Forest Protection PDF

FOREST PROTECTION
DIRECTORATE OF FORESTS
GOVERNMENT OF WEST BENGAL
Forest Protection 1
This edition is published by
Development Circle,
Directorate of Forests,
Government of West Bengal,
2016
Aranya Bhavan
LA – 10A Block, Sector III
Salt Lake City, Kolkata,
West Bengal, 700098
Copyright © 2016 in text

Copyright © 2016 in design and graphics
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in any retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the copyright holders.
2 Forest Protection
Forest Protection
PREFACE
Among the objectives of forest management, the one which stands uppermost is Forest
protection. A forest manager is supposed to have knowledge about the various factors that
cause damage and degradation to forests. He should be able to identify the symptoms of
damage and should know how and when to take preventive and remedial measures. As part of
the JICA project on ‘Capacity Development for Forest Management and Training of Personnel’
being implemented by the Forest Department, Govt of West Bengal, these course materials on
Forest Protection have been prepared for induction training of the Foresters and Forest Guards.
The object of this training manual is to help the frontline forest personnel have a better
perception about the challenges of forest protection and enhance their capacity to deal with
the task.
The subjects covered in these materials broadly conform to syllabus laid down in the guidelines
issued by the Ministry of Environment of Forests, Govt of India, vide the Ministry’s No 3 -
17/1999-RT dated 05.03.13. In dealing with some of the parts of the course though, the syllabus
has undergone minor revision to facilitate better understanding of the subjects and to provide
their appropriate coverage. The revised syllabus, with such modifications, is appended.
The contents of the course materials have been compiled and edited by A Basu Ray Chaudhuri,
IFS (Retd). Many books and literature including those available in internet have been made use
of in preparing these course materials and references of such books and documents have been
cited in the respective lessons. Shri A Basu Ray Chaudhuri is indebted to many forest
officers who have helped in the preparation of these materials.
Efforts that have gone into making of these course materials will be best rewarded if the
frontline staff of the forest department find these materials useful in their day-to-day
works.
Kolkata, 2015
A Basu Ray Chaudhuri,IFS (Retd) N K Pandey,IFS

For IBRAD (Consultant) Chairman, SPMU, Forest
Department, Govt of WB
A Basu Ray Chaudhuri, IFS (Retd) N K Pandey, IFS

For IBRAD (Consultant) Chairman, SPMU, Forest Department,
Govt of West Bengal
Forest Protection 3
Forest Protection
Forest Protection Syllabus (revised)
Forest protection (10 hours), excursion 1 day, tour 4 days

1.Introduction* 1.1. Status of Forests. 1 hour*
- Forest status in India
- Forest status in WB
1.2 Need for Forest Protection
1.3. Factors responsible for degradation of
forests
1.4 Legal powers of frontline staff in forest
protection
2.Forest fires 2.1 Causes, types and effect on forests. 2 hours
2.2 Preventive measures
- Indirect measures*
- Direct measures*
2.3 Combative measures
- Detection of forest fire*
- Fire combat operations*
- Post-suppression operations*
2.4.fire occurrence and damage reports
2.5 Legal provisions in dealing fire offences*
3.Injuries by - Domestic animals* 1 hour
animals * - Effects of grazing and browsing
- Measures*
4.Human 4.1.Damage caused through human interface

interfaces and - Deforestation* 1
3 hours*
their control - diversion of forest land, shifting cultivation, 2
mining, encroachment
- Illicit felling and illicit removal of forest
produce*
- Faulty management*
- Defects in management plan
- Defects in execution
- Other damage*
5.Injuries by -Damage due to excessive number of desired

plants Species* 1
hour*
- Injuries by unwanted species 2
-climber
-weeds
-parasites
4 Forest Protection
Forest Protection
6. Injuries due to - Role played by carnivores* 1 hour

wild animal, pests - Injury by herbivores*
and diseases - Protection measures
- Injury by insects*
- Pests in nurseries
- Pests of important forest trees
- Injury due to diseases *
- Categories
- Common symptoms
- Disease in forest trees
7.Injuries due to -Flood and land slide 1 hour

natural calamities -Drought
-Frost
-Snow
Field study Observation of fire lines etc.
* These are modifications to the MoEF- prescribed syllabus, indicating revision/addition of topics
and change in lesson hours.
Forest Protection 5
Forest Protection
Lesson Contents Page No.

No.
1-5
1 • Lesson Plan
• Introduction
• Status of Forests
o Forest status in India
o Forest status in WB
• Need for Forest Protection
• Factors Responsible for degradation of Forests
• Legal powers of Frontline staff in Forest Protection
6-11
2 • Lesson Plan
• Forest Fires
• Causes of Forest Fires
o Natural Causes
o Fires caused by humans
• Types of forest fires
• Effects on Forests
• Preventive Measures
o Indirect Measures
o Direct Measures
12-20
3 • Lesson Plan
• Forest Fires (Continued)
o Combative measures
o Detection of Forest fire
o Fire combat operations
o Post –suppression operations
o Fire reports
o Legal Provisions
 Indian Forest Act 1927
 The Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972
o Appendix 1
o Appendix 2
6 Forest Protection
Forest Protection
21-28
4 • Lesson Plan
• Injuries by animal
o Introduction
o Domestic animals
o Damage caused by grazing animals
 Measures in Management
o Damage caused by browsing animals
 Preventive Measures for browsing
29-36
5 • Lesson Plan
• Human Interfaces and their control
o Introduction
o Damage caused through human interface
o Deforestation
 Diversion of forest land for non- forestry purpose
 Shifting Cultivation
6 37-43
• Lesson Plan
• Human Interface and their control (Continued)
• Deforestation (Continued)
o Mining
 Damage caused by Mining
 Preventive measures
 Remedial measures
o Encroachment
 Extent of Encroachment
 Factors responsible for Encroachment
 Preventive Measures
 Remedial Measures
7 44-53
• Lesson Plan
• Human Interface and their control (Continued)
• Illicit felling and illicit removal of forest produce
o Introduction
o Factors responsible for illicit felling
o Preventive Measures
o Remedial Measures
o Appendix 1
Forest Protection 7
Forest Protection
• Lesson Plan 54-62

8 • Human Interfaces and their Control (Continued)
o Faulty Management
o Defects in Management plan
o Defects in Execution of Plan
o Other Damage
• Injuries by Plants
o Introduction
o Damage due to excessive number of desired species
o Injuries by unwanted species
9 63-75
• Lesson Plan
• Injuries by wild animals
o Introduction
o Important role played by the carnivores
o Injury by Herbivores
 Protection Measures
o Injury by Insects
 Pests in nurseries
 Pests of Important forest trees
o Injury due to diseases
 Plantations are more disease prone
 Exotics may be vulnerable
 Categories of Disease
 Progress of disease
 What is expected of a forest manager
 Some common symptoms
 Disease in Forest Trees
10 • Lesson Plan 76-82

• Injuries due to natural calamities
 Flood
o Direct damage
o Indirect damage
o Symptoms of flood stress
 Landslides
o Silviculture measures
 Drought
o Measures
 Frost
o Categories
o Frost pocket
8 Forest Protection
Forest Protection
o Injuries due to frost

o Protection measures
 Snow
o Injuries due to snow
Forest Protection 9
10 Forest Protection
Forest Protection- Lesson 1
Lesson 1
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To know about scope of Forest Protection
• To know about status of forests – global, in India and West Bengal
• To understand the need of forest protection
• To know the various factors responsible for forest degradation
Backward Linkage: Nil
Forward Linkage:
• Elaboration of various degradation factors in subsequent lessons.
• To observe forest degradation sites during tour
Training Materials Required:
• Copy of lesson 1 to be circulated beforehand
Allocation of time:
• Introduction – 5 mts
• Status of forests – 15 mts
• Need for forest protection – 8 mts
• Factors responsible for forest degradation – 22 mts
• Discussion/ Miscellaneous – 10 mts.
Forest Protection 11
1. Introduction
Forest Protection is defined as that branch of forestry that deals with measures aimed at
prevention and control of damage to forests caused by man, animals, insects, fungi,
injurious plants and adverse climatic factors. Despite the wide range of benefits – direct
and indirect- provided by the forests to the human society, forests worldwide are under
severe threat. Although there is growing awareness about the services that forest
ecosystems provide and though more and more people now realize the crucial linkage
of forests to existence of man on this planet, forests are not in a happy state. People are
not doing enough to preempt the threat that forests are faced with, and it has been a
matter of concern that a major part of damage to forests is caused by man only.
2. Status of Forests
Global Status: Salient points of Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010 by FAO
are furnished below.
• The rate of deforestation (conversion to other uses) and loss of forests from
natural causes, though showing signs of decrease, is still alarmingly high.
• The rate decreased from an estimated 16 million ha per year in 1990’s to 13
million ha per year in the last decade.
• Net changes in the forest area has been estimated at (-) 5.2 million ha per year
during 2000-2010, down from (-)8.3 million ha per year during the period 1990-
2000.
(Net change is the difference between deforestation and afforestation. The above
figures show that forests are lost at a faster rate than that of creation. It is
encouraging of course that difference between the rate of deforestation and
creation of new forests has reduced in the last decade.)
• Primary forests which account for 36% (1.4 billion ha) of world’s forest area
shrank by more than 40 m ha – at a rate of 0.4% annually – over the last ten
years.
[Primary forests are those which show no signs of human intervention. These
forests, in particular, tropical moist forests, contain some of the world’s most
species-rich and diverse ecosystems.]
2.1 Forest Status in India
According to India State of Forest Report* 2013 by FSI –
• Forests cover which comprise 69.79 million ha account for 21.23% of geographical
area.
• Growing stock within forests is estimated as 4173.362 million m3.
• Total carbon stock in forest is estimated as 6941 million tones.
[* Based on interpretation of satellite data (Oct 2010 to Jan 2012) and inventory of
forests]
2
In comparison to 2011 assessment,

• Forest cover has shown an increase of 5871 km2.
• In hill districts forest cover increased by 40 km2
• In tribal districts forest cover increased by 2396 km2 .
• In North-eastern states, forest cover (which accounts for 1/4th of country’s cover)
shows net decline of 627 km2.
• Mangrove cover has increased by 34 km2 .
• While there has been an increase in forest cover, the growing stock inside forests
has decreased by 325.369 million m3. The decline in growing stock is due to loss of
1991 km2 of Moderately Dense Forest (MDF)1, which eventually got converted to
Open Forest (OF)2.
1
MDF means forest with tree canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%.
2
OF means forest with tree canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40%
2.2 Forest Status in WB
According to India State of Forest Report 2013 by FSI –
• Total Forest Cover – 16805 km2 (18.93% of geographical area)

Very dense forest – 2971 km2
Moderately dense forest– 4146 km2
Open forest– 9688 km2
In comparison to 2011 assessment,

