon as its availability is limited to certain remore and geographical
areas and this included the university campus or at home. They liked the idea of
being able to access learning resources and undertaking learning activities anywhere
and at any time, yet most of the students mentioned that the speed of mobile internet
was need of major improvement for something as serious as learning activities.
‘I think it is easier to access and use WiFi and there are fewer problems in
downloading if we are connected with WiFi. For example, if we have 1MB
connection, you can download files easily. Or if you wish to do social
networking or want to check emails, that is easier too. On the other hand,
mobile internet is slower.’ [Uni A - Student1]
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In Pakistan, mobile and cellular technologies such as General Pack Radio Service
(GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) are being used by
telecom providers which usually result in slow speed mobile internet as compared to
3G mobile technologies which were not available in Pakistan at the time these focus
group sessions were conducted.. There were some controversial political issues
regarding the launching or issuing of 3G licenses in Pakistan; however, media reports
suggested that it would be available in the near future (PTA 2013). With the
availability of 3G technologies, university students will have the advantage of being
able to engage in mobile learning activities with a faster and more efficient mobile
internet.
Although students reported that mobile internet is slow, costly for them, and did not
work well on every student’s mobile device, it still provided them with the flexibility
to communicate and collaborate with their peers and teachers remotely. On the other
hand, Wi-Fi is very cheap and provides very good speed but is available only in
particular areas. This may be good to access learning resources through mobile
device around campus or other Wi-Fi-enabled areas but students cannot access
learning resources anywhere and at any time. Ultimately, they wanted both a high
speed mobile internet and Wi-Fi in order to engage in mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments.
‘If we’re provided with 3G technologies and Wi-Fi, then we can do many of
these activities. We cannot do many of these activities with the available
technologies in Pakistan.’ [Uni C - Stuent2]
They discussed that, for the past couple of years, the government telecommunication
department has been arranging internet providers to provide cheaper DSL packages
for students. They wanted similar arrangements from the government and
universities for mobile internet and Wi-Fi availability for mobile learners.
‘A Pakistani Telecommunication Company has introduced cheap DSL

internet packages for the students apart from the general public.’ [Uni C -
Student2]
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‘I was going to mention the same point. This facility should be provided to
the students by the university. If mobile companies are charging expensive
rates for internet packages, the university should negotiate with them so that
they introduce cheap packages for students, and students should be given
access outside the university as well.’ [Uni C - Student4]
4.7.3 Mobile Devices for Learning
Students had repeatedly stated that many of their fellow students did not own smart
phones or Wi-Fi-enabled phones; therefore, they were unable to take advantage of
mobile internet or Wi-Fi. This ultimately hampered their ability to access learning
resources remotely or while on the move.
‘Wi-Fi-enabled mobile devices usually have enough memory to save files.

Mobile devices with lesser capabilities have concerns related to memory but
those are not Wi-Fi-enabled. GPRS technology can be used in these non-
WiFi-enabled mobiles but you may not be able to download large files using
GPRS.’ [Uni B - Student6]
They considered this to be a major factor or hindrance to the possible future

introduction or implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments. Further, a mobile device with advanced processing capabilities would
allow them to perform learning tasks quickly.
‘I prefer to use mobile internet when I am out of home but it has slower
speed. Also, it depends upon the quality of the handset, the model and its
downloading capacity.’ [Uni A - Student6]
‘Different telecom providers allow different speeds for mobile internet. It

also depends upon the quality of the handset. For example, downloading is
far better when you are using a pocket PC or tablets compared to an
ordinary mobile device.’ [Uni B-Student3]
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If mobile learning is to be introduced in Pakistani university environments, students

expect that all students should be given, or assisted by the universities to purchase,
the same sophisticated mobile devices.
‘If we have to use mobile devices for learning, the university should provide
us with these devices or assist students to buy Wi-Fi-enabled mobile devices.’
[Uni B - Student8]
They also suggested a number of solutions in order to resolve issues regarding

mobile devices for learning; for instance, the university could issue them an interest-
free loan, to be paid back in instalments, to buy smart mobile devices for learning
purposes.
‘Some universities in Pakistan are providing laptops to the students at very

affordable rates with the collaboration of some of the bigger computer giants
like DELL. Students are paying them in instalments. If students can be
supported in getting laptops, then they can also be supported in getting
mobile devices. Mobile devices are far cheaper than the laptops and every
student can afford one.’ [Uni C - Student1]
They talked about other options such as using students’ own mobile devices after a
successful test implementation of mobile learning. One student suggested that the
university should lend students mobile devices for a certain period or semester; then
the mobile devices could be returned and re-used by other, future students. Students
also suggested that mobile devices for learning could be designed differently,
focusing on performing learning activities along with communication features.
‘After a trial period, students’ own mobile devices can also be used for
mobile learning by imposing some restrictions on them. Frequently used
learning software should be available for students to download and install
but installing other unnecessary software should be restricted. Students may
seek the permission of the university administrator before installing restricted
apps.’ [Uni B - Student5]
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‘It is also possible that mobile devices may be the property of the university,
designed exclusively for students. Students may be issued with these devices
for use and return them to the university when they are no longer required.’
[Uni B - Student7]
‘Ideally, a mobile device for learning purposes should be designed.’ [Uni B -

Student1]
4.7.4 Connectivity - Summary of Discussion and Findings
The following is a summary of students’ discussion about connectivity and network

related issues which may impact their involvement in mobile learning greatly:
 Students mentioned a number of issues associated with the topic of connectivity

such as unavailability of Wi-Fi enabled mobile devices to all students, slow speed
of mobile internet and limited access to Wi-Fi networks.
 Students reported that they are using mobile internet for approximately 4 to 6
hours weekly on average. They were using it most of the time for social
networking, browsing the internet and checking emails.
 In spite of slow speed of mobile internet and other connectivity issues, students
were excited to be involved in mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments.
 Students demanded that the university provide them with smart phones for
learning or assist them to buy their own devices to be used for learning purposes.
 Speed of mobile internet may be improved subject to the launch of 3G cellular

technology in Pakistan in the near future.
 A mobile device for learning may be designed by mobile companies.
 Students expected both high speed mobile internet and Wi-Fi in order to engage
in mobile learning in Pakistani university environments.
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4.8 Flexibility - Results and Discussion
Flexibility was considered one of the biggest advantages for students using their
mobile devices for learning. However, flexibility is an umbrella term that includes
mobility, portability of mobile devices and convenient access to learning resources;
similar terminologies have also been used in the literature (Koole 2009; Kukulska-
Hulme and Traxler 2005; Naismith et al. 2004b).
‘It will be a lot easier for a learner as he can do learning activities from
anywhere and at any time; everybody owns a mobile device these days. It
will save time as a mobile device is always on, we are able to work instantly;
on the other hand, we have to turn our PC on if we have to perform even a
small task.’ [Uni A - Student1]
In reference to mobile learning, Sharples et al. (2002) argue that the mobility is
closely related to the concept of learning; learning does not have to occur only when
the learner is stationary. Pachler et al. (2012) also discuss that mobile learning may
include learning in the personal spaces of learners, unlike the notion of learning at a
fixed location such as school or on university premises. Similarly, students in
Pakistani universities were very excited when talking about the flexibility that a
mobile device might add to their learning. They discussed the advantages of time
saving, convenience of accessing learning resources, quick completion of minor
tasks benefitting from the always-ON feature of mobile devices, using a mobile
device as a laptop modem to perform learning tasks if the internet was not working,
using their mobile devices while travelling on public transport to and from university
and during their free time on campus. A number of students from all student focus
groups reported that they had used their mobile device to find meaning or to
understand a concept instantly using online search or dictionary.
‘Sometimes, we forget something, some concept; we check that instantly via

mobile devices and you feel comfortable with that immediate access.’ [Uni B
- Student1]
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They also expected that the university would contact them using mobile technology
such as sending SMS reminders for administrative purposes such as enrolment
deadlines or fees.
‘It would be handy if the university could send necessary information

regarding enrolment and fees to students’ mobile devices.’ [Uni C -
Student4]
Another student talked about the portability of mobile devices and said that it was
easier to carry mobile devices compared to a laptop while on the move, even around
the campus.
‘On the other hand, being connected to Skype through your mobile is a
relaxation; you can move around at least within a certain range; if you are
using a PC, you have to stick to it.’ [Uni C - Student3]
Similar mobile learning flexibility-related experiences have been discussed by the

participants of other mobile learning studies (Brown 2009; Chao and Chen 2009;
Kukulska-Hulme 2010; Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2005; Petrova 2010;
Schneider, Bleimann, and Stengel 2009; Wang and Ryu 2009). There were some
concerns among the students about whether or not they would be able to benefit from
the mobility and flexibility of mobile devices. For instance, the students mentioned
that downloading material or accessing learning resources at a good speed was
possible only when they used Wi-Fi; however, the problem with Wi-Fi was the
restriction to certain geographical areas; and they did not consider it a flexible option
as they could also use PCs at the university or a laptop on campus if they had to be
within the Wi-Fi range. They mentioned that usually students have mobile internet
available on their mobile devices using GPRS technology which did not give them
very good speed to access learning resources or do mobile learning activities when
they were out of Wi-Fi range or on-the-go outside of the university premises. This
unavailability of a high speed mobile internet compromised the flexibility that
mobile devices were intended to add to their learning.
‘In this case, you may not face area restriction of WiFi but using GPRS
technology will decrease download speed considerably, resulting in wastage
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of time compared to WiFi, which enables you download at a higher speed.’

[Uni C - Student4]
‘In the area area where WiFi is available, 90% of computers and laptops are
also available to connect to that WiFi and use internet. We may choose to
download using those computers and laptops in that WiFi area.’ [Uni B -
Student5]
On the other hand, some students reported that they were happy about being able to
connect and access learning resources to some extent even with the slow mobile
internet.
‘I use my mobile device in preference to a laptop because I may not be able

to connect my laptop with GPRS technology if I am in a place where there is
no WiFi coverage. With my mobile device, I have an option. I can connect
through cellular technology if there is no WiFi available.’ [Uni B -Student4]
To benefit from the flexibility and mobility of mobile devices for learning purposes,
a few students mentioned that the mobile devices could also be used very effectively
to educate people who are not university students; e.g., adult or illiterate people
wanting to learn while they are at work or at home. This is another direction where
mobile learning could really open the avenues for the underserved population of
developing countries; this can be done if the governments, NGOs and telecom
providers participate in mobile learning initiatives. In Pakistan currently, such an
initiative is being taken by UNESCO and NOKIA jointly to train school teachers to
use the mobile learning mode (Steve 2012; UNESCO 2013b). Also, in 2010,
Mobilink (a telecom company in Pakistan) helped hundreds of school girls learn via
mobile devices (UNESCO 2010). A few NGOs such as Aagahi and Bunyad are
engaged in mobile learning initiatives with the sponsorship of telecom companies to
spread literacy among underserved rural people, children and women (UNESCO
2013b).
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4.8.1 Flexibility - Summary of Discussion and Findings
Findings from the analysis of students’ focus groups about theme of Flexibility of
mobile learning are as follows:
 Generally, the majority of students in all of the focus groups had experienced
some level of flexibility that a mobile device adds to learning.
 They shared their experiences and were very enthusiastic about using mobile
devices to access learning resources regardless of their location.
 Students also showed concerns about the slow speed of mobile internet which
prevented certain mobile learning tasks from being performed. They also stated
that there were several high speed mobile internet packages or plans but these
were too costly for them to buy.
 Students said that they could use Wi-Fi only for downloading learning material
because of the slow speed of mobile internet. However, Wi-Fi constrains them to
be in certain places; therefore, the true potential of mobile learning may be
compromised for them.
 Students also suggested that mobile learning could be used to educate illiterate
young and adult people in the community, particularly those who work full time
and are unable to attend schools or universities, or who are underserved and rural
populations. This is a potential area for future work and research.
4.9 Technical Support-Results and Discussion
The majority of participants reported that they did not need much technical support
in resolving minor issues with their mobile devices other than a few issues such as
configuring a new device with settings, establishing a mobile internet connection,
establishing a Wi-Fi connection or when a mobile device has a major repair issue.
They resolved day-to-day issues themselves or discussed these with their family and
friends who had similar devices and may have encountered similar problems. They
preferred to discuss issues with friends before they made a call to a telecom service
119
provider company’s customer care department or contacted the university's IT

support team. The following discussion, from the transcript of University B’s
student focus group, demonstrates the students’ thoughts about seeking technical
support.
‘I face problems when I have to activate my mobile internet. When this

happens, I ask someone for technical assistance. Once it is activated, I can
then handle things myself.’ [Uni B - Student1]
‘I think I usually need help when I try to establish connection with WiFi
because I have to change several settings on my mobile device, I find it
difficult to do that myself. For GPRS, I don’t face any difficulty doing this
myself if I know the details of the package I am going to activate.’ [Uni B -
Student2]
The students indicated that they did not require a lot of technical support to formally
switch to mobile learning. However, this is contrary to reports in the literature. In
some mobile learning studies, such as Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme (2005), it has
been argued that technical and IT support is necessary in order to launch mobile
learning in developing countries. A number of other mobile learning researchers
drew similar conclusions about the provision of technical support for mobile learners
if formal mobile learning were introduced into mainstream education (Koole 2009;
Motiwalla 2007; Traxler 2009; UNESCO 2005). On the other hand, some mobile
learning researchers also found that there is minimal need of technical support;
Naismith and Paul (2009) reported little technical support was needed in running
their pilot project in museum settings. Sife et al. (2007) concluded, in relation to
mobile learning in Tanzania, students in developing countries become self-sufficient
in technical support for minor issues because formal technical support services are
unavailable. Furthermore, it can be argued that people are becoming more and more
technology savvy as time passes, therefore requiring less technical support.
In a mobile learning setting, the need for technical support for teachers and
researchers implementing or testing mobile learning projects is inevitable. These
aspects of technical support will be discussed in more detail in relevant chapters with
reference to teachers and administrative stakeholders.
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The collective discussion dealing with collaboration, flexibility, usability and mobile
learning activities shows that students in Pakistani universities habitually download
material, watch online videos, read eBooks and search using their mobile devices.
This implies that they would not need much help or technical assistance if mobile
learning were to be implemented formally in the university environments in the
future. Perhaps only a few introductory training sessions is required to orientate the
students to the particular test environment for a mobile learning initiative.
4.9.1 Technical Support - Summary of Discussion and

Findings
The following points summarize the students’ perceptions about the need for
technical support during their engagement in mobile learning activities:
 The majority of the students did not have many problems when using their
mobile devices or browsing mobile internet for day-to-day matters; this would
eventually help them switch to and adapt to mobile learning in the future.
 There were some particular issues where they certainly needed technical support
from telecom providers or university IT helpdesk team such as for the
configuration of new device settings or network settings.
 Students download audio/video files for personal use and social networking
purposes; this made them familiar with mobile internet and Wi-Fi networks.
Ultimately, it means that they will require less technical support for mobile
learning.
4.10 Mobile Learning Activities and Applications -

Results and Discussion
For the mobile learning activities and applications topic, students were excited and
shared their experiences of the many applications and activities they were using
informally. During the data analysis from the students’ focus groups from three
Pakistani universities, it was found that students have been engaging in a range of
121
mobile learning activities and applications. Firstly, Nvivo Software text based search
was used to identify the mobile learning activities and applications discussed
students. Results of Nvivo text based search, however, did not choose all the cases
where participants did not name an activity directly rather mentioned in a different
meaning. For instance in the comment below, the student did not use the term
collaboration explicitly, Nvivo text based auto search have not selected it for the case
of collaborative activities.
‘Sometimes, I call teachers to discuss problems related to assignments.’ [Uni

A – Student9]
Therefore, text all of the transcripts were read, selected and coded manually in
NVivo for the mobile learning activities and applications experienced by students in
Pakistani universities. Out of that analysis process, four categories of mobile learning
activities and applications emerged from the data. These four categories were named
as administrative activities, collaborative activities, informal learning activities and
learning support activities.
It is important to mention that these results are based on a small sample and may not
represent the trends for wider student cohorts in Pakistani universities. As this is
ground-breaking research in this particular area in Pakistan, therefore, these results
are important to demonstrate the existing mobile learning practices in Pakistani
universities. These results could also be used by future researchers as baseline to
plan and conduct a larger study about popular mobile learning activities among
Pakistani university students.
4.10. 1 Administrative Activities
Activities such as connecting with Universities’ Learning Management Systems

using mobile devices to view exam results or attendance status, checking emails
regularly and use of SMS to circulate lecture rescheduling information among
students were categorized as administrative activities. Figure 19 shows the students’
experiences related to administrative activities.
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Administrative Activities
Checking and sending emails
6%
18% Data transfer using mobile
devices
21% Using SMS to circulate
information
Using mobile device as modem
15%
Connecting to LMS
15%
Checking exam results
22%
Monitoring attendance status
3%
Figure 19: Administrative activities performed by students using their mobile devices
For the administrative activities, using SMS to circulate information and checking
exam results using mobile devices were found to be most popular among the
students. Checking and sending emails and using a mobile device as a data transfer
mediium were other moderately popular activities among the students.
4.10. 2 Collaborative Activities
Collaborative activities was the second category emerged out of data analysis; this
category includes activities such as collaboration with peers and teachers for
assignments and projects, using social media on mobile devices to involve in
learning activities and file sharing. Figure 20 shows the percentages of students
using collaborative activities for mobile learning.
Using social media forums such as Facebook and Yahoo groups were mentioned by
the students, were found to be most popular activity within the students whereas
collaboration with peers and teaching for assignments and project was the activity
many of students have been engaged.
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Collaborative Activities
16%
Using social networking forums
for discussion
34%
Using RSS and getting lates
updates
25% Collaboration for assignments

and projects
File sharing with peers and
teachers
25%
Figure 20: Collaborative activities performed by students using their mobile devices
However, file sharing with peers and teachers became less popular because of the
attachment issues particularly files containing large amounts of data or images were
found problematic for many students. Slow mobile internet speed might be another
factor for the less number of students sharing files using mobile devices.
4.10. 3 Informal Learning Activities
The third category is informal learning activities such as creating documents, reading
eBooks, note taking during lectures, listening to the recorded lectures and others.
Informal Learning Activities

Creating and editing
documents
21% 20% Note taking during lecture
Application development and

testing
10%
15% Using language learning
applications
13% Reading eBooks

8%
10% Listening to recorded lectures
3%
Figure 21: Informal learning activities performed by students using their mobile devices
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Figure 21 shows the number of students involving in informal learning activities in

4.10. 3 Learning Support Activities
Fourth category was named as learning support activities. This included important
and supporting activities such as accessing online library, downloading and reading
eBooks on mobile device. Similarly, using camera during fieldwork assists data
collection activities. Figure 22 shows the learning support activities performed by
students as outcomes of data analysis for the students’ focus groups.
Learning Support Activities

3%
5%
8% 6%
Accessing online library
Using camera during fieldwork
Using dictionary
28% Downloading lectures
31%
Using search engines
Playing educational games
Using calculator
19%
Figure 22: Informal learning activities performed by students using their mobile devices
Using dictionary and accessing online library were among the most popular activities
in this category. The reason behind this popularity might be that the accessing online
library is a good source for support especially in assignment preparation. In terms of
accessing online dictionary, there exist a number of apps which is easy to install or
access from a range of mobile devices. Some of the less advanced mobile devices
also have built in dictionary application therefore a vast majority of university
students were able to use dictionary.
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4.10.4 Mobile Learning Activities by Students –Overall

Summary
Overall, the informal learning activities were the most popular activities among the
students participating in this research. As shown in Figure 23, 28% of the
participants experienced the engagement in informal learning activities. Learning
support activities is popularamong 26% of the participants. Administrative activities
(such as checking of final grades, course details, etc) and collaborative activities
(such as communicating with peers and teachers during assignment, projects and
fieldwork) have been performed by 23% of the participants of this research.
Mobile Learning Activities by Students
23%
28%
Informal Learning Activities
Learning Support Activitities
26%
23%
Figure 23: Category wise distribution of mobile learning activities performed by students using their
mobile devices
Mobile learning activities and applications reported by Pakistani university students

correspond to the extant mobile learning literature. For example, the categories of
mobile learning activities framed in this research correspond to the categories of
mobile learning activities by Naismith et al. (2004b) and Traxler (2009) as discussed
in Section 2.4 of Chapter 2.
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Table 8: Mapping of categories of mobile learning activities from this research with the
themes by Naismith et al. (2004b) (Adapted from: Naismith et al. (2004b, 18)
Theme Key Theorists Activities Categories of Mobile

Learning Activities from
this research
Behaviourist (Skinner 1968; Drill and feedback Collaborative Learning
Learning Pavlov 1927) classroom response Activities
systems Informal Learning
Activities
Constructivist (Bruner 1966; Papert Participatory Collaborative Learning
learning 1980; Piaget 1929) simulations Activities
Situated learning (Brown, Collins, and Problem and case- Informal Learning
Duguid 1989; Lave based learning Activities
and Wenger 1991) context awareness
Collaborative (Vygotsky 1978) Mobile computer- Collaborative Learning
learning supported Activities
collaborative
learning (MCSCL)
Informal and (Eraut 2000) Supporting Informal Learning
lifelong learning intentional and Activities
accidental
learning episodes
Learning and n/a Personal Learning Support
teaching support organization Activities, Administrative
support for Activities
administrative
duties
(eg attendance)
The categories of mobile learning activities and applications experienced by

Pakistani university students are mapped (see Table 8, Fourth Column in Italicized
text) with the key learning theories and activities discussed by Naismith et al. (2004,
18) (see Table 8, First three columns, non-Italicized text). In addition, almost all of
the activities and applications experienced and shared by the participants of this
research have also been reported by other mobile learning researchers in mobile
learning literature (Akhshabi, Khalatbari, and Akhshabi 2011; Becta 2008; Deng et
al. 2005; Eschenbrenner and Nah 2007; Green, amp, and Hannon 2007; Kukulska-
Hulme 2010; Kurti, Spikol, and Milrad 2008; Lan and Sie 2010; Ogata et al. 2008;
Wang et al. 2009). However, the categorization of mobile learning activities and
127
application in this study was informed by the data collected from Pakistani
universities’ environments and thus a unique contribution of this research into mobile
learning literature.
Other than sharing their mobile learning experiences, the students also revealed their
expectations in the case of future implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments with reference to the mobile learning activities and
applications. The following comments show students’ perceptions and expectations
of mobile learning implementation in Pakistani university environments:
‘Training in the use of software apps should be provided to the students

before the start of a new semester so that they can save or install these in
their mobile devices.’ [Uni B - Student7]
‘All required software apps and lectures should be available in a shared

space by the university so that students can access that shared space using
their mobile devices.’ [Uni B - Student1]
‘Mobile learning mode is better for the theory-based courses.’ [Uni A -

Student6]
4.10.5 Mobile learning Activities and Applications -

Summary of Discussion and Findings
Students’ experiences of engaging in mobile learning activities and using mobile

learning applications have been summarised in following bullet points:
 Mobile learning activities and applications discussed by students participating in

focus groups were categorized into four main categories such as administrative
activities, collaborative activities, informal learning activities and learning
support activities.
 Mobile learning activities and application used by Pakistani students

corresponded to mobile learning activities categorized by Naismith et al. (2004b)
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such as behaviourist, constructivist, situated, collaborative, informal and lifelong

learning.
 Mobile learning activities and applications experienced by Pakistani students

were similar to those reported in the literature.
 Some mobile learning activities and applications such as informal learning

activities and learning support activities were more popular among Pakistani
students.
 Students also reported their expectations of universities if mobile learning were

to be introduced formally in Pakistani university environments; these
expectations include provision and installation of learning apps before the start of
the semester and mobile learning to be included first in theory-based courses.
4.11 Cost - Results and Discussion
The majority of the students were very much concerned about the potential costs
associated with mobile learning. As discussed by students in the focus groups, these
costs include: 1) cost of mobile devices with advanced features, and 2) cost of using
mobile internet. The following subsections contain a detailed discussion of these two
main cost issues as pointed out by students.
4.11.1 Cost of Mobile Devices with Advanced Features
The cost of smart phones or sophisticated mobile devices was the biggest concern of
students in Pakistani university environments who participated in the research. They
knew that if they needed to switch to mobile learning, they would require mobile
devices with relatively advanced features such as the capability of being connected to
Wi-Fi which they thought would very expensive for them.
‘I wanted to mention that a good WiFi-enabled set costs more than just 5 to 6
thousand rupees even if you buy its booster with it.’ [Uni B - Student3]
129
They also mentioned that some of the students already have smart and advanced
mobile devices such as tablet PCs, PDAs, iPhones and Blackberries as they belong to
rich families and can afford expensive phones and devices; in this case, the other
students would feel disadvantaged and might not be able to perform similar mobile
‘I have a concern that not everyone can afford a costly mobile device; some
people may feel bad if they cannot afford costly mobile devices.’ [Uni A -
Student8]
A few students suggested a solution for this issue: the university could support
students in buying mobile devices for mobile learning by providing a subsidy or
short-term, interest-free loans.
‘Some universities in Pakistan are providing laptops to the students at very

affordable rates with the collaboration of some of the computer company
giants like DELL. Students are paying them in instalments. If students can
be supported in getting laptops then they can also be supported in getting
mobile devices. Mobile devices are far cheaper than the laptops and every
student can afford one.’ [Uni C - Student1]
‘Universities should offer loans without interest which would be more

beneficial for students.’ [Uni B - Student4]
‘They don’t offer such loans. They offer loans with some interest even for
laptop schemes.’ [Uni B - Student6]
Some students did not see the need to buy expensive mobile devices just to use for
mobile learning when they could buy a laptop for the same price which a student
could use for many purposes.
‘I want to ask something here. A good quality new Wi-Fi-enabled handset

costs us a minimum of around 20 thousand rupees, whereas a laptop also
costs around 19 thousand rupees and works best for university student. Why
130
do we have to buy a mobile device when a laptop is cheaper?’ [Uni B -

Student5]
A number of students were concerned about the cost of advanced mobile devices;
however, some students stated that they could buy second hand or used mobile
devices which would be affordable and cheap. Another student suggested buying
smart phones made in China as a cheaper option.
‘I want to mention another option. Handsets from China are also of good
quality and three times cheaper than the original ones.’ [Uni C - Student6]
‘The mobile device you buy for around 25 thousand will be available for
approximately 10 thousand rupees if you choose to buy a Chinese handset.’ [Uni B -
Student4]
Many students assumed that mobile learning might require them to bring their own
device; however, some students suggested that the university should give them
mobile devices if the university wanted to encourage mobile learning. Lundin et al.
(2010) suggested that universities should make efforts to integrate and use students’
own mobile devices for mobile learning.
4.11.2 Cost of Using Mobile Internet
Students had different opinions about the cost of using the mobile internet for mobile
learning purposes. Some of them stated that it was very expensive to use the mobile
internet on a regular basis and they have to pay a lot of money out of their own
pocket. Also, monthly mobile internet plans or packages are expensive and provide
very low or compromised speed.
‘The better the package in terms of download speed and efficiency, the more
you have to pay.’ [Uni C - Student3]
‘The cost of a suitable mobile internet package depends on a student’s usage

and needs. If a student uses it frequently during the day for short intervals,
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he can sign up for a package with a low connectivity cost.’ [Uni A -

Student7]
They also discussed that in areas with poor cellular signals the mobile internet
became disconnected very frequently resulting in more flag-fall charges for them to
reconnect each time.
‘Actually, GPRS doesn’t cost much if you keep it connected unless it is

disconnected and you have to reconnect. Establishing a connection again
incurs cost. Also, if you download something even if it is a polyphonic
ringtone, it costs you a lot. Let me share my experience with you. A few days
ago, I downloaded a polyphonic ring tone and it cost me 28 rupees just for
that.’ [Uni B - Student7]
As mobile learning activities may require frequent downloading and uploading of

materials (Dyson et al. 2009), students mentioned that they did not have good
downloading speed on low-cost or cheaper packages. Also, the technology being
used was GPRS or EDGE which did not provide as ideal or optimum mobile internet
speed as of 3Gs:
‘Secondly, we face a problem when downloading. If we download something

on our mobile device using GPRS technology, it costs a lot. For example, if
we download some software application on a mobile, it is usually large.’
[Uni B - Student4]
While some participants had different opinions, they thought a mobile internet
package with reasonable speed is not that expensive. Most students could afford
those packages out of their own pocket.
‘I think it costs approximately 500 rupees per month and that is not too
much.’ [Uni A - Student6]
However, other than a few students who seemed to be well-off financially, the
majority of students had issues with, and concerns about, the cost of the mobile
132
internet which they might have to pay for if they were involved in formal mobile
Extant literature confirms students’ thoughts and concerns about the costs of mobile
devices and the cost of mobile internet. Dyson et al. (2009) includes these costs in
overall mobile learning initiative costs for stakeholders. Scornavacca et al. (2009)
particularly mentioned that mobile usage or mobile internet usage charges are very
high and unaffordable by students in many countries. Economides and
Grousopoulou (2009) conducted a study in a European country which revealed that
students are willing to pay extra for mobile devices with advanced features.
However, in a developing country such as Pakistan, results of this study show that
not every student can afford an expensive mobile device for learning purposes. In
spite of cost concerns, mobile learning is cost-effective in many ways for a
developing nation such as Pakistan in terms of saving on building up computer
laboratories in schools and universities, providing learning facilities to remote areas
and eradicating illiteracy in underserved and female populations in rural areas
(Kumar et al. 2010; Motlik 2008; Sari and Tedjasaputra 2008; UNESCO 2013b).
4.11.3 Cost - Summary of Discussion and Findings
Students’ concerns about cost of mobile learning are summarised as follows:
 Students mentioned two types of cost associated with the possible

implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments: cost of
advanced mobile devices and cost of mobile internet.
 The majority of students said that it would be difficult for them to afford these
costs out of their own pocket.
 They expected the university to cover or subsidize these costs if mobile learning
were offered to students. Some universities in developed countries provide their
students with a mobile learning device and there could be some lessons to be
learned from this practice. There are also practices (BYOD – Bring your own
Device) where students bring their own devices as a learning tool.
133
 Some students were happy to buy expensive mobile devices or they already
owned them. They were also willing to pay for mobile internet. These students
usually belong to rich families where money is not an issue. They were already
using mobile learning to some extent because they had advanced mobile devices
and were experienced users.
 In spite of cost concerns, mobile learning is cost-effective in many ways for a

developing nation such as Pakistan by saving on building up computer
laboratories in schools and universities, providing learning facilities to remote
areas and eradicating illiteracy in underserved and female populations in rural
areas.
4.12 Socio-Cultural Factors – Results and Discussion
Students participating in focus groups were invited to comment on their perceptions

and expectations about the implementation of mobile learning in the future. They
expressed both expectations and concerns. Outcomes of the analysis of students’
perceptions and expectations of mobile learning in Pakistani universities revealed
that many of their perceptions and experiences represent a number of factors related
to the social, economic and cultural aspects of society of a developing nation. A
number of these observations have been discussed in many of the earlier sections of
this chapter such as control, connectivity, cost and mobile learning activities and
applications.
Two main factors could be concluded from sections 4.6 and 4.11; and these are 1)
difference in students’ educational backgrounds and schooling built their attitude
towareds indepdent learning or teacher-oriented learning (see section 4.6 for details),
2) affordability of costs of mobile internet and mobile devices depends on the
students’ socio-economic background. However, there were a few more factors
associated with a typical developing country’s socitey’ social and cultural norms.
These factors- emerged from the analysis of students’ focus group discussion
sessions- include the need for awareness about mobile learning, motivation among
the students and possible negative exploitation of mobile learning facilities and
resources. These aspects particularly highlight some of the socio-cultural factors that
134
may influence any future mobile learning initiative in Pakistani universities.