• Net increase in forest cover is 3810 km2. The increase is due to coppice growth and
afforestation within forests and growth of commercial plantations and shade trees in
tea gardens etc. outside forests.
• While there has been an increase in total forest cover, Very Dense Forest (VDF)
suffered a decrease of 13 km2, Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) suffered a decrease of
500 km2, whereas Open Forest (OF) area increased by 4323 km2.
3. Need for Forest Protection:
Thus going by the statistics and figures it is clear from above that even with large scale
afforestation and conservation programme launched in many countries, the global scenario
is that depletion of forest cover occurs still at a higher rate than regeneration. At the
national level, during the period between FSI 2011 and FSI 2013 report, while there has
been increase in forest cover, growing stock in forest has declined due to degradation of
MDF to OF. At the state level of WB, during the said period between FSI 2009 and FSI 2011
report, while the forest area has increased due to regeneration programme that was
3
undertaken, there has been decline in quality of forest, as area of VDF and MDF got
reduced. That is, while on the one hand we have created new forests during the intervening
period, considerable amount of growing stock has been lost in the same period by some
means or the other. It only means that the massive afforestation programme undertaken in
our country has not led to any gain in forest resources. It is noteworthy that even though
we have been able to somehow contain the loss in forest cover, the undisputed decline in
the quality of forests is continuing. Therefore the need to protect whatever forests we have
and create new forests cannot be overemphasized.
4. Factors responsible for degradation of forests
There are many factors that have been identified to be responsible for degradation of
forests. Some major factors coming under different categories are mentioned below.
a) Vast expanse and easy access – Forest has large geographical expanse and is open.
Unlike other precious wealth, it cannot be locked in a vault or a strong room. Forest
spreads over large area and except for very difficult terrain, it is easily accessible. These
two characteristics of forest – large expanse and easy accessibility – make it very
difficult to protect this natural resource from illicit felling, damage by cattle, fire caused
willfully or inadvertently, and climatic factors.
b) Cost factor – Enforcing forest laws over large expanse of forest areas require a big
protection force, that is, a large number of executive forest personnel. Maintaining huge
forest personnel for protection has a cost which often the government budget cannot
sustain. Effective protection from fire requires intensive and scientific monitoring of fire
incidence, identification of fire prone areas and taking control measures. All these need
considerable amount of fund. Taking help of forest fringe dwellers in protection
measures sometimes demands undertaking welfare and development measures for
them, which again entail considerable cost. More often the Department budget cannot
afford to bear the cost that protection measures, in an ideal scenario, demand, and
protection of forests is therefore compromised.
c) Dependence of neighbouring villagers - The neighbouring villagers depend on forests
for fuel, fodder, small wood, medicinal plants and things alike. They collect the forest
produce not only for their own consumption but also to earn something for their
livelihood. The quantity they harvest often exceeds the rate at which the forest produce
regenerates and thus leads to degradation of forests.
d) Wrong notion about forest productivity – Even as forests are subjected to meet
increasing demand of fringe population, the pace of degradation of forests is slow,
unless there are instances of mass looting. This creates a notion among the fringe
4
dwellers that the forest is an inexhaustible source of fuel and small timbers and they can
collect forest produce in unlimited quantities for indefinite time.
e) Climatic and natural factors –There are climatic and natural factors that may take heavy
toll on forest resources. These are –
• Flood
• Drought
• Earthquake
• Landslide
• Other natural calamities
Unfortunately, man can do very little to prevent the damage caused by these factors.
f) Biotic factors – These are the factors caused by man and the cattle. They include –
• Grazing and browsing
• Deforestation by illicit removal
• Forest Fire (man made)
• Faulty management practice
• Encroachment of forest land
• Diversion of forest land for non-forestry purpose
• Other damage like lopping, removal of leaf litter, removal of flowers and fruits,
poaching, environmental pollution etc.
These biotic factors define the areas where forest managers are called upon to play a
significant role.
5. Legal powers of frontline staff in forest protection

The lesson materials in Forest law may please be consulted in this matter.
Source of Lesson materials:
1. Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010 by FAO

2. India State of Forest Report 2013 by FSI
3. L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection
5
Lesson 2
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To know about Forest Fires
• To know about causes of forest fires
• To understand the types of forest fires
• To study the effects of forest fires
• To know the various preventive measures
Forward Linkage:
• To observe effects of forest fires and preventive measures during tour
Allocation of time:
• Causes of forest fires – 10 mts
• Types of forest fires – 8 mts
• Effects of forest fires – 12 mts
• Preventive measures – 15 mts
1. Forest Fires
Next to deforestation forest fire causes the most severe damage to the forests. One
single uncontrolled fire can destroy the forest wealth which foresters have toiled over
years to establish. Although fire is clearly a disturbance that disrupts the development
of the existing stand, fire is a natural factor in the forest ecosystem, and its effects have
been incorporated in species’ adaptations and ecosystem dynamics.
1.1 Fire influences –
• geomorphic and hydrologic processes of hill slopes and stream channels;
• physical and chemical properties of soil;
• nutrient loss;
• biomass accumulation;
• genetic adaptations of plants;
• plant composition and diversity, mortality, regeneration, growth and succession;
• wildlife habitat and wildlife population dynamics;
• presence and abundance of forest insects, parasites, and fungi.
(Burton V Burnes et al 1998 Forest Ecology John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
2. Causes of forest fires

Broadly, there are two causes of forest fires, namely, (1) natural and (2) man-made,
that is, fires caused by humans.
2.1 Natural Causes – The natural causes that prompt fire are lightning, rolling stones or
rubbing of dry bamboos. The major among these causes is the lightning. Between 70
and 100 lightning flashes are estimated to occur every second worldwide, but not all
strike the ground (Burton V Burnes et al 1998). In our country the number of fires that
may be caused by all the three natural causes are not more than 5 % of the total
number of fires caused in a year (L S Khanna, 1998).
2.2 Fires caused by humans – Throughout the world humans have been the most
significant causes of fires. About 95% of fires in this country are caused by man (L S
Khanna, 1998). Fires caused by humans may be due to carelessness or could be a
deliberate action.
2.2.1 Accidental fires due to carelessness may be caused by any of the following
incidents –
• Leaving fire burning after cooking in forest camps;

• Throwing burning match stick or bidi or cigarette;
• Throwing torch wood by the travelers at night;

• Burning of fields or grass lands adjoining to forests;
• Accidental spread of fires while burning fire lines
2.2.2 Deliberate or intentional fires are caused normally in the following cases –
• Burning the undergrowth to collect minor forest produce;

• Inducing new shoots of grass by burning the dry grass;
• Scaring away wild animals from the villages in the forest fringe;
• Destroying or charring the stumps of illicitly-felled trees.
3. Types of forest fires

According to the level at which they occur, forest fires are of the following types-
• Ground fire – it burns the ground cover only, i.e. the carpet of herbs and low
shrubs which cover the soil.
• Surface fire – It burns not only the ground cover but also the undergrowth. This
is the most common type; it consumes litter, killing aboveground parts of herbs
and shrubs, and typically scorching the trees. Surface fire is very sensitive to
wind speed. It tends to kill young trees of all species (often, however, just the
aboveground portion) and most of the trees of less resistant species of all sizes
(Burton V Burnes et al 1998).
• Crown fire – It spreads through the crowns of trees and consumes all or part of
upper branches and foliages. This usually occurs in coniferous forests.
4. Effect on forests
Forest fires cause the following damage to forests.
• Damage to plants – The ground flora of shrubs and herbs and the undergrowth
are most vulnerable to surface fire, which is most common. Trees, in the upper
storey, however, depending on species and age, suffer in varying proportion
due to forest fire. The species which have thick corky bark are less prone to
damage than those with thin bark. The broad-leaved species are less affected by
forest fire than the conifers.
• Damage to regeneration – Forest fire causes enormous damage to regeneration
of plants and young plantations. Even a ground or surface fire of moderate
intensity can totally destroy the regeneration. If the species concerned are good
8
coppicer, and their root stock does not get destroyed, regeneration can appear
again, but still the vigour of growth gets retarded.
• Damage to soil – Fire bares the forest soil to eroding agents like sun, wind and
rain. Soil erosion thus gets enhanced. Forest fire also depletes organic matter
and nitrogen reserve. Fire also makes the soil more compact and impervious.
• Damage to productive potential – Fire reduces the productive potential or
capacity of forests. Repeated fires may change the type of forests, for example,
an evergreen forest may turn into a deciduous forest of poorer quality. Owing to
natural adaptive character of the plants, valuable species may be replaced by
inferior fire-hardy species. Fires also adversely affect the crop density and yield.
Thus on repeated occurrence of fires, forest yield suffers both in terms of quality
and quantity.
• Damage to conservation potential – Even as ground and surface fire burns down
the ground flora and undergrowth, there is considerable increase in the runoff.
As a result, the capacity of forest to conserve soil and ground water is reduced.
The streams passing through forested watershed witness sudden spurt in
channel flow, if the watershed is burnt. Studies have revealed that stream flow
from a watershed with protected ground vegetation is more uniform and steady
than from a watershed whose soil and protective cover has been damaged.
• Damage to wild animals – Forrest fire destroys the eggs and young ones of wild
animals. Sometimes the bigger animals also become victims of fire. Fire thus
inflicts an enormous damage to wild animals and the biological diversity of
forest.
5. Preventive Measures- Preventive measures are those which reduce the chances of
occurrence of fire. There are many factors that create an environment where fire
becomes a likely phenomenon. The aim of the preventive measures is to address those
causal factors. Broadly, preventive measures can be grouped into two major classes,
namely, (1) indirect measures and (2) direct measures.
5.1 Indirect Measures – Indirect measures are those which, although not directly
confronting the causal factors of fire environment, reduce the fire risk by containing the
factors. Examples of indirect measures are –
• Cooperation of forest fringe villagers – Since most of the forest fires are man-made,
either by way of carelessness or by deliberate actions, the foremost measure is to
sensitize the fringe villagers to the danger of forest fire and obtain their cooperation
in prevention of accidental or deliberate fires caused by humans. Cooperation of the
9
villagers can be best obtained by deliberating the issue of forest fire in JFMC
meetings. JFMC can take an effective role in making the fringe population aware of
the destructive potential of forest fires, and of their responsibility in prevention of
man-made fires.
• Education of people in general – Besides the forest fringe population, people in
general need be educated. They should be convinced that uncontrolled or repeated
forest fires deplete the potential of ecosystem services of forests. In other words,
fires cause a decline in the ability of forests to produce timber, non-wood forest
produce, and other benefits. People should be educated that it is their responsibility
to protect forests from all damaging factors including fires. Such education can be
imparted through press, radio, television, workshops and educational institutions.
One of the effective means will be to involve the students of schools and colleges
and spread through them the importance of conserving forests and the role they
play for human existence.
• Regulatory provisions – If considered necessary, there could be appropriate
regulatory provisions in the Acts, Rules, executive orders or resolutions relating to
JFMC prescribing –
 Disincentive or enhanced punishment to those who willfully cause a fire, or
do not assist in preventing or extinguishing fire;
 Regulations in intrusion to forests, carrying fire in forests, and collection of
minor forest produce, particularly in dry season.
• System of incentive and disincentive – There may be in place a system of incentive
and disincentive for forest personnel in the matter of detection and prevention of
forest fires. Forest personnel who do a good job in this regard may be suitably
rewarded. The system of reward may also include as beneficiary the villagers. At the
same time, there should be provision of suitable punishment for forest functionaries
for dereliction of duty.
5.2 Direct preventive measures – these are those measures which directly address the
factors of fire environment. Following are some examples.
• Forecast of forest fire - In developed countries, prediction of fire is done from
studies of temperature, humidity, wind etc. and weather analysis by sophisticated
equipments. Forecast of fire can alert the forest personnel and help them take
precautionary measures.
• Reduction of risk – Risk of forest fires can be reduced by limiting the exposure of
forests to fire. This can be done by the following measures –
10
 Controlled burning – The objective is to burn the inflammable materials such