Following sub-sections include more detailed discussion about these newly emerged
socio-cultural factors.
4.12.1 Awareness
From the students’ comments it was apparent that, while some of them were aware
that they could undertake learning activities using their mobile devices, many others
were not aware of this kind of opportunity. They believed that awareness about
mobile learning should be raised among the teaching and learning community before
any practical initiative is taken. Students and teachers need to be educated in this
regard, and their questions and concerns should be answered and resolved in order to
make the mobile learning initiative a success.
‘I think we need to create awareness among the people. They should be told
by an advertisement that a mobile device can be used for better purposes
such as teaching and learning. They should be motivated and facilitated for
mobile learning.’ [Uni C - Student4]
‘Students’ interest should be developed by creating different interesting tasks

in mobile learning mode. They will always try new things.’ [Uni C -
Student1]
‘Let me give you an example. Years ago when computers became common
among Pakistani people, many people purchased a computer. However,
people were not very clear about the purpose of a computer; they used it to
watch movies only. Just like that, students should be made aware of the uses
and benefits of mobile devices which may include using the device for
learning purposes in addition to using it as a phone.’ [Uni C - Student5]
‘In my opinion, mobile learning is an excellent idea; however, people think

about the negative aspects of something more than its positive aspects.
Therefore, I suggest it is necessary to create awareness about mobile
learning among the community of students and teachers; then it will be
successful.’ [Uni A - Student1]
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One student suggested that universities could make a transition in stages from face-
to-face learning to a blended learning environment where mobile learning would also
be an option. In this case, students would be more aware of the benefits that mobile
learning can offer and be more motivated to embrace mobile learning.
‘I think initially, software or apps regarding mobile learning should be

installed on mobile devices for students by the university. They should also
introduce cheap internet mobile learning packages.’ [Uni C - Student3]
Only a few researchers in the literature from India and Malaysia have touched upon
this topic of creating and assessing the awareness of mobile learning among students
before testing a pilot project (Alzaza and Yaakub 2011; Kumar et al. 2010). The
majority of researchers have not mentioned the need for creating and raising
awareness about mobile learning, particularly for audiences in developing nations,
this has been a major gap in the literature. This finding not only confirms the
literature but also contributes to filling the knowledge gap. Future researchers may
add the raising of awareness about mobile learning in mobile learning research
design as a pre-cursor to the mobile learning research project or trial
implementations.
4.12.2 Motivation
Generally, students were happy and motivated to be involved in future mobile

learning initiatives. In spite of the problems and concerns that they voiced, they
mentioned that they would like to enrol in a course offered partially in mobile
learning mode.
‘I would definitely take that course because I would learn a lot from it.’ [Uni
C - Student3]
‘There are some problems but I would take a mobile learning course in spite
of all the problems because I will learn from this course.’ [Uni C - Student4]
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‘If they integrate mobile devices into the course in a way that is useful for
students in the future too, then everyone would like to enrol in that course.’
[Uni B - Student9]
Barker et al. (2005) discussed motivation as one of the success factors of mobile
learning in developing countries. Oliver and Goerke (2008) found that
undergraduate students in an African country were more motivated and excited about
being involved in mobile learning compared to their Australian counterparts.
Similarly, the current study showed students in Pakistani university environments
were happy and willing to embrace mobile learning despite their concerns. Further,
students were found to be motivated and willing to learn independently of the
teacher’s involvement when they were asked about it.
‘It also depends on motivation level. For example, if I like mathematics, I

will solve problems even if I have to work hard to find a solution to the
problem. For other courses, however, I would not work so hard, what I mean
is that if you have motivation for something, you can do it without a teacher’s
help or intervention.’ [Uni A - Student11]
‘I agree with Student11. I think no human being is dumb or too smart; it just
depends on how much effort you want to put in to achieve your goal. It does
not depend on a specific teacher’s help if somebody really wants to learn
something. If you want to learn something, you will read more books, do
intensive internet search even if you are using mobile internet to get instant
and the latest updates. You will do whatever it takes to achieve your target.’
[Uni A - Student7]
4.12.3 Negative uses
Participants discussed the negative use of mobile devices in learning environments

by indicating the potential risks associated with possible future implementation of
mobile learning in universities or other higher education environments. They
reported a number of current negative practices by some students such as using a
mobile device for cheating purposes during classroom quizzes and examinations.
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However, some of them suggested a few ways to overcome this problem such as the
use of blocking devices in examination venues; as they said:
‘I have a concern to discuss. Many students use their mobile device for
cheating purposes, particularly during examinations. I suggest that
examination venues should have some blocking devices that prevent students
from using their devices during that time.’ [Uni A - Student13]
‘There is one important issue that needs attention. Students use mobile
devices for some useless activities. I am afraid if mobile learning is
introduced, students would exploit this opportunity to engage in other
activities which might distract them from learning. There should be some
restrictions if mobile learning is introduced to stop negative activities of
students.’ [Uni C - Student5]
Students also commented that many parents are concerned about their children's
excessive use of mobile devices. When mobile devices are made available to
students for learning purposes, some may exploit the situation by using the devices
for purposes other than learning such as watching non-educational material available
on the internet. Further, if students were provided with better mobile internet options
for the purposes of mobile learning, they are more likely to use that mobile internet
for social networking activities, thereby distracting themselves from learning-related
tasks.
‘Parents are already fed up with the excessive use of mobile devices by their
children. Young people remain engaged with their mobile devices due to free
or cheaper access to unlimited SMS. If data options such as Wi-Fi and GPRS
are added, it would be a real worry for parents.’ [Uni B - Student5]
Some participants shared their experiences regarding the use of mobile devices in
classrooms. They reported that a number of students are misusing these devices,
rather than utilizing them for study-related tasks. They used them for messaging,
chatting and watching material on YouTube. These practices not only deprive those
particular students of classroom learning but also distract other students from
classroom proceedings.
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‘Sometimes, students misuse their mobile devices during a lecture. Instead of

listening to the lecturer, they chat or send SMS to friends and girlfriends.
This is a negative trend and needs to be addressed.’ [Uni A - Student10]
Traxler (2009, 10) argues that stakeholders in the mobile learning phenomenon
should also emphasize that negative activities are being counterproductive to the
benefits of mobile learning.
‘Looking at mobile learning in a wider context, we have to recognize that

mobile, personal, and wireless devices are now radically transforming
societal notions of discourse and knowledge, and are responsible for new
forms of art, employment, language, commerce, deprivation, and crime, as
well as learning.’
In mobile learning literature, the possible negative impact of mobile technologies in

education has not been duly acknowledged. Many mobile learning researchers have
highlighted the benefits and advantages yet failed to mention the negative aspects of
mobile learning, thereby leaving a gap in extant literature. This research attempts to
fill this gap and reports the finding that mobile learning implementations in higher
education carry potential risks for learners, parents and universities which need
researchers’ attention when planning and designing mobile learning implementation
projects in the future.
4.12.4 Socio-cultural Factors - Summary of Discussion and

Findings
The summary of students’ perceptions and expectations of mobile learning with

reference to their socio-cultural backgrounds and trends is being presented in the
following points:
 Students’ educational background and affordability were amongst the main

factors which may influence the success of mobile learning implementation in
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 Students in Pakistani university environments were motivated and willing to

embrace mobile learning despite their concerns about other issues such as cost
and connectivity.
 Students believed that awareness of mobile learning should be raised among the
teaching and learning community before any practical initiative is taken.
Students and teachers need to be educated in this regard, and their questions and
concerns should be answered and resolved in order to make the mobile learning
initiative a success.
 Student focus group participants also suggested that universities could make a
transition in stages from face-to-face learning to a blended learning environment
where mobile learning would also be an option. In this case, students would be
more aware of the benefits that mobile learning can offer and be more motivated
to embrace mobile learning.
 Students mentioned a number of potential risk factors associated with possible

future implementation of mobile learning in universities such as using it for
cheating in exams or quizzes, watching unethical stuff on internet video channels
(utilizing the provision of high speed mobile internet for the sake of mobile
learning) and performing non-study related social networking tasks during the
classroom proceedings.
Students discussed more enthusiastically about the characteristics of mobile learning

such as collaboration, usability, cost, connectivity and control. However, they did
not focus much on the characteristics relating to blended learning and context. The
majority of the findings from the analysis of students’ focus groups confirm the
findings presented in extant literature. However, several new ideas emerged in
relation to the Pakistani university environments as well as the social, cultural and
financial backgrounds of the participants; for example, participants demonstrated
enthusiasm and motivation to adapt mobile learning in their formal as well as
informal learning. Student also pointed out that there is a great need in Pakistan to
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make people aware of the potential of mobile learning in formal educational

environments. Participants also pointed out several possibilities of abuse of mobile
learning opportunities. Figure 24 on the next page presents a snapshopt of the main
findings from the analysis of students’ focus groups discussion sessions as reported
in detail in this chapter.
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Figure 24: Summary of findings from Students' Focus Group Sessions
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Chapter Five – Teachers’ Focus Groups
CHAPTER 5 TEACHERS’
FOCUS GROUPS: RESULTS,
DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS
5.1 Introduction
Results, discussions and findings from students’ focus group sessions conducted in
Pakistan university environments were presented in Chapter 4. The teachers’
perceptions and expectations are presented in this chapter. In particular, the findings
from the teachers’ focus group discussion will answer the second research question
of ‘What do teachers perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments?’
The chapter is organized according to the mobile learning characteristics comprising

the main sections followed by a short summary for each section. The chapter’s
organization is similar to that of the students’ focus groups chapter; however, the
data pertains to the results, discussions and findings from the teachers’ focus group
discussions in Pakistani university environments.
Data was analyzed using NVivo qualitative data analysis software. Data analysis
involved several stages including data preparation, data organization, coding using
Nvivo, indentification of themes, synthesizing data by building relationships and
models and writing memos during the process of data interpretation. See section
3.6.4 in Chapter 3 for details of the data analysis process.
As the nature of the collected data is purely qualitative, it is important to mention at

the outset that discussions and findings presented in the individual sections contain
different terminologies when describing a characteristic, concern, experience, theme
or expectation of participants. For example, weak support for an argument is
indicated by the expression one of the participants mentioned; moderate support is
indicated by some of the participants or a few participants and strong agreement is
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expressed by expressions such as the majority of the participants/all of the

participants/the participants.
Each section will include a mobile learning characteristic as the main topic followed
by a summary of discussions and findings for each section. A chapter summary
including a summary of the main findings from the teachers’ focus groups will be
provided at the end of this chapter.
5.2 Collaboration - Results and Discussion
Teachers from Pakistani universities talked about communicating with their students
and colleagues by using mobile devices. They used mobile devices to advise
students of their assignment and project-related issues, and scheduling and
rescheduling of lectures with colleagues and students. They also revealed that they
have been working and engaging with students using formal and informal
communication channels to assist in their learning outside the formal academic
environment and to reflect in their formal teaching and learning. This is consistent
with the findings of Martí and Ferrer (2012) that teachers’ engagement in informal
mobile learning and collaboration assisted them to improve their formal teaching and
learning practices. To assist the learning activities, some teachers had set up Yahoo!
groups for particular classes or groups to communicate and share information
common to that group. Some of the teachers have used Facebook and chatted with
students to resolve study-related matters.
The teachers also stated that they had informal communication with their students
which included forwarding and sharing useful information using SMS. Socially, the
teachers also send greetings for festive seasons and on special occasions. Some
teachers believed that this gesture encouraged the students and to some extent,
instilled confidence in the teachers. There is also an implicit notion that students
may feel comfortable to discuss study-related issues with the teachers outside of
formal class time. Some of the comments provided by the teachers are listed as
follows:
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‘Yes! Exactly. This is a very good thing. We forward messages to each other
and also greet in the morning. In this way, communication barriers are
bridged and if the teacher knows the students personally, students also feel at
ease when discussing things with the teacher.’ [Uni C - Teacher6]
‘It’s the same thing that you can communicate with your colleagues and
students and if you have any announcement, you just have to send one SMS.’
[Uni B - Teacher8]
A number of researchers in the past (Chatti et al. 2010; Kukulska-Hulme and Shield
2008; Petrova 2010; Song 2008; Wang and Ryu 2009) have conducted experiments
on the use of SMS and social software as collaboration tools in mobile learning.
Pakistani teachers’ comments regarding their use of collaboration tools for teaching
and learning confirm what other researchers have reported in their results in other
countries.
A university that participated was from the medical education discipline and the
focus group for this research was conducted with lecturers in the dentistry
department. The lecturers from medical discipline reported that dentists or dental
assistants in remote villages used mobile devices to communicate and collaborate
with the specialist dentists by sending pictures of patients as MMS to obtain help
with diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
‘There are not many dentists in our villages. If there is an assistant, then
he/she can send step-by-step pictures through MMS to some dentist present in
the city and can consult him/her for a particular diagnosis’. [Uni C -
Teacher2]
The concept of utilizing the collaboration opportunity offered by mobile learning in

the healthcare profession has been investigated by a number of medical professions
such as nursing and dentistry in teaching environments as well as in clinics (Garrett
and Jackson 2006; Luanrattana et al. 2010; Mulliah and Stroulia 2009; Smordal,
Gregory, and Langseth 2002; Smordal and Gregory 2003)
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5.2.1 Collaboration - Summary of Discussion and Findings
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the

collaboration. The following is a summary of the major points:
 Communication and collaboration does occur between students and teachers

using mobile devices to discuss projects, assignments, scheduling of lectures and
workshops.
 Teachers assisted students in their learning formally and informally by

communicating through their mobile devices both within and outside the formal
academic environments.
 Teachers were members of the student class groups established on social

networking sites for the purpose of sharing information and discussing study-
related problems.
 Teachers and students also communicated via SMS to share information and
greet each other on festive occasions; this brought them closer to each other and
enhanced students’ confidence to direct questions to their teachers.
 Teachers in the dentistry department collaborated with students working in

remote villages in order to carry out diagnoses of patients whose images were
sent to them by students via MMS and taken using their mobile device cameras.
5.3 Usability - Results and Discussion
Teachers talked about usability problems they have faced including: small screens,
tiny keypads and limited memory and processing capabilities compared to a laptop or
desktop computer used for learning tasks. They reported that using a mobile device
for browsing the internet and checking emails is very convenient; however, learning
tasks also involve writing of text which is very difficult to do on mobile devices
because of limited input capabilities.
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‘When we use a mobile device, the screen is small and it is difficult to use it
for teaching and learning.’ [Uni A - Teacher2]
‘It is good for browsing but it is difficult to write text.’ [Uni A - Teacher3]
‘If one wants to check emails then there is no issue, but if one wants to write
any text, then it is difficult.’ [Uni A -Teacher6]
As a solution to usability related issues, one teacher pointed out the availability of
various mobile device versions in the majority of websites particularly designed to be
opened and operated on a mobile device interface. Another teacher argued that these
mobile versions were not available for every website; therefore, users had problems
with usability issues anyway.
‘I think there are websites especially designed for mobile devices. These are
not too heavy to be loaded on mobile devices, so I have no problem.’ [Uni A
- Teacher1]
‘I think students can only use those websites which have mobile versions; others
cannot be used. This means restricted access, doesn’t it?’ [Uni A - Teacher2]Chen et
al. (2010) also found that the usability of the devices was one of the major obstacles
to teachers’ adoption of ubiquitous computing options in learning environments.
Teachers in Pakistani university environments also discussed that there were several
other non-usability-related issues mistakenly considered as mobile device usability
issues. For instance, some of the students tried to undertake lengthy assignments and
programming tasks on mobile devices. When they found it difficult to complete
those tasks on mobile devices, they assumed that this was related to the usability of
mobile devices for teaching and learning. Similarly, network access, connectivity
and configuration issues were wrongly perceived as usability issues, instead of
seeking appropriate technical support from the appropriate telecommunication
company.
It can be argued that users need appropriate training in order to be involved in mobile
learning, which they do not have currently. So, the lack of appropriate training made
them think that these were more usability issues. Therefore, the provision of
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awareness and appropriate training - even informal training provided by friends and
family members - would decrease the usability issues reported by the teaching and
learning community.
Similar to the findings of this research, literature in mobile learning also reflected the
necessity to provide support and training for teachers intending to initiate mobile
learning. Herrington et al. (2009) propose that in a mobile learning environment,
teachers do need ongoing training to make themselves comfortable with the
technology and educational content to be used on mobile devices. Koole (2009), in
her mobile learning framework includes the provision of technical support for
students and teachers in order to have seamless transition to mobile learning from
traditional learning options. Sife et al. (2007) mention that technical support and
teacher training present major challenges to the possible implementation of mobile
learning in developing countries.
Another participant from the teachers’ focus groups disagreed and said that before
considering the training needs, they needed advanced devices and tools which were
not available to everyone in Pakistani university environments. If the teachers and
learners had smart devices available to them, they would learn how to use them by
themselves or with little informal training. Findings from Perry (2003) and
Stockwell (2008) corroborate the findings of this research as they found that the
ownership of the mobile devices made learners motivated and excited to be involved
in mobile learning. Also, smart mobile devices exhibit more user-friendly interfaces
resulting in fewer usability problems and greater suitability for mobile learning tasks.
‘Another point worth considering is that everyone says that this is easy to
use. It is easy to use once you have learned and started using it. Initially, I
learned from my brother who is a telecom engineer in Zong – since this is his
field, that’s how I know about this – otherwise it’s very hard to learn this and
mostly everyone learns from one another.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
One teacher mentioned that, sometimes, problems were related to network access and
connectivity but were wrongly attributed to usability issues. Hence, a telecom
provider should be called upon to resolve issues, rather than assuming that the
problem is a mobile device usability issue.
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‘Another main problem that you face is defining the access point and, at
times, establishing the settings. If you, for instance, you change the SIM card
of a mobile phone, then the entire settings are affected and once they are, it is
very hard to bring them back’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
5.3.1 Usability - Summary of Discussion and Findings
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the usability
of mobile devices for learning. The following is a summary of the major points:
 As obstacles to the adoption of mobile devices for the purposes of teaching and
learning, common mobile device usability issues such as small screen, tiny
keypad and small amount of memory were reported.
 It was easier for teachers to use mobile devices to browse the internet and check
emails rather than writing lengthy texts.
 The availability of mobile versions of a number of websites might decrease the

mobile device usability issues.
 Several non-usability-related issues were wrongly perceived as usability issues

by the teaching and learning community. These issues include lack of user
experience, lack of awareness, lack of appropriate training, unavailability of
smart mobile devices with user friendly interfaces to the majority of users, and
network connectivity problems.
5.4 Context - Results and Discussion
Teachers in Pakistani universities were not aware of the many contexts in which
mobile devices could be used. The majority of the focus group participants did not
experience any contextual use of mobile devices for learning with the exception of
teachers in the dentistry department who shared their experiences and recognised the
potential uses of contextual mobile learning, especially in relation to diagnoses and
practical tasks in remote areas and villages.
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‘We have clinics where you have to diagnose remotely and there you also
have to prescribe medicine remotely.’ [Uni C - Teacher5]
Another dentistry lecturer pointed out that he could use mobile devices for students’
learning about the use of dentistry implements instead of each student memorising
why a particular tool is being used for a particular task; it would save them time and
effort. Students would be working more independently of teachers and obtaining
information quickly as needed. Literature confirms this finding regarding the use of
mobile devices by medical students in clinical practices in multiple contexts as
discussed by Mulliah et al. (2009) and Luanrattana et al. (2010).
During the focus group discussions, another lecturer from the dentistry department
stated that he had to take pictures of patients’ dentures for diagnosis and treatment
purposes; lecturers could use mobile devices to take pictures and store them for
future use.
‘In some cases, we take pictures of the denture and put these up in software
and it gives the result in no time about particular problems. Similarly, in
orthodontic issues, we put pictures into software to devise a treatment plan
for patient. Mobile devices would be of great advantage for such cases. As
our work is practical, it is necessary to get real-time data from patients, and
store the data and use it for experiments.’ [Uni C - Teacher3]
In the case of contextual use of mobile devices for learning, one teacher assumed that
he would have to prepare learning resources capable of gathering contextual data.
He believed that it would be very difficult for them to keep resources up to date if
mobile devices have to sense contextual data.
‘This is a good idea to have mobile devices that have the capability to sense
what is happening in the environment. However, to keep the information
updated and get the system running, it would require a lot of effort.’ [Uni C -
Teacher1]
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5.4.1 Context - Summary of Discussion and Findings
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the contextual
use of mobile devices for learning, as follows:
 Generally, teachers did not know about the use of mobile devices in multiple
contexts except for the teachers in the dentistry department.
 Dentistry lecturers reported using mobile devices from remote areas and villages
to collaborate with colleagues in cities for consultation and diagnostic purposes.
 Dentistry lecturers also reported using mobile device cameras to take pictures of
patients’ teeth and sharing those pictures and information with other colleagues
using SMS and MMS.
 The use of mobile devices in medical practices was also reported in mobile
learning literature.
Teachers in Pakistani universities believe that mobile learning should be offered in

conjunction with existing modes of learning. They agreed with the partial
introduction of mobile devices in learning; they believe that the teacher’s presence
and role could not be replaced by a mobile device or computer. Offering mobile
learning in a blended learning environment has been discussed frequently in mobile
learning literature, particularly the literature published over the past decade (Fuchs
2012; Gururajan et al. 2011; Parsons 2011; Shen, Wang, and Pan 2008; Wang et al.
2009).
It was noted during the focus group discussions that the majority of participants
presumed that blended learning was more likely to be introduced and implemented in
Pakistani university environments where mobile learning would be an innovation in
educational ICTs; only a few teachers commented explicitly on the option of
blending mobile learning with existing forms of learning.
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‘May I give you an example? There was a time when, in examinations,

calculators were not allowed. Then a simple non-scientific calculator was
permitted and nowadays, scientific calculators are even used. The problem
with scientific calculators is that they should not have any memory, etc. This
is a sign of continuous development. Just as a calculator supports your
assessment, a mobile device supports your learning. It can never replace
teaching but it is there for the sake of learning support.’ [Uni B - Teacher9]
‘You said ‘partially’; If we keep this to ‘partially’ then this will stay feasible.
In micro-teaching there is set induction and your presence in front of your
students is very important. You can transfer them to e-books, lectures, etc.
but the actual lecture must be conducted face-to-face.’ [Uni B - Teacher3]
It is evident from the teachers’ focus group statements that they did not want mobile
devices to replace teachers. Instead, they want to blend mobile learning with face-to-
face learning.
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the blending
of mobile learning with other forms of learning. The following is a summary of the
major points:
 Teachers in Pakistani university environments agreed that mobile learning should

be offered in a blended learning environment in Pakistani universities.
 Teachers support the use of mobile devices as complementary tool and did not
want traditional face-to-face teaching and learning to be replaced by mobile
learning.
 Teachers wanted to use mobile devices in learning to support and facilitate

existing modes of learning.
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All participant teachers agreed that the role of a teacher was pivotal in the learning
process as interaction with teachers helped students to clarify concepts and theories
which otherwise might have hindered their learning. Teachers in the focus groups
had mixed views about the teacher’s role in the mobile learning environment. On the
one hand, it was highlighted that the importance of face-to-face learning could never
be over-emphasized. On the other hand, an acute realization of the importance of
mobile learning was verbalized by the university teachers. They expressed the view
that mobile learning could be integrated with face-to-face learning in order to add
value to the learning process.
‘The things that a teacher can make you understand the topic, you can’t
understand with independent learning. It has been my experience that
whenever I left my lecture I had to read things twice or thrice but still
couldn’t get them. For this reason, I had to go to the teacher. There is no
substitute for a teacher’s experience.’ [Uni C - Teacher4]
‘Problem-based learning is very popular these days. It’s been implemented

in Aagha Khan University, Karachi. In problem-based learning, first you are
given an outline or introduction and you can also get books and handouts.
All the students will study it. It would not happen that 40 students sit and the
others would study; rather seven to ten students will work together. The
supervisor will also be available to discuss problems and contribute to the
discussion. In this way, the learning is engaging and much more interactive.
By working more closely with peers and teachers, students have a better and
greater capability to think and work independently. That is why I think that it
is possible to let students learn independently and mobile learning is the best
fit for this.’ [Uni C - Teacher9]
Mobile learning literature does not deal with teachers’ attitudes to the introduction of
mobile learning in university environments, particularly in developing countries.
Uzunboylu and Ozdamli (2011) studied school teachers’ perceptions of mobile
learning in Cyprus and found that teachers were fairly positive about the possible
153
introduction of mobile learning in schools, however, the teachers did not want the
their role to be undermined or misunderstood by students with access to mobile
learning facilities. Similarly, teachers in Pakistani universities were apprehensive
and sceptical that the possible introduction of mobile learning in university
environments might undermine the role of teachers and its significance.
Independent learning is facilitated by mobile devices (Chen et al. 2004). This fact
was reiterated in the university teachers’ focus group discussion. One of the teachers
pointed out that when students were given projects, the mobile device was a very
useful tool for research purposes as it was available to students anywhere and at any
time. Students did not have to put aside a special time for their research. Rather,
they could access the internet via mobile devices whenever they needed to do so for
their studies.
‘Mobility offers a great number of advantages. In particular, students don’t

feel burdened in doing learning activities when using mobile devices; rather,
they are excited and motivated. I think it is easy to access learning resources
from a mobile device, easier to be connected with teachers and peers and
easier to use.’ [Uni A - Teacher6]
Another teacher added that mobile learning also saved teachers’ time. Students were
given lecture topics beforehand; students could prepare the topics using their mobile
devices. Teachers were able to capitalize on students’ prior learning of the topic and
carried on with advanced level discussion during the classroom session (Chen et al.
2010). However, this point of view was opposed by another teacher who considered
that there were some students who were reluctant to learn independently of the
teachers; so mobile learning might not benefit such students.
The idea of controlled (by teachers) but independent learning (by students) was
supported by all participants (Frohberg, Göth, and Schwabe 2009). Teachers in
Pakistani universities stated that students had been bombarded with the information
explosion on the internet and they tended to be diverted from the desired goal of
learning without appropriate guidelines. Therefore, participants recommended that
students’ independent learning must be controlled and designed by the teachers so
that both teachers and students could make the most of this technology infusion in
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learning environments. The participants agreed that a teacher could direct students to
particular learning resources and websites related to the topic to be browsed by the
students in their own time independently of the teacher.
‘You have asked how much the teacher should be involved in this. The
teacher is there to guide and direct the students to the appropriate learning
resources. Assuming that the teacher knows about the related learning
websites, he can guide the students. Otherwise, internet browsing is a tough
job.’ [Uni B - Teacher10]
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the teacher’s
role in mobile learning. The following is a summary of the major points:
 Teachers had mixed responses regarding their control of the students’ learning
process in reference to the mobile learning provision. Some teachers were very
positive that students would be learning independently of their teachers through
mobile learning; however, some participants were sceptical and apprehensive
about the compromised role of the teacher in the students’ learning process if
mobile learning were an option in a formal learning environment.
 Teachers reported that mobile learning improved their teaching practice and
made classroom time more productive. They asked students to prepare and read
the topic on mobile devices prior to coming to class. This way, the prepartory
work assisted teachers to initiate higher level of discussion in the classroom.
 The majority of participants in the focus groups agreed that teachers should be
able to design and control students’ learning in the formal mobile learning
environment. Teachers could direct the students to appropriate resources and
students could access and learn from those resources in their own time as
independent learners.
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5.7 Connectivity - Results and Discussion
Regarding network access and connectivity, teachers expected the university to

provide the necessary infrastructure to facilitate the successful implementation of the
mobile learning initiative. They also talked about poor network connectivity in
remote areas where, during visits to relatives, they might not be able to stay
connected with their peers and students. They shared their experiences about poor
network coverage in some areas at times; they also expected to have internet
availability anywhere and at any time if mobile learning were formally introduced
into the university environment.
‘I cannot redesign infrastructure; what we have to do is to redesign learning

material for mobile devices. But having infrastructure is a basic thing. The
university needs to provide required services and resources for staff to use
for this purpose.’ [Uni A - Teacher8]
‘The situation of our network right now is that if we go to some rural area,
GPRS and EDGE are not enabled there. So our internet access is completely
disconnected in that case. That’s the main problem and while travelling, it
can become enabled at some point and disabled at another. Even when
travelling on main motorways, you can face this problem.’ [Uni B -
Teacher5]
‘So firstly, we should spread the network so much that it is available

everywhere; and secondly, internet must also be available on it.’ [Uni B -
Teacher2]
Problems of mobile network connectivity for learning have also been reported by a
number of researchers investigating mobile learning options in other developing
countries such as South Africa, Latin America, India and Indonesia (Barker, Krull,
and Mallinson 2005; Kim, Miranda, and Olaciregui 2008; Kumar et al. 2010; Sari
and Tedjasaputra 2008). However, in spite of network connectivity issues, all of
these researchers reported positive outcomes when assessing the benefits of mobile
learning implementation in developing countries. Similarly, a female literacy project
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conducted via mobile learning ran successfully in the rural areas of Pakistan
according to a UNECO mobile learning report that showed network connectivity was
not a major issue even in rural areas of Pakistan (UNESCO 2010). Currently,
another project is under way to empower rural women of Pakistan through mobile
learning (UNESCO 2013b).
Participants also expressed their concerns about the availability of 3G technologies in

Pakistan. They stated that it was a controversial issue and that the government did
not issue 3G licenses to the telecom providers to operate 3Gs. However, GPRS and
EDGE technologies were available at that time (PTA 2009, 2013; Sims 2013).
Participants had been experiencing slow mobile internet speed with these
technologies; therefore, it was difficult for them to engage in mobile learning
activities outside the range of Wi-Fi. They stated that currently Wi-Fi was the best
option for the teaching and learning community in terms of mobile learning activities
although Wi-Fi is restricted on university premises; however, at least within the
range of Wi-Fi, they had the flexibility to move around and take their learning with
them.
‘The thing with Wi-Fi is that it gives you adequate speed. That’s an
advantage. But it limits your options in terms of location. On the contrary,
in my opinion, an added advantage of Wi-Fi is that it does not leave you
bound like PTCL, where you need to connect to a cable. So with Wi-Fi you
have more mobility, at least within the limits of a geographical area.’ [Uni B
- Teacher5]
‘And within the university premises, all the students can carry out their
learning activities collectively.’ [Uni B - Teacher3]
One teacher expressed his concerns that if students and teachers use university-
provided Wi-Fi for mobile learning activities, then the network could become
overloaded with a large number of users.
‘The use of the Wi-Fi may slow down or be overloaded if there is a high
number of users who have logged on simultaneously.’ [Uni C - Teacher4]
157
Generally, teachers had concerns about network connectivity, particularly for the
mobile internet options available to them at that time; they wanted more advanced
technologies with higher mobile internet speeds so that mobile learning could operate
smoothly. However, they were prepared also to start the mobile learning initiative
with Wi-Fi as that was the best available option for accessing learning resources
using mobile devices while on campus. By using the WI-Fi, this might also reduce
the load on computer labs and in classrooms, thereby conserving university
resources.
5.7.1 Connectivity - Summary of Discussion and Findings
This section provides a summary of the major discussion points and findings
regarding the connectivity or network access for mobile learning:
 Teachers expected universities to facilitate the introduction of mobile learning by

providing the necessary ICT infrastructure; for example, by negotiating with
telecom provider companies better mobile internet plans for staff and students.
 Teachers complained about poor network coverage in some rural and remote
areas where they might stay for few days to visit relatives; a lack of coverage
would affect their engagement in mobile learning during that period.
 Network connectivity problems have been reported also for other developing
countries in the mobile learning research literature; however, these issues did not
prove to be a huge barrier in mobile learning pilot implementations. Similarly, in
spite of facing connectivity-related issues at times, teachers in Pakistani
universities were happy to switch to and experience formal mobile learning
engagement if it is offered in near future; this indicates that network related
issues are not serious enough to present a significant obstacle to the introduction
of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments.
158
5.8 Flexibility - Results and Discussions
Focus group discussions highlighted a number of mobile learning characteristics;

flexibility was one of them. Teachers reported that mobile learning is flexible,
instant, personal, informal and motivating for themselves and for their students as
well.
‘If I have a mobile learning facility, then students can ask me many basic
questions anytime and anywhere.’ [Uni A - Teacher1]
‘I agree that it is far easier to use a mobile device for learning than to switch
on the laptop and then find the answer.’ [Uni A - Teacher3]
‘All other things are shared, but mobile is personal and as you know, a
personal thing is always personal. For example, if all other computers are
occupied in the lab, they have the option of using mobile devices to access
learning resources and keep the learning process going.’ [Uni A - Teacher7]
Traxler (2009) and Koole (2009) have also used similar terminology to indicate that
flexibility is one of the unique characterisitcs of mobile learning for the teaching and
learning environment (Koole 2009; Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2005; Traxler
2011; Traxler 2009).
It was mentioned by one teacher that if the internet-enabled mobile device were
available, this would give them the flexible option to be engaged in teaching and
learning wherever they are. While preparing a lecture, if they needed more
clarification instantly, mobile learning proved to be a big support on the spot and
they could explore the topic from different angles. On the other hand, if the internet
was not readily available when they had to look up something, their motivation level
went down and they postponed the task for some other time.
‘There is also the human psyche to get things done instantly. If computers
are occupied or you feel too lazy to turn the computer on, you may delay
159
things. However, you may get things done quickly and instantly if you are in
mobile learning mode.’ [Uni A - Teacher7]
‘Sometimes it happens to me. If I am studying something and want to know

more about some concept, at that time I am motivated and determined to
learn it; if I have the mobile internet facility, then I will use it. However, if I
missed this time, I may not go for it later on because of less motivation or I
will forget it.’ [Uni A - Teacher8]
It was pointed out also by another teacher that the flexibility provided by mobile
learning enhanced students’ motivation. It also made them understand the
importance of self-learning. Teachers found that students were eager to learn
because they had no difficulty accessing the learning resources. Mobile learning
made everything readily available to them.
‘The thing that you have in your hand is very easy to use. So, mobile
learning also helps students to understand the importance of self-learning
and students have more control over their own learning.’ [Uni A - Teacher6]
Similar to the findings of this research, a number of researchers have associated

instant access to learning resources with the enhanced motivation of the learners to
be involved in learning across different times and spaces of their daily lives (Chao
and Chen 2009; Evans 2008; Issa, Al–Bahadili, and Abuhamdeh 2011; Kukulska-
Hulme 2010; Lu and Korukonda 2008). In addition, another teacher considered that
mobile learning is available without the immediate availability of the mobile internet
because a mobile device could be used to store necessary information and teaching
notes without needing to have the internet available at a particular time.
‘I think it is not necessary to have internet access. If you are studying a book
and cannot find the meaning of some word, you may note it down on your
mobile device and search its meaning later on (if your mobile device is not
internet-enabled). I think it is handy to have a mobile device to take notes
even when you are reading a book.’ [Uni A - Teacher6]
160
The notion of using mobile learning in offline mode or undertaking mobile learning
activities without the availability of the mobile internet has not been much discussed
in mobile learning literature except one study in Nepal (Shrestha, Moore, and
Abdelnour-Nocera 2010). A study of what students and teachers could do even
when the mobile internet is not available would yield interesting findings. People in
the developing world, where network connectivity may become unstable at times,
would benefit from an offline mode of mobile learning.
Teachers in the focus group discussion sessions stated that they did make use of
flexibility of mobile devices for multiple purposes inside and outside the university
premises. They could inform students about the scheduling of forthcoming learning
activities in lectures, they could communicate to the whole class via SMS, and they
could also register their leave application via SMS to the relevant office. Numerous
experiments and studies have been conducted into the use of SMS for mobile
learning, with positive results being reported in the literature (Cavus and Ibrahim
2009; Ozok and Wei 2007; Petrova 2010; Scornavacca, Huff, and Marshall 2009;
Wang and Ryu 2009; Young et al. 2009).
‘Yes, you can inform students of any class cancellation or of any quiz you
intend to give.’ [Uni B - Teacher6]
‘You can even send your leave application, while at home or working from
home.’ [Uni B - Teacher3]
‘You don’t have to go anywhere and can communicate with the whole class
from home.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
There were some perceptions and comments by teachers about the other side of the
picture in reference to the flexibility offered by mobile learning. A couple of
teachers mentioned that sometimes the availability of data could become problematic
because students might not take an interest in the lecture, assuming that they could
access information at any or another time. This assumption could decrease their
interest in the learning that is occurring inside the classroom.
161
‘When students know that all the material is available, they don’t attend the
class and only study at the last minute. Assessments might be taken for
granted just because they have a mobile device handy for learning; they
might not prepare for the assessments beforehand.’ [Uni C - Teacher5]
‘They don’t study from the very beginning, but they use their mobile and
study on the spot; they might not put sufficient effort into that topic.’ [Uni C -
Teacher1]
This section provides a summary of discussion and findings regarding the flexibility
of mobile devices for learning. The following is a summary of the major points:
 Teachers stated that mobile learning is flexible, instant, personal, informal and
motivating for themselves and for their students.
 Teachers found instant access to learning resources very beneficial when

preparing their lectures outside of their usual work area.
 Teachers experienced that mobile learning enabled themselves and their students
to be more independent learners and more motivated to complete learning tasks
on time.
 Mobile learning could also be used by teachers and students even without the
availability of the mobile internet for certain purposes such as using the
dictionary, taking notes and reading previously downloaded learning material.
 According to the experiences of teachers, SMS has been proved to be a very

useful tool for disseminating important admin information to large classes of
students.
 Teachers perceived that students could exploit the availability of learning

resources anywhere and at any time in lieu of attending lectures.
162
5.9 Technical Support and Training Needs - Results

and Discussion
When asked about technical support, there were mixed responses among teachers in
Pakistani universities. A number of the participants maintained that they did not
have many technical issues regarding mobile internet or related to mobile devices.
Many of them were able to resolve their issues most of the time either by contacting
a telecom provider or discussing the problem with friends and family members.
Therefore, they believed that there was no need to arrange technical support
particularly for mobile devices or the mobile internet usage issues; personnel in the
existing IT/technical support department could cope with additional users if they
faced any technical issues in terms of operating mobile devices and using the mobile
internet for the purpose of mobile learning.
‘Definitely, it can be but I think technical support is not necessary here,

because there are few people who would use this help. If you dedicate
resources for just a few people, then it would be a waste. I think it is better
for them to seek technical support from the mobile company or telecom
provider.’ [Uni A - Teacher6]
A few teachers reported that they had faced minor issues and were able to resolve
these with the help of family and friends. However, a couple of participants
complained that they had faced so many problems in using the mobile internet that
they had lost interest in it. They stated that the mobile internet downloading speed
was so slow that it was a mere waste of time; they decided to browse the internet
using their laptops instead of mobile devices because a laptop computer was simpler
to use and more efficient for them.
‘Actually, I encountered a lot of problems while using it, so I rarely use it

now. I experienced a very slow downloading speed, and at times you don’t
have the time to wait for so long. Moreover, some websites don’t support
these things. So because of a shortage of time, I’ve minimized this activity
completely.’ [Uni B - Teacher1]
163
‘I used it before but left it because my system was falling prey to viruses.
They were posing problems. Also, I have the laptop with me at all times, so
if I ever need to use the internet, I can use the laptop.’ [Uni B - Teacher2]
‘The laptop is preferable due to the speed factor, since the slow speed of
mobile internet irritates the user.’ [Uni B - Teacher1]
On the other hand, in spite of facing fewer problems in using mobile devices and the
mobile internet, in general, many participants believed that teachers should receive
adequate and appropriate training prior to the introduction of mobile devices as
learning tools in a Pakistani university environment. All participants agreed that
there were some university teachers who might not be conversant with modern IT
gadgets. Therefore, training to use a mobile as a learning tool should be provided by
the universities so that this readily available device may be turned into a learning
platform by both teachers and students.
‘There should be the facility of Wi-Fi, other necessary software and an IT

specialist to train us because we don’t belong to the IT field; therefore, we
will need it, so that with the help of IT support person, I may be able to be
involved in mobile learning successfully.’ [Uni C - Teacher1]
The literature confirms these findings as similar results have been reported in other
mobile learning studies where teachers needed more technical support and training to
engage in mobile teaching learning at different educational levels (Chen et al. 2010;
Fuchs 2012; Uzunboylu and Ozdamli 2011).
During the focus group discussions, it was also emphasized that training sessions
should be held on a regular basis so that teachers could keep abreast with the latest
inventions and applications. This ongoing training would encourage teachers to
embed and blend mobile learning into their traditional mode of teaching.
‘We are given training on how to use software or devices and this sort of
training should be continued and there should be training sessions after 6
months or after 1 year.’ [Uni C - Teacher4]
164
The question of creating content for mobile learning was also discussed. At this
point, almost all participants expressed the need for training to prepare and customize
learning content for the mobile devices. All participants considered training for
teachers to be an imperative step prior to designing and redesigning content for
mobile learning.
‘I personally feel, after seeing the advancements in technology, that mobiles

are replacing laptops. When the concept of computer-based learning was
introduced, teachers were trained likewise. Similarly, this is the case with
mobile devices.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
‘We cannot limit this training to running just software; rather, we should give
continuous training on the contents that will continuously develop.’ [Uni B -
Teacher9]
‘If we are given regular training or we are updated regularly, then there
would be no need for help every time.’ [Uni C - Teacher7]
The provision of appropriate training and adequate technical support for teachers also
was considered as one of the major issues determining teachers’ engagement in
mobile learning by Cobcroft (2006) and Herrington et al. (2009).
It was noticed that teachers from the dentistry department were more vocal about
their training needs and stressed the importance of continuous training for teachers in
order to integrate mobile learning in their teaching and learning environment. The
teachers from the other two universities had IT, telecommunication and electrical
engineering backgrounds, so most of them were quite comfortable with the latest
technologies and mobile devices; therefore, they did not express much concern about
training. It was observed that teachers with a dentistry background were less
exposed to the latest information and communication technologies and, therefore,
wanted more training and technical support.
In terms of their own learning, teachers stated that mobile learning proved to be a
source of knowledge enrichment for them. As mobile devices were always available,
teachers exploited online sources and made their teaching more vibrant and up-to-
165
date. One of the teachers mentioned his practice of downloading and benefitting
from lectures available on the websites of various highly ranked universities across
the world.
‘I download lectures from the Website of Berkeley University.’ [Uni B -

Teacher3]
‘This has a dual policy so at one end you are using their lectures for your
own benefit and at the other, your own lectures can be used by someone else.’
[Uni B - Teacher6]
‘Students and teachers both benefit from this.’ [Uni B - Teacher1]
‘You can benchmark yourself through this as well. The teaching quality at
Berkeley is much higher comparatively.’ [Uni B - Teacher9]
‘Teachers are being well-trained through this practice. This has greatly
improved the online lectures of our teachers as well.’ [Uni B - Teacher4]
Overall, mobile learning literature does not focus on teachers’ perceptions,

difficulties, training needs or challenges that they face when becoming involved in
mobile learning initiatives in universities, secondary and primary schools. An
analysis of focus group discussions with teachers in Pakistani universities shows that
they do need to have continuous technical support and training to motivate them to
engage productively in mobile learning. This finding from Pakistani universities
may be generalized to similar stakeholders in both developed and developing
countries.
5.9.1 Technical Support and Training needs: Summary of

Discussion and Findings
regarding the need for technical support for mobile learning:
166
 Teachers facing minor technical issues were able to resolve those issues with a
little help from family, friends or telecom providers.
 A few teachers encountered so many technical obstacles that they stopped using a
mobile device for learning activities and preferred laptop computers instead.
 All teachers agreed that they would need continuous training and support to
integrate mobile learning into their traditional learning environments.
 Teachers from the dentistry department reported more technical issues and asked
for more training compared with their counterparts having IT and telecom
engineering backgrounds.
 Teachers also used mobile devices for their own learning and to benchmark
themselves with the teaching quality in universities in developed countries.
The participants in the teachers’ focus group identified a number of issues related to
cost if mobile learning were introduced in Pakistani university environments in
future. Firstly, the cost of smart mobile devices, which they called Wi-Fi-enabled
mobile devices, would be prohibitive for the teachers and more so for the students.
According to the teachers, the availability of smart phones would be a major obstacle
to the implementation of any mobile learning initiatives in Pakistani university
environments.
‘As students don’t have mobiles of very good quality here because these are
costly, so they don’t purchase it and have just simple mobiles. Sometimes
these don’t have even GPRS, so how can they be able to learn all this?’ [Uni
C - Teacher4]
Similar concerns about the cost of mobile devices were expressed by a number of
researchers in the mobile learning literature which confirm these findings about cost
in Pakistani universities (Dyson et al. 2009; Issa, Al–Bahadili, and Abuhamdeh
2011; Litchfield et al. 2007). However, Lundin (2010) suggests that education
167
providers should try to integrate students’ owned hand-held devices for the purpose
of mobile learning; this would substantially reduce costs incurred by all stakeholders.
The teachers participating in the focus group sessions expected their universities to
subsidize or assist them and their students to buy expensive smart mobile devices if
mobile learning were to be introduced. In this way, universities might save costs
indirectly because fewer computers and less maintenance would be required in
computer labs.
‘Overall, prices should be decreased so that the university does not have to
bear the whole burden.’ [Uni A - Teacher2]
‘People purchase laptops so that they don’t have to go to the computer lab.
Money is also saved in this way.’ [Uni A - Teacher4]
‘If the university provides such devices, then they are also benefiting from
this. They don’t have to maintain labs.’ [Uni A - Teacher5]
Some participants suggested that embracing mobile learning would be easier in

private sector universities where the technology infrastructure was more advanced
than that of public sector universities. Moreover, students enrolled in those private
sector universities were from financially privileged backgrounds and may already
had expensive smart phones. However, participants did say that mobile learning
could be introduced also in public sector universities with financial subsidies from
government or universities so that teachers and students could afford expensive smart
mobile devices for the purpose of mobile learning.
‘It can happen in private sector universities with richer infrastructure and
modern culture such as LUMS and FAST. Students of LUMS and FAST have
advanced devices and as these are rich universities, the Wi-Fi facility is also
available. Back-up is also available. Teachers also have support. Mobile
learning would be embraced easily in those universities. But in government
universities, things have to be sponsored and arranged. Introducing mobile
learning in public sector universities would be difficult to some extent but it
can be applied here as well.’ [Uni C - Teacher9]
168
A couple of participants considered that, regardless of whether or not they could

afford expensive phones, they preferred not to have them because of the risk of theft.
They reported that such thefts had occurred in the past.
‘So, it has a high probability of getting stolen. That is why mostly people
prefer to keep a low cost mobile phone and that is also a personal reason that
I don’t use such things.’ [Uni B - Teacher2]
Eventually, it would be difficult for teachers with less expensive mobile devices,
which are based on older technologies and offer limited communication features, to
be involved in mobile learning.
Interestingly, the teachers did not express any strong concerns about the cost of the
mobile internet or Wi-Fi compared with the student focus groups. For students, one
of the major concerns was their having to pay for the mobile internet if they had to
use it for browsing learning resources or connecting remotely to the university’s
learning management system. However, teachers did not show any concerns about
these costs.
regarding the cost of mobile devices for learning.
 Teachers considered the cost of mobile devices as a major obstacle to the

implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani universities.
 Teachers expected the university to support or subsidize the purchase of

expensive smart mobile devices for teachers and students as the university might
save this money in terms of less maintenance being required for computer labs on
campus.
 Teachers perceived that private sector universities with a better financial

infrastructure and IT facilities are in a better position to test mobile learning
initiatives in Pakistan, given the poorer facilities and resources available in public
sector universities in Pakistan.
169
 A few teachers preferred to keep less expensive mobile devices with them at all
times as they perceived that there was a risk of theft, probably in their residential
area; this would make it difficult for them to engage in future mobile learning.
 Teachers did not show concerns about the cost of the mobile internet although it
was one of the major concerns of the students.
5.11 Mobile learning Activities and Applications -

Results and Discussion
Teachers in Pakistani universities generally reported mobile learning activities

similar to those reported during the students’ focus group discussion sessions.
However, a few teachers argued that mobile learning activities could introduce some
new problems and could reduce the quality of teaching currently being delivered. In
general, teachers were excited to share their mobile learning experiences regarding
both their personal learning activities and their teaching-related tasks. Upcoming
subsections enlist the mobile learning activities and apps experienced by Pakistani
university teachers.
Similar to the data analysis for Students’ focus groups, coding process was followed
to analyze the data from Teachers’ focus groups for mobile leaning (refer to the
Section 4.10 in Chapter 4 for details). Data analysis of Teachers’ focus groups
revealed similar patterns to students’ focus groups mobile learning activities and
application plus teaching activities performed by teachers, therefore certain
categories were titled accordingly. For instance, mobile learning activities and
applications performed by teachers were divided into four main categories such as
administrative activities, collaborative activities, informal teaching and learning
activities and learning support activities. Following subsections include detailed
information for each of these categories.
The trends represented in the data for teachers’ involvement in mobile teaching and
learning activities are encouraging due to the reason that these teachers were neither
guided nor trained for any mobile teaching and learning activity and application. All
of these mobile teaching and learning activities performed by these teachers were
170
result of their own self-driven initiatives to engage in teaching and learning using
mobile devices without realizing the impact or potential of mobile learning into their
teaching and learning at university in general.
5.11. 1 Administrative Activities
Some of the mobile learning activities reported by teachers during focus group
sessions consisted of administrative tasks such as recording attendance of the
students, uploading lecture material for students to access and circulating lecture
rescheduling information to the enrolled students. These tasks were categorized as
administrative activities performed by teachers of Pakistani universities using their
mobile devices. Figure 25 shows the percentages of teachers performing these
administrative activities using their mobile devices.
7%
21% Recording attendance
Circulating information via

SMS
Uploading lecture material
72%
Figure 25: Administrative activities performed by teachers using their mobile devices
Circulating important as well as urgent information amongst the larger cohorts of

students using SMS was found the most popular activity among majority of the
teachers. Generally, teachers used this method of information dissemination if
teacher had to reschedule the lectures or laboratory sessions due to an urgent or
emergency matter. In this case, students would not travel to university just for that
particular lecture or utilize their time better. Many teachers also used mobile devices
171
to upload lecture notes or lecture related material to the LMS for students to access
on their own time. Only a few of the teachers used mobile devices to record
students’ attendance.
5.11. 2 Collaborative Activities
Sharing learning resources with students, communication with students and

providing feedback for assignments and projects were among the activities
categorized as collaborative activities as outcome of the data analysis of teachers’
focus groups. Figure 26 displays the data according to the teachers’ experiences for
certain collaborative mobile learning activities.
Collaborating with students
9% during data Collection
24% Sharing learning resources
with students
21%
Communication with students
using voice calls
Video conferencing with
28% students to collaborate
18%
Use of SMS for
communication
Figure 26: Collaborative activities performed by teachers using their mobile devices
Video conferencing on mobile devices with the students who are usually on field
trips to collect data or internships had been used by many teachers. Use of SMS for
communication regarding assignments and sharing learning resources with students
was also found popular activities among many teachers. Surprising, only a few of
teachers stated that they had been collaborating with students during students’ data
collection trips; however, use of SMS was found popular for similar situations.
Communication with students using voice calls was preferred by 18% of the
teachers.
172
5.11. 3 Informal Teaching and Learning Activities
Teachers had been engaged in a number of informal mobile teaching and learning
activities including reading eBooks, lecture preparation, note taking, lesson plans,
reviewing recorded lectures and preparing instant presentations. Data about informal
teaching and learning activities by teachers has been displayed in Figure 27.
Informal Teaching and Learning Activites

Reading eBooks and lab
manuals
6%
4% 14% Practical Work remotely
4%
Self learning activities for
6%
lecture preparation
Preparing and keeping Lesson
17%
plans in mobile devices
15% Note taking
4% Viewing engineering
animations
Preparing instant
13% presentations
17%
Reviewing recorded lectures
Figure 27: Informal teaching and learning activities performed by teachers using their mobile devices
As compared to the other categories of mobile learning activities discussed earlier in

this chapter, this category has fewer teachers involved in a range of informal
teaching and learning activities. For instance, reading eBooks, self-learning during
lecture preparation, preparing lesson plans, preparing instant presentations and note
taking were among the popular activities among 13% to 17% of the teachers. Only a
few teachers conducted quizzes on mobile devices or reviewed recorded lectures.
173
5.11. 4 Teaching and Learning Support Activities
Teachers reported some of the activities which they had been doing to support their
teaching and learning using their mobile devices; these activities have been
categorized as teaching and learning support activities such as shown in Figure 28.
Teaching and Learning Support Activities
Recording lectures
10% 13%
Browsing online library
Using search engines

13%
26% Using calculators
Using unit converter apps

13%
Using dictionary
5%
Using mobile device as data
20%
transfer media
Figure 28: Learning support activities performed by teachers using their mobile devices
Using the dictionary and using calculators were found to be the most popular
teaching and learning support activities among teachers. As English is not the first
language of Pakistani people but the medium of instruction is English in all of the
mainstream universities and higher education institutions in Pakistan, the use of a
dictionary has been found to be a very popular teaching and learning support activity
among teachers and students. Browsing online libraries, recording lectures and using
search engines, were also found moderately popular among the teachers participating
in focus groups.
174
5.11. 5 Mobile Learning Activities by Teachers – Big

Picture
All of the four categories of mobile learning activities by teachers have been
displayed in Figure 29. Similar to the data analyzed for students’ focus groups,
majority of the teachers have been involved in informal teaching and learning
activities as compared to other types of activities. Teaching and learning support
activities were performed by 28% of the participants whereas 24% participants were
engaged in collaborative activities. Only a few of the teachers performed
administrative activities using their mobile devices.
Mobile Learning Activities by Teachers
24% Informal Teaching and

Learning Activities
38%
Teaching and Learning

Support Activitities
28%
10%
Figure 29: Category wise distribution of mobile learning activities performed by teachers using their
mobile devices
As discussed in earlier subsections in this section, teachers have been using mobile
devices informally for a number of teaching and learning activities in Pakistani
university environments. Most mobile learning activities and applications used by
the teachers correspond to the categories of mobile learning activities discussed by
Naismith et al. (2004) and Traxler (2009); viz., behaviourist, collaborative, situated,
175
constructivist, informal and lifelong learning activities. Table 9 highlights the

detailed illustration of the categories from this research (Fourth column with
italicized text) with the categories presented in Naismith et al. (2004, 18) (First three
columns with non-italicized text).
The majority of the mobile teaching and learning activities and applications reported
by teachers in the focus groups were found similar to what has been reported in the
literature. However, the categorization of the mobile learning activities developed in
this section has been informed by the results of data analysis of this research that
makes it a key contribution of this research to the mobile learning literature.
Table 9: Mapping of categories of mobile teaching and learning activities from this research
with the themes by Naismith et al. (2004) (Adapted from: Naismith et al. (2004, 18)
Categories of
Key Theorists Mobile Teaching
Theme Activities and Learning
Activities from this
research
Behaviourist (Pavlov 1927; Skinner Drill and feedback Collaborative
Learning 1968) classroom response Learning Activities
systems Informal Teaching
and Learning
Activities
Constructivist (Bruner 1966; Papert Participatory Collaborative
learning 1980; Piaget 1929) simulations Learning Activities
Situated learning (Brown, Collins, and Problem and case- Informal Teaching
Duguid 1989; Lave and based learning and Learning
Wenger 1991) context awareness Activities
Collaborative (Vygotsky 1978) Mobile computer- Collaborative
learning supported Learning Activities
collaborative
learning (MCSCL)
Informal and (Eraut 2000) Supporting Informal Teaching
lifelong learning intentional and and Learning
accidental Activities
learning episodes
Learning and n/a Personal Teaching and
teaching support organization Learning Support
support for Activities,
administrative Administrative
duties Activities
(eg attendance)
176
A number of mobile teaching and learning activities reported by the teachers

participating in the focus groups were also found in mobile learning literature. For
instance, many popular learning activities among teachers in Pakistani universities
such as using SMS for announcements and communicating to students, uploading
lectures, preparing lesson plans and learning English as second language were also
discussed by Petrova (2010), Kwon and Lee (2010) and Cavus and Ibrahim (2009).
Furthermore, sharing learning resources, using particular course-related applications

such as unit convertors for engineering courses, recording lectures and browsing
library resources were also mentioned by numerous studies in mobile learning
literature (Akhshabi, Khalatbari, and Akhshabi 2011; Becta 2008; Deng et al. 2005;
Eschenbrenner and Nah 2007; Green, amp, and Hannon 2007; Kukulska-Hulme
2010; Kurti, Spikol, and Milrad 2008; Lan and Sie 2010; Ogata et al. 2008; Wang et
al. 2009). The majority of the activities related to teaching and learning using mobile
devices experienced by Pakistani university teachers were available in these
literature references but this research contributes to the mobile learning literature by
categorizing these mobile teaching and learning activities with respect to the
particular themes.
Besides reporting positive experiences, some teachers expressed their concerns that
mobile learning might compromise the quality of teaching which could be delivered
to students by the teacher’s presence in the classroom.
‘Yes, I do! You are right but some of our courses require mandatory presence
of students and the teacher.’ [Uni A - Teacher2]
Comments from one teacher showed a reluctance to adopt mobile learning despite
acknowledging the importance and usefulness of mobile learning.
‘Yes, SMS and videos may be used. But I have a good memory for lecture
material. I am not using mobile devices for learning currently.’ [Uni A -
Teacher7]
One teacher said that he would be happy to be involved in mobile learning activities
if there would be any trial implementation in the future. Another teacher expressed
177
the view that he would be involved in mobile learning if appropriate training and
support were provided to teachers. Teachers also were concerned that students and
teachers might exploit mobile learning facilities and resources; they recommended
that the university, by establishing protocols and policies before the implementation
of mobile learning, should ensure that such exploitation would not occur.
‘We will welcome this but in a disciplined way.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
‘Yes, I will be provided that – with support or training which we discussed

before. Moreover, there should not be any misuse of these facilities.’ [Uni B
- Teacher4]
Hafeez–Baig et al. (2013) also argue that mobile learning initiative in university
environments needs to be managed and sustained carefully to make it suitable for all
stakeholders in teaching and learning, in particular the students and teachers.
5.11.6 Mobile learning Activities and Applications:

This section provides a major point summary of discussion and findings regarding
the mobile learning activities and applications experienced by the teachers:
 Mobile learning activities and applications reported by the teachers were divided
into four categories such as administrative activities, collaborative activities,
informal teaching and learning activities and teaching and learning support
activities.
 Categories of mobile learning activities and applications developed in this study

correspond to the categories of mobile learning activities by Naismith et al.
(2004) such as behaviourist, collaborative, situated, constructivist, informal and
lifelong learning activities.
 Informal teaching and learning activities using mobile devices were found to be
the most popular category amongst the teachers.
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 It was observed that teachers were apprehensive that the introduction of mobile
learning might undermine the role and importance of teachers in the university
 Teachers stated that they would welcome the introduction of mobile learning to
their teaching and learning practice if it were launched in an organized manner.
5.12 Socio-Cultural Factors - Results and Discussion
Similar to the students’ focus groups discussion, teachers from Pakistani universities
asserted that there were a few important aspects which particularly need to be looked
at and evaluated before attempting to include mobile learning into mainstream
university education. Data analysis of the teachers’ focus group discussions revealed
that these aspects indicate the social-economic and socio-cultural pointers of a
typical developing country society. A number of points concerning the socio-
economic circumstances of some stakeholders have been mentioned in Chapter 4 and
in the Connectivity, Traning needs’ and Cost related sections (5.7, 5.9 and 5.10)
earlier in this chapter. However, the need for creating awareness, enhancing
motivation for mobile learning, and possible negative uses of mobile learning
resources are a few of the factors which emerged from the data collected for this
research. The following sub-sections highlight the perceptions and expectations of
teachers in Pakistani universities regarding the social, economic and cultural norms
which might influence the potential implementation of mobile learning in formal
teaching and learning environments in universities. Further, findings from the
analysis of data gathered from the teachers’ focus group discussions confirmed the
findings from the students’ focus groups for these socio-cultural factors.
5.12.1 Awareness
During the focus group sessions, a number of teachers highlighted an important issue
regarding the introduction of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments.
They argued that raising the awareness and understanding of the benefits of potential
of mobile learning on a large scale among all possible stakeholders would be the best
way to initiate any implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
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environments; they warned that mobile learning might be misunderstood and

misused if people were not made aware of ethics or trained to use mobile devices
appropriately in education.
‘I think mobile learning norms and ethics need to standardize and people
should be trained for that. In Pakistan, people tend to misuse resources.’
[Uni B - Teacher8]
‘I just want to say that I agree with Uni B-Teacher8 that we must first spread
awareness of this because this can be highly misused.’ [Uni B - Teacher7]
One teacher highlighted the importance of establishing and adhering to regulations

and standards regarding the use by teachers and students of copyrighted material on
the internet. This should be done prior to launching mobile learning trials. In the
case of mobile learning, both teachers and students might be downloading a
substantial amount of educational resources and apps from the internet, in which case
the sources must be acknowledged appropriately according to academic ethics to
avoid copyright, plagiarism and academic misconduct in general.
‘Every industry has its own ethics to uphold. We will opt for taking
something from the internet and showing it to our students. What if they are
patented and we have to register ourselves first? Then what are we supposed
to do? So, after following all ethical codes we will be able to focus on the
application of these features.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
Another teacher suggested using mobile devices to create short movies (for an
awareness campaign about mobile learning) to show the benefits and challenges of
mobile learning and spread the word. The awareness campaign videos could be
downloaded onto students’ and teachers’ mobile devices. In this way, they would
better understand how a mobile device could add flexibility to their teaching and
learning.
‘If we speak of documentary movies for its awareness, even they will be
showed to us via the same mobiles.’ [Uni B - Teacher10]
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In the mobile learning literature, very few researchers considered the issue of
creating awareness about mobile learning prior to its introduction into the learning
environment (Alzaza and Yaakub 2011; Kumar et al. 2010; Sife, Lwoga, and Sanga
2007). However, no particular study appears to have considered the importance of
making teachers aware of the potential uses and benefits of mobile learning.
According to the participants in this study, it was a matter of the utmost importance
to raise the awareness of mobile learning among the teaching and learning
community. According to focus group participants, teachers and students should be
made aware of the benefits that mobile learning has to offer, together with an
awareness of appropriate protocols and policies in order to prevent misuse (e.g.,
plagiarism, academic misconduct). Moreover, appropriate and adequate training
should be provided to both teachers and students, if the implementation of mobile
learning is to succeed.
5.12.2 Motivation
Teachers participating in the focus groups talked about students’ motivation

regarding mobile learning as well as their own motivation to be involved in mobile
learning activities. One teacher believed that the majority of the students would be
excited and motivated to try mobile learning initiatives in the future. The teachers
suggested that it would be ideal to introduce mobile learning activities by blending
them with existing learning modes.
‘I think that not every student is capable of doing things independently. Some
students are self-motivated to learn by themselves. There are some students
who learn with the help of the teacher. And the third type of student is the
one who won’t study even if a teacher forces him to study. But the point here
is motivation. If someone wants to work, he can do so. In my experience, 80
students among 100 would be self-motivated, 10 will start study with some
guidance but there will also be 10 students who wouldn't study even if they
are guided or forced.’ [Uni A - Teacher8]
The participants also discussed their own level of motivation regarding their
involvement in mobile learning. They reported that mobile learning assisted them to
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find information and learn things instantly when they needed it. For instance, when
encountering difficulty or uncertainty when preparing a lecture, teachers can quickly
check a dictionary or encyclopaedia on their mobile devices. In this way, mobile
learning increased their motivation, providing them with flexible and instant access
to a variety of learning resources online and offline.
‘There is another important point; I think every individual’s motivation level

is different at different times of the day. If you are preparing something for
the lecture purposefully, you are motivated at that time to learn things quickly
and instantly. At this point of time, mobile learning is very useful and spot
on.’ [Uni A - Teacher4]
‘Sometimes it happens to me. If I am studying something and want to know

more about some concept, at that time I am motivated and determined to
learn it. If I have the mobile internet facility, then I will use it. However, if I
missed this time, I may not go for it later on because of less motivation or I
will forget it.’ [Uni A - Teacher8]
A few participants were concerned about using their personal time after office hours
to reply to students’ SMS, emails, discussion groups or information sharing requests
on social networking groups. They stated that their personal space and time would
be disrupted. This concern could be addressed by setting rules to differentiate
between academic queries or social engagement in reference to responding to
students via mobile devices. Also, they were concerned that this extra assistance
given to their students outside normal university hours, in fact, would be unpaid
overtime. The university might not acknowledge the additional time spent assisting
students in the mobile learning mode. Hence, mobile learning may well add to their
existing workload. This fear discouraged them from engaging in future mobile
learning activities in the university environment. It seemed that more teachers would
be motivated to be involved in mobile learning initiatives in the future if the
university acknowledged the time they spent out of the office hours by reducing their
normal teaching workload or paying them extra for the after-hours time spent
responding to students’ queries.
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‘What if the teacher is not motivated to use mobile learning?’ [Uni A -