as grass, shrubs, fallen leaves and wood in identified blocks or strips under
controlled conditions and thus reduce the risk of later fire damage. Ideally, such
controlled burning should be done before the advent of dry season. The blocks
or strips which undergo controlled burning are less likely to catch fire during the
dry season and they restrict fires from spreading across them. Controlled burning
is done patch by patch beginning from the patch which has most of the grass dry.
Control is exercised so that fire does not spread beyond the boundary of the
patch taken up for burning.
Controlled burning is done to protect plantations, natural regeneration areas,
timber depots and other valuable forest resources. A belt of sufficient width
round such areas is subjected to controlled burning so that fire, caused
accidentally or otherwise, cannot cross this belt and damage the plantations,
depots etc. inside.
It is advisable to take up controlled burning after the dusk because the flame in
the dark is easily visible and it is much easier to control the extent of burning
within the envisaged boundary. In bright sunlight flame of fire is often not visible
and there is risk that fire may spread beyond the limits without getting detected.
 Fireline – Fireline is defined as a cleared permanent fire break (a barrier from

which all or most of the inflammable materials have been removed) intended to
prevent fires from crossing from one area to another. In other words, It is a
permanently clear-felled strip in a forest which is burnt every year before the
commencement of hot weather to destroy all inflammable materials so that it
may prevent the spread of an accidental fire (L S Khanna, 1998). Firelines are
carefully aligned so as to divide the forest into small blocks. Thus fire, even if
originated at a block accidentally, remains localized within the block and does
not spread to other blocks easily. Even when fire is intense enough to spread
across fireline, it permits time to start fire fighting operations and contain the
damage.
Firelines 3 to 5 metre wide are optimum. Firelines should be maintained
motorable so as to permit easy and quick movement of fire-fighting squads.
1. Burton V Burnes et al 1998 Forest Ecology John Wiley & Sons, Inc
2. L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection, Khanna Bandhu, Dehradun
11
Lesson 3
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To study combative measures to put out Forest Fires
 Detection of forest fire
 Fire combat operations
 Post- suppression operations
• To know about -
 Fire Reports
 Legal Provisions
Backward Linkage: Forest fires dealt with in Lesson 2.
Forward Linkage:
• To observe, during tour, firelines, their use and maintenance, and if possible, know the
account of recent fire combat operations. It would be a good experience if the trainees
can participate in a fire combat operation
Allocation of time:
• Combative measures - Introduction – 5 mts
• Detection of forest fire – 10 mts
• Fire combat operations – 10 mts
• Post-suppression operations – 5 mts
• Fire Reports – 10 mts
• Legal provisions - 10 mts
12
Forest Fires (Continued)
1. Combative measures –
Combative measures are those which are taken to put out a fire after it has broken out
despite taking the preventive measures. Needless to say that more we delay to start the
combative operations, larger is the area that comes in the grip of fire and more is the
damage. Thus time factor is very crucial in the matter of detection of fire and launching
operations to suppress it. The entire process of combating measures that starts from
detection and involves, in stages, communication to proper quarters, mobilization of
force and logistics and launching of operations on ground should be accomplished with
precision and with minimum wastage of time.
2. Detection of forest fire
A prerequisite for effective fire combat is early detection of forest fire. The traditional
practice for detection of forest fire is engagement of fire watchers during the fire
season. The fire watchers are required to make ground patrol and man watch towers to
detect forest fire. Ground patrol by forest personnel and watchers of course forms an
indispensable part of forest protection measures. However, given large forest tracts and
limited strength of forest personnel/watchers, ground patrol alone may not be an
effective method of fire detection. Watching atop towers may command a larger view
but has its limitation in detecting ground fires at early stage. Further, number of watch
towers is few and again it is not economically feasible to erect as many watch towers as
satisfactory view of entire forest areas would demand. Measures therefore should focus
on –
• Identifying suitable locations for watch towers;
• Judicious utilization of limited forest watchers/staff;
• Strengthening patrol in fire seasons;
• Frequent patrol along roads and in those areas frequented by villagers and
graziers.
2.1 Despite proper employment of staff/watchers and available resources, the
traditional method of fire detection by ground patrol and vigilance atop watch towers is
not very satisfactory. Sophisticated methods of remote sensing and GIS are therefore
now employed to detect outbreak of fires.
• The GIS cell at Aranya Bhavan (office of PCCF HoFF, WB) downloads information
from university of maryland website (http://maps.geog.umd.edu/firms/).
• The said website provides everyday locations (lat/long) of points worldwide
where outbreak of fires has occurred in the last 24 hours.
13
• The lat/long of points of our interest are then overlayed on existing forest
boundary layers, and locations of fire points in our forests are found out.
• The locations are quckly communicated to the concerned forest divisions for
field verification and necessary combative measures.
(Courtesy Information: Shri Amitabh Misra, IFS)
3. Fire combat Operations
• Arrangement of labour – Depending on the extent of area being affected and
intensity of fire, labour in appropriate strength is arranged. Labourers are normally
engaged from the local villages and the JFMC members.
• Arrangement for tools, food, water, lighting etc. – The tools that are normally
required are sickles (for cutting grass and shrubs), axes (for cutting down large
shrubs or small trees), spades (for digging earth), iron rakes (for moving wood,
leaves etc.) etc. Fire fighting is a continuous operation and may continue for hours.
Therefore, adequate arrangement for food and water should be made for those who
are involved in the operation. Further, appropriate lighting arrangement should be
with the personnel to help them move and conduct the operation smoothly.
• Arrangement for transport - The effectiveness of the combative measures depends
much on how quickly the men and materials are gathered at the affected site. So
suitable vehicle of transport should be available. Further, the forest roads and the
firelines should be in good and motorable condition to facilitate easy and quick
transport.
• Methods of extinguishing fire – While water and earth are considered to be
effective extinguishing materials, they are of little or limited use in practice. Water in
adequate quantity is normally not available at forest sites. Whatever little water is
available is rather fruitfully used to put out burning stumps and by the labourers.
Putting out fire by earth is also not feasible, as digging earth is a time consuming
process. Like water, earth can be used in extinguishing smouldering stumps.
The effective methods of extinguishing fire are –
 By beating – This is the best and most common method to put out mild
surface fires. Brooms required for beating down fire are made by cutting
branches of shrubs. Fire is put out by beating back the fire with the green
brooms.
 By counterfiring – The method of beating is possible in case of mid fire when
men fighting the fire can stand close to fire. However, when fire is intense
and going close to fire is not possible, the method of counterfiring is
employed. In this method the advancement of fire is stopped by deliberately
burning the forest from the opposite direction. A secondary fire is started at
14
some distance from the advancing fire and is made to proceed towards the
main primary fire. The two fires eventually meet and get extinguished.
4. Post- suppression operations

The job of foresters does not end in control or suppression of fire. After the fire is
controlled by beating or counter-firing, the affected area still may contain smouldering
wood pieces and stumps, and burning dry woods and cones. These remnants may be
source of new fire in the area. Therefore after the fire has been suppressed, following
operations are required to be done as extra protection against outbreak of new fire.
• All smouldering wood and stumps are completely extinguished with the help of
water or earth;
• The burning dry trees are felled and extinguished;
• All traces of fire are completely extinguished.
5. Fire reports
After the combat operation is over, it is necessary to prepare a fire report and submit to
the higher authority. The report should, among other things, include map of the
affected area, and information on extent of burnt area, cause of fire, assessment of
damage etc.
5.1 The circular issued by WB forest directorate and the format of fire report may be
seen in Appendix 1 and 2 (Courtesy: Shri Amitabh Mishra, IFS).
6. Legal Provisions
Legal provisions in dealing with forest fires are mentioned below. It is recommended to
go through the texts of the relevant Acts in this regard.
6.1 Indian Forest Act 1927
6.1.1 Provisions for Reserved Forest
(a) Any person who sets fire to a reserved forest, or, in contravention of any rules
made by the State Government in this behalf, kindles any fire, or leaves any fire
burning, in such manner as to endanger such a forest can be charged with offence
under sec 26(1)(b) of IFA, 1927.
(b) or who, in a reserved forest kindles, keeps or carries any fire except at such seasons
as the Forest- officer may notify in this behalf, may be charged with offence under sec
26(1)(c) of IFA, 1927.
To charge an offender under sec 26(1)(b) of IFA –
It may be noted that setting fire to a reserved forest from outside is an act, the
commission of which has to be proved. But in case of kindling fire or leaving a fire
15
burning outside so as to endanger a reserved forest, the existence of rules made by the
government contravening such act has also to be proved in addition to commission of
the act itself.
To charge an offender under sec 26(1)(c) of IFA –
It has to be proved that the forest Officer has notified a season and that the act has
been committed in contravention of such order of the Forest Officer.
6.1.2 Provisions for Protected Forest
(a) Any person who sets fire to a protected forest, or kindles a fire without taking all
reasonable precautions to prevent its spreading to any tree reserved under section 30,
whether standing, fallen or felled, or to any closed portion of such forest is punishable
under section 33(1)(d) of IFA, 1927.
(b) or who leaves burning any fire kindled by him in the vicinity of any such tree or
closed portion is punishable under section 33(1)(e) of IFA, 1927.
It may be noted that in order to charge an offender under section 33(1)(d) or 33(1)(e) of
IFA, 1927, it would be necessary to prove the existence of notification under section
30 and of rules under section 32 prohibiting commission of such acts.
6.1.3 Miscellaneous Provisions
According to section 79(1) of IFA,
• every person who exercises any right in a reserved or protected forest,
• or who is permitted to take any forest-produce from, or to cut and remove
timber or to pasture cattle in, such forest, and every person who is employed by
any such person in such forest, and
• every person in any village contiguous to such forest who is employed by the
Government or who receives emoluments from the Government for services to
be performed to the community,
shall be bound to furnish without unnecessary delay to the nearest Forest-officer or
Police officer any information he may possess respecting the commission of, or
intention to commit, any forest-offence; and
such person shall be bound to take steps forthwith, whether so required by any
Forest-officer or Police officer or not, among other things, to extinguish any forest fire
in such forest of which he has knowledge or information;
6.2 The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
6.2.1 Provisions for Sanctuary and National Park
Any person who sets fire to a sanctuary or a national park, or kindle any fire, or leave
any fire burning, in a sanctuary or national park, in such manner as to endanger such
16
sanctuary or national park can be charged with offence under section 30 of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act.1972.