Teacher1]
‘Then he would be sleeping by switching off his mobile.’ [Uni A - Teacher2]
‘There are few teachers who say this is the class time, learn here whatever
you want, and refuse to help later on.’ [Uni A - Teacher3]
‘But we are talking about the motivated teachers here.’ [Uni A - Teacher4]
‘If he is questioned, he could say that it is not the time for work, and also he
is not paid for this.’ [Uni A - Teacher5]
‘Officially, it is not possible that a teacher is not paid for answering the
questions of students after class time.’ [Uni A - Teacher7]
‘I would only do all these activities if I were being paid more.’ [Uni A -
Teacher5]
‘Students only post questions online or email to those teachers whom they
know will reply to them.’ [Uni A - Teacher4]
A number of teachers discussed the notion that putting too much restriction on
students’ use of the mobile internet or Wi-Fi would decrease their motivation to be
involved in mobile learning initiatives. Designing mobile learning activities which
let the students work more independently would work better. Also, students might
enjoy social networking and other entertainment activities (except unethical ones)
along with learning tasks. Students would not be interested in mobile learning if
their university blocked all entertainment sites and permitted the downloading of
learning resources only. This mode of relaxation would help them to work more
independently and they would be self-motivated to embrace mobile learning.
‘There are two things in it. Firstly, there should not be many restrictions on
what students can do or what they are not allowed. University students are
mature enough to distinguish what they should do or avoid. Secondly, you
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assign them a task and give them a deadline; it is their choice whether they
do it while having music On or Off; they should enjoy working, not be forced.
I mean you cannot say that they can watch YouTube for learning and not
watch any other entertainment-related video at all.’ [Uni C - Teacher2]
‘Yes! Exactly. As long as he is doing the task and meeting deadlines, we

should not bother about other entertainment activities.’ [Uni C - Teacher1]
‘Yes! Exactly. There should be an element of enjoyment.’ [Uni C - Teacher8]
In mobile learning literature, a number of researchers have associated students’

enhanced motivation with the availability of engagement in teaching and learning via
mobile devices (Barker, Krull, and Mallinson 2005; Fernandez, Simo, and Sallan
2009; Rau, Gao, and Wu 2008; Ruchter, Klar, and Geiger 2010; Savill-Smith 2005).
However, only a few researchers have touched upon the topic of how mobile
learning might increase teachers’ involvement in and motivation for teaching and
learning (Sørebø et al. 2009). Therefore, this is another gap in mobile learning
research literature; viz., the effect of mobile learning options on the teachers’ levels
of motivation and engagement in teaching and learning in general. This research
takes into consideration the teachers’ perception of the extent to which they felt more
motivated during lecture preparation and lesson plans with the instant access of
learning resources using mobile devices; also, how mobile learning might decrease
teachers’ motivation to be involved in mobile learning if the extra time that they put
in for the purpose of mobile learning outside normal university hours is not
acknowledged by the institution.
5.12.3 Negative uses
the teachers participating in the focus groups pointed out a number of negative
aspects or risks associated with the introduction of mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments. They mentioned that students could use mobile devices for
cheating in the examinations and classroom quizzes; they could save eBooks in their
devices and use these during examinations or when tackling quizzes inside the
classroom. The only solution to this problem would be to place strict guidelines with
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the use of mobile devices from the examination venue. Some teachers suggested
turning on mobile phone signal jamming devices for the duration of an examination
as a solution to the possible cheating issue.
‘There are certain mobile devices in the market these days on which you can
save an entire book. And if the books are saved, then neither cellular signal
jamming equipment would work nor anything else and they can open it
whenever they want as it could be used offline. There is no need to connect to
internet if you have already downloaded and saved a book in your mobile
device.’ [Uni C - Teacher2]
‘You can take a picture of the whole page by focusing on it and zooming it to
read.’ [Uni C - Teacher8]
Another negative aspect experienced by the teachers was that students play games or
send texts during the lecture or tutorial discussion sessions inside the classroom.
Students may not take part in the classroom activities or listen to the lecturer if they
were allowed to use mobile phones in the classroom. One teacher suggested
involving students with mobile learning activities or quizzes to make productive use
of their time spent with the mobile devices inside the classroom.
‘Apart from this, I’ve seen that during classes students are not paying
attention to the teacher but are playing games on their mobiles.’ [Uni B -
Teacher5]
Also, the majority of the teachers suggested turning on jamming devices to solve any
negative use issues in mobile learning. However, one teacher revealed that jamming
devices also block internet signals and Wi-Fi signals in the vicinity. Hence, other
members of the university community would be inconvenienced. One teacher
suggested that the most appropriate solution would be to educate students about the
ethics, terms and conditions of signing up for the mobile learning mode.
‘But this is not the right solution. We have to correct our students’ habits
and we need to adopt a different way for that. Like you said earlier, we have
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to use their time spent with mobile devices and use it for learning.’ [Uni B -
Teacher9]
One participant blamed the sudden growth of the IT and telecommunication sector in
Pakistan and considered that people were not educated about the ICT exposure prior
to its use. Teachers reported that the majority of the students did not bother about
receiving calls during the lecture. They believed that students, even in universities,
are not educated about the etiquette and ethics of using ICTs in an appropriate
manner. The teachers stressed the fact that people should be educated and made
ready to embrace mobile learning by training them in the ethical use of ICTs and
other university resources.
‘Actually the problem is that our communication and especially our IT have
increased similar to a quantum jump. Other countries have seen a
continuous development and so have the inhabitants’ social habits. The
majority of people were exposed to the devices and technologies which they
were not ready for and this has affected our social norms greatly. We did not
face a gradual exposure to these things and that is why we face problems in
the classrooms as well. For example, you’re delivering a very important
point of a lecture and a student gets a call; he leaves the class and everyone’s
attention is diverted towards him.’ [Uni B - Teacher2]
‘Yes, there’s a lot of interruption because of this and I’ve seen that if in a
one-and-a-half hour lecture this happens 8-10 times, you are not able to
cover your topic completely. Whereas in a developed country, a teacher
doesn’t have to tell the students to switch off their cell phones before the class
starts. It’s understood that they have to switch off their mobiles in the class
and they’re not supposed to receive any calls or they have to keep their
phones on silent. But here, people don’t have that mental maturity.
Therefore, firstly, people should be prepared for this.’ [Uni B - Teacher1]
The teachers reported that students sometimes recorded the lecture and uploaded
their favourite part on YouTube without permission from the teacher, where the
teacher might be joking in the class or without context of the discussion. Such
186
actions might harm the reputation of both the lecturers and the university. In
Pakistani’s cultural environment, it would also be unacceptable for students to film
their female teachers and upload the video on YouTube.
‘Yes, one of my students uploaded my lecture on YouTube without my

permission. There are times when you are joking with the class or speaking
in a particular context and students don’t record what you previously spoke,
rather what benefits them. They can exploit teachers in many ways.’ [Uni B
- Teacher5]
‘Female teachers, especially, don’t always benefit from the video recording
of lectures.’ [Uni B - Teacher3]
‘Students don’t upload the entire recording but only their favourite part.’
[Uni B - Teacher5]
There were two more concerns discussed by the participants regarding the negative
uses of mobile devices in the case of future implementation of mobile learning.
Firstly, students might obtain recorded lectures and not attend face-to-face lectures at
all. Secondly, for collaboration purposes, teachers might need to share their mobile
phone number with students; students might misuse this information and keep
annoying teachers by sending bulk SMS or other information overload.
‘I have a concern in case mobile learning is introduced. Students would not

bother to attend lecturers as they can access their lecture from anywhere and
their presence in the classroom is no longer necessary.’ [Uni B - Teacher5]
‘Junk messages are one of the drawbacks which we can have – others are all
plus points – is our habitual sending of junk messages to the people. I mean
spamming people with unwanted messages.’ [Uni B - Teacher2]
In mobile learning literature, a number of researchers have taken into account the
potential risks and challenges of implementing mobile learning at the higher
education level in developed countries (Gregson and Jordaan 2009; Hashemi et al.
2011; Maria et al. 2008; Mohamad 2012). Similarly, research studies of mobile
187
learning in developing countries also point out the risks and challenges associated
with the introduction of mobile learning in different learning environments and levels
in these countries. Many potential challenges and risks associated with the future
implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments mentioned
by the participants of the focus groups confirm what has already been said in the
mobile learning literature, particularly for developing countries, including lack of
awareness, students’ socio-economic backgrounds and their knowledge of
professional ethics (Adesope, Olubunmi, and McCracken 2007; Lalji and Good
2008; Sari and Tedjasaputra 2008; Sife, Lwoga, and Sanga 2007).
There are several potential risks mentioned by Pakistani university teachers that have
not been found elsewhere in the literature such as video recording without the
teacher’s permission and spamming teachers with bulk SMSs if they share their
mobile number for learning purposes. Indirectly, these problems are associated with
lack of awareness and professional ethics of using mobile devices within learning
environments. These issues could be addressed by an awareness and training
campaign prior to future introduction or implementation of mobile learning in
Pakistani university environments.
5.12.4 Socio-Cultural Factors - Summary of Discussion and

Findings
This section provides a summary of the main discussion points and findings
regarding the teachers’ perceptions and expectations of socio-cultural factors:
 Teachers in Pakistani universities participating in this study considered it very

important to create an awareness of the benefits of mobile learning in the
teaching and learning community in Pakistani universities prior to its formal
introduction into the learning environment. An appropriate awareness campaign
or training seminar would serve this purpose adequately.
 Teachers suggested that an awareness campaign be launched prior to the

introduction of mobile learning. Short video clips could be made showing the
mobile learning mode, and downloaded on the mobile devices of both teachers
188
and students. In this way, they learn about mobile learning by experiencing
mobile learning.
 Teachers stressed the importance of making students aware of academic

misconduct and use of copyrighted material available on the internet which
would be at their fingertips if they were involved in mobile learning in a formal
teaching and learning environment.
 Teachers indicated that students were more motivated to learn in the case of
mobile learning.
 Teachers suggested that their motivation level was increased during the lecture
preparation with the availability of instant access to learning resources.
 A few teachers argued that their motivation level would be negatively affected by
mobile learning as they would be disturbed by students contacting them during
their private time and space.
 Teachers were concerned about being demotivated if their extra time were not
included as part of their official workload.
 Teachers felt that students’ motivation for learning with mobile devices would be
increased if they were provided with less restricted the mobile internet access.
 Mobile learning literature talks about students’ motivation associated with mobile
learning; however, teachers’ motivation in terms of mobile learning has not been
discussed to any extent by mobile learning researchers.
 Teachers mentioned a number of possible risks and challenges associated with

the future implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments such as lack of awareness, lack of knowledge of professional
ethics, video recording without teacher’s permission and spamming teachers with
bulk SMS if they share their mobile number for learning purposes.
189
In general, teachers in Pakistani universities participating in the focus group

discussion sessions for this research were open and positive about embracing mobile
learning in their teaching and learning. To some extent, they had experienced mobile
learning informally by collaborating with their students for projects and assignments,
communicating with students using SMS and sharing information with students by
means of emails, yahoo groups and other social networking channels. Teachers have
also been experimenting with mobile learning for their own learning and teaching
using a number of mobile learning activities and applications. They did not have
much awareness about the benefits of mobile learning across multiple contexts.
They wanted mobile learning to be offered in a blended learning environment where
a teacher can continue to play an important role in the students’ learning journey.
Cost did not matter much to the teachers; however, they reflected on the costs
incurred by students involved in formal mobile learning. Teachers were eager for
mobile learning to be introduced in Pakistani university environments despite issues
relating to cost and connectivity. A number of points were discussed regarding the
socio-cultural aspects of the society of a developing country such as argument for
running an awareness campaign among the stakeholders of Pakistani university
environments prior to any mobile learning initiative. Teachers also pointed out
several risks associated with future implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani
university environments. A summary of findings from the anlaysis of teachers’ focus
groups sessions have been presented in Figure 30 on the next page.
190
Figure 30: Summary of findings from Teachers' Focus Group sessions
191
Chapter Six– Administrative Stakeholders’ Interviews
CHAPTER 6
ADMINISTRATIVE
STAKEHOLDERS’ INTERVIEWS:
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND
FINDINGS
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, results, discussion and findings from the analysis of individual semi-
structured interviews with administrative stakeholders from Pakistani university
environments are presented. The stakeholders include IT managers, instructional
designers and administrators holding policy making roles on senior positions.
During the process of data analysis using Nvivo software (as detailed in section 3.6.4
in chapter 3), many of the themes individually discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5
have been combined in this chapter. Furthermore, the administrative stakeholders
discussed some of the issues with inter-related themes, leading to a strong
relationship between different themes. This resulted in synthesizing the data in the
form of relationships among those themes. For instance, collaboration was discussed
in relation to students and teachers being in different places; therefore, during the
data analysis and write-up stages, collaboration and context were combined.
Similarly, several other themes such as usability, technical support and training needs
of the teachers and students, were discussed together. Interestingly, for some of
these combinations such as collaboration and context, mobile learning literature
supports this combination. Details of particular themes discussed differently in
Chapter 4, 5 and 6 have been provided in Table 10.
192
Table 10: Details of Themes differently discussed in Chapter 4, Chapter 5 and Chapter 6
Chapters Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
Themes
Collaboration Discussed individually Discussed individually Combined and

Context Discussed individually Discussed individually discussed together
Usability Discussed individually Discussed individually Combined and
Technical Discussed individually Combined and discussed together
Support discussed together
Training needs Not Discussed
Connectivity Discussed individually Discussed individually Combined and
discussed as Usage
and Connectivity
Awareness Discussed individually Discussed individually Combined and
Motivation Discussed individually Discussed individually discussed together
Another important consideration is related to confirmation of many of the findings

from students’ focus groups in Chapter 4 and teachers’ focus groups in Chapter 5.
The analysis and discussion of administrative stakeholders’ interviews confirmed
many of the experiences, concerns, perceptions and expectations of students and
teachers. However, different perspectives were also presented by policy makers and
IT managers in terms of infrastructural facilities and possible future implementation
of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. For instance, IT managers
cited numerous facts and figures relating to the network connectivity and other IT
facilities available to students that appeared to contradict the students’ perceptions of
ICT facilities available to them in universities. Similarly, administrative
stakeholders were cautious when discussing mobile learning initiatives, particularly
in terms of policy changes, major infrastructural upgrades or provision of ICT
equipment to teaching and learning communities within the university environments.
The following sections of the chapter highlight a number of issues that emerged from
the analysis of interviews with administrative stakeholders in Pakistani university
environments.
193
6.2 Collaboration and Context - Results and

Discussion
In mobile learning literature, several researchers have associated collaboration with

context (Patten, Arnedillo Sánchez, and Tangney 2006; Smordal and Gregory 2003;
Spikol, K., and M. 2009). Collaborative learning activities often take place using
mobile devices when collaborators are in different contexts and locations. During
the interviews with administrative stakeholders from Pakistani universities, the
majority of the interviewees talked about collaboration using mobile devices with
respect to multiple contexts of collaborators such as students on fieldwork,
internships, or remote villages for dental clinics collaborating with teachers using
mobile devices. Therefore, these two characteristics have been discussed in
combination, given their strong association.
Instructional designers from Pakistani universities made positive comments about

using mobile devices for collaboration among students, peers and teachers. They
thought it was already happening informally to some extent between students and
teachers as well as among students for the purposes of group work. However,
collaboration via mobile devices could also be embedded into a formal learning
environment, particularly for the courses which require students to work with their
peers and consult with their teachers remotely in situations such as fieldwork, group
projects or assignments, internships and data collection activities. Some comments
that were made by the group are:
‘Yes, definitely, we use it all the time for this kind of collaboration. For
example, I have told you that we developed a mobile ticketing app; we also
collaborated for that project and tested it on mobile devices as well.’ [Uni A
- Instructional Designer]
‘A mobile device is a kind of digital teacher or facilitator and will help

students in continuous interaction for their guided learning in the field.’ [Uni
C - Instructional Designer]
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‘In case of fieldwork, mobile communication is more useful. That is true

because mobile phones can be used for taking pictures and making videos of
objects of interest.’ [Uni B - Instructional Designer]
The literature supports these findings from Pakistani universities regarding the use of
mobile devices for informal collaboration in teaching and learning environments.
For instance, Mac Callum (2008) has experimented with informal collaboration using
a web-based discussion board accessible via mobile devices by all of the participants.
Kurti et al. (2008) tested mobile device-based collaborative learning activities such
as finding specific types of trees and exploring the city from a historical perspective,
undertaken by school children and found that students enjoyed learning in this
manner.
In spite of being positive about collaborating through mobile learning, the

instructional designers participating in this research from three universities had some
concerns about the students’ collaboration from the fieldwork location or data
collection site. For instance, one of the instructional designers stated that the
teachers could allow the students to collect data via mobile devices, but warned that
students should not conclude their study results during data collection in lieu of their
virtual collaboration with teachers remotely. For example, students could collaborate
with teachers for advice on initial data and issues during the data collection but
should not conclude their data analysis or finalize study results until they have
detailed consultation with their teachers.
‘They can collect additional information from the excursions; however, I

would say it [is a] mere helping tool not [as] a guide. For example, they can
get snapshots and tabulate their initial data but they need to consult with
teachers if they have to draw a conclusion based on their data collection and
analysis.' [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
Another concern voiced by one of the instructional designers was that students might
misuse the shared space for collaboration and discussion associated with group work
by engaging in informal and personal communication. Students might exploit the
collaboration opportunity negatively and create a troublesome situation for the
concerned teachers by sending too many messages or calls. All of the instructional
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designers wanted to establish certain rules and monitoring policies for collaboration
and communication among staff and students as well as among students themselves.
‘This is one of my concerns -; students may indulge in other activities or

informal communication within discussion forums instead of focusing on
reading materials and other learning tasks.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
‘It is true that using mobile phones improves communication between

teachers and students; however, excessive communication may be
undesirable. For example, if allowed, every student will call the teacher or
send him an SMS before submitting an assignment. Due to the large number
of students, it will not be possible for a teacher to respond to all of them.’
[Uni B - Instructional Designer]
Other than instructional designers, stakeholders from university leadership groups

such as Deans of faculties and Heads of Department have also been asked to
comment on the use of mobile devices for collaboration between teachers and
students in multiple contexts. University administrative stakeholders strongly agreed
that the university learning environment could potentially benefit by harnessing the
power of mobile devices to enhance collaboration within the teaching and learning
community. Moreover, they agreed that this technology could provide continuous
learning support to the students who are undertaking fieldwork, internships and data
collection activities away from campuses. A variety of data collection activities
including those discussed by Pakistani university administrators have been found in
mobile learning literature (Barak, Harward, and Lerman 2007; Parr, amp, and B.
2004; Song 2011, 2008).
‘Yes, our students go for internships in industries; they can share their
experiences with each other using their mobile devices. Further, they can
present their findings remotely with their colleagues and teachers back in the
university or upload their presentations and daily reports in the university’s
learning management system where it may also be a part of a repository for
teachers to examine and for future students to refer to.’ [Uni B -
Administrator]
196
The Dean of the Medicine and Dentistry Faculty at University C stated that they had
already been running a pilot project to test the satellite clinics whereby graduate
students could go to remote villages and collaborate with their colleagues and
professors on campus to discuss particular diagnoses by video conferencing or by
sending pictures of patients’ dentures as multimedia messages using their mobile
devices.
‘Definitely, students would make use of mobile learning when they are away
from their teachers. In this area, we are already setting up Satellite clinics in
our rural areas where a general dentist would go over there and if he has any
problem with the management of a particular patient, he can take a picture
with his mobile device and send it to a secondary care hospital in the city. Or
he can use a video conferencing facility to discuss the issue with other
colleagues remotely and consult. Further, mobile learning can be used by
community dentistry fieldworkers. They could consult with their colleagues
remotely if they see any problem regarding the pathology of a particular
patient.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
Use of mobile devices for collaboration by medical students has been frequently
tested and documented in mobile learning literature (Albrecht et al. 2013; Garrett and
Jackson 2006; Johnston et al. 2004; Luanrattana et al. 2010; Mulliah and Stroulia
2009).
University administration stakeholders also mentioned several concerns and issues in

relation to the use of mobile devices for collaboration and data collection purposes.
An administrator from a medical university mentioned that there were mobile
network coverage issues in the remote villages; whereas the Dean of the Engineering
Faculty from another university believed that some private engineering firms might
not allow students to use their mobile devices to take pictures of the objects or film a
video for reasons of privacy protection. Some of the comments are:
‘At the moment, these projects are in the planning and pilot phases where our
house surgeons and field workers are participating. We are handling
connectivity issues at this stage so that the implementation phase will be
successful.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
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‘This would be beneficial; however, engineering firms do not want their

private data including their business logic to be available publicly, and this
might be a problem for students who enter there with such a technology at
their disposal to share their experiences with other students. Capturing
videos as data collection is a very common and popular method among our
students already. It can be possible to include it in a formal learning
environment; however, there might be data security and privacy issues for
private engineering firms.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
Concerns about network connectivity and coverage in remote areas have also been
reported in the mobile learning literature (Denk, Weber, and Belfin 2007; Shrestha,
Moore, and Abdelnour-Nocera 2010). However, the issue of privacy in the mobile
learning environment has not been discussed by many researchers except Ugray
(2009).
6.2.1 Collaboration and Context - Summary of Discussion

and Findings
The findings from the section on collaboration and context are summarized as
follows:
 Collaboration and context have been associated with each other by the majority
of stakeholders from the university leadership group in Pakistani universities.
Mobile learning literature confirms this association as collaborative learning
activities often take place when teachers and students are not in the same location
such as students’ data collection and fieldwork trips across different contexts.
 Informal collaborative activities using mobile devices are already taking place in
Pakistani university environments; however, formal inclusion of these types of
activities has not been attempted yet. Similar concepts of informal collaboration
have been tested by other mobile learning researchers elsewhere (Kurti, Spikol,
and Milrad 2008; MacCallum 2008).
 In Pakistani universities, students have been using mobile devices informally for
data collection and fieldwork.
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 Instructional designers warned that students might exploit the system by sending
too many messages and burdening teachers with additional work because they
need to respond to collaboration requests.
 Instructional designers also expressed their concerns that students might try to
conclude their study results while on data collection visits, exploiting the
collaboration opportunity with teachers; this may lead to a lack of detailed data
analysis by students.
 Dentistry students have been engaged in collaboration using video conferencing

and multimedia messages from mobile devices with their teachers in the
university while visiting village dentistry clinics.
 Engineering firms and other businesses might not allow students to capture
certain images or videos using their mobile devices even for data collection
purposes, for privacy reasons.
6.3 Usability, Technical Support and Training needs

- Results and Discussion
University administrative stakeholders including IT managers, campus directors and

instructional designers were asked about any mobile device usability issues for
learning, technical support available to mobile device users, and any training needs
associated with their implementation of mobile learning. IT managers and
instructional designers stated that there might be mobile devices usability issues for
learning purposes such as small screen, tiny keypad, short memory and small battery
capabilities. However, they argued that a number of usability issues associated with
mobile devices such as inappropriate screen resolutions are due to the non-
optimization of learning content for the mobile devices. Once the learning resources
have been optimized so that they can be accessed and displayed on mobile device
interfaces, the number of usability issues would reduce substantially.
‘Students access our Information Servers or Learning Management Systems

through their mobile devices. However, unfortunately, our applications are
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not optimized for mobile devices which make it very difficult to use them
appropriately. There are major problems of screen resolution or content
being too heavy to be downloaded/viewed on a mobile device.’ [Uni A - IT
Manager]
In the literature of mobile learning, a number of researchers have found that mobile
device usability issues decreased when the application or prototype was designed
specifically for mobile learning purposes. For instance, Hashim et al. (2011) found
that a mobile learning tool designed and developed by following usability guidelines
proved to be a useful revision tool for higher education students. Similar
experiments have been conducted by Fetaji et al. (2011) and Sahilu et al. (2010)
showing a reduced number of reported usability issues by users of the mobile
learning applications and prototypes used in these studies.
However, when discussing the usability issues related to mobile internet or overall
network connectivity, IT managers from Pakistani universities stated that there were
minor usability issues related to network connectivity on mobile devices. They
stated that mobile device users across the university did not need much technical
support on a regular basis after their devices had been configured with the network.
However, ongoing IT and technical support would be readily available if mobile
learning users were to need it in future.
‘We have a support department which is responsible for providing support to

all network users. Generally, mobile device users contact us when they need
to register their device with the network initially. After that, things work
quite smoothly. There are some issues with the network sometimes; those are
resolved at the back-end normally. Students do not face any problems in this
sense. Network configuration is done systematically which makes the process
easier for mobile device users as well. We allocate the same user name and
password which they use in the lab or from campus workstations to connect
to the network.’ [Uni A - IT Manager]
‘Initially, mobile users have to register with our department with their
student ID and department information. Usually, students and teacher face
few difficulties, particularly when they change their mobile device; they have
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few issues of configuration with university network. We provide support for

this kind of issue; however, we do not provide support for the configuration
of their personal mobile devices with other networks such as from private
telecom providers. For study-related issues, we take 100% responsibility to
provide technical and IT support for their mobile devices. Overall, mobile
users across the university do not have many technical support issues.’ [Uni
C - IT Manager]
Literature studies also show that experienced mobile users might not face many
usability issues or such as discussed by Kukulska-Hulme (2005b) and Koole (2009).
In addition, during the students’ focus groups discussion sessions reported in Chapter
4 in this study, it was found that many mobile device users opted to resolve minor
technical or connectivity related issues by seeking help from family and friends or by
calling the customer service department of their telecom provider company.
Similarly, regarding the training needs of mobile learning users, many of the
stakeholders were of the view that users might not need much training in terms of
using mobile devices for learning purposes as many users who possessed such a
device had some user expereience with that device; therefore, a one-off training
session at the start of any mobile learning implementation project would serve the
purpose.
‘Absolutely, we do provide training to staff and students for general IT

matters; therefore, it would be fine to train them for mobile learning. But I
can tell you, people are so keen and already experienced mobile users, they
may not need to be trained much for the purpose of mobile learning.
Everybody is tech-savvy here; only very few people are less involved in IT
and use of mobile technologies these days.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
‘I think they are quite experienced in using those devices, so there will be no
concerns about training them to use devices. They already know enough of
that. To me, the main and most important point is to have an app which is
easy to use and assists students to participate in mobile learning activities.’
[Uni A - Instructional Designer]
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On the other hand, many of the interviewees including IT managers and instructional
designers stressed the need for the strong technical support during the process of
redesigning and developing the learning content to make it suitable for mobile
devices. This technical support includes the development of learning apps and
modification of existing learning management systems in order to effectively
respond to requests from mobile learning users and successfully handle the day-to-
day IT support issues raised by mobile learning users.
‘Currently our courses are not well-designed for mobile learning; we need to
prepare proper content that may be used for this purpose.’ [Uni B -
Instructional Designer]
‘There is a lot of work to be done in terms of application development. As far

as the network is concerned, they may not face many problems.’ [Uni A - IT
Manager]
‘The other problem is related to the design and development of mobile

learning apps. You have to design those apps, thinking about the content
covered in those activities, assessment activities such as assignment and
quizzes etc. You have to have a separate interface for students and for
teachers.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
On the question of teachers’ need for appropriate training to redesign and redevelop
learning content for mobile devices, most of the administrative stakeholders agreed
that teachers would not only need extensive and ongoing training, but also a strong
technical or IT support team to assist them.
‘Currently, I will not be able to prepare some of the course contents to be

placed online. It will only be possible after the availability of proper
resources and training.’ [Uni B - Instructional Designer]
‘Yes, I can design learning material myself but I would need the help of
device experts in this process.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
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‘The full potential of mobile learning can only be perceived once practically
used; however, it will require training and content preparation. The limited
use of a mobile phone has already been employed by many teachers on an
individual basis. There is a need to employ such strategies on the
institutional level and proper policies must be defined.’ [Uni B -
Mobile learning literature does consider this issue of mobile learning content
redesign and development in the form of learning activities and the means of
converting them into learning applications, podcasts, vodcasts and other forms to be
accessible on mobile devices. Researchers in the literature have developed and
tested the prototype of a certain type of mobile learning application as reported by
(Hashim, Wan Ahmad, and Ahmad 2011) and (Sahilu, Ahmad, and Haron 2010) for
the purpose of research. The Dean of the Engineering Faculty from University B
argued that the university would need a dedicated technical support department just
to support the mobile learning initiative if it were launched in the future. Therefore,
in order to design and develop mobile learning content for university-wide
implementation, universities might need to hire expert mobile learning educational
designers, programmers, mobile learning application developers. Alternatively,
universities might need to negotiate with third party mobile learning educational
designers and application developers. Unfortunately, mobile learning literature does
not place much emphasis on teachers’ training needs prior to implementing mobile
learning; nor have many studies discussed the necessity of roles for educational
designers and mobile learning application developers in order to assist teachers to
start with the mobile learning implementation smoothly.
In addition, another important aspect was highlighted by two interviewees who

believed that teachers from IT, Computer Science and Engineering backgrounds
might already be well versed in IT and they may not need much technical support to
redesign and redevelop learning content for mobile devices. However, teachers who
have not embraced the latest IT trends or teachers from non-IT related disciplines
such as Humanities or Islamic Studies might not be able to undertake mobile learning
content design and development by themselves at all; they would require rather a lot
of training in order to become active and confident users of mobile learning devices.
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Overall, stakeholders on key leadership roles within the universities were positive
about providing teachers with the required training and ongoing technical support to
upgrade learning content for mobile devices.
‘To launch mobile learning in our university, there would be a need for a
proper team or support department working on it at the back end such as they
are doing in a virtual university. As you know, course contents need to be
created and revised at regular intervals which make it a continuous process.
Teachers’ concerns are very valid in terms of support and training. There
must be a team or support department dedicated to helping teachers if they
want to record their lectures or update course contents.’ [Uni B -
Administrator]
‘For my course, the level of difficulty would be medium because already it

has been done. However, other colleagues who will be doing it for the first
time might face more difficulties and would need more help and training to
do that.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
‘As for the training aspect, I think teachers in tech disciplines such as IT,
computer science and engineering may not need much training as they
already know all about it. A once-only orientation training session would
suffice for them. However, teachers from non-IT related disciplines or some
senior professors who are usually not comfortable with the latest
technologies might need comprehensive training at regular intervals.’ [Uni
B - Administrator]
‘I think yes, because our university is quite progressive and has a positive
attitude to embracing innovations and new technologies in teaching and
learning. Therefore, I don’t see that there would be any limitation in
welcoming and supporting a mobile learning initiative that includes
providing support to teachers to create and redesign learning material.’
[Uni C - Administrator]
One of the IT managers representing University C, however, discussed current

efforts in reference to the optimization of learning resources for multiple platforms.
204
For example, he stated that the university’s learning management system has been
developed in such a way that it can be accessed through multiple interfaces such as
PC, tablets and mobile devices. Therefore, this could be an advantage for mobile
device users and they might not face major issues if mobile learning were introduced
in the university.
‘Another important point to mention here is that our learning content is

already somewhat compatible to be accessed and opened on mobile and
tablet devices successfully. All the learning content is in a web-based
learning management system that people can access through mobile devices,
laptops or desktop PCs.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
IT managers and instructional designers from the other two universities also
mentioned that there were ongoing efforts in their universities to create and update
learning content to make it accessible via mobile devices. For instance, one IT
manager mentioned that staff had been hired to assist teachers to record their lectures
in audio and video formats. These audios and videos were available for students to
download from the university’s learning management system. However, at that time
it was not compulsory for every teacher to record lectures. Mobile learning literature
supports these findings as many studies including Lundin et al. (2010) and Idrus et
al. (2010) have recommended using education providers’ existing ICT infrastructures
as well as students’ and teachers’ own devices as an input and precursor to mobile
learning implementation in educational institutions.
6.3.1 Usability, Technical Support and Training Needs -

The summary of the discussion and findings from the analysis of usability, technical
support and training needs is as follows:
 IT managers mentioned that a number of mobile device usability issues were

reported due to the unavailability of optimized learning resources for mobile
devices. However, the teachers and students did not report many usability-
related problems related to network and mobile internet configuration.
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 Interviewees stressed the need for strong technical and IT support for the
teaching staff during the process of redesigning and developing learning content
suitable for mobile devices.
 Overall, university administrative stakeholders were positive about providing

teachers with required training and ongoing technical support to upgrade learning
content for mobile devices.
 Teachers from non-IT related disciplines and backgrounds might need more
extensive training in order to be involved in mobile learning.
 Administrative stakeholders from all of the participating universities reported that

there were existing efforts to upgrade ICT infrastructure and web-based learning
management systems, and these efforts would make it easier to introduce mobile
learning in university environments in Pakistan.
6.4 Flexibility - Results and Discussion
Mobile learning adds flexibility to learning; this is one of the greatest arguments in
favour of implementing mobile learning in universities in different parts of the world
(Kukulska-Hulme 2009; Schneider, Bleimann, and Stengel 2009). The participants
in this research study agreed that mobile learning would add flexibility to the
university teaching and learning environments in Pakistan.
‘My personal opinion is that mobile devices are a good addition in teaching
and learning environment provided that they are adequately, ethically and
appropriately used. Readily available learning resources on mobile devices
would facilitate learning communities in third world countries in general.’
We will definitely encourage mobile learning to be tested in our university.