2. Appendix 1 and 2 (Courtesy: Shri Amitabh Mishra IFS)
3. Lessons of Forest Law.
17
Appendix 1
18
19
Appendix 2
20
Lesson 4
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To study injuries to forests by animals
 Introduction
 Domestic animals
- Classification
- Damage by grazing animals, preventive and remedial measures
- Damage by browsing animals, preventive measures

Forward Linkage:
• To observe, during tour, some of the measures.

Allocation of time:
• Injuries by animals - Introduction – 3 mts
• Domestic animals – classification – 3 mts
• Grazing animals
Damage – 5 mts
Preventive measures – 12 mts
Remedial measures - 12 mts
• Browsing animals
Damage – 5 mts
Preventive measures – 10 mts
21
Injuries by animals
1. Introduction
Increase in the population of herbivores has a serious impact on forest ecosystem. The
herbivores may be domestic or wild. Herbivores in the wild may increase in number through
reduction of predators. The domestic animals again grow in number as they are considered as
assets or property by men who rear them. The wild herbivores almost totally depend on forest
plants for their food. Further, a large portion of domestic herbivores belonging to the villages
adjoining to forests graze and browse in the forest lands. Thus the dependence of herbivores,
wild and domestic, on forests for food lead to considerable pressure on the forest ecosystem
and may turn to be quite destructive of forest regeneration.
1.1 Among domestic stock, goats are by far the most destructive of forest regeneration,
followed by pigs, sheep, and cattle, in approximately that order. Long-continued overgrazing by
livestock will result in the elimination of palatable species from the ground up to the browse
line, compaction of forest soil, and eventual conversion of the forest to an open scrub of
unpalatable species or grassland (Burton V Barnes et. al, 1998 Forest Ecology John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.).
1.2 This lesson deals with the domestic animals.
2. Domestic animals.
As stated before, domestic animals form a part of asset to humans and men, by way of their
natural instinct to add to their property, would like to own more number of domestic animals.
This is the major reason for increase in the population of domestic animals. It is important to
note that even as the livestock population has increased over time, the number of cattle grazing
in the forest has risen at a higher rate, since extent of pasture land has decreased. Thus adverse
impact of domestic animals on forests has been growing due to following factors –
• Increasing population of livestock in the forest fringe villages;

• Paucity of grazing land outside forests;
• Traditional practice of grazing the cattle in the forest land;
• Lack of awareness about the damage being caused by the animals to the growing plants;
• Forest resources are considered as nobody’s property and as such forest protection still
now receives low priority in rural development.
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2.1 Classification of domestic animals

On the basis of food the domestic animals are classified into following two classes.
• Grazing animals – are those which feed mostly on grass and herbage. Examples are cow,
bullock, buffalo, horse etc.
• Browsing animals – are those which feed on twigs or shoots, with or without leaves, of
shrubs, trees and woody climbers. Examples are goat, camel, elephants etc.
3. Damage caused by grazing animals
Light controlled grazing does rather good to forests. As grass and herbs are removed, the fire
risk goes down. In temperate forests light grazing disintegrates the thick layers of
undecomposed needles and facilitates germination of conifers. However, uncontrolled grazing
causes the following damage to forests.
• Seedlings of desired species are also grazed along with grass. So regeneration of
important tree species is hampered.
• Grazing animals deliver physical damage to desired seedlings by trampling, crushing to
earth and dislodging the roots from the soil by their hooves. This leads to mortality of
the seedlings.
• Soil becomes compacted and porosity is reduced. This also results in poor aeration in
the soil. Under the hooves of heavy animals the soil aggregates break down leading to
poor structure of the soil.
• Compaction of clayey soil due to grazing leads to increased runoff. Again, sandy soil
under the hooves becomes loose. Thus both in clayey and sandy soil, soil erosion is
increased due to grazing.
• Heavy uncontrolled grazing causes depletion of nutritive palatable grasses and in their
place unpalatable, less-nutritive, thorny grasses do emerge. The grazing capacity of
forests is considerably reduced.
• Adaptive character of nature also helps establishment of grazing-resistant inferior
species in place of valuable crop which are mostly grazing prone.
3.1 Measures in management
Grazing in forests cannot be eliminated altogether by enforcement of law or by persuasion of
the villagers. Complete stoppage of grazing as an object of forest management is not desirable
either. Light controlled grazing, as stated earlier, is beneficial to regeneration. And when
management practice, without compromising the object of development of forests, provides
for grazing under certain regulations, it achieves one major input for forest enrichment. The
input is support and active cooperation of the fringe population, which is the basis of joint
forest management. The management measures to address the problem of grazing should
23
therefore strike a balance between control measures necessary for scientific forestry and
providing options for grazing to livestock of nearby villages. All measures, preventive or
remedial, should flow from this principle.
3.1.1 Preventive measures
Following are some examples of preventive measures that can prove to be helpful.
• Discourage to keep large number of cattle – People keep large herds for supply of milk,
agricultural works and more importantly for dung which is used for manuring and
burning. The villagers in the outskirts of forests need be explained that breed and
quality of cattle are more important than the number. All the objects of keeping cattle
are better served by less number of healthy cattle of good breed than a larger number
of emaciated stock. It is also easier to manage and feed a fewer stock. They can be fed
at home or put through regulated regime of grazing without much hassle. If the villagers
are convinced and number of ill-fed cattle is reduced, the pressure on forests will
automatically lessen.
• Inclusion of grazing in forest function where compatible – Forests are classified
according to their most important functions. For example, there are reserved forests,
protected forests, village forests, wildlife sanctuaries, tiger reserves etc. Unclassified
forests also form a class. If grazing is not incompatible with the most important function
of a forest, it may be allowed. And even if incompatible, grazing may be allowed in
restricted time and zone if it helps to achieve the most important function of the forest.
• Closure or regulation of grazing – Some parts of the forest, called vulnerable areas, may
be closed to grazing altogether. These vulnerable areas constitute concentrated
regeneration areas, areas under active erosion, catchments of river valley projects,
and other degraded areas.
The concentrated regenerations areas – young plantations etc- are not large and
therefore can be closed without much problem. As soon as the plants cross a stage
when they are longer liable to be damaged, the areas in question may be opened to
grazing subject to grazing capacity.
Areas which have become highly eroded or degraded owing to, among other things,
heavy uncontrolled grazing, the same should be closed until remedial measures are
taken and such areas become rehabilitated.
In areas other than vulnerable areas, grazing may be regulated, that is, allowed in a
restricted manner, depending on the grazing capacity of the area. There is a limit to the
maximum number of cattle that a forest area can allow for grazing and still regenerate
24
fodder necessary to sustain grazing by the said number of cattle. Grazing capacity of an
area is defined as the amount of grazing that the area can afford to sustain, and is
expressed as the number of animals or equivalent cow-units per acre/hectare. Grazing
capacity of forest areas is determined by various factors like forest type, canopy density,
climatic and edaphic factors, slope, amount and quality of grass etc.
Limitation to grazing incidence to the grazing capacity may be effected by taking the
following steps.
• Intensive discussion with the JFMC members or villagers, convincing them to
appreciate the need to enforce the regulation;
• Issue of a circular or executive order following above discussion; the circular
may, among other things, clearly indicate the number of cattle units permitted
to graze over a specified area.
• Introduction of disincentive by levying grazing fee on an appropriate scale.
• Social forestry outside forests

Social forestry schemes which were launched in 1980s in the state have done a great
service to create a commendable bio-resource outside forest lands. The objective of
social and farm forestry has been, among other things, to make the fringe villages self
reliant for timber, fuel and fodder, or, in the least, make such villages less dependent on
forests for the said resources. There is perhaps no other measure more befitting than
social forestry to deal with the grazing issue.
In this connection it is required to create plantations containing fodder species in

government non-forest lands, community lands, and lands belonging to institutions or
individuals. Forest department may provide following inputs in such projects –
 Formulate and design action plan and schedule;

 Supply or facilitate production of planting materials;
 Create some plantations in government lands as demonstration plots;
 Provide technical knowhow to the villagers with regard to creation, maintenance
and harvest of such plantations;
 To finalize, with the concurrence of the appropriate authority, the mode and
quantity of distribution of benefits among the beneficiaries, in case of harvest
from lands other than those belonging to individuals.
• Silage, hay making and stall feeding – Theoretically, stall feeding is the answer to
eliminate grazing in forests. In developed countries where animal farming is a major
25
industrial activity, stall feeding is taken resort to. In our country, it is not possible to
bring all cattle population under stall feeding. However, for the sake of health of the
cattle and beneficial effects on agriculture and forests, stall feeding should be
encouraged and started in the villages. The villagers may however, be provided with
facilities to cut and collect fodder from forests, particularly during rainy seasons, to
make silage and hay for consumption during the dry months. The work can be organized
through the JFMCs.
• Improvement of forest lands – With the object to alleviate pressure on prime forests,
all grasslands and open forests suitable for fodder grass may be taken up for plantation
of fodder grass and maintained as grass production areas.
3.1.2 Remedial measures
Despite taking preventive measures, such measures may not prove to be enough, and the
damage due to grazing may continue. Foresters also often come across areas which have been
damaged in the past due to grazing. Regulation of grazing, that is, allowing limited numbers of
cattle to graze will not be appropriate measure in those areas. Remedial measures need to be
taken in such case. Remedial measures are normally of two types –
• Periodic or Rotational grazing – When the damage is not serious, further deterioration
is arrested by taking recourse to these measures.
a) Periodic grazing is defined as grazing by limited number of cattle for a definite number
of years or months followed by closure (L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection).
 The object is to allow time (during the period of closure) for the grasses to
regenerate and develop so as to afford grazing pressure again for some time;
 Repetitive periodic closure and opening of an area enables the area to
regenerate palatable grasses and bear the impact of grazing during the periods it
remains open for grazing.
 It is different from complete closure of regeneration or eroded areas for a period
of 5 to 10 years or for longer periods. While the object of periodic closure, which
is of shorter duration, is to allow time for grasses to regenerate, the object of
complete closure, of a much longer duration, is to allow time necessary for
establishment of tree species.
b) Rotational Grazing is defined as grazing of a limited number of cattle in the different
parts of the grazing area in a predetermined sequence (L.S Khanna 1998, Forest
Protection).
 In rotational grazing the forest area is divided into a number of blocks. The
blocks, one at a time, are opened to grazing for a specified period in a sequence.
Thus one block or the other of the forest remains open to grazing by limited
26
number of cattle throughout the year, except may be for the rainy season (July –
August);
 The cattle number is limited to the grazing capacity of the forest.
 For example, a forest of 1000 ha of grazing capacity 1.25 cow-units per ha is put
to rotational grazing. It means that 1250 cow units can graze in the said forest.
The said forest is divided into, say, 5 blocks. It is also planned that the forest will
remain closed to grazing during the rains, that is, for the 2-month period of July
and August. So under rotational grazing, during the 10-month period of the year
each block will be opened for 2 months to grazing by cattle of number not
exceeding 1250. The idea is that when grasses in a block are grazed up in 2
months, the cattle are moved to another block and the process repeats itself.
Thus each block of 200 ha gets a respite time to regenerate itself. In order that a
particular block does not open for a fixed grazing period of two months every
year, the grazing period of a block is moved in successive rotations or cycles. It is
illustrated below.
Grazing Period First rotation or Second rotation Third rotation or