We do not have any problems with adopting this technology in learning. You
can see mobility in every walk of life these days, so why not education? [Uni
C - IT Manager]
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Instructional designers mentioned that teaching staff can optimize their consultation
time with students by allowing them to send their queries online and they would
respond through mobile devices when convenient and in their own time. For
students undertaking medical studies, one of the participants suggested that students
might not need to merely rely on their memories for all of the medical equipment or
medicine names; they would be able to consult eBooks and dictionaries accessible on
their mobile devices when needed for a particular diagnosis.
‘Obviously, it is very beneficial. You have the flexibility to share and access
learning resources anywhere and anytime. Traditionally, a teacher is
available to students between 8:30am to 4:30pm; a student may consult on
things, have discussions or attend lectures during those hours. With the
introduction of mobile learning, those students who have missed lectures for
some reason can listen to recorded lectures and access learning resources
remotely or in their homes. They may be poor attendees but they can be
exposed to the knowledge. I think mobile learning offers many benefits. It
liberates learners from being location-dependent or time-dependent. They
can submit their assignments from home or any other place they are in. They
can access information timely and use it when it is needed. They can
subscribe to alerts; the information will be shared instantly. With mobile
learning, you are connected to learning resources all the time.’ [Uni A -
‘That would be beneficial for students in terms of diagnosis and prescribing

medications for the patients. Students may not need to memorize medication
names and dosage requirements. It would be useful to access the information
using their mobile devices in order to prescribe correct dosage for a
particular patient instead of just relying on the memory.’ [Uni C -
Administrator]
‘Yes, it will provide a greater flexibility; they can use it to enhance their
scope beyond the limited text provided by books but again teachers have to
continuously interact to filter the contents for students. Time would be saved
due to ease of access to the learning resources. Procrastination of students
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and teachers to do some learning tasks can be decreased by availability of

mobile learning option.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
For medical students and trainees, similar experiences have been recorded by
Luanrattana et al. (2010) and Garrett and Jackson (2006) who have shown the
benefits of the flexibility of accessing learning resources and collaborating with peers
and supervisors using mobile devices.
Despite all the positive comments expressed by the majority of participants, several
concerns were also raised regarding the flexibility added by mobile devices to the
university learning environments in Pakistan. For instance, in one of the
participating universities, a student needs to show an attendance of 80% or more in
order to pass the unit and be allowed to sit for final examinations; administrative
stakeholders were concerned that students might not physically turn up for classes if
they were offered learning resources via mobile devices. In the literature, Copley
(2007) found that the availability of podcasts for students engaged in mobile learning
negatively affected their physical attendance at lectures. In Pakistan, this situation
may cause mobile learning to conflict with university policies. Hence, universities
might need to modify certain policies if they are to embrace mobile learning.
Mohamad (2012) mentioned that certain policies needed to be changed in Malaysian
schools in order to implement mobile learning and integrate it into the existing
learning environments. One of these policies was to allow the use of mobile phones
on school premises – something which had been previously banned.
Furthermore, it would be very important to ensure that students were engaged in

learning activities even if they accessed learning resources remotely through mobile
devices, as it would be unlikely in a typical Pakistani university education system
that learning would occur if students were not monitored in some way in mobile
learning mode. As mentioned by one of the instructional designers, all of the
stakeholders and beneficiaries of mobile learning would need to know that mobile
learning would be an additional, but not an alternative, mode of learning in Pakistani
‘Definitely, it can be deployed and it may also be successful but there is a lot
of work involved. A number of issues might need to be considered. For
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example, in mobile learning mode, how you will ensure the attendance of
students in a class which is required in our typical learning system? To my
understanding, mobile learning may lift time constraint. People can be
involved in the learning process at their own convenience. So, in this case,
the mobile learning model has to ensure that people do actually engage in
learning. Who knows? People might not bother to come online during class
time and for other learning activities etc. The mobile learning model must be
very strong in this case. These are a few of my concerns; otherwise, mobile
learning is very good and it should be included in the university learning
environment.’ [Uni A - IT Manager]
‘That is true because it will make many tasks easier than the currently used
practices. However, from my previous experience, students are often too
busy with other activities to get any benefit from online resources.’ [Uni B -
‘Mobile devices should have a healthy share of a university’s learning

environment because they provide an additional but not alternate source of
learning.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
There is a considerable ongoing debate in mobile learning literature regarding the

assessment of the learning process using mobile devices and the evaluation of mobile
learning activities (Georgieva, Smrikarov, and Georgiev 2011; Petrova 2010;
Ruchter, Klar, and Geiger 2010; Ting 2013). It appears that the concerns raised by
participants in this research study are similar to those expressed in the literature.
The following points summarize the discussion and analysis of the above section on
Flexibility:
 The participants agreed that mobile devices would add flexibility to the teaching
and learning environment in Pakistani universities.
209
 Teachers might be able to optimize their student-consultation time by allowing

their students to send queries online using their mobile devices.
 An administrator from a medical school mentioned that medical students might

be able to consult eBooks and medical dictionaries using their mobile devices
instead of relying solely on their memories.
 Availability of learning resources on mobile devices might negatively impact on

students’ motivation to actually attend lectures and laboratories, ultimately
putting them in danger of dropping out of university because they have not
maintained a certain percentage of attendance in accordance with university
policy.
 Universities might need to modify some of key policies in order to introduce

In Pakistani university environments, administrative stakeholders were of the view

that mobile learning may be partially offered along with existing learning forms such
as traditional face-to-face learning. They did agree that there were potential benefits
to be had from introducing mobile learning into the university environments.
However, they suggested that it would be wise to conduct a pilot study and test
implementation prior to considering the inclusion of mobile learning in formal or
mainstream university learning environments.
‘Mobile devices can be a great help if incorporated in learning; they surely

would enhance the capacity of both teachers and students to access the
resources and communicate with each other more frequently. Yet, thinking
on relying ultimately on mobile devices would ruin the most conventionally
tested and successful learning methods, which require direct interaction of
both teacher and student in a controlled environment. Furthermore, the
successful application of learning through mobile devices may vary for
different courses and programs.’ [Uni A - Administrator]
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‘It’s too early to talk about the success of such devices in a Pakistani
university environment. But the introduction of such devices may foster the
learning patterns in specific courses and programs. Personally, I would
recommend that mobile devices must be tested in a Pakistani environment on
a small scale to examine the benefits and disadvantages of such smart
applications in learning.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
Mobile learning literature documents numerous case studies in other parts of the
world where pilot studies were conducted in educational institutions including
universities and other higher education institutions to test mobile learning initiatives;
many of these case studies have been discussed by (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler
2005) and (Vavoula, Pachler, and Kukulska-Hulme 2009).
The analysis of stakeholders’ interview responses found that a number of informal

mobile learning practices were already in vogue among the teachers and students in
Pakistani university environments to facilitate communication and collaboration for
learning purposes; these informal mobile learning practices indicated that a blended
learning environment in Pakistani universities is evolving. In addition, universities
have been allocating an increased budget and more resources in order to add
technology to the traditional learning environment, including training staff for
teaching via technology.
‘I think mobile learning is very good if it is introduced in our university.

There are a few things happening already such as recording of video
lectures. I think this should be introduced as it has many benefits as well as
proper utilization of resources; the potential of a mobile device goes beyond
just voice call and SMS. It is very good to provide learning through mobile
devices.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
Participants also raised the issue that not all types of learning content are suitable for
teaching in mobile learning mode. Mobile learning may work better for certain
courses, units or subject areas than others. For example, the teaching complex
algorithms of engineering and programming courses might not be accomplished
211
smoothly in mobile learning mode as students and teachers may need to discuss the
complexity of algorithms in a traditional face-to-face learning environment.
Further, it may be easier for teachers to switch to mobile learning for certain courses.
For instance, theoretical material may be converted into small chunks of information
that can be shared with students using mobile devices. However, for practical,
hands-on courses, it may be necessary to create animations which would require
teachers to have a higher level of technical skills, or they may need to be developed
by expert third-party content or software developers. Therefore, blending mobile
learning with existing forms of learning would be the best way to start in Pakistani
‘Particularly in medical fields such as in our university, I think mobile

devices may be coupled with traditional teaching and learning where
learners may have hands-on experiences in labs and classrooms. For
example, as far as information related to a particular course and reading
material is concerned, we can make it available on the mobile devices of
students. However, in order to apply that information in practice, they need
to be physically in a laboratory situation. There are limitations to the type of
learning that can be done through mobile devices. On the other hand, I
would definitely encourage mobile learning to be used for the theoretical part
of the courses as well as 3D models being made available on mobile devices;
this would greatly help students to understand the basic concepts of the
dentistry discipline.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
Mobile learning literature supports the idea of a blended learning environment where
mobile learning may be partially introduced to augment existing learning forms. A
number of mobile learning researchers including Peter (2007), Shen et al. (2008),
Wang et al.(2009), Parsons (2011), Pachler et al.(2012) and Albrecht et al.(2013)
have successfully presented the argument for mobile learning as part of a blended
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The following points are a summary of discussion and findings of the participants’
opinions on the blending of mobile learning with existing forms of learning:
 Administrative stakeholders in Pakistani universities wanted pilot studies and test

implementations of mobile learning prior to seriously considering the
introduction of mobile learning into mainstream teaching and learning.
 Teachers and students were already engaging in many informal mobile learning
practices, indicating that there is already an informal blended learning
environment in Pakistani universities.
Mobile learning may work better for certain courses and learning materials within
each course such as small learning activities for theoretical courses and creating
animations for practical type courses. Therefore, blending mobile learning with
existing forms of learning would work best.
6.6 Usage and Connectivity - Results and Discussion
IT managers from three universities were interviewed about mobile internet usage as
well as connectivity issues encountered by the users across universities. All of the IT
managers reported state-of-the-art network facilities for users including the
availability of campus-wide free Wi-Fi with speed ranging from 1MB to 50MB and
downloadable data up to 35GB for each user per month. Users have 24-hour access
to university networks on campus and in university-owned hostels. IT managers
reported that the number of users connecting with the university network with mobile
devices has significantly increased over the past few years from zero to around 1,000
users on average. The popularity and use of the internet and social networking sites
have boosted mobile internet usage as people want to have an online presence all the
time.
‘Yes, we have had a dramatic change in our network status and user base for
the last couple of years. The main reason is the increase in mobile device
users connecting to the network and using mobile internet. Wi-Fi-enabled
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mobile devices were quite expensive but now their prices are getting lower
and students are tending more towards using them. There is the other
important fact that people cannot live without internet these days. They like
to be connected to social networks all the time. They are engaged in a virtual
social life more than in a physical social life.’ [Uni A - IT Manager]
Lu and Korukonda (2008) discovered that students who used Wi-Fi internet on
mobile devices tend to be more involved in student-centred learning activities using
their mobile devices. Similarly, other researchers such as Barker et al. (2005) and
Oliver et al. (2008) found an increase in the use of mobile internet and learning
activities among university students in African countries.
On the question of technical and IT support for mobile device users, IT managers
stated that initially all users of mobile devices have to seek support from the IT
support department for setting and configuration purposes; however, thereafter they
do not need much support on a daily basis. IT managers showed a positive attitude
to the introduction of the mobile learning initiative in Pakistani universities in future
and believed that the existing ICT infrastructure would be robust enough to support
such an initiative in university environments. Some of the comments from IT
managers have been qouted below:
‘I don’t think that there would be any major difficulty if we choose to use
mobile learning in a formal learning environment because many users have
experience of using mobile devices here. And I can see the trend of using
mobile technologies is increasing day by day in Pakistan. I think it is a great
advantage that learning resources are easier to access and at your disposal
at all times. We must benefit from this great opportunity for learning and
research.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
‘Yes it does have an effect, despite its minimal usage so far, but due to
different clouds access, different apps, data consistency on all devices, its
increasing day by day, especially after usage of smart phones in Pakistan as
well.’ [Uni B - IT Manager]
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‘It depends upon the attitude of higher management, but in the last two years,
our university has been providing specialized android programming courses.
University also provided a few smart mobile devices for students enrolled in
those courses to test their programming applications. As far integration is
concerned, yes it could be done, as the basic infrastructure is there in terms
of internet bandwidth and Wi-Fi etc.’ [Uni B - IT Manager]
‘We will definitely encourage mobile learning to be tested in our university.

We do not have any problems with adopting this technology in learning. You
can see mobility in every walk of life these days, why not education? For the
connectivity, we would always strive for better quality. As I told you earlier,
users are already experienced; there would not be any major issues if we
implement mobile learning in our university after a couple of years or even
today.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
One of the IT managers, however, pointed out that they had not tested their network
for large numbers of mobile device users accessing the learning management system
while connecting to the university network. Other than network connectivity issues,
there might be difficulties in optimizing learning resources for mobile devices which
also involves financial support from the university.
‘There is a lot of work to be done in terms of application development. As far

as the network is concerned, they may not face much problem. However, we
did not test it for mobile learning though. We provide services for mobile
devices but we do not take it very seriously because we know that they use it
for social networking etc. Also, all students must have similar devices; the
university may support them as they do for laptops etc.’ [Uni A - IT
Manager]
During an interview with an instructional designer from University A, it was

mentioned that connectivity for mobile learning is not just limited to having an
efficient Wi-Fi network on campus. Students and teachers would need network
connectivity or mobile internet outside the university-provided Wi-Fi range in order
to continue their engagement with teaching and learning while on the move.
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According to this instructional designer, universities may need to play a role in

providing mobile internet access for mobile learners outside the university’s Wi-Fi
range.
‘Secondly, connectivity is another concern. If you are on campus, you can

access Wi-Fi and get better connectivity. If they were to access outside the
university, they may face connectivity problems and cost would be another
issue if they buy mobile internet data packages personally; that can be very
expensive for them. If the university facilitates mobile internet for the users,
it would be ideal.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
Mobile learning literature also indicates the need for substantial resources in order to
implement and integrate mobile learning into existing learning environments, not
only in developing countries but also in developed countries (Adesope, Olubunmi,
and McCracken 2007; Gururajan et al. 2011; Omar, Liu, and Koong 2008).
6.6.1 Usage and Connectivity - Summary of Discussion and

Findings
The following is a summary of findings from the analysis of usage- and connectivity-
related interview data:
 IT managers reported that it is likely that mobile learning initiative to be

supported for universities that have a strong ICT infrastructure. However, the
current ICT infrastructure has not been tested for mobile learning in most
universities in Pakistan and it is recommended that a pilot study is needed to test
the infrastructure prior to any formal implementation.
 IT managers reported that the number of users connecting with the university
network with mobile devices has significantly increased over the last few years
due to the popularity of the internet and social networking.
 Universities will require a great amount of resources if they are to optimize

learning resources compatible with mobile devices.
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 Students and teachers can access only free university-provided Wi-Fi on campus;
they might need to be supported by universities in order to buy mobile internet
service outside of the university premises in order to engage in mobile learning
activities anywhere and at any time.
When the question of costs associated with the introduction of mobile learning in
Pakistani universities arose, the majority of participants were very clear about two
main issues realating to costs: 1) cost of similar (if not identical) smart phones made
available to all mobile learners; 2) cost of high speed mobile internet out of the free
university-provided Wi-Fi range. These were two main costs mentioned by almost
all of the participants including instructional designers, IT managers and university
administrators.
‘I want to mention one thing in particular - all students should have similar
devices if we want to implement mobile learning in the university
environment, otherwise it may result in many problems.’ [Uni A -
‘Costs include expensive devices which are useable for learning purposes,
and to buy internet time.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
Dyson et al. (2009) mentioned that these costs in particular were the main obstacles
to the implementation of mobile learning in higher education environments.
Participants in this study stated that if mobile learning is to be tested or introduced
without resolving the cost issue associated with mobile devices, it might give rise to
more problems as students from low income backgrounds would not be able to buy
those devices from their own pocket, and the universities’ promise of providing equal
opportunity would be breached. The users from more affluent backgrounds might
consider it a status symbol to have expensive mobile devices and increase the gap or
digital divide between poor and rich in the university environment. Furthermore, as
parents support their children’s education in Pakistan, it would be an additional
217
burden for parents to buy their children an expensive mobile device for learning
purposes.
‘If it were the user’s choice, it would be very challenging as few users can
pay more and others can afford to pay less. Speed of mobile internet is
related to how expensive a plan you can afford. However, if it were provided
by the university, it would be a better option.’ [Uni A - Instructional
Designer]
‘Students in University A are mostly from low-income families; therefore a

big percentage of them cannot afford high-end mobile phones and the
associated connection charges. However, the students in private sector
universities tend to own high end mobiles; therefore can get more benefit
from mobile devices based learning.’ [Uni B - Instructional Designer]
‘It depends on the university how much they want to spend on that. I think
the university has to give a lot of support in terms of expenses for a mobile
learning initiative. Further, if this system were implemented, then it should
be the same for everyone. I mean, mobile devices and applications should be
the same for all users; otherwise, the mobile learning initiative might not be
successful in our university.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
‘People who have expensive mobile phones might use them as a status symbol
that may discriminate against those who do not have those devices.’ [Uni C -
‘Parents of students may be pressurized to buy expensive phones for their

children for learning purposes; this can impose an extra burden on parents.’
[Uni C - Instructional Designer]
Mohamad (2012) and Sife et al. (2007) have also identified the issues of a digital
divide in higher education institutions among the students who own a smart phone
and those who do not. Although mobile learning in developing countries has huge
potential and will bring greater benefits, implementation needs very careful planning
218
in order to avoid complications (Adesope, Olubunmi, and McCracken 2007; Gary

2007; Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme 2005).
On the other hand, in spite of agreeing that these two cost issues are potential
obstacles to the future implementation of mobile learning, interestingly, many of the
participants had a number of suggestions to resolve these cost-related problems in
order to make the mobile learning initiative a reality in Pakistani university
environments. For example, participants from University C suggested that the
university could subsidise students or provide loans for the purchase of mobile
devices for learning and students could pay back in instalments. The comments
were:
‘The university may not be able to give away mobile devices to students even
for learning purposes. However, the university may be able to provide a
subsidy for buying mobile devices for learning purpose. Some time ago, the
university tried to support students to buy IT equipment for learning. Students
could not pay their loan instalments and ultimately the university had to bear
all the expenses; therefore, university administrators might hesitate to do the
same for mobile devices.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
‘Currently, we are working on that. We have changed our conference room

upstairs into a learning facility where this kind of proposal is being planned.
However, at this stage we are not providing any mobile device to any user.
They would have to buy their own mobile devices but the university will
provide free access to Wi-Fi, internet and learning resources. I have
reservations about providing around 75 students enrolled in a course with
such equipment, even on loan. It would be difficult to expect that kind of
responsibility to take care of and return the device in a good and reusable
condition. I am afraid the university would not finance the purchase of
devices for students. However, the university may be able to provide a
subsidy or loan to students to buy their own mobile devices so that they can
engage in mobile learning. In this case, there would be an element of
ownership of the device for the students and they would be more responsible
in taking care of their devices.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
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A number of participants mentioned that if mobile devices were successfully

introduced into teaching and learning practices, universities could save an enormous
amount of money in terms of maintenance of computer labs, purchasing new
computers and accessories, installation of wired network, requiring fewer support
staff and the availability of eBooks instead of physical books. Universities could
assist students to buy mobile devices and negotiate with private telecommunication
companies to provide cheaper mobile internet for students.
‘There are many positive aspects of mobile learning such as many books can
be purchased in soft form by institutions to provide students free access; it
will overcome affordability problems.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
‘The university may not be able to provide mobile devices for students.
However, we could handle it in some other way such as asking students to
bring their own devices if they want to enrol in a course offered in mobile
learning mode. Mobile learning is available 24 hours, if students want to
enjoy the flexibility in their learning; they have to look for facilitating
themselves outside the 8-hours period they spend on campus. Mobile internet
is as cheap as 1 rupee a day so that everyone can afford it. The university
may also be able to support the students enrolling in mobile learning courses
by reducing their semester fee as the university also saves on resources such
as electricity, rooms, and computer labs when students switch to mobile
learning. Furthermore, the university is already in the process of negotiating
with private telecommunication companies to provide discounted rates for
mobile voice and data packages on the provision of valid student ID card by
the student, so this could also be beneficial in the case of mobile learning.’
[Uni B - Administrator]
In mobile learning literature, many researchers have been investigating novel yet
cost-effective mobile learning solutions for the people of developing countries,
particularly underprivileged populations; the aforementioned suggestions from
participants in this study complement and add to those proposals (Barker, Krull, and
Mallinson 2005; Masters 2005; Shrestha, Moore, and Abdelnour-Nocera 2010). In
addition, universities could introduce BYOD policy for mobile learning; this will not
220
only utilize the devices already used and brought by students to university but also
reduce the pressure and load on university-owned computer laboratories.
The following is a summary of the discussion and findings emerging from the
analysis of participants’ opinions about the costs associated with mobile learning in
Pakistani universities:
 Almost all of the interviewees mentioned two main costs: cost of smart phones or
advanced mobile devices, and cost of mobile internet outside the university Wi-
Fi range.
 If universities provide no assistance to students so that they can have similar or

identical mobile learning devices, there is a great risk of increasing the digital
divide within the wider communities. The users from more affluent backgrounds
might consider it a status symbol to have expensive mobile devices and this
would increase the gap between poor and rich in the university environment.
 Parents are responsible for supporting their children’s education in Pakistan, so it

would be an additional burden for parents to buy their children an expensive
mobile device for learning purposes in the event that universities did not assist
with the purchase of mobile devices for learning.
 A number of interviewees mentioned that if mobile devices were to be

successfully included in teaching and learning practices, universities could save
an enormous amount of money in terms of maintenance of computer labs, the
purchase of new computers and accessories, installation of wired network,
requiring fewer support staff and the availability of eBooks instead of physical
books.
 What about the point that the univeristy would not be obligated to purchase
mobile devices for students? This was mentioned by one of the administrators.
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During the discussion of the teacher’s role in mobile learning, almost all of the
participants strongly emphasized that the teacher’s role should not be compromised
or ignored in order to make students independent learners. University administrators
and instructional designers were asked whether students would be more independent
learners in a mobile learning environment; they agreed that students would be
undertaking self-learning. Some of the senior executives believed that when students
learn that they have to be disciplined and responsible, they are learning to be self-
regulated and they learn to look after their own property and the university’s property
(this could be a mobile device). However, it was strongly recommended by the
interviewees that the teacher should control and mediate the learning process in order
to regulate learning among different cohorts of students and to enforce certain
assessments and deadlines.
‘I think it totally depends on how you make the rules and how you manage to
enforce the rules in your university learning environment. It is the same for
distance learning or face-to-face learning. When you make rules and
implement them strictly, students have to switch to regulate themselves to be
independent learners. It is the teachers’ responsibility to engage the students
in learning in such a way that every student should feel responsibility to
submit their assignments on time, and there must be penalties for late
submissions. Students tend to follow the teacher even in online or traditional
learning mode. If teachers or course leaders know how to run a course and
implement certain rules, it is possible to lead students in a certain direction.’
[Uni B - Administrator]
‘Yes, this is something to be discussed in detail. I think the teacher’s

involvement is very important and necessary. If you look at the virtual
universities’ model or other online learning environments, there is the
teacher’s involvement although students are able to access all lectures and
learning resources on their own. I don’t think that they will be able to do
self-study. Teachers should have control over the learning process even if it
is offered through mobile learning or e-learning mode. It is very important
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because students do not have vision and guidance which a teacher can give
them besides learning resources. Teacher knows the breadth and depth of
course contents and what is an appropriate level for students to reach.
Students are beginners, they do not realize where to go ultimately, and it is
the teacher who paves the way for them.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
In spite of stressing the pivotal role of the teacher, participants did agree that mobile
learning might bring about a change to students’ attitudes and could encourage
students to learn independently of teachers. This is a positive outcome – the old
school of thought that prevails in teaching and learning communities in Pakistani
universities would think this is a problem/hindrance. A new school of thought,
however, would accept the paradigm shift to allow and empower students to think
and learn for themselves.
‘Yes, a mobile device is a kind of digital teacher or facilitator and will help
students in continuous interaction for their guided learning in the field.’ [Uni
C - Instructional Designer]
‘This may vary from course to course and from one program type to another;
but generally, it must improve the self-capacity and learning of the students
without intervention by the teacher.’ [Uni A - Administrator]
Chen (2009) argues that self-regulated learning has become a critical success factor
for learners in today’s blended learning environment where a learner has to interact
frequently with Learning Management Systems without the teacher’s monitoring. In
a mobile learning environment, self-regulated learning can be used to enhance
students’ perfomance in university and a mobile device could play the role of digital
teacher for students as mentioned by one of the participants of this research.
However, the cultivation of self-regulated learning habits in students remains a
crucial step and needs further research. Kukulska-Hulme (2012) mentions that
teachers’ own commitment to informal learning and appropriate training in new
technologies could play a key role in bringing about change in students’ attitudes
toward learning.
223
However, some of the participants adhering to the somewhat old school of thought
warned that mobile learning might become a mere waste of time and resources if the
process of learning were not controlled by the teacher. Participants believed that
students would tend to indulge in social networking only and other non-learning
activities by using mobile devices and mobile internet made available to them for the
purpose of learning.
‘I think teachers should put some restrictions on how students may use it.
For example, they should not indulge in social networking and
communicating with each other all the time. This may result in time-wasting
for both parties. If we allow limited features just focused on learning, then it
would be more beneficial.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
‘Mobile is a useful tool for learning but wastage of time should be controlled.
Mobile learning may encourage self-study which is very good. However, it
should be monitored and guided by teachers.’ [Uni C - Instructional
Designer]
Contrary to the participants’ perceptions that students might waste time merely in
social networking using their mobile devices, researchers such as Selwyn (2009) and
Madge et al. (2009) found that students have been using social networking forums to
support their learning in various ways including settling into university life,
discussing assessment tasks, providing moral support to fellow students during
diffiuclt times in university life, increasing engagement in learning activities and
improving their relationship with teaching staff and fellow students. Slewyn (2009)
acknowledges that some of the stakeholders in university envrionments are concered
that students might engage in social activities; however, based on the findings of a
study conducted in a UK university about the use of Facebook, he further argues that
social networking forums would be assumed and used as new learning spaces in
today’s university environments. The concept of social learning might be inroduced
into Pakistani university environments which will assist senior leadership groups to
consider mobile learning as a window of opportunity to open up new learning spaces
in university environments.
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The teacher’s role in a mobile learning environment has been debated by a number of
researchers in mobile leaning literature. Kukulska-Hulme (2010) argues that instead
of shifting from teacher-centred to student-centred learning, a balanced participation
of teachers and learners might be ideal for a mobile learning environment. Similar
findings were revealed by Uzunboylu and Ozdamli (2011) who researched teachers’
perceptions about mobile learning in Cyprus; the teachers wanted to switch to
learning technologies including mobile learning in order to engage themselves and
their students in a constructivist learning fashion. (Kukulska-Hulme 2012)
recommends that stakeholders in higher education should be open to adapt new
technologies and pedagogies in university environments such as social media and
informal learning. Therefore, appropriate staff development and training would be
required in order to equip teaching staff with the hands-on knowledge about new
technologies in learning so that they might be able to portray themeselves as role
models for students in terms of social media and informal learning.
During interviews conducted for this study, one of the instructional designers
suggested that mobile learning would work better if it is introduced to the students
who have already spent a few semesters in the university’s teaching and learning
environment instead of freshmen or students studying in their first semester as the
former would already have become more responsible and independent learners.
Moreover, one of the administrators stated that students’ development in a
developing country may be different if compared to the developed world, particularly
in terms of handling the learning resources and facilities as their experience in this
area is limited. For example, he was of the view that undergraduate students in the
university were not mature enough to handle such an exposure to mobile devices and
internet in their private spaces; they would be at greater risk of engaging in non-
constructive activities instead of mobile learning.
‘I think it might not be so straightforward here as compared to the developed

world. Particularly, I am concerned for the students who come from
relatively backward backgrounds or areas. I don’t recommend giving them
mobile devices and letting them go away to their isolated private places such
as hostels where no scrutiny can be done on the kind of material they are
watching on their mobile devices. They may be introduced to mobile learning
225
in a library situation or common room where they can access learning

resources and engage in constructive learning activities and where their
activities are supervised. Undergrads are of the age where they leave home
and enter into a world with more freedom, so it is possible that they could
engage in non-constructive activities.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
Sife et al. (2007), Sari and Tedjasaputra (2008) and Mohamad (2012) reported
similar findings in other developing countries such as Tanzania, Indonesia and
Malaysia. Mobile learning needs to be researched in developing countries in order to
determine the best way of introducing it formally into different learning
environments including higher education, secondary and elementary schools (Gary
2007; Saif 2013; Traxler 2013).
The mobile learning initiative could impose an additional workload on teachers;

when this issue was discussed with interviewees, the responses varied. Senior
administrators did not see it as producing an additional workload; they believed that
teachers could reduce their face-to-face consultation time by using mobile learning
which gives them more flexibility when responding to students’ queries on the move.
The workload is a contentious issue especially when teachers’ view of additional
workload differ to that of senior administrators. In respect to this, instructional
designers saw mobile learning as an extra workload for teachers which needed to be
compensated.
‘As for the question of additional workload for the teachers, I don’t see any
additional workload for the teachers in this case. For example, we are
already working on it in our university; we have advised teachers to provide
learning material for a particular lecture such as presentations, assignment
information, and lecture slides or handouts couple of days on the university
intranet prior to actual lecture scheduled. Students can access this material
and familiarize themselves with it prior to a lecture.’ [Uni C -
Administrator]
‘I want to emphasize one important point here that teachers would have to set
a time for interactivity and collaboration just like routine consultation time
for students which will enable students to ask questions and clarify any
226
confusion they have regarding what they have heard in a lecture or seen in a
video or audio lectures.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
‘Yes, it would be an additional task; it can only work if enforced by university

administration.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
Chen et al. (2010) revealed contradictory findings showing the teacher’s workload
would be reduced by introducing formal mobile learning tools and applications
where students would be able to do a number of learning tasks by themselves.
Teacher’s role, performance and workload are the issues which have not been
addressed adequately in mobile learning literature. Future research is needed to
investigate the implications of mobile learning for teachers in different learning
environments.
The following points summarize the analysis of participants’ opinions about the
teacher’s role in a mobile learning environment in Pakistani universities:
 The majority of the interviewees strongly recommended that the teacher control
and mediate the learning process in order to regulate learning among different
cohorts of students as well as to enforce certain assessments and deadlines.
Some of the participants warned that mobile learning might become merely a
waste of time and resources if the process of learning is not controlled by the
teacher in Pakistani university environments.
 The majority of the interviewees did agree that mobile learning might bring about
change in students’ attitudes and encourage students to learn independently of
teachers.
 Mobile learning would work better if introduced to the students who are in 3rd or
4th year of university studies instead of first year or newly-enrolled students as
the former already have become more responsible and independent learners.
227
 One of the interviewees warned that undergraduate students in the university

were not mature enough to handle such an exposure to mobile devices and
internet in their private spaces; they would be at greater risk of engaging in non-
constructive activities instead of mobile learning.
 In the case of mobile learning, teachers’ workload management was an issue of

concern to the instructional designers. Teachers also mentioned the issue of extra
workload and unpaid overtime during the focus groups discussion as discussed in
section 5.12.2 in Chapter 5 earlier in the thesis. However, senior administrators
suggested that teachers could easily balance their face-to-face consultation time
with mobile learning flexibility by responding to students’ queries remotely.
6.9 Mobile Learning Activities - Results and

Discussion
Administrative stakeholders from Pakistani universities shared their experiences of

several practices already in place formally and informally in university
environments. Many of these practices are either directly related to mobile learning
or e-learning, or are an indirect step towards embracing new technologies in
university teaching and learning environments. Instructional designers described the
mobile learning activities and applications which they have observed their colleagues
doing for their teaching and learning. IT managers mentioned the activities that IT
departments and higher management have been doing or planning to do in order to
provide students and teachers with more flexible and technologically-advanced
strategies for their teaching and learning. Similarly, interviews from administrative
stakeholders on policy-making roles revealed a positive and welcoming attitude to
potential mobile learning initiatives in universities in Pakistan.
Several interviewees shared their observations of teachers’ and students’

involvement in mobile learning activities and applications. These observations
correspond to the categories of mobile learning learning activities and applications
out of data analysis for students’ focus groups (see Section 4.10 and subsections in
Chapter 4 for details) and teachers’ focus groups (see Section 5.11 and subsections in
228
Chapter 5 for details). During the discussion in this section, references have been
made to the relevant categories of mobile learning activities and applications from
students’ and teachers’ focus groups.
During interviews conducted for this study, one of the IT managers stated that in
spite of having no mobile-compatible version of the university’s learning
management system, a number of administrative activities (refer to category of
Administrative Activities in Section 4.10 and Section 5.11) already in place in the
university included students accessing the learning management system using their
mobile devices to check their enrolment, attendance and grades.
‘For example; CU-Online is our student information system and is available

on the internet. So if a student wants to check his grades or registered
courses or fee status then s/he may use the mobile device to connect to this
system and get the required information.’ [Uni A - IT Manager]
‘No, not yet. There is any mobile interface available separately for mobile
users, although I have suggested to the university management that we should
also have a mobile version of our website too. There is currently no mobile
version of our software applications in this university but there should be.’
[Uni A - IT Manager]
Although these activities are not directly associated with mobile learning, this might
be the first step towards the introduction of mobile learning to familiarise the
students with accessing learning portals on mobile devices. It is also important to
note that students might not be facing any usability issues in performing these
administrative tasks as these are not typical learning activities which require reading
or any sort of assessment. An instructional designer from University B mentioned
similar activities he has been doing informally to facilitate his teaching-related tasks
(refer to Administative Activities, Teaching and Learning Support Activities from
Sections 4.10 and 5.11).
‘I have a very limited experience of using mobile phones for teaching in our
university. I use a mobile phone to communicate with students about a quiz,
229
lecture rescheduling, contents to prepare before the next lecture.’ [Uni B -

An instructional designer from University A said that she had been involved in
mobile learning in a number of ways by, for example, recording audio and video
lectures, using discussion boards, and updating students’ grades and attendance
records etc (Informal Teaching and Learning Activities, Collaborative Activities,
Teaching and Learning Support Activities from Sections 4.10 and 5.11).
‘Firstly, you can share lecture contents with students on all the topics to be
covered during a course. You can record and upload lectures for students.
You can include a discussion board where students can ask a question, the
teacher can answer it and other students are able to view the discussion.
Students can submit assignments. Teacher can share results and students can
view these instantly. Also, students should be able to view their attendance
status.’ [Uni A - Instructional Designer]
IT managers also stated that learning content across the universities was being
updated to make it accessible from different interfaces such as computers and mobile
devices. Recording of video lectures is one of the many steps being taken to add
flexibility to the learning environment.
‘Definitely, it would be very positive and a valuable addition to our education

system. Let me tell you something that we are currently doing in our
university. We have started recording lectures and placing them on a Server,
students are able to access these at their own convenience. They can refer to
the lecture later on. It is not very interactive though, but still it gives them a
lot of flexibility and control and independence about the learning process.’
[Uni A - IT Manager]
‘Another important point to mention here is that our learning content is

already somewhat compatible to be accessed and opened on mobile and
tablet devices successfully. All the learning content is in a web-based
learning management system; people may access it through mobile devices,
laptops or desktop PCs.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
230
Lecture recording and video conferencing were the other two activities being
practised in all the participating universities (Collaborative Activities, Teaching and
Learning Support Activities). In Pakistani universities, many of the teaching staff
have chosen to undertake PhDs and other higher studies abroad; therefore, their
universities ask them to teach through video conferencing remotely, instead of
replacing them.
‘In this university, we are aiming to have a facility for teaching and learning
remotely. For instance, if one of our lecturers goes to England for higher
studies, he may be able to deliver his lecture on a certain topic of his
expertise from there to the students in our university. Further, some lecturers
opt for recording their lectures and provide them to students through the
university’s learning portal. Students download those lectures into their
mobile devices and enjoy flexible learning.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
‘Let me tell you something interesting. One of our bachelor courses which is
being offered in 7th or 8th semester of our engineering degree is being taught
totally virtually using video conferencing facility. The resource person is an
assistant professor in Ohio State University, USA and he is delivering
lectures from there as well as collaborating with students. However, students
have to gather in one room where they can watch the video lecture live and
ask questions. Mobile learning is one step ahead in this area. The same
students may be able to watch a video lecture live independent of location
and time as well as interact with their lecturer. Mobile leaning can hold and
open multiple avenues of learning such as video, audio, text and even offline
contents for learning.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
The Dean of the Engineering Faculty in University B said that students -during free
time between lectures- have been watching video lectures on their mobile devices
from many highly-ranked universities from developed countries freely available on
YouTube in order to enhance their knowledge and understanding.
‘For example, I have observed some students (who have enabled/purchased

larger internet data packages on their mobile devices) watching MIT open
231
courseware material or other learning videos on YouTube during their spare

time in university.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
Generally, IT managers and senior management personnel were positive about the
future of mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. An administrator in a
senior position in University A, however, was very cautious when commenting on
the potential introduction of mobile learning in the university.
‘I think yes, because our university is quite progressive and has a positive
attitude to embrace innovations and new technologies in teaching and
learning. Therefore, I don’t see that there would be any limitation in
welcoming and supporting a mobile learning initiative that includes
providing support to teachers to create and redesign learning material.’
‘I believe the inclusion of such devices requires thorough orientation on the

part of the university (lecturer) and the student… responding to this question
directly without any understanding of the application of mobile devices and
their success in a local environment would be inappropriate, if not
inappropriate, may be very early. For me, I am eager to adopt technology
and will certainly give it a try (for trialling and testing first) to assess the
benefits and disadvantages of mobile devices application in a local system.’
[Uni A - Administrator]
Another interesting aspect that emerged from interviews with the administrative
stakeholders in Pakistani universities is that mobile learning was indirectly
introduced to students by embedding the use of mobile devices in students’ projects
and fieldwork. In mobile learning literature, there are numerous examples where
researchers have experimented by including mobile learning activities as an integral
part of the course, projects, assignments and fieldwork (Caverly, Ward, and Caverly
2009; Cavus 2011; Hwang and Chang 2011; Pérez-Sanagustín et al. 2012; Ting
2013).
In University C, medical students were expected to use mobile device from remote
locations to collaborate with colleagues and teaching staff in the university to discuss
232
the diagnosis of a particular patient as well as using mobile device camera to take
photos of patients’ teeth and send this using multimedia messaging. Computer
science and telecommunication engineering students had been using mobile devices
in their projects to test a particular output of a program or mobile application. In
University B, students were being taught Android programming courses and each
group of students was given several mobile devices to test their mobile applications.
‘It depends upon the attitude of higher management, but for the last two years
the university has been providing specialized android programing courses,
along with smart devices, 1 to 2 mobile devices per section of students.’ [Uni
B - IT Manager]
‘Definitely, students would make use of mobile learning when they are away
from their teachers. In this area, we are already setting up satellite clinics in
our rural areas where a general dentist would go over there and if he has any
problem with the management of a particular patient, he can take a picture
with his mobile device and send it to a secondary care hospital in the city. Or
he can use a video conferencing facility to discuss the issue with other
colleagues remotely and consult.’ [Uni C - Administrator]
‘Moreover, there is a Computer Science student group doing a project on a

security and attendance system using iPhones within the campus.’ [Uni A -
IT Manager]
‘I have experienced it in number of ways. For example, I have used it in

terms of application development. We developed a mobile ticketing system
where passengers are able to book and buy tickets through their mobile
devices. Obviously, it was learning in terms of development and user
interface design. Last year, I supervised another project using mobile
learning; the website was accessible to students through mobile devices.’
[Uni A - Instructional Designer]
Mobile learning literature shows that similar informal mobile learning activities
(Informal Learning Activities, Informal Teaching and Learning Activities from
Sections 4.10 and 5.11) were practised by teachers and students in many learning
233
environments prior to any formal introduction of mobile learning in both developed

and developing countries (Clough et al. 2009; Lai, Khaddage, and Knezek 2013;
Looi et al. 2010; Martí and Ferrer 2012). Literature supports that engagement in
informal mobile learning activities, such as activities being done in Pakistani
university environments, strengthens the argument for introducing mobile learning
into mainstream education (Fotouhi-Ghazvini et al. 2008; Looi et al. 2010). Further,
these informal learning practices might assist education providers to embark upon the
research and investigation of using students’ own devices for mobile learning which
could assist to establish BYOD policies within the universities, thereby saving the
education providers an enormous amount of resources (Lai, Khaddage, and Knezek
2013; Lundin et al. 2010).
6.9.1 Mobile Learning Activities - Summary of Discussion

and Findings
Informal mobile learning activities and their implications for university

administrative stakeholders are summarized as follows:
 In spite of having no mobile-compatible version of the university’s Learning

Management System, a number of administrative activities were already in place
in the universities so that students accessed the Learning Management System
using their mobile devices to check their enrolment, attendance and grades.
Students’ involvement in these administrative tasks might be a first step towards
introducing mobile learning in Pakistani university environments.
 Students’ and teachers’ engagement in mobile learning activities and applications

observed by administrative stakholders correspond to the categories of mobile
learning activities emerged as outcomes of data analysis of students’ and
teachers’ focus groups. This confirmation validates the rigor of the data analysis
and results of the research.
 Other than administrative activities, some of teachers have been informally

engaged in mobile learning activities to facilitate their teaching and learning such
234
as recording lectures and providing these to students, scheduling workshops,

using discussion boards, and updating student’s grades.
 It was found that mobile learning practices were very popular among Pakistani
university students. For example, they used mobile cameras during their field
work, and for testing outputs in programming projects and exhibitions.
 These informal mobile learning practices might assist Pakistani universities to

investigate students’ use of their own devices (if they have them) for mobile
learning, thereby working towards the introduction of BYOD policies university-
wide and ultimately saving significant amounts of university resources.
6.10 Socio-Cultural Factors - Results and Discussion
Similar to the socio-cultural issues discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, the

university leadership stakeholders also expressed similar concerns and perceptions
about considering and evaluating certain sociol-cultural factors when planning a
mobile learning implementation initiative in Pakistani university environments. As
alluded to earlier in this chapter and Chapters 4 and 5, one can also find a number of
other socio-economic issues in the developing nation of Pakistan related to usability,
training needs and the need for ongoing technical support. However, the following
subsections discuss several additional issues that emerged from the research data;
these are listed separately and represent the findings of this research.
6.10.1 Awareness and Motivation
Besides the positive responses in terms of embracing mobile learning in Pakistani

universities, the interviewees were focused on the issue of creating awareness about
the use of mobile technologies in teaching and learning environments prior to any
attempt to test the mobile learning initiative in Pakistani university environments. A
number of stakeholders and potential beneficiaries of mobile learning including
teachers, students, university administrators and managers, instructional designers,
course leaders, librarians and parents of enrolled students, could be considered as
targets for an awareness campaign.
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‘It would be very good to introduce mobile learning in our university.

However, the only thing lacking is the exposure of new technologies and their
integration on smart devices and mobile device is one of them. It would be a
pretty good idea in terms of students’ practical experience with new
technologies in education. Students lack this when they join the work force
after their studies; it would certainly help them. Teachers would also
certainly look into this along with their theoretical study patterns.’ [Uni B -
IT Manager]
Mobile learning researchers from other developing countries such as Mohamad

(2012), Sife et al. (2007), Premadasa et al. (2013) and Sari et al. (2008) also
recognized the need for raising awareness of mobile learning in the developing world
prior to harnessing the potential of this huge opportunity to provide education using
mobile devices. The awareness activities could range from an informative seminar to
a practical workshop providing the attendees with a hands-on experience with using
their mobile devices for learning activities. Concerned stakeholders might be trained
in the ethics and standards pertaining to the use of mobile devices for learning so that
abuse of mobile learning opportunities may be prevented.
‘The main difficulty is the lack of realization of mobile learning potential.

More seminars and training on this subject can enhance the students’ and
teachers’ awareness. Mobile phone ethics is a big issue. Both students and
teachers need extensive training in mobile phone misuse and ethics, norms
and values.’ [Uni B - Instructional Designer]
‘At the moment, it seems impossible to offer a complete course in mobile

learning mode but it is possible to offer it partially, though. I stress the
importance of raising awareness among students and teachers about learning
via mobile devices through workshops and seminars on this topic where they
might be able to experience hands-on mobile learning by engaging in
learning activities during the workshop.’ [Uni C - IT Manager]
Discussing the current activities and students’ motivation regarding mobile learning,
one participant mentioned that students have been watching lectures from highly-
236
ranked universities from developed countries in order to gain insight into a topic and
acquire more knowledge.
‘For example, I have observed some students (who have enabled/purchased

larger internet data packages on their mobile devices) watching MIT open
courseware material or other learning videos on YouTube during their spare
time in university. I think the basic idea of mobile learning is related to
distance learning which is not new in Pakistan. The virtual university of
Pakistan is already providing education through technology in far-off areas
of Pakistan.’ [Uni B - Administrator]
Oliver and Goerke (2008) found that students from developing countries were more
highly motivated to engage in mobile learning compared to their colleagues from a
developed country. Barker et al. (2005) discussed motivation as one of the biggest
factors determining mobile learning adoption in South Africa.
A senior executive from University B mentioned an important direction about the

future potential of mobile learning in Pakistan. He suggested that it would be
possible to eradicate illiteracy in rural and remote areas of Pakistan harnessing the
power of mobile technologies in Pakistan.
‘I think mobile learning -if implemented in Pakistan at any level- would

bridge the gap in terms of literacy in Pakistan, particularly IT literacy.’ [Uni
B - Administrator]
There are several examples of projects and trial implementations of mobile learning
for underprivileged populations, particularly for children in other developing
countries such as India, Kenya and Latin America (Kumar et al. 2010; Kim, Miranda,
and Olaciregui 2008). The researcher also intends to undertake a research project
involving offline mobile learning as a means of promoting literacy in rural and
underprivileged areas of Pakistan as future research.
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6.10.2 Negative Uses and Risks
Interviewees pointed out numerous risks and possible negative impacts associated
with potential implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani universities. These
risks include misuse of mobile phones and mobile internet, wastage of time in the
form of over-engagement in social media, pressure placed upon parents to buy
expensive devices for learning, students’ (particularly for those from remote or rural
areas) sudden exposure to information, teachers’ increased workload, students
missing more lectures and relying solely on mobile learning. Concern about many of
these risks also emerged during the focus group discussion sessions with students
and teachers; university administrative stakeholders’ statements about those risks
confirmed that these issues and challenges should be considered carefully before
planning to test any pilot implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani universities.
‘There is an overhead associated with using mobile phones. For example,

sending collective messages takes some of the teacher’s time. If most of the
content is made available online, then students will start skipping lectures
with the hope of seeing them later on. As procrastination is common among
students, it is probable that students will delay the learning activities until
examination. This will affect the uniform and continuous learning load. The
learning will be spikier, that is learning too much in very little time and then
no learning in longer periods of time. In my point of view, such learning is
short lived and do not suffice for true understanding of the concepts. Another
concern is excessive communication between the teacher and the students
and the students themselves. Students often try to get help as much as
possible and do not apply their own brain. Assignment sharing is a big
problem in PU. Only a few students actually solve the assignments and the
rest of the class get the solution. Also, I do not wish to get phone calls or
SMS the whole night before a final exam. Many of these issues can be
addressed by devising proper mobile device usage ethics.’ [Uni B -
Many of these challenges have been associated with lack of infrastructural facilities,
poverty and the underprivileged populations in societies of developing countries, as
238
indicated by other researchers from developing countries (Mohamad 2012; Sife,

Lwoga, and Sanga 2007; Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme 2005). For example, a
sudden exposure to mobile internet without any constraints may become a hazard for
students who have never previously been exposed to mobile internet. The Dean of
Medicine and Dentistry Faculty from University C argued that students might take
mobile devices with a high speed mobile internet into their private rooms in
university hostels and might be exposed to undesirable material available on the
internet instead of using mobile devices for learning purposes only. He suggested
that a library, where students could be watched over and monitored, would be the
ideal place to begin introducing mobile learning into university environments
‘I think it might not be so straightforward here as compared to the developed

world. Particularly, I am concerned for the students who come from
relatively backward backgrounds or areas. I don’t recommend giving them
mobile devices and letting them go away to their isolated private places such
as hostels where no scrutiny can be done of the kind of material they are
watching on their mobile devices. They may be introduced to mobile learning
in a library situation or common room where they can access learning
resources and engage in constructive learning activities under supervision.
Undergrads are of the age where they leave home and enter into a freer
world, so it is possible that they would engagein non-constructive activities.’
Currently, universities have been using the spam and content filtering process for
computer and internet users using university network resources; similar practices
could be applied to mobile users using university network resources. In this way, the
problem of students watching unethical content could be controlled.
While discussing the data collection activities using mobile devices, one of the
participants mentioned that private businesses and engineering firms might now
allow students to capture videos or images of their business logic related areas. If
students want to use mobile devices for learning and data collection, they must be
made aware of privacy policies of the businesses where they go for internships and
fieldwork. Security and privacy in reference to mobile learning is an area neglected
239
by the mobile learning researchers (Ugray 2009). Similarly, copyright, patents and
privacy of a firm should be respected by a mobile learning user. There are future
research opportunities in this area, particularly within developing countries. For
instance, there is need to establish a code of conduct for all mobile learning users
across all contexts.
Another challenge discussed by the Dean of the Engineering Faculty in university B

was the bureaucratic nature of the university administration processes and systems
that it might not be easy to convince higher level management of the university
where technology-related innovation to teaching and learning were suggested or
planned. Czerniewicz and Brown (2009) have pointed out similar bureaucratic
barriers to embracing technology innovation in education put up by public sector
education providers in South African universities.
In spite of all of these risks and challenges, the majority of interviewees were
positive about the introduction of mobile learning into Pakistani universities.
‘Mobile devices should have a healthy share in the university’s learning

environment because they provide an additional but not alternate source of
learning. Although there are certain obstacles in their use such as students
using them for cheating purposes during examinations; they use them to test
the teacher’s knowledge, teasing and challenging teachers by asking difficult
questions during the lecture in the classroom, wasting time and money when
they do not actually engage in learning activities and just engage in social
networking all the time. However, these obstacles can be controlled by
efficient monitoring.’ [Uni C - Instructional Designer]
6.10.3 Socio-Cultural Factors - Summary of Discussion and

Findings
Participants’ ideas about the need for creating awareness of mobile learning in
Pakistani universities and students’ motivation to be involved in mobile learning are
summarized in this section. The following list also includes a summary of the
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possible risks and challenges associated with potential mobile learning

implementation in Pakistani university environments:
 The majority of the interviewees were focused on the issue of creating awareness
about use of mobile technologies in teaching and learning environments prior to
any attempt to test mobile learning initiative in Pakistani university
environments.
 An awareness campaign for mobile learning would be required for teachers,

students, university administrators and managers, instructional designers, course
leaders, librarians and parents of enrolled students in order to make them aware
the benefits of mobile learning.
 Being motivated to engage in mobile learning, during their free time on campus
or while traveling to and from university on public transport, students have been
watching lectures from highly-ranked universities from developed countries in
order to gain insight into a topic and acquire more knowledge.
 Mobile learning could be used to eradicate illiteracy in rural and remote areas of
Pakistan.
 A number of risks and challenges pointed out by interviewees include students’

engagement in merely social networking activities, pressure placed upon parents
to buy expensive devices for learning, teachers’ increased workload and students’
compromised attendance to the fact-to-face lectures.
 However, in spite of all those challenges, all of the participants in this study
including interviewees, teachers and students, wanted to introduce and test
 Mobile learning researchers from other developing countries have mentioned

similar risks and challenges to mobile learning implementations in developing
countries.
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This chapter consists of discussion and findings from the analysis of individual
interviews with key administrative stakeholders from three Pakistani universities.
Administrative stakeholders included instructional designers, IT managers and policy
making administrators such as Deans of faculties and directors. Participants showed
a positive and welcoming attitude toward the potential future implementation of
mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. Participants shared their
experiences and observations of using and facilitating informal mobile learning
activities in universities in Pakistan. Summary of key findings out of data analaysis
of administative stakeholders’ interview have been presented in Figure 31.
242
Figure 31: Summary of findings from Stakeholders' Interviews
243
Apart from voicing positive sentiments and opinions, the participants indicated their
concerns about several issues that might become obstacles to the introduction of
mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. Many of these issues are
associated with the socio-cultural background of Pakistan as a developing country
such as the cost of mobile devices and mobile internet, redesigning or upgrading of
learning content for mobile devices, provision of training to teachers and students,
and raising awareness of mobile learning prior to introducing it in Pakistani
university environments. Any potential mobile learning initiative in Pakistani
university environments would need careful planning that addresses the challenges
associated with it and a pilot implementation would be necessary. It is also
important to note that findings from the interviews with stakeholders corroborate the
findings from focus groups of teachers and students presented in the two previous
chapters.
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Chapter Seven – Mobile Learning Framework
CHAPTER 7 MOBILE
LEARNING FRAMEWORK FOR
UNIVERSITIES IN PAKISTAN
7.1 Introduction
The results, discussion and findings of this study were presented in Chapters 4, 5 and
6. Chapters 4 and 5 described the outcomes of the data analysis for the student and
teacher focus group sessions respectively, whereas Chapter 6 contained the results
and discussion based on interviews with key administrative stakeholders in selected
Pakistani universities. Based on the analysis of the results and findings presented in
previous three chapters, a Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan
has been formulated in this chapter. This chapter discusses how the new Mobile
Learning Framework (MLF) for Universities in Pakistan is different from the initial
Mobile Learning Conceptual Model which was created based on a comprehensive
literature review that was used to inform the research design and data analysis.
Answers to the research questions are presented in Section 7.4 followed by the
chapter summary.
7.2 The Initial Mobile Learning Conceptual Model
The initial Mobile Learning Conceptual Model (see Figure 32) was an outcome of
the extensive review of mobile learning literature. People, Interactivity and
Technology were identified as three focus areas within the mobile learning literature.
In this initial mobile learning conceptual model, the People category included
students, teachers, administrators, educational managers, instructional designers and
IT support staff. Interactivity referred to the mobile learning characteristics which
would assist students and teachers to interact in terms of collaboration, usability,
blending, content and control. The Technology category represented the
245
characteristics associated with mobile devices and technologies such as network

connectivity, flexibility, technical support and costs associated with the technology.
Mobile Learning
People Technology
Interactivity

• Cost
Figure 32: Mobile Learning Conceptual Model
(Adapted from Danaher et al. (2009), Sharples et al. (2005), Barker et al. (2005) and Koole (2009)
7.3 New Framework vs. Initial Model
The initial mobile learning conceptual model (see Figure 32) was the outcome of the
literature review. The main aim of the initial mobile learning conceptual model was
to inform the research design for this study. Based on the literature review, the
important stakeholders and mobile learning characteristics were included in the
initial mobile learning conceptual model. Based on the conceptualization derived
from the literature review, the instruments for data collection were prepared. The
data analysis and structure of the results and discussion chapters were also guided by
the initial mobile learning conceptual model. As a result, a new Mobile Learning
Framework for Universities in Pakistan, as shown in Figure 40 has been enriched by
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the data collected from a number of stakeholders and beneficiaries from selected
Pakistani universities. The outcomes of the data collection and analysis conducted
during this study reveal a number of changes to the way the initial mobile learning
conceptual model was presented; those changes have been reflected in a new mobile
learning framework for Pakistani universities.
A detailed argument is required to highlight how the new Mobile Learning

Framework for Universities in Pakistan is different from and better than the initial
Mobile Learning Conceptual Model. Therefore, the following sub-sections include a
discussion of each category from the new framework based on the findings of this
research, and provide a comparison with the initial model. The discussion is
concluded by a formulation and presentation of the new Mobile Learning Framework
for Universities in Pakistan (Figure 40).
A number of insights have been used as input to the discussion so that the
contribution of this research will be clearly identified. These insights include: 1)
why the new framework is preferred and better than the initial model; 2) the basis
and evidence for the changes that have been made to the new framework; 3) how the
new framework will be used based on the outcomes of data analysis; 4) how the new
framework is effective and productive; and 5) whether the new framework will
support universities in Pakistan in their quest to incorporate mobile learning as part
of the university’s teaching and learning initiative. Applying these insights to the
discussion of new framework and the initial model will also assist in answering the
research questions. The following sub-sections include separate discussions
focussing on each category (People, Interactivity and Technology) presented in the
initial model to the similar category in the new Mobile Learning Framework of
Stakeholders, Interactivity and Technology.
The New Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan is color-coded in

order to differentiate newly-added or changed categories and characteristics based on
the outcomes of this research. Categories and characteristics presented in blue are
similar to those initially conceptualized from the literature review; however, each
category and characteristic in the new framework might be named similarly to those
available in the literature but data from this research not only confirms with what is
available in the literature in terms of mobile learning characteristics, but also
247
represents the perceptions and expectations of students, teachers and administrative

stakeholders from Pakistani universities (Chapters 4, 5 and 6 for detailed discussion)
which constitutes an important contribution of this research. Categories and
associated characteristics presented in red represent the new findings and other key
contributions of this research to the body of knowledge in mobile learning field.
7.3.1 Mobile Learning Framework – Stakeholders Category
In this section, changes to the People/Stakeholders category will be discussed and

presented in the light of findings of this research presented in the previous three
chapters. The outcomes of the data analysis of focus groups and interviews show
that there were a number of additional stakeholders potentially involved in the
mobile learning environment in Pakistani universities. Initially, Students, Teachers,
Administrators and Instructional Designers were included in the People Category in
the initial model (see Figure 32). However, data analysis (from Chapters 4, 5 and 6)
revealed that there are other stakeholders potentially playing a substantial role in any
mobile learning initiative in Pakistani university environments. Mobile learning
content developers, telecommunication service providers and parents or guardians of
the students were additional stakeholders in the new framework (see Figure 40).
First of all, the name of this particular category has been changed from ‘People’ to
‘Stakeholders’ for certain reasons. Newly-added people in the domain of mobile
learning include not only individuals but also companies and departments. For
instance, telecommunication providers usually are big companies, not individuals;
similarly, mobile learning content developers may represent individuals or software
development companies. IT staff also represent many staff in universities’ IT
departments including managerial level to technical support staff. Therefore,
‘stakeholders’ is an appropriate title for this category.
Participants in the research stated a number of reasons why these newly-added

stakeholders were important to the future of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments. For instance, during the data collection phase and the analysis of the
individual interviews, it was found that the word ‘administrators’ in the initial model
(see Figure 33) did not truly represent the role of people who were interviewed from
Pakistani universities; therefore the administrators were replaced by senior
248
executives in the new framework (Figure 34). It is important to note that the term
‘senior executives’ has been used to represent the key stakeholders or higher
management personnel of the universities involved in university-wide policy making
and administrative decisions.
Old Model New Framework
Figure 33: People Category: Initial Model Figure 34: Stakeholders Category: MLF
The term ‘instructional designers’ in the initial model was adapted from the literature
which - in the case of Pakistani universities - did not solely represent the role of
people who are involved in instructional design and course leadership. As a result of
data analysis, stakeholders who were interviewed in the role of instructional
designers were, , grouped as educational designers and academic leaders in the new
framework. Basically, during the interviews, it was revealed that these stakeholders
were not only involved in instructional design, but were also playing several other
important roles in academic leadership such as course leaders, subject co-ordinators
and student advisors. In the case of mobile learning, in the light of findings of this
research, it is recommended that the role of educational designers would be distinct
from that of other academic leaders. Therefore, universities might need to re-
evaluate the traditional model of staffing in this area and recruit the experts in the
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field of educational design with a strong background in teaching and learning

pedagogies in order to develop or redesign the learning content according to the
mobile learning pedagogy requirements.
The analysis of data collected from focus group discussions and interviews showed
that the participants had considered that the services of mobile learning application
developers would be required along with the educational designers to assist academic
leaders to convert mobile learning content or mobile learning activities into mobile
applications or relevant mobile device compatible format.
In particular, IT managers in Pakistani universities strongly recommended (refer to

Chapter 6 for details) that universities might need to recruit educational designers as
well as mobile learning application development staff for a successful
implementation of mobile learning initiative in universities. Alternatively,
universities could outsource the mobile learning content design and mobile learning
application development to third party educational design and mobile application
development companies.
Basically, the decision for in-house educational design and application development
or outsourcing depends upon a number of factors including universities’ existing
practices in this regard, capacity, expertise of existing staff, scope of the mobile
learning initiative, budget and timeline. For instance, one of the participant
universities already had an in-house software development and production
department working on the development and maintenance of the university’s
information systems including the learning management system and other
management information systems. In contrast, the senior executives of the other two
universities did not divulge information about their universities’ in-house
development or outsourcing strategies. In the case of in-house development choice
by the universities, the mobile learning initiative in the university environments
would follow a traditional Information Systems Development Life Cycle model
which includes planning, analysis, design, development, and maintenance phases.
This means that universities might need to recruit appropriate staff for the mobile
learning initiative including ICT project manager, educational designers and
application developers along with the participation of many of the existing staff
members including senior executive, academic leaders and teaching staff.
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Another stakeholder added to the new Mobile Learning Framework is

telecommunication providers. According to the research participants,
telecommunication providers might play a key role in determining the cost and
availability of mobile internet for students and teachers in a mobile learning
environment. Students and teachers suggested that university senior management
negotiate with telecommunication companies to negotiate for a cheaper rate for high
quality, fast mobile internet for students and teachers for mobile learning purposes.
Therefore, this new category of stakeholders was added to the new Mobile Learning
Framework for universities in Pakistan.
Another stakeholder included in the new framework was the parents or guardians. It
was evident from the data derived from focus groups and interviews that the
involvement of the parents or guardians of students enrolled and studying in
Pakistani universities is crucial since these people are usually the main source of
funding for university education in Pakistan. For instance, as discussed in Chapter 6,
a senior executive from University C mentioned that parents had been actively
involved in the student learning journey and were regularly being informed by the
university, of the students’ progress. Moreover, students themselves (in the focus
group discussions as mentioned in Chapter 4) stressed the importance of the
involvement of parents or guardians in the consultation process for mobile learning
implementation in the universities as well as being informed of students’ engagement
in mobile learning.
Another important adjustment was that the term ‘IT support staff’ was changed to ‘IT
staff’ for this particular stakeholder group in the new framework. Interviews with IT
managers revealed (refer to Chapter 6 for details) that any mobile learning initiative
in Pakistani universities would need the strong support of universities’ IT
departments including IT managers, network staff and IT support staff for resolving
ongoing queries of users involved in teaching and learning with mobile devices.
Hence, all of these stakeholders have been grouped and represented as IT Staff in the
new framework.
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7.3.2 Mobile Learning Framework – Interactivity Category
In this section, the category of Interactivity and relevant mobile learning

characteristics will be discussed with reference to the initial model (see Figure 35)
and the changes occurred in the new framework (see Figure 36) as a result of the
findings of this research.
A number of changes were made to the mobile learning characteristics or themes

grouped under the interactivity category in the light of findings of this research. For
instance, the responses of the research participants as discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and
6 indicated that the usability of mobile devices was more related to the physical
interface of mobile devices than to the interaction occurring among students and
teachers. Participants reported usability issues such as small screen, tiny keypad and
short battery life as major issues associated with mobile device usability for learning.
Moved to
Technology
Category
Figure 36: Interactivity Category: MLF

Figure 35: Interactivity Category: Initial Model
These issues indicate that the interface and the physical capabilities of mobile
devices were important to the participants in relation to usability. Therefore,
usability was moved from the interactivity category to the technology category in the
Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan.
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The inclusion of ‘mobile learning activities’ was another addition or change made to
the new framework from the initial model. ‘Content’ was the term used in mobile
learning literature and was presented and discussed in Chapter 2. It is important to
mention that mobile learning activities are actually a practical illustration of the
learning content; therefore, the notion of mobile learning activities in the new
framework still implicitly represents the mobile learning content. Findings of this
research show that participants such as students and teachers (Chapter 4 and 5
respectively) were more focused on reporting the mobile learning activities in which
they had been involved. Academic leaders and IT managers, however, used several
synonyms such as content, learning material and mobile learning activities during the
interviews (Chapter 6) when discussing the potential redesign of learning content for
mobile learning environment in Pakistani universities and their observations of
students’ and teachers’ engagement in certain mobile learning activities. According
to the data collected and analyzed, the term ‘mobile learning activities’ seemed to be
a more appropriate interpretation and representation of the participants’ perceptions;
therefore, ‘content’ was removed and replaced by ‘mobile learning activities’ in the
new framework. Previously, the term ‘mobile learning activities and application’
was used. During the data analysis, it was observed that participants have been using
‘activities’ and ‘application’ interchangeably to point out mobile learning activities.
Therefore, in the MLF, the term was used as ‘mobile learning activities’.
As outcomes of data analysis for students’ and teachers’ focus groups, several
categories of mobile learning activities emerged. These categories include
administrative activities, collaborative activities, informal teaching and learning
activities and teaching and learning support actitivities (refer to Section 4.10 in
Chapter4 and Section 5.11 in Chapter 5 for details). Mobile learning activities in
MLF encapsulate these categories of activtiess that emerged from the data analysis.
Collaboration, context, blending and control remained unchanged in the new

framework (see Figure 36) and presented as they were in the initial model (see
Figure 35) derived from the literature review. However, the findings of this research
reveal many more perceptions and expectations of participants from Pakistani
universities for each of these characteristics than those that emerged from the
literature. Some of those perceptions and expectations were similar to those found in
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the mobile learning literature but many pertained exclusively to Pakistani university
environments; that is one of the strong arguments for the new framework to be used
in Pakistani university environments in future.
Collaboration was one of the most discussed themes during the course of the data
collection across all groups of participants including students, teachers and
administrative stakeholders (Chapters 4, 5 and 6). Students and teachers reported
numerous examples of their formal and informal collaborations for study, projects,
assignments, queries, conference calls, and Skype meetings using a number of
collaboration tools on mobile devices such as voice calls, SMS, instant messaging,
video messages and social media platforms such as Skype, Facebook and yahoo
groups. These findings from this research confirm the mobile learning literature and
presentation of this particular characteristic in the initial mobile learning conceptual
model (Figure 35). Therefore, collaboration has been presented in the Mobile
Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan similar to the initial model.
Context was another important mobile learning characteristic as indicated in Chapter

2 from literature review. Findings of this research confirmed those in the literature
regarding the use of mobile devices for learning across multiple contexts (Chen et al.
2003; Santos et al. 2010; Song 2011; Thüs et al. 2012). For instance, during this
research, students and teachers reported (Chapter 4 and 5) that they had been using
mobile devices during field work, internships, data collection, in the clinics in rural
areas and visiting relatives in rural areas during the holiday period to assist with their
learning as well collaboration with teachers in order to seek their advice on the
projects and assignments. Context and collaboration were closely related and
discussed by administrative stakeholders during interviews. A few studies in mobile
learning literature also indicate that collaboration and context have a strong
relationship in a mobile learning environment (Spikol, K., and M. 2009). A future
study might be able to further investigate the relationship between collaboration and
context exclusively. However, in the new Mobile Learning Framework for
Universities in Pakistan, context has been presented separately from collaboration
although the relationship has been discussed in Chapter 6.
Blending mobile learning with existing forms of learning such as face-to-face

learning and e-learning was an important theme in the mobile learning literature
254
(Ally 2009; Chao and Chen 2009; Parsons 2011; Peter and Barney 2007). The
findings of this research confirm those in the literature and indicate that blending
would be an appropriate way to introduce mobile learning in formal teaching and
learning environments in Pakistani universities (Chapters 4, 5 and 6). According to
the participants’ experiences of informal mobile learning, it was found that the
practice of blending mobile learning with face-to-face learning was already taking
place in Pakistani universities. However, formal inclusion might be more
complicated as it would involve certain policy making on the part of university
senior executives and academic leaders.
The notion of control or the teacher’s role in the learning process was another theme
that emerged from mobile learning literature as a key ingredient of the mobile
learning environment which was validated by the findings of this research (Chen et
al. 2010; Fernandez, Simo, and Sallan 2009; Jeffrey 2009; Wang and Ryu 2009).
However, this research revealed a significant finding of another dimension of control
from a developing country’s perspective which was not represented in the mobile
learning literature. All of the participants in this research including students,
teachers and administrative stakeholders (Chapters 4, 5 and 6) emphasized the
teacher’s control of the learning process in Pakistani university environments. The
majority of participants perceived that students might be distracted and not engaged
in learning if teachers had less control. However, academic leaders believed that
teachers would have more opportunities to experiment with independent learning or
student-centred learning in a mobile learning environment in Pakistani universities.
7.3.3 Mobile Learning Framework – Technology Category
In this section, the changes and additions to the technology category in Mobile
Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan (See Figure 38) that make it
different from the initial model (See Figure 37) are discussed as are the findings
confirming the literature studies in mobile learning.
Usability was another characteristic added to the technology category. As discussed

in Section 7.3.2, participants’ responses showed that usability of mobile devices is
more associated with the physical capabilities and user interface of mobile devices
than the facilitation of interactivity among different stakeholders in teaching and
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learning environments. Therefore, based on the outcomes of data analysis, usability

has been shifted from the interactivity category to the technology category in the new
Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan (see Figure 38). Further,
the findings of this research show that users’ prior experiences with the technology
reduce the number of usability issues reported by them.
Another important change was made with the characteristic named ‘activities and
applications’ in the initial mobile learning conceptual model (Figure 37); this was
removed from the technology category and added to the interactivity category as
mentioned previously in Section 7.3.2. Based on the review of mobile learning
literature and techno-centric perspectives (Sections 2.3 and 2.6.8 in Chapter 2), it
was perceived that mobile learning activities and applications depend merely on the
availability of technology. In particular, the administrative tasks performed by
students and teachers in literature studies justified placing ‘activities and
applications’ on the technology side at the time of conceptualizing the initial mobile
learning model (Figure 32) as a result of the literature review.
Moved to
Interactivity Moved from
Category Interactivity
Category
Figure 38: Technology Category: MLF