cycle or cycle cycle
January- February Block I Block II Block III
March-April Block II Block III Block IV
May-June Block III Block IV Block V
September- Block IV Block V Block I
October
November- Block V Block I Block II
December
(Source: L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection).
 In order to ensure that grazing is done in the prescribed block, it becomes

necessary to fence each grazing block.
• Artificial regeneration of grasses – When the damage due to grazing is serious and the
land hardly provides any grass for grazing, the rotational grazing may not be adequate
to regenerate the area and the option left is to go for artificial regeneration of grasses.
Artificial regeneration is, however, feasible only in degraded forests or pastures. The
open degraded forest is taken up for planting with superior grasses after suitable soil
work.
4. Damage caused by browsing animals
Browsing animals cause more damage to plants than grazing animals. And among the browsing
animals, the goat is the most destructive and damage inflicted by goat is most common. The
goat eats up almost any plant including the thorny ones. In the process of browsing the leaves,
27
the shoots are chewed and damaged to such an extent that they cannot re-grow. Adding to the
potential for damage is the fact that the goat stands on its hind legs to reach leaves or shoots
located at heights which it cannot reach in normal posture. Thus the browsing reach of a goat is
more than its height. The sheep is, however, less destructive. Considerable damage is caused by
the camel. Since it is a tall animal, the camel is capable of causing damage to a height of about 4
metre. The camel is, of course, found in some specific areas and therefore the damage caused
by it is localized and limited to such areas.
4.1 Preventive Measures for browsing
Rearing of goats and sheep forms a means, sometimes the only means, of income of some
villagers in the outskirts of forests. These villagers leave their livestock free to browse in the
forests. Forests thereby become the major source of fodder for these browsing animals and
have to bear the damaging impact of browsing. When the herds are large, the degree of
destruction is considerable, and often young plantations and other regeneration areas are
damaged to such an extent that it becomes necessary to plant up the area afresh. It has been
realized since long that admission of browsing animals into the forest is incompatible with the
aims of forest management, and should be stopped as far as possible. The measures that merit
consideration are –
• To stop, or contain as far as possible, entry of browsing animals into the forests;
• To meet the feeding requirement of these animals by allowing the villagers to collect
from forests fodder of optimum quantity; a suitable arrangement should be in operation
to allow collection of fodder by the villagers.
• To include in the regeneration plan of forests planting or growing of fodder plants;
• To raise fodder plants reserve as part of social forestry project;
• To educate the villagers on the necessity of adopting these measures.
Source of lesson materials:
a) Burton V Burnes et al 1998 Forest Ecology John Wiley & Sons, Inc
b) L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection, Khanna Bandhu, Dehradun
28
Lesson 5
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To study Human Interfaces and their Control
 Introduction
 Damage caused through human interface
Deforestation
- Diversion of forest land
- Shifting cultivation
Backward Linkage: Forest fire dealt with in lesson 2 and 3.

Forward Linkage:
• To observe, during tour, some of the cases of diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purpose.

Allocation of time:
• Damage caused through human interface – 3 mts
• Deforestation – definition – 2 mts
Diversion of forest land
 Introduction - 3 mts
 Factors leading to diversion – 4 mts
 Extent of diversion - 5 mts
 Preventive and remedial measures – 10 mts
Shifting cultivation
 Introduction – 3 mts
 Technique - 4 mts
 Adverse effects – 3 mts
 Measures to control - 10 mts
29
Human Interfaces and their control
1. Introduction
Man has inherited forests as a gift from nature. It has been man’s responsibility to preserve,
develop, and utilize this bountiful resource with its large varieties of life forms. For food, clothes
and shelter man has ever remained dependent on forests. In all developing countries forests
have formed one of the potent factors of economy. Growing population and simultaneous
growth of demand of forest produce, typical of a developing economy, have thus resulted in
severe damage to forests in our country through human interfaces. In a word, we have
consumed more of forests than they could regenerate. The issue of conservation of forests and
their biodiversity has therefore assumed great significance and importance in the context of
development. The National Forest Policy 1988 has explained that the term ‘conservation’
includes preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of
the natural environment. All the damage inflicted through human interface has to be addressed
and controlled by measures which are compatible with the above aims of conservation.
2. Damage caused through human interface

Following kinds of damage are caused by man.
• Deforestation
• Illicit felling
• Forest fire
• Faulty management
• Miscellaneous other damage
Forest fire has been dealt with in detail in Lesson 2 and 3. The other types of damage are now
described separately.
3. Deforestation
Deforestation means removal of forest crop from a piece of land without any plan or
intention to reforest the land. The major factors that are responsible for deforestation are (i)
Diversion of forest land for non-forestry purpose, (ii) Shifting Cultivation, (iii) Mining, and (iv)
Encroachment
3.1 Diversion of forest land for non-forestry purpose
Large areas of forest lands have been diverted to other uses over the years. Extension of
agriculture and industrial development have both taken their toll on forests. In fact forests have
been the first charge to meet the demands of land for any land based economic activity. In our
country, until the middle of 20th century, diversion of forest lands to other uses was considered
only natural and there had been little concern for the devastating consequence such
indiscriminate deforestation process could lead to. Since the middle of last century, the
realization that forests are necessary for the survival of humans seems to have found reflection
in our forest policies and legislations. There has been awakening that any proposal for
deforestation should go through a stringent process of examination and scrutiny and should be
30
allowed only if diversion of forest land is unavoidable. It has also been realized that such
diversion of forest land should be subject to regulatory conditions that will more or less try to
compensate the loss apparent due to diversion.
3.1.1 Factors leading to diversion of forest lands
Normally following factors or circumstances lead to diversion or excision of forest lands.
 Relinquishment of forests for agricultural purpose – Throughout the world the
agriculture has been the greatest driver for deforestation. India has been no exception.
The Forest Policy of 1894 had clearly favoured diversion of forest land for agricultural
purposes. It said that “whenever an effective demand for cultivable land exists and can
only be supplied from forest area, the land should ordinarily be relinquished without
hesitation;…” Thus the growing demand of agricultural land had been met at the
expense of forests. Destruction of forest had been accentuated by adoption of
agricultural practices which had often been non-scientific. Instead of improving land
productivity, more and more forest lands had been put to tilling as forest lands were
easily available.
 Relinquishment of forests for development projects – The 1952 national forest Policy
stated that the role of forests in the national economy entitles forests to lay claim to an
adequate share of land, and envisaged a bar on relinquishment of forest land for
agricultural purposes. However, the said policy did not recommend any regulation or
bar on diversion of forest land for development projects. Deforestation continued for
agriculture and various development works. It is noteworthy that the central
government had little regulatory role in this regard as the forest was a state subject. It
was through the 42nd amendment of the Constitution in 1976 that forest was brought
under concurrent list and thus empowered the parliament to make laws in respect of
forests. This led to enactment of the Forest Conservation Act 1980. Under the provisions
of this Act, no state government can divert forest land for non-forestry purpose without
prior approval of the central government. This Act and the rules made thereunder also
lay down several regulatory provisions for according approval for diversion of forest
land.
 Forest lands have been excised for various non-forestry purposes over the years,
and continue to be excised notwithstanding promulgation of the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980. The development projects that are mainly responsible
for excision of forest lands are –
 River valley projects (RVP) and their reservoirs;
 Rehabilitation of people displaced by RVPs.
 Construction/extension/widening of roads;
 Laying/widening of railway lines;
 Erection of electric transmission lines;
 Construction of irrigation canals;
 Establishment of power projects, thermal and hydroelectric.
 Other industrial projects
31
3.1.2 Extent of diversion of forest lands.
• River valley projects alone have taken a heavy toll on forest lands. During the period
1951-52 to 1975-76 (prior to promulgation of FCA, 1980), the quantum of lands
deforested for river valley projects are as follows-
State Area in ha
West Bengal 1,700
All India Total 4,79,000
(Source: L S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection)
• The following table shows extent of forest lands deforested during the period 1951-52
to 1975-76 (prior to promulgation of FCA, 1980) for various development projects other
than RVPs.
State Agricultural Establishment Miscellaneous Total (ha)
purposes (ha) of industries purposes (ha)
(ha)
West Bengal 3,13,700 2,900 6,200 3,22,800
All India 24,55,700 1,20,100 9,83,000 35,58,800
Total
(Source: L S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection)
• In West Bengal, following promulgation of FCA, 1980, forest area of 2352.6173 ha has
been diverted in the State for different non-forestry purposes till March 2014 (Source:
Annual Report 2013-14 of W.B. Forest Directorate). The said area diverted does not
include area meant for surface collection of boulders.
3.1.3 Preventive and Remedial measures
It is natural that socio-economic advancement would be accompanied by economic activities
that would demand availability of land. Inevitably forests have to bear the pressure to meet a
part of this demand. Given the circumstances that land is required to meet the growing
demands of food, energy, infrastructure etc., it becomes expedient to take measures to prevent
and contain the exercise of the easy option of relinquishing forest lands to meet the
requirement. And in case diversion of forest lands for development works becomes
unavoidable, we need to undertake remedial measures to neutralize or minimize the ill effects
of diversion. The measures – both preventive and remedial – to contain diversion of forest land
flow from the FCA, 1980, the rules made under this Act and the guidelines issued by the MoEF,
GoI in this regard. Some of the measures are mentioned below.
32
1) Strict compliance of FCA – The Forest (Conservation) Act should be strictly complied
with. Section 2 of the Act prohibits use of forest land for non-forestry purpose except
with the prior approval of the central government. Any proposal or move for diversion
of forest land for non-forestry purpose should be brought under scrutiny and
examination under the Forest (Conservation) Act. The issue whether any particular use
of forest land constitutes non-forest purpose and thus attracts section 2 should be
determined upon examination of whether such use or activity is essential for or relating
to conservation of forests and wildlife.
2) Consideration of other alternatives - While considering or recommending any proposal
for diversion of forest land, a forest officer should satisfy himself that all other
alternatives have been considered and that no other alternative is feasible, and the
required area is the minimum needed for the purpose;
3) Undertaking for compensatory afforestation on equivalent area – Any proposal for
diversion of forest land must accompany the undertaking by the concerned authority to
provide at its cost acquisition of land of equivalent area and afforestation thereof.
4) Examination of equivalent land proposed for compensatory afforestation – Making
provision for equivalent non-forest land is not enough. It needs to be satisfied that –
• The non-forest lands to be provided for compensatory afforestation are
consolidated as far as possible, and not fragmented in too small parcels; and if
such non-forest land constitutes of discreet blocks, afforestation and conservation
of such blocks is feasible and viable under normal forest management practices;
• The non-forest lands provided are suitable for planting and raising forest species.
• The non-forest lands provided should be as close to original forest lands being
diverted as possible.
5) Mutation of equivalent non-forest land – When diversion of forest land is approved
and given effect to in terms FCA, equivalent non-forest lands identified for
compensatory afforestation are to be transferred and mutated in favour of the State
Forest Department, and declared as reserved / protected forests. The transfer must take
prior to the commencement of the project.
6) Compensatory Afforestation –
• Should include all phases necessary for creation and establishment of the
plantation spanning over a number of years;
• Nature of plantation, mode of planting including selection of species should be in
keeping with the prescriptions of working plan;
• Species planned for regeneration should be, as far as possible, indigenous,
covering large varieties. If the area identified for compensatory afforestation is
located adjoining or close to the forest areas being relinquished, the list of select
species for regeneration should include as many of the species of the forest area
as possible.
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3.2 Shifting Cultivation