Figure 37: Technology Category: Initial Model
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The data collected during this research suggests that students and teachers do not use
their mobile devices merely for administrative tasks such as viewing or updating
attendance records and examination results; in fact, they are involved in a range of
teaching and learning activities informally such as collaborating on projects and
assignments and for data collection during field trips. The enhanced engagement in
teaching and learning activities rather than using mobile devices only for
administrative tasks show that stakeholders in Pakistani university teaching and
learning environments perceived mobile learning to be more teaching and learning
focused rather than being merely a techno-centric accessory in university
environments.
As argued earlier in Section 7.3, there are certain mobile learning characteristics
conceptualized from the literature review in the initial mobile learning conceptual
model (Figure 32) which remained unchanged in the new Mobile Learning
Framework for Universities in Pakistan (Figure 40). Findings of this research not
only confirmed those in the literature but also added new insights in terms of the
perceptions and expectations of the research participants. In the category of
technology under discussion in this section, connectivity, flexibility, technical
support and cost are the characteristics which were retained in the new Mobile
Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan (Figure 38) similar to the initial
conceptualization from the literature review in the initial Mobile Learning
Conceptual Model (Figure 37). The next part of this section includes the discussion
of these mobile learning characteristics in the light of perceptions and expectations of
participants from Pakistani universities. In addition, a rationale for grouping these
characteristics together under the technology category has been included in the
discussion.
The outcomes of the data analysis for this research show that connectivity options for
mobile devices such as mobile internet and Wi-Fi might affect the way students
could connect with universities’ learning management systems to access the learning
resources, download learning material on their mobile devices and collaborating with
peers and teachers. Mobile learning literature shows similar evidences from other
studies (Economides and Grousopoulou 2009; Goyette 2005; Kukulska-Hulme
2012). Therefore the findings of this research confirm these literature studies. In
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addition to confirming the literature findings, certain insights have been gained
through the perceptions and expectations expressed by research participants. For
example, students from Pakistani universities perceived that the quality of
connectivity was linked with the cost of connectivity and the availability of
sophisticated smart mobile devices to the students (Section 4.7, Chapter 4).
Students also argued that buying an expensive monthly mobile internet package or
plan guaranteed a high speed mobile internet and smooth connectivity for users
which is necessary for successful mobile learning engagement, but it was not
affordable for all students in Pakistani universities. Similarly, according to the
students who participated in focus groups, connectivity was better and smoother on
sophisticated smart devices as these devices also support Wi-Fi connectivity;
however, many of the participants expressed explicitly that they could not afford to
buy those devices.
On the other hand, teachers from Pakistani universities did not focus on the cost of
connectivity; instead, they discussed the availability and quality of mobile internet
and cellular technologies in Pakistan such as GPRS, EDGE and 3Gs as well as
network coverage in remote areas. Teachers argued that university-provided Wi-Fi
was the only viable option for students and teachers but it constrained them to be on
university premises which may become a big obstacle in harnessing the benefits of
mobile technologies of teaching and learning environments in Pakistani universities.
Although, university executives highlighted that universities’ provided free Wi-Fi
and fast internet for staff and students but they did not acknowledge students’
expectations of the university in terms of subsidizing the cost of mobile devices and
mobile internet off campus in order to be involved in mobile learning. IT managers
cautioned that universities’ current ICT infrastructural arrangement had not been
tested for mobile learning capacity and stressed the need for a trial implementation of
mobile learning in Pakistani universities in future. Academic leaders stated that
connectivity might be a key issue to be considered when designing future mobile
learning initiatives for Pakistani university environments.
In spite of all aforementioned issues associated with connectivity and costs, all of the
stakeholders who participated in focus groups and interviews agreed that mobile
learning would add flexibility to the teaching and learning environments in Pakistani
258
universities. These findings confirm the mobile learning literature findings regarding
the flexibility and mobility that mobile devices bring to the teaching and learning
arenas around the globe (Brown 2009; Chao and Chen 2009; Kukulska-Hulme 2010;
Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2005; Petrova 2010; Schneider, Bleimann, and Stengel
2009; Wang and Ryu 2009).
On the matter of technical support, there were different perceptions among students
and teachers. Students did not show a need for ongoing technical support other than
for minor issues, whereas teachers insisted that there was a need for the provision of
ongoing technical support for issues such as mobile device configuration with the
university’s network and assistance with learning activities or content management
for mobile devices. Similar to the teachers’ perceptions and expectations,
administrative stakeholders including senior executives, academic leaders and IT
managers stressed the importance of having ongoing technical support for teachers
and students if any mobile learning initiative were to be planned for Pakistani
universities. There might be several reasons for the difference between students’ and
teachers’ perceptions regarding the need for technical support. Sife et al. (2007)
argue that students in developing countries become self-sufficient in resolving minor
technical issues due to the unavailability of formal technical support resources.
Students participating in focus groups in this study mentioned that they relied upon
peer support to resolve minor day-to-day technical issues instead of going to the
university’s technical or IT support department for assistance. Students’ current
experiences of downloading audio and video material and engagement in learning
activities and social media make them capable of resolving day-to-day technical
issues. On the other hand, many of the teachers, particularly those without an IT or
Engineering background experienced difficulties when using modern ICTs including
advanced mobile devices. Teachers also needed ongoing technical support for
mobile learning content design, development and management.
7.3.4 Additional New Findings from this Research: Socio-

Cultural Factors
Beside the main categories and themes conceptualized from the literature review in
Chapter 2, the outcomes of data analysis for this research revealed several additional
259
new findings which constitute a major contribution of this research to the literature.
Many of these new findings represent the perspective of Pakistani universities’
environments, perceptions and expectations of participants and the socio-cultural
factors impacting on any future mobile learning initiative in Pakistani universities.
Participants including students, teachers and administrative groups in Pakistani

universities did have differences in their perceptions and expectations of many of the
mobile learning characteristics discussed earlier in this chapter; however, all of the
groups of participants had similar views about certain factors which represent
challenges within the Pakistani socio-cultural environment in particular and the
typical socio-cultural environment of a developing country in general. These socio-
cultural factors include a need to create awareness of mobile learning and its
potential benefits, harnessing the motivation for mobile learning among students of
universities, realizing the importance of training for the students and particularly for
teachers, acknowledging the socio-economic and educational backgrounds of student
populations in the universities and risks of negative exploitation of mobile learning
opportunity and resources by all involved stakeholders. As additional new findings
of this research, these themes emerged from the data analysis and were grouped as
socio-cultural factors to be included in the new Mobile Learning Framework for
universities in Pakistan (see Figure 39).
Figure 39: Socio-Cultural Factors impacting mobile learning in Pakistani universities
The need for creating awareness was expressed by the majority of research
participants including focus groups and interviewees. According to the participants,
the audiences for awareness campaigns for mobile learning in Pakistan could range
from stakeholders in teaching and learning environments to people in the wider
community such as parents and families of students.
260
Some of the teachers mentioned that it would be difficult to convince people in

senior executive positions and senior academic positions within the universities of
the need and potential of mobile learning in Pakistani universities due to the fact that
they find it difficult to familiarise themselves with modern technologies. Many
participants suggested using mobile devices to raise the awareness of mobile learning
by creating an application for awareness or to include a learning activity to
demonstrate how mobile devices could add flexibility to the university environments
in Pakistan. Although there are fewer literature references for these socio-cultural
factors from developing countries, Kumar et al. (2010) and Alzaza et al. (2011)
mentioned the need for creating awareness in India and Malaysia before embarking
on mobile learning implementation projects in these countries.
The motivation of the students and teachers to be engaged in mobile learning

activities was another factor which has relevance to the social and cultural notions.
For instance, Oliver and Goerke (2008) found that university students from an
African country were more motivated and enthusiastic about engaging in mobile
learning than their Australian counterparts. Similarly, Barker et al. (2006)
conceptualized motivation as one of the factors of mobile learning adoption in South
Africa. The outcomes of the data analysis for this study indicate that participants
from Pakistani universities in this study were motivated to embrace mobile learning
in formal and mainstream university teaching and learning despite the number of
problems and challenges they mentioned related to costs, connectivity and usability.
The motivation of participants, particularly students and teachers, was attributed to
reasons such as their experiences of informal mobile learning activities in
collaborations for projects and assignments, using the dictionary, and uploading and
downloading learning material. Many who did not already possess a smart mobile
device due to affordability issues were keen to own a smart mobile device and be
able to engage in mobile learning activities and collaborate with peers and teachers.
Although English is the second language for Pakistani people, English is the medium
of instruction in Pakistani universities and higher education institutions. Therefore,
for students and teachers in Pakistani universities, the availability of language
learning resources such as dictionary and encyclopaedia access through the internet
was another contributing factor to their motivation for mobile learning.
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The training needs of students, teachers and administrative stakeholders were

identified as a precursor to any formal implementation of mobile learning in
Pakistani universities. Although training is needed for any mobile learning initiative
in a developed country, training requirements for a developing country environment
such as Pakistan are extensive, immense and ongoing. Therefore, ‘training needs’
has been grouped together with the other socio-cultural factors impacting on
potential mobile learning implementation in Pakistani universities.
The outcomes of the data analysis for this study show that participants identified
different types of training needs for each group of stakeholders. For instance,
students might need a one-off training session at the start of the semester, whereas
teachers needed training at the beginning as well as ongoing training and support in
order to keep up to date with changes in technology, and deal with technical or
configuration issues with devices to the network, designing, creating and managing
the learning content for mobile devices. Some of the teachers who did not belong to
techno-centric disciplines might need training in order to feel comfortable with the
latest mobile technologies. Similarly, some senior professors and academics might
also need to be trained in the use of the latest mobile technologies to cope with the
technological intrusion in teaching and learning environments in Pakistani
universities. IT staff, particularly the staff responsible for providing ongoing IT and
technical support to the users of mobile teaching and learning, would require training
for themselves to keep up to date with the changes in the technologies.
Affordability emerged as one of the major issues in the future implementation of

mobile learning in Pakistani universities. According to the participants’ experiences
and perceptions, there was a major socio-economic divide among the university
students in public sector universities in Pakistan. Admissions for undergraduates are
strictly merit-based in public sector universities where tuition fees are affordable and
the majority of the student population come from middle class and relatively lower
socio-economic backgrounds. Ali et al. (2013) argue that usually these students have
been educated in public schools for low income families, and in relatively backward
areas of the country and rural areas where schooling is of very poor quality (Memon,
Joubish, and Khurram 2010). A small minority of students enrolled in public sector
universities come from relatively stronger socio-economic backgrounds. In addition,
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these students have a strong secondary school background in expensive private

schools and bring their own expensive technological devices to university from
home.
During their focus group discussions, many students voiced directly and indirectly
that they had affordability issues when it came to buying expensive devices for
learning or paying for costly mobile internet. It was observed that many of the
students from lower socio-economic backgrounds also reported more usability issues
due to their lack of experience with smart mobile devices. Interestingly, these
students were equally or a little more enthusiastic and motivated to be engaged in
mobile learning. They suggested that universities should assist them to purchase
smart devices or provide subsistence and afford good quality mobile internet so that
they could experience informal or formal mobile learning in the same way as some
of their peers were doing at that time. Teachers and administrative stakeholders did
not mention the affordability and educational background issues for them, although a
few teachers saw the need for training for those who belong to non-technical
disciplines; however, they duly acknowledged the diversity of the socio-economic
backgrounds within the student cohorts in Pakistani universities. Some of the
teachers warned that if mobile learning initiatives are implemented without
acknowledging and resolving this issue, the mobile learning project might fail and
contribute to worsening this socio-economic gap between student cohorts in
Pakistani universities, impacting upon the wider community as a result.
Participants from the focus groups and administrative stakeholders’ group

unanimously stressed the risks associated with the abuse of opportunities and
resources provided to students and teachers to engage in mobile learning. For
instance, students could use mobile devices for purely social and entertainment
purposes instead of learning activities. Similarly, students might pressurize their
parents to buy expensive devices for mobile learning which they might not afford.
Students would also be at risk of being exposed to undireable content on their mobile
devices if not monitored properly. Teachers also believed that there would be
increased workload for them engage in mobile learning as well as maintain their
teaching in existing face-to-face mode. Teachers also warned that students would
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miss face-to-face lectures in lieu of remotely accessing learning resources in mobile

learning mode.
Participants in this research strongly voiced the need for regulations to be established
and enforced if mobile learning is to be introduced in Pakistani university
environments. From the results of this research, it seems imperative that a code of
conduct for engagement in mobile learning needs to be established before any mobile
learning implementation can be planned in Pakistani universities in future. In mobile
learning literature, no such code of conduct for mobile learning engagement exists
despite researchers such as Mohammad (2012) and Sife et al. (2007) pointing out
some of these issues as challenges to the successful implementation of mobile
learning in developing countries.
7.3.5 Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in

Pakistan
In this section, the new Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan is
presented in Figure 40. The details of the individual components of the framework
have been discussed in depth separately in the previous three sections; this section
presents the rationale for the framework as a whole, the linkage of all categories and
characteristics with each other, and possible generalization of the framework to other
developed or developing countries.
264
Figure 40: Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan
The new Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan (Figure 40)
provides a comprehensive set of mobile learning characteristics, relevant
stakeholders and socio-cultural factors as necessary components of any mobile
learning design and implementation in Pakistani university environments.
In fact, this framework has a dynamic structure which includes multiple components
that can be detached and viewed or used independently of other components for
certain purposes. For instance, the upper part of the framework (see Figure 41) can
be used as an abstract view of mobile learning irrespective of developed or
developing world. These main categories are the basic building blocks of mobile
learning and are equally important to university environments in general for
developing or developed countries.
265
Abstract
View
Figure 41: Abstract View of Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan
The middle part of the framework, as shown in Figure 42 constitutes the elements
which are necessary when developing a mobile learning pedagogy for university
environments such as key stakeholders in a potential mobile learning environment,
characteristics related to embedding interactivity into the mobile teaching and
learning, and characteristics which are apparently techno-centric yet play a key role
in the design of mobile learning environments.
266
Mobile
Learning
Pedagogy
Figure 42: Components of Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan Contributing
towards Mobile Pedagogy
The notion of mobile pedagogy was used by UNESCO (UNESCO 2013a, 2) as one
of the themes for the research discussions, symposiums and workshops to focus on
during Mobile Learning Week 2014. The following guiding questions were posed by
UNESCO for researchers and practitioners in the mobile learning field to ponder
upon the theme of mobile pedagogy:
‘MOBILE PEDAGOGY: How is mobile learning changing the role of

teachers? How do mobile technologies improve pedagogy and strengthen
education quality? How should mobile technologies be integrated into formal
and informal learning environments?’
In mobile learning research and practice avenues, the term ‘mobile pedagogy’ is new
and becoming popular. McConatha et al. (2013, 1) in their new book on mobile
267
learning titled Mobile Pedagogy and Perspectives on Teaching and Learning,

exclusively deal with the topic of mobile pedagogy and define it as:
‘Mobile Pedagogy: comprises the tools and techniques designed to leverage

today’s wireless applications and socially connected networks to improve
learning outcomes, develop means and methods to advance teaching and
provide creative ways to increase access to educational resources for all.’
Although, the term is new in mobile learning arenas as it was first coined in 2002
(McManus 2002) the evolution of mobile pedagogy began with the advent of the
printed book in the distant past as mentioned by Laurillard (2007) and arguments of
activity theory where the learner is supposed to learn independently of a particular
space and time (Uden 2007; Vygotsky 1978). As one of the key contributions of this
research, the set of common mobile learning characteristics and their relevant
categorization in new mobile learning framework for universities in Pakistan have
informed the design of a mobile learning environment and a mobile learning
pedagogy for universities. Hamm et al. (2014) argue that traditional learning
pedagogies could be mapped for mobile learning in order to define a mobile
pedagogy. For instance, collaboration, ongoing monitoring of students’ progress and
learning, remote teaching and provision of formative feedback on students’
assessments are available and currently in use as pedagogies in traditional learning
environments which would be easily mapped with mobile pedagogy (McConatha et
al. 2014; UNESCO 2013a). The Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in
Pakistan contains all of these characteristics leading to a mobile learning pedagogy;
unlike the term mobile pedagogy used in mobile learning literature, the term mobile
learning pedagogy has been coined as an outcome of this research.
268
Socio-Cultural
Factors
Figure 43: Socio-Cultural Factors of Mobile Learning Success in Pakistan
The lower part of the framework (see Figure 43) represents the social and economic
factors from Pakistan as a developing country. These factors might impact on the
success or otherwise of mobile learning implementation in Pakistani universities in
future. This part of the framework could be viewed and used separately as socio-
cultural factors of mobile learning in a developing country or Pakistan in this case.
However, by incorporating this section (see Figure 43) into the other components of
the framework (Figure 40), the whole framework represents the outcomes of this
research which tells the story of mobile learning in Pakistani universities. This
mobile learning framework as shown in Figure 40 could be generalized for other
developing countries having similar societal and cultural norms. Researchers from
other developing countries such as Alzaza and Yaakub (2011) and Kumar et al.
(2010) point out that there is dire need to raise awareness of potential benefits of
mobile learning in Malaysia and India. Similarly, Oliver and Georke (2008) found
that motivation was one of the driving factors for the Euthopian students to get
invovled in mobile learning. Kim et al. (2009)’s study highlights the affordability
issues for Latin American children to engage into mobile learning. Thus, the
269
component called socio-cultural factors in this framework could be generalized to

many other developing countries such as India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Latin America, Euthopia, South Africa and Keyna.
7.4 Answering the Research Questions
Based on the results, discussion and findings presented in Chapters 4, 5 and 6, and
the arguments presented in earlier sections of this chapter for Mobile Learning
Framework for Universities in Pakistan (Figure 40), the answers for the research
questions will be addressed in this section. Four research questions were framed at
the outset of the study to be answered by this research. These research questions are
as follows:
1. What do the students perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani

universities?
2. What do the teachers perceive and expect of mobile learning in Pakistani

universities?
3. What do the administrative stakeholders perceive and expect of mobile

learning in Pakistani universities?
4. What are the common mobile learning characteristics to consider when

With reference to the first three research questions of the study, the findings from a
comparative data analysis of students’ and teachers’ focus groups and stakeholders’
interviews show that the perceptions and expectations of the participants in all of the
three groups were similar for a number of pedagogical and technological mobile
learning characteristics and associated challenges. For example, the majority of
participants agreed that mobile devices added flexibility to teaching and learning.
Similarly, all participant groups believed that the introduction of mobile learning to
create a blended learning environment would be the most viable solution for
Pakistani university environments. In reference to IT infrastructure, several
participants including teachers, IT managers and senior executives believed that
270
universities’ current IT infrastucture might need to be upgraded and tested for mobile
learning prior to any formal implementation. The mobile learning characteristics
about which the majority of participants had similar opinions mainly include
collaboration, context, mobile learning activities, teacher’s role and costs associated
with mobile learning.
With reference to the newly emerged socio-cultural factors associated with any
mobile learning implementation in Pakistan, almost all of the participants from focus
groups and interviews mentioned the same issues such as the need for creating
awareness of mobile learning among all of the relevant stakeholders, setting certain
norms and policies for mobile learning engagement, handling possible inappropriate
use of mobile learning resources, and harnessing the motivation of students and
teachers for mobile learning engagement. Participants from all of the groups
strongly believed that these socio-cultural factors would affect any mobile learning
implementation in Pakistani university environments.
However, there were differences in perceptions and expectations of certain mobile

learning characteristics. For instance, students reported a number of issues related to
the usability of mobile devices for learning whereas teachers, instructional designers
and IT managers pointed out that many of these reported usability issues were
wrongly perceived by students due to lack of user experience by those students who
did not already own a smart phone. In addition, many students tried to attempt
certain learning tasks using mobile devices which were not meant to be conducted on
a mobile device such as programming assignments, attaching big data files to emails
and submission of assignments.
Another example of the differences of perceptions and expectations among the

different groups of participants is the issue of workload management for teachers if
mobile learning were introduced. Teachers perceived that they would be burdened
with extra work if they became involved in formal mobile teaching and learning
activities, whereas senior administrative stakeholders perceived that teachers’
workloads would decrease by reducing face-to-face contact hours; instead, they
would be able to provide feedback and advice to students via mobile devices. The
workload issue warrants further investigation and extensive work. This is where
both research into mobile learning and the actual practice of mobile learning could
271
inform university academics and administrators. Mobile learning characteristics

where participants from different groups had different perceptions, experiences and
expectations include usability, user experience, connectivity and need for technical
support.
With reference to answering the fourth and final research question of the study, the
common mobile learning characteristics include collaboration, context, flexibility,
control, blending, mobile learning activities, connectivity, technical support, cost,
usability, user experience, awareness, motivation, learners’ socio-economic and
educational background and possible risk of misuse of mobile learning resources.
However, the answer to the final research question required more than just a list of
the characteristics mentioned above, particularly since these mobile learning
characteristics as outcomes of this study would be taken into consideration when
designing a mobile learning environment for Pakistani universities in future.
Therefore, in the light of findings of the research, a mobile learning framework for
Pakistani universities has been developed (for details and relevant discussion, refer to
the Section 7.3.5 and Figure 40). This framework answers the final research
question by integrating the main categories of stakeholders, interactivity and
technology with each other and grouping relevant mobile learning characteristics
under each of these categories together with certain socio-cultural factors to be
considered when designing mobile learning environment for Pakistani universities.
To be more clear and precise in answering the research questions, the new Mobile
Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan could be used as a blueprint as well
as an action plan for designing mobile learning environments in Pakistani
universities and framing a mobile pedagogy.
7.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter concludes the outcomes of this research into a new Mobile Learning
Framework for Universities in Pakistan. The initial mobile learning conceptual
model was presented in the opening sections of the chapter to remind the reader of
the conceptualization that emerged from the literature and to inform the research
design for this study. A detailed discussion was presented to compare each
component of the old model with the new framework in separate sections. The
272
findings confirming those in the literature and the new findings have been clearly
stated in figures and in text to indicate the contributions of this research to the body
of knowledge in the field of mobile learning.
Different possibilities of generalization of each component of the new Mobile

Learning Framework have been discussed for the developed and developing
countries. A detailed comparison for the applicability of characteristics included in
Mobile Learning Framework has been added in Appendix J as Table 11. Based on
the findings and outcomes of this research, answers to the research questions have
been presented in the concluding sections of the chapter.
273
Chapter Eight – Conclusions
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
8.1 Introduction
This chapter concludes the findings of this research. The major contributions made
by this research to theory and practice are presented in the following sections. The
development of a mobile learning framework has contributed to the theory
component of mobile learning. As discussed in Chapter 7, MLF has been developed
from the data collected from Pakistani universities, yet provides a blueprint for the
planning and implementation of mobile learning intiatives in university
environements in other developed and developing countries. Recommendations for
the practice have been made for a number of stakeholders potentially involved in a
mobile learning environment if implemented in future in Pakistani university
environments as well as for other developing and developed countries. Limitations
of this study have been acknowledged in Section 8.3 and proposals for future
research are presented in Section 8.4. Subsequently, there is a chapter summary and
a list of the references used within the whole thesis. Finally, several appendices have
been added for the reader’s reference.
8.2 Research Contributions
This research makes a number of contributions to the field of mobile learning as

presented in detail in the previous chapters as outcomes of the analysis of data
gleaned from the students’ focus groups, teachers’ focus groups and interviews with
administrative stakeholders from Pakistani universities. In the previous chapter
(Chapter 7), the mobile learning framework for Pakistani university environments
was presented in reference to the findings presented in the Chapter 4, Chapter 5 and
Chapter 6. This section will not only confirm some of the major contributions made
by this research to mobile learning literature, theory development, mobile learning
274
researchers as well as practitioners, but will also articulate those contributions with
reference to the mobile learning in Pakistan in particular and in developing countries
in general. In addition, it is important to note that this study has been mainly focused
on Pakistani university environments and other similar developing countries;
however, some of the findings are generalizable for developed countries as well.
Some examples were mentioned in Chapter 7; similarly, several pointers for widely
generalizable findings and recommendations have been discussed in the following
concluding sections.
From the data analysis assisted by Nvivo and the interpretations of participants’
statements, four main areas have emerged as outcomes of this study where mobile
learning characteristics have been investigated for Pakistani university environments
and major contributions of this research have been concluded. These areas include:
1) identification of key stakeholders who will directly or indirectly involved in
mobile learning environment, 2) pedagogical benefits of mobile learning, 3)
technological aspect of mobile learning, and 4) socio-cultural factors which may
greatly influence the success of mobile learning implementation in Pakistani
university environments. The following subsections highlight the major findings and
contributions of this research to each of these areas.
8.2.1 Key Stakeholders in a Mobile Learning Environment
In a developing country environment such as Pakistan, the involvement of certain

stakeholders in a mobile learning implementation is imperative. For example, in the
research design, a number of key stakeholders were included as participants for data
collection including students, teachers, IT managers, instructional designers and
senior administrative personnel; however, the outcomes of the data analysis as
presented in Chapter 6 indicate that a few more groups of stakeholders should be
included in the future implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments.
These newly added groups of stakeholders include parents and guardians of the
students who are usually responsible for students’ education expenditure in Pakistani
social environment; therefore, they need to be aware of students’ involvement in
mobile learning. The findings revealed that mobile learning educational designers
275
and content developers are required to assist with designing and developing certain
mobile learning activities and software applications as well as optimization of
learning content to be accurately displayed on mobile devices. It is recommended
that Universities in Pakistan consider involving telecommunication providers in the
mobile learning implementation process to negotiate mobile internet data plans for
staff and students.
The identification of key stakeholders for a particular educational environment such

as universities in Pakistan is crucial to the success of any future implementation of
mobile learning in Pakistani university environments. This research has made this
important contribution to the mobile learning literature; moreover, future mobile
learning researchers could use MLF (refer to Figure 40 in Chapter 7) to implement
mobile learning in Pakistan and other countries with university environments similar
to those of Pakistan. Involving parents or guardians might also work for some
neighbouring countries near the Indian sub-continent whose socio-economic and
socio-cultural are the same as Pakistan’s. The involvement of university senior
executives, academic leaders and IT staff in mobile learning initiatives would be
required in university environments in almost any place in the world, thereby making
it generalizable to the wider population. Negotiating with telecommunication
providers may vary with different countries with reference to the strength and
monopoly of certain telecommunication companies or providers. For instance, in
Pakistan, it is possible for universities to negotiate cheaper rates for
telecommunication services for students and staff but it may not work in some other
countries.
Another contribution made by this research is that the list of stakeholders identified
by this research would also be useful for other mobile learning researchers around
the world who want to identify and recruit potential research participants for the data
collection for future mobile learning studies in university environments for
developed or developing countries.
8.2.2 Mobile Learning Pedagogy
The outcomes of the data analysis in this research show that certain mobile learning
characteristics create pedagogical benefits for the teaching and learning
276
environments of universities. These characteristics are based on the learner’s

interactivity with the teacher, the learning resources and learning environment
irrespective of the learner’s location, physical presence and timing; outcomes of this
research show that these characteristics mainly include collaboration, context,
blended learning, control and mobile learning activities or content. For instance, in
Pakistani universities, students and teachers have been using mobile devices to
collaborate with each other for projects and assignments across multiple contexts on
campus as well as during fieldwork, internships and data collection activities.
Similarly, students and teachers have been involved in several mobile learning
activities informally by blending these mobile learning activities with existing
mobile learning activities which proved to enhance students’ motivation to engage
into learning activities. These pedagogical benefits make mobile learning distinct
from other forms of learning as it conforms to the nature of the human learning
process which is a continuous process irrespective of time and location (Engeström
1987). These characteristics of mobile learning lead to the notion of a distinct
mobile learning pedagogy which includes a unique blend of technology, and supports
the strong learning theories such as constructivist, behaviourist and conversational
learning theories as well as activity theory (Anderson 2008; Beetham and Sharpe
2013; Hamm, Drysdale, and Moore 2014; Laurillard 2007; McConatha et al. 2014;
Naismith et al. 2004a; Ozdamli 2012; Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula 2010; Traxler
2011; Uden 2007; UNESCO 2013a; Vygotsky 1978). In the mobile learning
intiatives and projects around the world, UNESCO has been actively engaging
researchers and practitioners from all over the world in pursuit of the development of
mobile learning policy guidelines and strategies. During Mobile Learning Week
2014, UNESCO called for contributions to develop a mobile pedagogy (Steve 2012;
UNESCO 2013b, 2013a). The contribution to mobile learning pedagogy made by
the findings of this research may add to the mobile pedagogy development initiated
by UNESCO. The list of mobile learning characteristics leading to the establishment
of a mobile learning pedagogy for university environments is a key contribution of
this research to the mobile learning literature and theory development. Future
researchers could build upon the contribution of this study and work towards the
detailed design and evaluation of mobile learning pedagogy for university
environments and other educational settings across the world.
277
8.2.3 Harnessing the Power of Technology
As discussed in section 8.2.2, the availability of mobile technology is crucial to the

establishment of a mobile learning pedagogy. In particular, harnessing the power of
mobile technologies for education would be of great advantage to the developing
countries such as Pakistan. The adoption of mobile technologies in Pakistan and
other developing countries has greatly accelerated over the last two decades
(WorldBank 2009). The outcomes of this research show that there are several
technological characteristics of mobile learning that need to be considered if the
power of technology is to be harnessed for university learning environments in
Pakistan as well as working towards the mobile learning pedagogy. As discussed in
detail in Chapter 7, these technological characteristics include flexibility,
connectivity, technical support, cost and usability. The data collected from a number
of stakeholders from Pakistani universities reveal that the existing informal use of
mobile devices for learning by students and teachers has added flexibility to their
teaching and learning. However, data from this research also reveal that some of the
characteristics related to the technological aspect would need to be carefully
evaluated before any implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani university
environments.
Participants from Pakistani universities shared their experiences, perceptions and

expectations of certain technology-related characteristics such as mobile internet
connectivity, availability and need for technical support, cost of mobile devices and
mobile internet and usability of mobile devices for learning (refer Chapter 4, 5 and 6
for details). Mobile learning literature shows that students’ experiences with
technology, their views regarding the features of mobile devices, and their concerns
about usability and cost differ widely in many countries (Alzaza and Yaakub 2011;
Economides and Grousopoulou 2009, 2010; Gururajan et al. 2011; Oliver and
Goerke 2008; Song 2011). Therefore, the findings of this research and MLF can be
generalized to the developed countries as well. By using the Mobile Learning
Framework from this research as a baseline, researchers in other countries might
need to collect data separately from other countries to conceptualize and theorize the
technology aspect of mobile learning for their own countries.
278
8.2.4 Socio-Cultural Factors Impacting on Mobile Learning