Considering the country-wide landscape, shifting cultivation turns out to be one of the serious
causes of deforestation, though it is not a menace in the context of West Bengal forests.
Shifting cultivation is defined as a method of cyclical cultivation, where the cultivators cut the
tree crop, burn the area, and raise field crops for one or more years before moving on to
another forest site and repeating the process (L S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection). This method
of cultivation is known as ‘taungya’ in Myanmar (Burma), as ‘jhum’ in Assam, Tripura and
Arunachal Pradesh, and by different names in different states of the country. It is a serious
problem in the hilly tracts of the north eastern states of our country. It is also noteworthy that
quite a large population of tribals depends on shifting cultivation for their livelihood.
3.2.1 Technique of shifting cultivation – While the technique practiced in different states may
vary in certain details, by and large it consists of the following steps.
• Cutting down trees and other vegetation on the site during the period from January to
March;
• Burning the debris as it dries up in the month of April;
• Ash is mixed in the soil and seeds are broadcast during pre-monsoon shower;
• Crop is harvested during September-October.
• The process is repeated on the same site for 2 to 4 years, after which the site becomes
thoroughly infertile for any cultivation; the site loses fertility because of repeated
cultivation without manure and due to soil erosion.
• Thereafter a new forest patch next to the previous one is taken up and the same cycle
of operation is repeated;
• The process continues until the forest within the limits of cultivation of a village is
exhausted and cultivation comes back to the area in which it was started, after a period
known as jhumming cycle. The jhumming cycle that is the interval after which the same
area is cultivated again gradually shortens due to rise in population and decrease in
fertility. After every cycle the land becomes poorer and, after a stage, is abandoned as
unfit for cultivation.
3.2.2 Adverse effects of shifting cultivation

• It reduces soil fertility and ultimately makes the land unfit for cultivation.
• It leads to soil erosion which continues unchecked.
• It operates on a low productivity level, that is, production per unit area remains low.
• Considering the hard work and low productivity, the practice of shifting cultivation is
actually uneconomic and undoubtedly unscientific.
• In hilly terrains it is a source of increased run off and may lead to floods causing damage
to life and property.
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3.2.3 Measures to control shifting cultivation

• Awareness among the fringe population – The villagers living in the fringe areas,
particularly the tribal population, who practice shifting cultivation, should be made
aware of the adverse effects of shifting cultivation and of those damage which are
irreversible.
• Induce to settled and scientific cultivation – The shifting cultivators may be induced and
encouraged to switch over to settled cultivation under scientific methods. The primary
requirement to do this is to provide land. Implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA)
2006 may come in good stead in this connection. The right to hold and live in the forest
land vested in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers
under the FRA for self cultivation may be suitably made use of to induce such dwellers
to adopt settled and scientific cultivation. Any such move would also require proper
counseling, appropriate training and supply of farming inputs and technical knowhow.
• Proper Land Use – It is necessary to make the forest and fringe dwellers understand that
all available lands should not be ploughed indiscriminately and brought under settled
cultivation. It would not only result in gradual diminishing return from the land but also
may cause irreparable damage to the land in question. The scientific approach would be
to use a piece of land according to its capability. Thus depending on the slope and soil
depth, lands may be put to appropriate use. For example, some lands (e.g. land in the
valleys) may be suitable for settled cultivation for agriculture, while some other lands
may be kept for horticulture, some for cash crop, and some for forests and pastures.
• Alternative means of livelihood – In order to reduce pressure of shifting cultivation on
forest land, the cultivators should be provided with alternative means of livelihood.
These may include –
 Development of animal husbandry and dairy farming
 Vocational training and development of handicrafts
 Value addition to and marketing of non-wood forest produce
 Distribution of usufruct share in forest produce
 Employment in forestry works and forest based industries.
• Making beneficial use of shifting cultivation – Taungiya method of cultivation has been
successfully used and adopted in Sal regeneration in North Bengal forests. Artificial
regeneration in Sal Working Circles in North Bengal is done by sowing, and the seedlings
that sprout from the seeds need clear space over and all around for growth and survival.
However, the forests of North Bengal are characterized with heavy and vigorous growth
of weeds that invade any clear space in no time and suppress the young plants. In fact,
regular cleaning and weeding, at least 5 times in the first year of plantation, is a crucial
35
operation in the afforestation programme. Invasive weeds is not only a menace to

young plantations, their removal is a labour intensive operation that increases the cost
of the plantation. Taungiya system of cultivation comes in good stead to contain and
suppress the weeds and help the Sal seedlings grow healthy in profuse numbers. The
procedure is to allow the dwellers to raise agricultural crop or vegetables in the
intervening spaces between the strips of Sal in the first year. Regular weeding and
cleaning undertaken by the villagers to raise the agricultural crop automatically keep the
weeds away from the forest crop. This turns out to be highly beneficial for the Sal
seedlings as they are saved from invasion of weeds which otherwise would have denied
them light, moisture and soil nutrients. Taungiya employed in the intervening spaces
between lines of Sal associates also help those seedlings, particularly those which are
slow growing, establish easily. Thus Taungiya method becomes beneficial for a sal
plantation as a whole. Depending on the growth of the forest crops, taungiya cultivation
in plantation sites may be done in the second year, thus reducing the number of
cleaning- weeding of forest crop which would have been otherwise necessary. When the
forest crops become tall and do not permit enough light and space for taungiya
cultivation in the intervening spaces, cultivation is shifted to other sites of new
plantations. The cycle thus continues.
• Legal measures – While the above measures, as deemed appropriate in a case, can be
considered for adoption to contain shifting cultivation or make it beneficial, there will be
cases where shifting cultivation should not be allowed or at least should be fairly
regulated. Under such situations, shifting cultivation should be regulated and, if
necessary, stopped altogether by taking recourse to legal measures. For example,
shifting cultivation should not be allowed in wildlife protected areas, around water
springs and close to hill roads.

2. Annual Report 2013-14 of W.B. Forest Directorate
36
Lesson 6
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
• To continue study of Human Interfaces and their Control
 Deforestation (continued)
Mining
- Introduction
- Damage caused
- Preventive measure
- Remedial measure
Encroachment
- Introduction
- Factors responsible
- Remedial measure
Backward Linkage: Human interface dealt with in lesson 5.

Forward Linkage:
• To observe, during tour, some of the cases relating to diversion of forest land for mining,
and be aware of measures taken to control/evict encroachment in some cases.
Allocation of time:
Mining
• Damage caused – 4 mts
• Preventive measure – 7 mts
• Remedial measure – 8 mts
Encroachment
• Factors responsible – 5 mts
• Preventive measure – 8 mts
• Remedial measure – 12 mts
Discussion/ Miscellaneous – 10 mts.
37
Deforestation (Continued)
1. Mining
Mining is a potential cause for destruction of forests. The irony is that with increasing
population and industrialization, social demand for materials and energy has been on the rise
and mining has been a major economic activity in our country. Like other land based
development projects, mining has also taken its share of forest land. Being an important
economic activity, mining at the cost of forest resource will continue and the issue to be
addressed is how mining can be done causing least damage to forests and environment.
According to Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) 1980,
 Mining including underground mining is a non-forest activity and requires
prior approval of the central government; and
 Renewal of an existing mining lease requires prior approval of Central Govt.
Therefore, mining should not be allowed in forest lands without prior approval of the central
government. Following promulgation of the FCA, five mining proposals (cases) have been
approved in West Bengal till March 2014 (Source: Annual Report 2013-14 of W.B. Forest
Directorate).
1.1 Damage caused by mining