Implementation in Pakistan
As detailed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6; several socio-cultural factors emerged from the

analysis of data about the perceptions and expectations of the research participants.
According to the participants, these socio-cultural factors might greatly impact on the
future of mobile learning in Pakistan. These socio-cultural factors include
awareness, motivation, training, diversity in educational backgrounds, affordability
and negative usage. Participants stressed the need to raise the awareness of mobile
learning among teaching and learning communities. Similarly, utilizing the
motivation of students and teachers for mobile learning by providing them with
appropriate training and support would be of great advantage for teaching and
learning environments in Pakistani universities. Customized training and financial
support would also be required for people from diverse educational and socio-
economic backgrounds in order to create uniformity in the audience and among users
of mobile learning. Finally, in order to ensure mobile learning implementation a
success in Pakistani university environments, it is essential to establish certain rules
and regulations to avoid the possible negative exploitation (such as missing face-to-
face lectures and engaging in non-constructive activities on mobile devices) of
mobile learning opportunities by all of the stakeholders in university environments in
Pakistan.
Socio-cultural factors, including the risks and challenges mentioned by the

participants in this research, would also be applicable to other developing countries
since similar challenges related to social and cultural norms and economic limitations
of developing countries’ environments have been pointed by Mohammad (2012) and
Sife et al. (2007) for Malaysia and Tanzania. In addition, some researchers from
other developing countries have mentioned other issues such as motivation as
discussed by Barker et al. (2005), and Kumar et al. (2010) mentioned the socio-
economic plight of children in India. However, none of these literature studies have
concluded that a consideration of these socio-cultural factors are crucial for the
success of mobile learning implementation. The findings of this research regarding
socio-cultural factors may be generalized for other developing countries having
similar social, cultural and economic trends as those of Pakistan.
279
Although, socio-cultural factors have been determined for a developing country as

outcomes of this research, developed countries might also utilize the socio-cultural
component of the MLF (see Figure 40 in Chapter 7) partially as some of the socio-
cultural factors and challenges might apply to the university environments in
developed countries as well. For instance, most of the developed countries host
multicultural populations due to the majority of the immigrants from Asian and
African developing countries who may have similar needs in terms of awareness,
training and might have different educational and economic background as compared
to the nationals of the developed countries. In particular, universities in developed
countries might be able to redevelop their mobile learning strategies and
implementation policies to acknowledge the cohorts of students from international
community who have different social, cultural and economic values from those of
nationals of developed countries. Interestingly, there is little in the mobile learning
literature that considers this important matter in terms of mobile learning
implementations, pilots and trials in being undertaken for all educational levels in
developed countries. Some of the challenges such as the negative use of mobile
learning resources might not apply to the university environments in developed
countries because the majority of the educational institutions and universities in these
countries have established a code of conduct to ensure the ethical utilization of the
university’s learning resources already available. However, it might still be relevant
for developed countries to be cautioned about these negative uses by student cohorts
from diverse backgrounds.
To conclude, the Mobile Learning Framework presented in Chapter 7 has been

formulated as the outcome of this research for university environments in Pakistan
yet it has scope to be generalized to other developing countries particularly
neighbouring countries to Pakistan. Mobile learning researchers and practitioners
from developed countries might also be able to build upon some of the findings of
this research catering to the needs of particular university environments and multi-
cultural cohorts within student and staff populations.
280
8.3 Recommendations
This research has focused mainly on identifying mobile learning characteristics for
Pakistani university environments; therefore, by concluding the results, discussion
and findings of this research, there are a number of recommendations to be made to
several stakeholders in Pakistani university environments. The following
recommendations would also serve to demonstrate the practical implications of this
research for several potential stakeholders. These stakeholders could include people
who are directly and indirectly concerned and involved in planning for mobile
learning project for trials, mobile learning future research, design and redesign of
mobile learning content and activities, cost and resources required for mobile
learning implementation, operations and its success in Pakistani university
environments. Further, these recommendations could also be utilized by universities
and stakholders in other developing or developed countries planning to implement
mobile learning intiatives in their organizations.
Students would benefit the most from any future mobile learning implementation in
Pakistani university environments. Students would be able to use mobile devices to
learn independently of time and location by engaging in learning activities anywhere
and at any time and collaborating with teachers and peers. Engaging in mobile
learning would provide them with the opportunity to use educational ICTs at an
international standard. It would also broaden their views and they could consider
exchange opportunities in other countries, be these developing or developed
countries.
Teachers would be able to add flexibility to their existing teaching and learning
process, optimize their time for student consultation, manage their teaching
workload, and collaborate with students by providing support for their learning
process. Teachers would be able to avail themselves of training opportunities in
order to use the latest ICTs in their teaching and learning. Further, teachers could
experiment with mobile learning in several innovative ways appropriate for their
particular courses.
281
By introducing and implementing mobile learning, universities might be able to

incorporate their ICT strategies and upgrade their educational ICTs to meet
international standards of providing modern technological resources and facilities to
staff and students. In addition, universities might save the costs of maintaining
computer labs and associated hardware as the use of mobile devices for learning
might reduce the students’ use of computer labs on campus. University executives
could use mobile learning implementation as a marketing edge within the Pakistani
higher education market to enhance their reputation and boost student enrolments.
Academic leaders and educational designers would be able to consider the findings
of this research when designing mobile learning activities within Pakistani
universities. They could use the Mobile Learning Framework for Pakistani
universities to embed interactivity into the mobile learning content design while
keeping the technology-related characteristics in focus; they could work towards
their own mobile learning pedagogy. Socio-cultural factors might also provide
insights for mobile learning content design for different cohorts of students within
the universities.
New jobs will be created for the mobile learning content developers who will be
responsible for developing mobile learning applications and activities in
collaboration with educational designers. Alternatively, universities might outsource
mobile learning content development to the ICT contractors, educational content
development companies and publishing companies. However, the role of mobile
learning content developers and educational designers is crucial not only in
developing mobile learning content, but also in providing support and maintenance
to the teaching staff once mobile learning has been blended into the university’
existing learning streams.
IT managers may need to recruit or appoint separate staff members to deal with the
enquiries from mobile learning users including teachers and students. IT managers
would also need to manage necessary upgrades to existing ICT infrastructure to cater
for the mobile learning implementation and operational requirements.
Telecommunication providers would be interested to market particular mobile
internet data plans and packages for students and teachers from the targeted higher
282
education mobile learning market. Universities might be able to negotiate with

telecommunication providers for discounted rates for staff and students.
Parents of the students may be able to engage in mobile learning indirectly to check
information such as their children’s study progress, enrolment status, grades, exam
results, fee status and attendance status. Similar practice has been reported by one of
the administrators in University C where parents have been given access to their
children’s records by allocating them separate login names and passwords for the
university’s Learning Management System. However, issues could arise about the
privacy of the university-owned data that could be leaked publically, causing
universities serious trouble. Universities could set up policies and allow stakeholders
outside the university, such as parents, a restricted access to university data and
information systems.
A key recommendation emerging from this research is that universities develop and
enforce a code of conduct for the ethical use of mobile learning resources for staff
and students. According to the participants in this research, this is a strong concern
and if addressed successfully, this will enhance chances of success for mobile
learning implementation in Pakistani universities. In addition, universities might
need to change some of the existing policies such as the mandatory attendance policy
which may conflict with or compromise the benefits of mobile learning such as
enhanced flexibility for staff and students. Change in university policies is a critical
and complicated process which involves bureaucracy at many managerial levels
within the organizational structure. Similarly, the development and enforcement of a
code of conduct for the ethical use of university resources and flexibility provided by
mobile learning by staff and students would be a difficult step for senior executives.
However, these procedural upgrades are key ingredients for the success of mobile
learning in Pakistani universities.
Another recommendation for the universities in Pakistan planning to introduce or test

mobile learning would be to establish a BYOD policy. Establishing BYOD policy
would encourage students to experiment with mobile leanring activities informally
using their own devices. As discussed in the discussion and findings chapters (4, 5
and 6) about students’ expectations from university to assist with purchase of mobile
devices for learning, the senior executives of universities could achieve this goal by
283
establishing the BYOD policy for staff and students. This would result in saving
costs to university as well as lesser problems of privacy of users’ personal data if
they would use university-owned devices.
8.4 Limitations of the Study
There are a number of contributions made by this study to the literature and
implications for practice as detailed earlier sections of this chapter; however, the
study also has several limitations as discussed in the following paragraphs.
This study has focused on the higher education sector, in particular, universities in
Pakistan. Mobile learning characteristics and challenges might be very different in
other teaching and learning environments in Pakistan such as elementary and
secondary schools, professional training programs and workplace learning
environments.
This study did not focus on particular mobile devices such as tablets or smart phones
and or particular brands such as Apple, Samsung or Microsoft; nor did it focus on a
certain platform such as iOS, Windows or Android devices. Mobile learning
characteristics were investigated irrespective of the users’ possession and use of a
particular device. However, during the site visits in data collection and focus groups
sessions, it was observed that participants had devices representing a variety of
makes, models, brands and platforms. It is important to mention that the benefits of
mobile learning may not be harnessed if a particular device is used or specified
unless it is done for a controlled research experiment or the education provider is
generous enough to provide identical devices to all staff and students. Ideally,
mobile learning would be blended into the existing forms of learning within
universities as seamless integration and users of almost all types of smart mobile
devices would be able to access learning resources and engage in mobile learning
activities.
Another important limitation of this study is the small sample size of the population
for data collection which might make it difficult to generalize the findings of this
study to a wider population. Three mainstream Pakistani universities were included
284
for participation in this research where 6 focus groups were conducted with staff and
students and 9 interviews were conducted to the administrative stakeholders.
However, this limitation might not affect or compromise the findings of this study
for generalization since university policies, funding and structure is governed by
Higher Education Commission in Pakistan which is a federal government agency for
maintaining certain standards and quality of higher education and funding allocation.
Therefore, all of the mainstream universities have similar policies and standards in
all states and provinces of Pakistan which makes it rational to generalize the findings
of this research to almost all mainstream private and public sector universities in
Pakistan.
The universities included in this research are located in the metropolitan area of the
large city of Lahore in the biggest province of Pakistan; other small cities and
regional universities have not been included as cases in this study. Although, the
student cohorts in these three mainstream universities represent all regions, rural and
under-developed areas, it is to be acknowledged that the feasibility of exploring
mobile learning for other regions might reveal many more challenges as well as
potentials for the populations living in those areas.
Due to the constraints of time and resources for a PhD study, only certain types of
stakeholders participated in data collection; these were students, teachers, IT
managers, academic leaders and university senior executives; therefore, there is a
need to include the perspectives of telecommunication providers, mobile learning
content designers and developers and other members of the community such as
parents or guardians of students.
This study used qualitative data derived from focus groups and interviews due to the
nature of research problem. A quantitative survey study may be replicated in future
to include the participants from more universities.
This study focuses on the conceptualization of mobile learning for Pakistani

universities with no implementation trials associated with it. A future study might
build upon the findings of this research to acquire funding from national or
international agencies such as Higher Education Commission in Pakistan or
285
UNESCO as international agency for a trial implementation of mobile learning

project in one of the participant universities.
8.5 Future Research Directions
The outcomes of this research reveal several possibilities for future research into
mobile learning in Pakistan at different education levels and in different settings.
Many of these future research directions could also be considered by mobile learning
researchers in other developing or developed countries. A number of possible
proposals for future research are as follows:
 A trial implementation of mobile learning should be conducted in one of the

universities based on the findings of this research. A trial or pilot
implementation would not only persuade the administrative stakeholders about
the benefits and potential of mobile learning for universities, but would also
reveal real-time challenges associated with the implementation of mobile
learning in Pakistani university environments.
 In case of limited funding and resources for trial implementation, an offline

mobile learning could be researched for university students. In an offline mobile
learning environment, students would be able to download or store learning
resources on their mobile devices either by connecting to a computer or subject to
the availability of freely available Wi-Fi on campus. They would be able to
review these learning resources in their own time whenever they wanted.
However, students would have limited mobile learning activities in off-line
mobile learning but it would be good to start with mobile learning in university
environments.
 Building upon the outcomes of this research about mobile learning pedagogy,
future researchers could pursue the detailed design and evaluation of mobile
learning pedagogy for university environments.
 Distance education provider universitities and professional institutes might be

more interested in embracing mobile learning practices compared to traditional
286
education providers. Future research is needed in order to explore the feasibility

of introducing mobile learning to distance education in Pakistan.
 Another mobile learning future research proposal with huge potential is to offer
offline mobile learning to the underprivileged populations in rural areas of
Pakistan to provide them with the basic education facilities using low-cost mobile
devices. This future research proposal might need enormous funding and the
involvement of many government and non-government agencies as well strong
community support.
 One of the key future research proposals is to use mobile learning in order to
improve and promote female literacy rates in Pakistan’s rural areas. In some
rural areas, parents do not choose to send their daughters to school for security
reasons; these girls could benefit from mobile learning opportunities in oder to
become literate.
 A code of conduct for mobile learning users could be developed for university
environments. Data could be collected from teachers, students and university
leadership groups in order to establish a code of conduct. Code of conduct may
include but is not limited to fair use of network resources, ethical communication
among staff and students, seeking permission before recording any face-to-face
lecture or virtual communication, and respecting the privacy of teaching staff and
fellow students. The establishment and enforcement of a code of conduct for
mobile learning users would be one of the key factors in the success of mobile
learning implementation in Pakistani university environments.
 Future research opportunities exist in the area of self-regulated learning for

mobile learners. There is a dire need for the teaching staff and senior university
leaders to perceive the importance of student-centred learning. In order to train,
prepare and encourage students for self-regulated learning, staff should be
convinced and trained to accept a less teacher-controlled learning environment.
 The use of mobile devices for social networking has become popular among
university students in Pakistan and across the world. Universties and education
providers could use these social networking forums as social learning spaces
287
instead of considering them as negative influences on students’ academic

performance. Furuther research is needed in this area to determine how
universities could exploit the opportunity provided by these emergent social
learning spaces to enhance student learning.
 Establishing and incorporating BYOD policies in university environments as

precursor to mobile learning intiative is another future research opportunity.
Currently, BYOD policies are being developed and tested in some of the
universities in developed countries; thus making it an emerging future reserch are
for mobile leanring in higher education environments around the world. BYOD
policies for university environments in developing countries would also be worth
researching by future researchers in order to assist universities in developing
countries to switch to mobile learning with fewer complications.
 Future researchers might need to look into the opportunities mobile learning may
provide for students and teachers in primary and secondary education. The study
could also include a comparison between higher education and
primary/secondary education.
 Another study is needed to investigate the comparison between using mobile

technologies in teaching and learning Vs using non-mobile technologies to see
the real difference and impact of mobile learning in teaching and learning
environments.
8.6 Chapter Summary
This chapter concludes the thesis by providing a precise picture of the major
contributions of this study to the literature and body of knowledge in the field of
mobile learning with some pointers to mobile learning for developing countries in
particular and for developed countries in general. Recommendations for a number of
stakeholders in Pakistani university environments would provide them with
guidelines to start introducing mobile learning into mainstream education within the
universities in Pakistan. Limitations of the study have been acknowledged and could
be addressed by future research in this area. Future research directions include a trial
288
implementation of mobile learning in Pakistani universities and provision of

education to the underprivileged populations in rural areas of Pakistan.
289
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Every reasonable effort has been made to acknowledge the owners of copyright
material. I would be pleased to hear from any copyright owner who has been omitted
or incorrectly acknowledged.
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APPENDICES
310
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APPENDIX A
Participant Information Sheet
My name is Umera Imtinan. I am currently completing a PhD research entitled as

“Identifying mobile learning characteristics for universities in Pakistan” at Curtin
University, Australia.
Purpose of Research
In this research, I am investigating the characteristics of mobile learning for Pakistani

universities’ environment.
Your Role
I am interested in exploring your opinions about mobile learning characteristics for

Pakistani universities’ environment. I will ask you questions regarding your opinion
on certain mobile learning characteristics for Pakistani universities’ environment. I
will provide you with a list of questions. The interview will take 30 to 40 minutes of
your time. The session will be conducted in Urdu. With your permission, I will
record the interview in audio format. The recorded data will be translated into
English.
Consent to Participate
Your involvement in this research is entirely voluntary. You have the right to
withdraw at any stage without it affecting your rights or my responsibilities. You
will be invited to sign a consent form. When you have signed the consent form I will
assume that you have agreed to participate and allow me to use your data in this
research.
Confidentiality
The information you provide will be kept separate from your personal details. My
supervisors and I will only have access to this information. The interview transcript
311
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will not have your name or any other identifying information on it and in adherence
to the university policy, the recorded interview and transcribed information will be
kept in a locked cabinet for five years, before it is destroyed.
Further Information
This study has been approved by the Curtin University Human Research Ethics
Committee (Approval Number IS_10_13). If needed, verification of approval can be
obtained either by writing to the Curtin University Human Research Ethics
Committee, c/- Office of Research and Development, Curtin University of
Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, 6845 or by telephoning 9266 2784 or emailing
hrec@curtin.edu.au
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APPENDIX B
Cover Letter
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am currently undertaking a PhD research at Curtin University, Australia on the

topic of identifying mobile learning characteristics for university environments in
Pakistan. I would like to invite you to participate in a focus group discussion on the
topic. The focus group discussion will cover the importance of using mobile devices
for learning purposes in the Pakistani university environment.
Overview of the study
The study will be focusing on theorising mobile learning for the Pakistani
universities. Mobile learning involves using mobile devices as learning tools and
accessing learning resources outside the academic premises to allow the learning
process to be more dynamic, flexible and collaborative.
Characteristics for mobile learning will be identified in Pakistani universities’

context and a mobile learning conceptual model for the universities in Pakistan will
be developed. The model will assist administrators and teachers to use mobile
learning characteristics in universities in Pakistan. In addition, this model will
provide the conceptual foundation for future research in mobile learning in Pakistani
universities and other higher education institutions. The major objectives of the
research are to:
1. Identify the characteristics for mobile learning in Pakistani universities’

environment.
2. Investigate the perceptions and expectations of university administrators,

students and teachers of mobile learning characteristics in Pakistani
universities.
3. Develop a mobile learning conceptual model for Pakistani universities.
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Currently, mobile learning has been theorized, applied and tested mainly in the
developed countries. However, in spite of the advancement in mobile technologies,
developing countries like Pakistan have not gained researcher’s attention with
respect to experimentation and conceptualization of mobile learning. Mobile
learning characteristics need to be identified for Pakistan and other developing
countries with respect to their own environments. To satisfy the objectives of this
research, the following stakeholders’ groups have been selected to participate in this
research.
These stakeholders’ groups include:
1. Students (as recipients of mobile learning)
2. Teachers (as deliverers of mobile learning)
3. Administrative authorities (as providers/facilitators of mobile learning)
The Data Collection
The data collection will be accomplished in two phases:
Phase One: During Phase one, students and teachers are invited to participate in
Focus Groups discussion to express their opinion about mobile learning
characteristics for Pakistani university environments.
Phase Two: Data from Phase one will be analyzed and the results will assist the
researcher to conduct interviews with the administrative stakeholders such as
educational managers, instructional designers and IT managers in the Phase two of
this research.
The collected data from both phases will assist the researcher to evaluate and assess
the mobile learning characteristics required for teaching and learning in Pakistani
universities. It is anticipated that the Pakistani universities will use the new mobile
learning model as a guide to upgrade their ICTs to include mobile learning for their
teaching and learning purposes.
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If you agree to participate, please email me on

umera.imtinan@postgrad.curtin.edu.au. Upon receipt of your agreement, I will send
you a schedule of the focus group discussion session. If you have any questions,
please email umera.imtinan@postgrad.curtin.edu.au or you can contact my
Supervisors Associate Professor Vanessa Chang vanessa.chang@cbs.curtin.edu.au or
Dr Tomayess Issa tomayess.issa@cbs.curtin.edu.au
Yours faithfully,
Umera Imtinan
PhD Candidate,
School of Information Systems,
Curtin University,
Australia
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APPENDIX C
CONSENT FORM
Title of PhD Research: Identifying Mobile Learning Characteristics for Universities

in Pakistan
 I have been provided with the participant information sheet.

 I understand that my involvement is voluntary and I can withdraw at any time
without problem.
 I understand the purpose and procedures of the study.
 I understand that no personal identifying information like my name and
address will be used and that all information will be securely stored for five
years before being destroyed.
 I agree to participate in the study outlined to me.
 I agree for this discussion to be recorded in audio and video formats.
 I understand that all information provided is treated as confidential.
 I have been given the opportunity to ask questions.
Participant Name: Signature:
Date:
Witness Name: Signature:
Date:
Researcher Name: Signature:
Date:
316
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APPENDIX D
Focus Groups Questions for Students in Pakistani

Universities
1. How much time do you spend browsing the internet on your mobile device?
2. In the past few months, how often do you need technical (or IT) support when
browsing the internet using your mobile device, for example accessing emails
or engaging in social networking?
3. While using a mobile device for browsing the internet, for reading or writing
emails and social networking, discuss any difficulties that you have faced?
4. Share your experiences about using a mobile device for learning.
5. List some of the learning activities you can perform using your mobile
device.
6. If some part of your course is offered in a mobile learning mode, would you
be interested to enroll in that course? Why?
7. Using your mobile device for learning, you will be able to access learning
resources from anywhere and at any time; comment on this concept of
flexibility in learning.
8. What is your opinion about using a mobile device to collaborate with peers
and teachers when you are participating in the learning activities such as
fieldwork and completing projects or assignments?
9. Using your mobile devices, you are able to gather additional information
during fieldwork or learning excursions. Comment on this statement.
10. If the students are enrolled in a mobile learning mode for a course, they are
capable of self-study or self-learning without much intervention from
teachers. Comment on the statement.
11. What are your concerns when using a mobile device for learning?
12. In summary, what are your thoughts/expectations if mobile learning is
introduced into a university environment in Pakistan?
317
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APPENDIX E
Focus Groups Questions for Teachers in Pakistani

Universities
1. How much time do you spend browsing the internet on your mobile device?
2. In the past few months, how often do you need technical (or IT) support when
browsing the internet using your mobile device, for example accessing emails
or engaging in social networking?
3. While using a mobile device for browsing the internet, for reading or writing
emails and social networking, discuss any difficulties that you have faced?
4. Share your experiences about using a mobile device for teaching and
learning.
5. List some of the teaching and learning activities you can perform using your
mobile device.
6. If some part of your course is offered in a mobile learning mode, would you
be interested to teach that course? Why?
7. To create teaching and learning content for mobile devices, what are your
needs in terms of training and technical support?
8. Using your mobile device for teaching and learning, you will be able to
access and update learning resources from anywhere and at any time;
comment on this concept of flexibility in learning.
9. Using a mobile device will allow you to collaborate and communicate with
your colleagues, also with your students when they are participating in the
learning activities such as fieldwork and completing projects or assignments.
Comment on this statement.
10. Using mobile devices, students are able to gather additional information
during fieldwork or learning excursions, it can improve their critical thinking
skills. Discuss this statement.
11. Using mobile devices for teaching and learning will allow students to be
318
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12. What are your concerns when using a mobile device for teaching and
learning?
319
Appendices
APPENDIX F
Interview Questions for Administrators in Pakistani

Universities
1. Share your experiences/thoughts and concerns about using a mobile device
for teaching and learning.
2. Given the list of some of the teaching and learning activities for mobile
devices; share your thoughts.
3. Would you be interested to incorporate mobile learning in the courses offered
at your university? Why or why not? Discuss.
4. To create teaching and learning content for mobile devices, how much
support university may be able to provide in terms of training and technical
support to teachers and students?
5. Using mobile devices for teaching and learning, students and teachers will be
able to access and update learning resources from anywhere and at any time;
6. Using mobile devices for learning will allow students and teachers to
collaborate and communicate with each other when they are participating in
the learning activities such as fieldwork and completing projects or
assignments. Comment on this statement.
7. Using mobile devices for learning may assist the students to gather additional
information during fieldwork or learning excursions. Discuss this statement.
320
Appendices
APPENDIX G
Interview Questions for IT Managers in Pakistani

Universities
1. How many students and teachers connect to the university network from
mobile devices?
2. How often do students and teachers require technical (or IT) support when
browsing the internet using mobile devices?
3. Share your experiences/thoughts about using a mobile device for teaching
and learning.
4. Discuss any difficulties that students and teachers may face when using
mobile devices/technologies for learning?
5. If some part of a course is offered in a mobile learning mode in the
university, is it possible to provide seamless integration of mobile devices
with Learning Management System?
6. To create teaching and learning content for mobile devices, would your
department be able to train teachers and provide IT support?
7. In summary, what are your thoughts/expectations and concerns if mobile
learning is introduced into a university environment in Pakistan?
321
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APPENDIX H
Interview Questions for Instructional Designers in

Pakistani Universities
1. While using mobile devices for learning, discuss any difficulties that students
and teachers may face?
2. Share your experiences as well as concerns about using a mobile device for
teaching and learning.
3. List some of the teaching and learning activities that can be performed by
teachers and students using mobile devices.
4. If some part of a course is offered in a mobile learning mode, would you be
able to design that part of the course into learning activities suitable for
mobile devices?
5. To create teaching and learning content for mobile devices, what are students
and teachers’ needs in terms of training and technical support?
6. Using mobile device for teaching and learning, students and teachers will be
able to access and update learning resources from anywhere and at any time;
7. Using mobile devices for learning will allow students and teachers to
collaborate and communicate with each other they are participating in the
learning activities such as fieldwork and completing projects or assignments.
Comment on this statement.
8. Using mobile devices for learning may assist the students to gather additional
information during fieldwork or learning excursions. Discuss this statement.
322
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APPENDIX I
Copyright Permissions
323
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PERMISSION TO USE COPYRIGHT MATERIAL AS SPECIFIED BELOW:
Figure1: A conceptual framework for designing mobile learning environments (Source: Danaher, Gururajan, and
Baig 2009)
I hereby give permission for Ms Umera Imtinan to include the above mentioned
material(s) in his/her PhD degree thesis for the Curtin University, Australia, and to
communicate this material via the Australasian Digital Thesis Program. This
permission is granted on a non-exclusive basis and for an indefinite period.
Signed:
Name: (Please Print) Patrick Danaher
Position: Professor in Educational Research, Faculty of Business, Education, Law

and Arts, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Date: 11 February 2014
Please return/email signed form to:
Umera Imtinan
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umera.imtinan@student.curtin.edu.au,
umera_imtinan@yahoo.com
School of Information Systems, Curtin University, Bentley Campus, Perth, Western

Australia, 6102
331
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PERMISSION TO USE COPYRIGHT MATERIAL AS SPECIFIED BELOW:
Figure1: Task model for mobile learning (Source: Taylor et al. 2006; Sharples et
al. 2007b)
I hereby give permission for Ms Umera Imtinan to include the above mentioned
material(s) in his/her PhD degree thesis for the Curtin University, Australia, and to
communicate this material via the Australasian Digital Thesis Program. This
permission is granted on a non-exclusive basis and for an indefinite period.
Signed:
Name: (Please Print) Mike Sharples
Position: Professor of Educational Technology, The Open University
332
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Date: 17th February 2014
Please return/email signed form to:
Umera Imtinan
umera.imtinan@student.curtin.edu.au,
umera_imtinan@yahoo.com
School of Information Systems, Curtin University, Bentley Campus,Perth, Western Australia,
6102
333
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335
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APPENDIX J
Table 11: Mobile Learning Characteristics: Developed Countries Vs Developing Countries
Mobile Learning Developed Countries (from literature) Developing Countries (findings from this
Characteristics research)
Collaboration Users are already collaborating with each other using Users are reluctant to collaborate with each
mobile and non-mobile technologies. Informal and other. A few of the teachers and students have
formal use of mobile devices in teaching and learning is started informal collaboration using mobile
already in practice (Motiwalla 2007). devices.
Blending Mobile learning is already happening informally in Blending mobile learning with existing learning
university learning environments along with traditional streams such as face-to-face learning and e-
learning activities. Teachers and students are learning tend to be the appropriate solution or
collaborating and accessing learning resources using ultimate starting point for university
their mobile devices (Gururajan et al. 2011; Pérez- environments in developing countries.
Sanagustín et al. 2012).
User Experience Majority of the users own smart phones and tablets. Some users from strong financial backgrounds
They are experienced with variety of mobile are experienced mobile device users, therefore,
technologies, therefore, are confident to include mobile more confident to be involved in mobile
device in teaching and learning (Oliver 2008; Koole learning.
2009).
Control Students tend to be independent learners and found Students tend to need teacher’s control over
responsible learners when engaged in mobile learning learning process, therefore, mobile learning
activities (Chen 2009; Wishart and Triggs 2010). activities need to be designed carefully in order
to consider and address this factor.
337
Appendices
Context Mobile devices have been experimented to be useful in Some informal contextual uses of mobile devices
multiple contexts such as during data collection, field for learning have been done by students. There is
work and classrooms. Pilot studies have already been no formal research or pilot study done in this
conducted showing positive results (Chen et al. 2003; regard.
Santos et al. 2010; Song 2011; Thüs et al. 2012).
Mobile Learning Teachers are already experimenting and engaging in Students have been doing some mobile learning
Activities formally and informally mobile learning activities for activities informally on their own. Similarly,
the courses they have been teaching (Naismith et al. teachers have been using mobile devices for their
2004b; Traxler 2009). own learning. There is little evidence of teachers
and students trying to engage in mobile learning
activities for a particular course.
Technical Plenty of technical support is available formally in There is lack of technical support available for
Support university environments (Motiwalla 2007; Naismith and students and teachers while trying to engage in
Paul 2009; Traxler 2009). mobile learning activities informally.
Flexibility Mobile device provides flexible options for learners and Students and teachers are convinced that mobile
teachers (Niasmith et al. 2004b; Pachler et al. 2012). devices would add flexibility to the teaching and
learning if implemented formally with the
availability of appropriate technical support.
Usability There are usability issues for mobile devices for learning Users in developing world find more usability
due to the fact that mobile devices have not been issues due to a few reasons. They do not have
designed for teaching and learning purposes. However, smart mobile devices and they call many issues
users in developed countries have fewer usability issues as usability issues due to lack of their user
because they have more user experience with these experience.
devices than that of the users in developing countries
(Oliver 2008; Koole 2009).
338
Appendices
Connectivity Users of teaching and learning environments in There are more connectivity issues in developing
developed world experience seamless connectivity due countries; therefore it interferes with users’
to the advanced and established telecommunication seamless engagement in teaching and learning
networks and infrastructure (Kukulska-Hulme 2012). using their mobile devices in and out of
academic premises.
Cost Mobile devices and mobile internet is expensive in Although, mobile devices and mobile internet
developed countries than that of developing countries. both are comparatively inexpensive in
However, users have more buying power, therefore they developing countries; majority of students and
do not consider cost as a major obstacle towards the teachers found it difficult to bear the cost of
mobile learning engagement (Dyson 2009; Lundin et al. engagement in mobile learning on their own.
2010)
Awareness Students and teachers are aware of benefits of mobile Majority of the stakeholders in teaching and
learning for teaching and learning environments; learning environments do not have awareness of
therefore tend to show more involvement and benefits of mobile learning they could have,
commitment for engagement in mobile learning (Oliver therefore, they are reluctant to be involved in
and Goerke 2008). mobile learning.
Motivation Students and teachers are self-motivated to experiment Students and teachers are self-motivated and
with mobile learning with their own mobile devices want to experiment and engage in mobile
(Oliver and Goerke 2008). learning if they would be supported to own
mobile devices and buy mobile internet data.
Negative usage Users in academia in developed world are considered Users in developing countries particularly
responsible for their attitude. There is very little been students have been reported to be involved in
reported in research literature about negative uses in negative activities in the name of mobile
teaching and learning environments in developed world learning. Negative uses might be reduced with
(Traxler 2009). more awareness and enforcements of certain
ethics for mobile learning engagement.
339
Appendices
Educational There is a strong structure of primary and secondary There is a great divide and variety in educational
Background education in developed world; therefore students in background of university students developed
universities have almost similar educational background. countries. This divide is due the different
This educational background is stronger than that of financial and geographic background of the
developing countries. Therefore, users find lesser students. Students from stronger financial and
problems while start engagement in mobile learning educational backgrounds already own smart
activities (Oliver and Goerke 2008; Traxler 2009). mobile devices and have more user experience
than the students from relatively low socio-
economic backgrounds and less developed areas.
Training Needs Training is considered an essential need for the teachers Teachers would need extensive training program
in teaching and learning environments in developed if they would need to involve in mobile learning
countries. Therefore, they would need a little training to formally for university teaching and learning.
involve in mobile learning if introduced formally in Teachers from non-ICT disciplines are not
university environments (Chen et al. 2010; Uzunboylu familiar with smart mobile devices and using
and Ozdamli 2011; Fuchs 2012). mobile internet.
340

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School of Information Systems

A Mobile Learning Framework for Universities in Pakistan

This thesis is presented for the Degree of

As alluded earlier, the findings of this research may be generalized to other

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr Tomayess Issa, my PhD Co-

My sincere thanks to AusAID Canberra and Australian Government for sponsoring

My gratitude also goes to my father, Imtinan M. M. Latif, for being a source of

2. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2013. "Offline Mobile Learning: A

4. Imtinan, U. 2013. “Mobile learning characteristics and challenges for

5. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2013. “Common Mobile Learning

6. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2012. “Characteristics of mobile learning

7. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. 2012. “Mobile Learning-Theoretical

9. Imtinan, U., V. Chang, and T. Issa. "Developing a mobile learning conceptual

10. Imtinan, U. 2010. “Identifying Mobile Learning Characteristics for Universities

1.1 Overview of the Thesis

contribution will be made by developing a mobile learning framework for Pakistani

1.2 Purpose of Research

1.3 Definition of Mobile learning

Mobile learning -sometimes referred to as mlearning- has different meanings

1.4 Importance of Mobile learning

As e-learning constitutes a substantial part of the educational ICTs in modern higher-

Brown et al. (2008, 1) consider mobile learning as a window of opportunity for

In Pakistani universities as well as universities around the world, a number of

1.5 Mobile Learning and Education

The advent of sophisticated and user-friendly mobile devices with hundreds of

1.6 Need for Mobile Learning Theory Building

1.7 Research Objectives and Questions

 identify the characteristics for mobile learning in Pakistani universities’

 investigate the perceptions and expectations of students, teachers and

 develop a mobile learning framework for Pakistani universities.

RQ3: What do university administrative stakeholders perceive and expect of mobile

1.8 Significance of the Research

 Students will be engaged in learning process anywhere-anytime and utilizing

 Educational managers and IT managers will provide support to teachers and

 Educational administrators will be able to make decisions and direct

By introducing and promoting mobile learning, and endorsing up-to-date technology

1.10 Overview of Research Approach

1.11 Acknowledgement for Published Work

It is important to acknowledge that several publications have been made out of

1.12 Thesis Outline and Structure

1.12 Chapter Summary

benefits. This research is an effort to theorize mobile learning for a developing

2.2 Scope of the Literature Review

For the purpose of a comprehensive literature review, certain topics in particular

 Mobile Learning: essays on philosophy, psychology and education by Kristóf

 Mobile Pedagogy and Perspectives on Teaching and Learning by McConatha

2.3 Definitional Aspects of Mobile Learning

As indicated by the literature, early definitions of mobile learning are somewhat

Similarly, Keegan (2005, 3) defines mobile learning as:

‘The provision of education and training on PDAs/palmtops/handhelds, smart

‘Mobile technologies and devices tend to change rapidly; therefore, when

mobile technologies has introduced the concept of connectedness of the society in

2.3.2 Learner-Centred Mobility

‘Mobile learning - as we understand it - is not about delivering content to

2.3.3 Augmenting with Learning Theories

According to Naismith, et al. (2004b), mobile technologies enable people to learn

It may be concluded that mobile learning is not merely an outcome of technological

2.4 Theoretical Perspectives of Mobile Learning

A number of mobile learning researchers have discussed the ZPD of Vygotsky