Mining causes destruction of forests in the following ways.
• Destroys vegetation while prospecting for the mineral.
• In underground mining, vegetation and soil are lost while digging pits for shaft and
dumping the subsoil and the rocks in the surrounding areas.
• In open or surface mining, the entire vegetation and soil of the mined area is lost.
• Construction of roads for transportation occupies forest lands and in hilly terrain, such
roads, if constructed on steep slopes, accelerate soil erosion.
1.2 Preventive measures
Following preventive measures may be taken to minimize the damage due to mining.
• First and foremost, a forest manager should enforce strict watch over the forests to
ensure that no illegal mining takes place. Illegal mining means those mining activities
which take place in contravention of the FCA.
• Investigation and survey for mining should not involve felling of trees. If it does, such
survey will attract provisions of the FCA and will require prior approval of the central
government under the FCA. Whether or not felling of trees is involved, such survey
38
shall not be carried out in wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and sample plots
without prior approval of Central Govt.
• If a proposal for mining in forest land merits approval, the conditions accompanying the
approval may stipulate that deforestation should be on the minimum scale and
restricted to the area in which mining is actually to take place.
• The dug-up soil should be deposited outside in such a manner that layers of coarse
subsoil remain underneath the weathered top soil. The deposited soil thus becomes
ready for plantation.
1.3 Remedial measures
Following remedial measures may be taken to ameliorate the damage being caused by mining.
• In terms of approval granted under the FCA, non-forest land, at least equal in area to
the forest land being lost to mining, should be made over to the forest department for
raising compensatory afforestation. The cost of such non-forest land and that of
afforestation should be borne by the mining agency.
• A shelter belt of trees may be raised around the actual mining area to minimize the
pollution and such other anti-pollution measures may be taken as the competent
authority granting sanction of mining may specify.
• Mining is a temporary form of land use and it causes destruction of natural eco-system
and extensive soil damage. Thus it becomes imperative on the part of the mining agency
to plan long term land use goals by way of ecological restoration of the mined lands to
productive and beneficial use. Ecological Restoration is the management process whose
goal is to recreate an eco-system as close as possible to one that existed in the past
prior to mining. The restoration technique should follow site specific approaches that
normally include revegetation programme coupled with ameliorative and adaptive
measures. The detailed steps to undertake and the extent of success would largely
depend on the degree of toxicity, salinity and acidity of the mining waste materials of
the site.
2. Encroachment
Encroachment in respect of forest land is the act of illegally seizing possession of some forest
land. Generally it is caused by people living in the outskirts of forests or in hamlets /villages
honey-combing government forests. The root cause of encroachment of forest land lies in the
socio-economic fabric of our society. People who are landless or having marginal land holdings
would have a tendency to encroach forest land which lies open apparently without any owner.
They are driven by poverty, hunger and lack of means of livelihood. While this may be the most
common scenario of encroachment, there have been also instances where people indulge in
39
encroachment due to land-greed and availability of easy option to enhance land assets.
Encroachment of forest land, wherever it takes place, is also indicative of lax attitude of forest
managers towards forest protection.
2.1 Extent of Encroachment
In West Bengal, the total forest area under encroachment as on 31 March 2014 stands at
10,040.73 ha. Large shares of encroachment are in the districts of Bankura (2948.357 ha),
Paschim Medinipur (3092.516 ha), Purulia (1347.540 ha), Burdwan (1188.69 ha) and
Coochbehar (947.090 ha) (Source: Annual Report 2013-14 of W.B. Forest Directorate).
2.2 Factors responsible for encroachment
Some common factors that lead to encroachment of forest lands are mentioned below.
• No clear demarcation of forest boundary – If the boundary of forest is not clearly
demarcated on the ground, there is every possibility that owners of adjoining lands will
encroach into forest land. It is advisable that –
 Boundary pillars are in place and visible from a distance.
 The boundary between consecutive pillars is a straight line
 Ideally, the consecutive boundary pillars should be visible from each other.
• Lack of field inspection – Inspection of forest areas and forest boundary is the primary
job of a forester. In fact inspection and patrol on foot should form a part of daily job of
the frontline staff. It is only through regular patrol that occurrence of encroachment can
be prevented or can be noticed by a forester.
• Leaving forest land barren – When a forest land is left barren without any forest crop
for a long time, encroachers are tempted and they find it easy to encroach.
• Lack of prompt action – Delay in detection of encroachment or in taking legal measures
to remove the existing encroachment (those which do not come under FRA) encourage
new encroachment and continuance of encroachment.
• Socio-economic condition of the fringe population – As already stated, the socio-
economic condition of the villagers living in the fringe area of forests is primarily
responsible for encroachment of forest land. Factors like poverty, living with little or no
land, no adequate means of livelihood etc drive some of the villagers to take recourse to
the illegal act of encroachment.
2.3 Preventive Measures
Following preventive measures may be taken to reduce the chances of encroachment.
• Clear demarcation of forest boundary and complete records – In hilly terrain, boundary
of forest block/compartment is generally made by ridges, nalas or rivers. In absence of
prominent physical features and generally in plains, boundary may be demarcated by
40
maintaining a clear strip of suitable width. On natural or artificial boundary,

concrete/masonry pillars are erected. Generally, it is the responsibility of the Working
Plan Division to erect the forest boundary pillars. While fixing boundary pillars, following
guidelines may be observed –
 Each boundary pillar should bear (i) a unique serial number, and (ii) latitude
and longitude (lat-long) to be determined by GPS, indicating the location of
the pillar.
 Bearings and distances from pillar to pillar should also be recorded, so that
locations of pillars may be exactly determined by ground survey.
 The locations of the pillars should appear on the compartment/mouza map
of appropriate scale. Lat-long of each pillar and, bearings and distances
between consecutive pillars should appear on the map.
 Locations of the pillars should be so decided that the boundary between
consecutive pillars remains a straight line, and two consecutive pillars remain
visible from each other.
 Record indicating numbers and locations (lat-long of individual pillar and
bearing-distance between successive pillars) of boundary pillars should be
maintained at Beat/Range/ Division level and should reflect appropriately in
the Working Plan document.
• Regular inspection of boundary – Needless to say that distinct boundary defined by
boundary pillars properly erected will not be enough to prevent encroachment unless
the boundary is inspected properly on a regular basis. The frontline forest personnel
should be assigned the duty of making regular inspection of the boundary of forests
under their respective jurisdiction. A work schedule may be drawn stipulating which part
of the boundary should be inspected by a forest personnel at what interval. After every
inspection the concerned personnel should make a report on what he has observed in
respect of the boundary and the pillars. In the event of detection of any encroachment
or if it is found that any pillar has been removed or damaged or shifted, the matter
should be reported forthwith to the superior authority for taking immediate action.
• Strengthening JFM committees – The villagers living in the outskirts of forests are
mostly small and marginal farmers or agricultural labourers. In view of low land
productivity and having few options of livelihood, the villagers get inclined to encroach
forest land. Thus one important measure to prevent them from falling prey to such
allurement is to provide them with employment opportunities in forestry or other
development projects and increase their level of income. This can be done by
strengthening the JFM committees, and utilizing their collective efforts in fruitful
economic activities.
41
2.4 Remedial measures

Adoption of all preventive measures notwithstanding, there may still be some cases of
encroachment. Obviously, the land found encroached should be got vacated as early as
possible. Following measures may be taken to remove encroachment.
• Prompt detection of encroachment – The prerequisite for remedial measure against
encroachment is quick detection of offence and prompt reporting to the superior
authority. The more one delays in detection and report, more is the encouragement to
the offenders to continue and expand the encroachment. Further, with passage of time
it becomes more difficult to evict the encroacher. Therefore, as soon as any case of
encroachment is noticed, the forest guard or the officer in charge of Beat should
promptly report the matter to the Range Officer, who in turn should report it to the
Divisional Forest Officer.
• Legal actions
(1) If the encroachment is of petty nature and does not involve alteration of boundary
marks, and the offender vacates the land, the case may be compounded as per
provisions of IFA (section 68).
(2) However, if the offender does not compound the case and refuses to vacate the
land, the case should be sent to court immediately.
(3) In reserved forest –
 Encroachment in the form of clearing or breaking of land, but without any
damage or alteration of boundary marks, can be prosecuted under sec 26(1)(h)
of IFA.
 It is noteworthy that notwithstanding any penalty that the court may impose,
the WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988 of IFA empowers the Forest Officer to evict
the person who has made the encroachment, and to demolish any building
erected or construction made by such person on forest land. Further, according
to the said amendment act, any agricultural or other crop or any illegal
construction shall be liable to confiscation by an order of DFO.
 It is also important to note that according to sec 65A of IFA (inserted by WB
Amendment Act XXII of 1988), clearing or breaking up of any land in reserved
forest for cultivation or any other purpose is a non-bailable offence.
(4) In a protected forest –
 Encroachment in the form of clearing or breaking of land, but without any
damage or alteration of boundary marks, can be prosecuted under sec 33(1)(c)
of IFA, if such encroachment is contrary to any prohibition under section 30.
 It means that the accused can be prosecuted if he has committed the offence in
contravention of notification under section 30. Thus to prove the guilt of the
42
accused, the existence of a notification under section 30 prohibiting such

encroachment and wide circulation of such notification by the Collector has to
be established before the court.
 It is noteworthy that notwithstanding any penalty that the court may impose,
the WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988 of IFA empowers the Forest Officer to evict
the person who, contrary to any prohibition under section 30, clears or breaks
forest land for cultivation or any other purpose.
 In protected forest too, according to sec 65A of IFA (inserted by WB
Amendment Act XXII of 1988), clearing or breaking of any land, in contrary to
any prohibition under section 30, for cultivation or any other purpose is a non-
bailable offence.
(5) In case of altering boundary marks – If the encroachment also involves alteration of
the boundary marks by the offender, that is, if the offender alters, moves, destroys
or defaces any boundary-mark of any forest, the offence will also attract section 63
of IFA. Therefore in such case the prosecution should be under sec 26(1)(h) or sec
33(1)(c), as the case may be, as well as sec 63 of IFA. It may be noted that according
to sec 65A of IFA (inserted by WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988), offence punishable
under section 63 is a non-bailable offence.
Reference materials

2. Lesson materials on Forest Law.
43
Forest Protection-lesson 7
Lesson 7
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
 Illicit Felling and Illicit Removal of Forest Produce
- Introduction
- Factors responsible
- Remedial measure
Backward Linkage: Human interface dealt with in lesson 5 and 6.
Forward Linkage:
• To be briefed, during tour, about forest offences involving illicit felling and control
measures.
Allocation of time:
Illicit Felling and Illicit Removal of Forest Produce
• Factors responsible – 6 mts
• Preventive measure
 Forest patrolling / field visits - 6 mts
 Checking in transit – 5 mts
 Meeting reasonable demands – 5 mts
 Creation of alternative means of livelihood – 5 mts
• Remedial measure
 Powers that a forest officer may exercise - 10 mts
 Offence reports – 10 mts
44
Illicit felling and illicit removal of forest produce

1. Introduction
Illicit felling and removal of forest produce constitute the most frequent and common damage
to forests. It is also the most frequent among all forest offences. Of the various forest produce,
trees of commercially valuable timber are highly vulnerable to damage in the process. By way
of indiscriminate felling and clandestine removal of the produce, the forests lose, in varying
extent, their valuable assets, biodiversity and capacity to regenerate. Any measure of forest
protection would not be meaningful, unless forests are protected from illicit felling.
Forest officer accords sanction to felling in terms of approved working plan. Illicit felling means
those which are caused without express sanction or permission of forest officer. Needless to
say, illicit felling is done without any regard to public or national interest and to regeneration of
forests. Damage due to illicit felling occurs mostly in the forests lying in the neighbourhood of
villages and towns, that is, in areas close to human habitation.
2. Factors responsible for illicit felling
Factors that generally cause illicit felling are described below.
• The household requirement of the villagers - Villagers living in the areas adjoining to
the forests depend very much on forests to meet their regular household requirements.
In their day-to-day life the villagers need timber for making huts/building, small timber
for agricultural implements, bamboos and posts for various constructions, and firewood
for fuel . When these requirements are not fully met through legal means or rights, they
are constrained to indulge in illicit felling and removal of forest produce. In particular,
collection of firewood which they need daily takes a heavy toll on forest resources. Their
demand for fuel is fulfilled, to some extent, by fallen branches, twigs and leaves which
they collect from the forest floor. However, with increasing population pressure, when
supply of fuel from forest floor becomes inadequate, the villagers get inclined to make
illicit felling of small trees or cutting live branches, which they carry as head loads.
• Villagers earning a livelihood – When forests lie close to large human habitations like
small towns or cities, use of firewood as fuel becomes popular, and a great demand for
firewood is automatically generated in the markets of such habitations. In view of the
potential of easy income that markets in such towns/cities do provide, the villagers
living in the forest fringe are tempted to make a living through sale of firewood in the
markets of those town/cities. The villagers are then prompted to do illicit felling of trees
and make firewood billets to sell in the market. Thus while providing a good option of
livelihood to the villagers, the forests get impoverished. The effect may be disastrous in
forests which bear only small trees/ pole crops, and large chunks of such forest may get
barren within a short period.
45
• By unscrupulous contractors /Timber merchants – There is no reason to believe that

illicit felling is caused by the villagers alone. Working of forest coupes by contractors has
been long discontinued in west Bengal. Harvesting of forest produce from annual
coupes or thinning areas is now done departmentally and produce is transported to
government depots. Contractors /timber merchants buy timber and firewood lots from
the depots. Thus access of contractors/timber merchants to forests is now largely
restricted. However, departmental timber operation also involves engagement of
contractors and labours from outside. The contractors and timber merchants or their
accomplice thus still get opportunities to enter forests. A section of them, who are
unscrupulous, sometimes tempt the labours with easy money to make illicit felling of
trees, particularly those timber species whose timber is commercially valuable. High
price of timber in the market acts as a catalyst to illicit timber trade. While the local
villagers may be got engaged as labours in the process, the illicit trade is primarily
engineered by the timber merchants/contractors who provide money, transport and
other logistics.
• Activities of miscreants – Forests are huge resource of wood that lie open in the nature.
It is neither possible nor advisable to have protective fencing for the entire forest areas.
The protection force at the disposal of forest department is also limited. As against this,
special quality timber is a high priced commodity in the market. Given the
circumstances, a section of people, mostly from the towns, find forests an easy target to
make quick money. They organize illicit felling and clandestine removal of timber. These
miscreants also exploit the poor villagers by engaging them in the illegal operations.
3. Preventive Measures – Illicit felling and illicit removal of produce from forest can be
contained by taking the following preventive measures.
• Forest patrolling, field visits/inspection – Central to forest protection measures is
forest patrolling, field visits and inspection on a regular basis by the foresters
working at various levels. In fact there is no alternative to intensive forest patrolling
for control of forest offense. The prerequisite for an effective patrolling arrangement
is availability of adequate field staff who can be assigned forest areas of reasonable
extent for regular field visit. The idea is that the forest frontline staff, particularly the
forest guard should be able to thoroughly inspect the forest compartment /areas
placed in their charge at least once or twice a week. Depending on the vulnerability
of the forest areas in question, the frequency of patrol may be increased and
suitably adjusted. The forest areas which need intensive and careful inspection are
the following –
 Forest blocks / compartments adjoining to human habitation.
 Clear felling coupes , thinning coupes and areas adjoining to these
coupes
46
- In North Bengal forests, trees to be felled in annual coupes/thinning

coupes are marked and numbered and they form the marking list of a
coupe. In south Bengal forests, the marking list of a felling coupe is
made otherwise. Here, the trees which are to be retained are marked
and numbered and they appear in the marking list. Thus in North
Bengal coupes, it is necessary to verify that trees which are not
numbered are not being felled, whereas in south Bengal coupes it is
necessary to ensure that that the trees in the marking list are not
felled.
- It should be ensured that trees felled and logged are immediately
recorded in the Timber Measurement Note Book (TMNB) and
produce duly passed transported to government timber depots as
early as possible.
- Felling coupes are hubs of various forestry operations involving
movement of lot many people. As such, forest blocks adjoining to
felling coupes become very vulnerable, since such blocks provide easy
access to many, while foresters’ attention remain more focused to
the operations of the felling coupes.
• Checking in transit – Prevention of illicit felling is definitely the first and foremost
preventive measure to control forest offence. Illicit felling may still occur despite
rigorous patrol and inspection. So checking of forest produce in transit should be
made to prevent illicit removal of forest produce. It also acts as a deterrent to illicit
felling. Forest produce in transit, except minor produce given free of cost to JFMC
members, must always be accompanied by some challan or pass duly issued by
forest officer authorized in this regard. Following are the types of common challan
or pass that are in use for transport of timber/firewood/poles etc.
 Intermediate Transit Challan (ITC) - ITCs are issues by the passing officers,
generally of the rank of Dy Ranger/Forester, to transport frost produce from
felling coups to timber depots, while the harvesting operation is in progress.
 Transit Pass - transit pass are issued by officers of the rank Dy
Ranger/Forester Range officer, authorized in this regard, to allow movement
of timber or other forest product from any place within the state to the
destination.
Thus while ITCs are Internal pass for movement of timber mostly within forests,
from one forest location to another forest location, the transit passes (TP) are
documents authorizing movement of forest product from any place to any
47
destination, mostly within the state. Both ITC and TP contain, among other things,
(i) description of the produce, (ii) place of origin and destination and (iii) facsimile of
the hammer mark used for passing /sale-marking the produce. While checking the
produce in transit, the forest personal should verify whether the produce actually in
transit match with the description given in the ITC/TP, and whether such produce
bear the hammer mark matching with the facsimile shown in the challan/TP .
Sec 52 (3) of IFA (amendment by WB Act XXII of 1988) empowers a forest officer or
police officer to stop a vehicle, cause it to remain stationary, and examine the
contents of the vehicle, including inspection of all records. The West Bengal Forest
Produce Transit Rules, 1959 also provide that any vehicle, cart, boat, or other vessel
carrying forest produce shall be liable to stoppage by any forest officer for the
propose of examination and check.
• Meeting reasonable demands of the villages - when villagers living in the outskirts
of forest are found to be involved in theft of forest produce for there daily needs, it
indicates that the existing arrangement does not meet their reasonable demand. In
order to address the reasonable expectation of the villagers living in forest fringe
areas , the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) has been put in practice in
West Bengal since long. The government resolutions issued in this regards provide a
share of forest produce to the JFMC members subject to certain terms and
conditions. Forest Management should ensure –
 That forest is duly protected with joint participation and that such forest
sustains growing stock harvestable at specified intervals;
 Produce out of intermediate and final harvest is duly shared with the JFMC
members at regular intervals in a manner prescribed by the government
resolutions.
In short, one of the major objectives of forest management should be fulfillment of
reasonable demand of the fringe villagers. As they appreciate that the management
practice by the department is geared towards meeting their demands, the villagers
will seldom indulge in felling or removal of forest produce.
• Creation of alternative means of livelihood - The villagers who have adopted illicit
collection and sale of forest produce as their means of living need to be prevented
from indulging in forest offence and provided alternative means of livelihood. As has
been stated, the villagers get inclined to forest offence due to poverty. The
management practice therefore should try to ensure –
 That forestry operations generate employment opportunities for the
villagers as much as possible;
 That the forests afford collection of minor forest produce on a sustainable
basis.
48
 That forest management includes undertaking of development projects

enhancing rural employment and economy.
 That the department also makes arrangement for vocational training in
various disciplines, including non-forestry ones, to reduce the dependence of
the villagers on forest to earn their livelihood.
4. Remedial Measures – Despite making all preventive measures it is difficult to have foolproof
arrangement against illicit forest felling. Even in the best possible management, some offences
relating to forest felling and removal of produce may occur. In such cases the remedial
measures to be taken are legal course of actions to deal with the offences. It is also very
important to remember that legal actions are to be taken promptly. In connection with
remedial measures, it would be useful to go through the Sections in Chapter IX of IFA, relevant
provisions of CrPC and the Human Rights issues. It is advised to go through Lesson 15 of Forest
Law.
4.1 Powers that a forest Officer may exercise
In order to combat illicit felling, the forest officer can exercise the following powers vested by
the IFA, 1927.
• Power to seize – Section 52 of IFA coupled with WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988
empowers a Forest Officer or Police Officer to seize any forest produce together
with all tools, ropes, chains, boats, vehicles or cattle, if there are reasons to believe
that forest offence has been committed.
Procedure to follow
 While making seizure, the officer must place the mark of seizure hammer, issued
in his name for the purpose of seizure, on the property being seized and the
receptacle containing the property, and
 Record the act of seizure including the description of seized articles in the Timber
Measurement Notebook (TMNB);
 The officer who has made a seizure will draw a seizure report. Details of what a
seizure report should contain have been described in Lesson 15 of Forest Law.
 The officer has to make, as soon as may be, a report of seizure to the Magistrate.
However, making a report to the Magistrate will not be necessary, if (a) the
forest produce is the property of the state government, and the offender is
unknown, or (b) if the offence falls under the purview of section 59A, or (c) if the
offender agrees in writing to compound the offence. In case (a), the officer
making seizure will make a report of the circumstances to his superior; such
report is known as UDOR (Undetected Offence Report), which is described later.
In case (b), the officer will make a seizure report and produce the seized articles
before the Authorized officer for proceeding under section 59A. In case (c), If the
offence is compoundable and merits compounding, a forest officer not below
the rank of a forester, may compound the offence in terms of section 68 of IFA,
49
and make a report, known as COR (Compounding Offence Report), to his

superior. The COR has been described further later.
• Power to arrest without warrant – Section 64 of IFA empowers a forest officer to
arrest a person without warrant or without orders from a Magistrate, if there is
reasonable suspicion that the person is involved in a forest offence which attracts
punishment of imprisonment of at least one month.
 Thus before making arrest under section 64, the forest officer should be
certain of ‘reasonable suspicion’ against the offender, and also of the fact
that the offence for which arrest is made is serious enough to attract
punishment of imprisonment of at least one month.
 It should be borne in mind that a forest officer cannot make arrest under
section 64 for any offence committed in a Protected Forest, unless such act
is prohibited under section 30(c). Therefore, for making arrest in an offence
in a Protected Forest, following conditions have to be satisfied –
That there exists a notification issued under section 30(c); and
That such notification prohibits the said act.
 Procedure on arrest – The officer making arrest will have to take or send the
person, without unnecessary delay, and within 24 hours, before the
Magistrate or the officer in charge of the nearest Police Station. In terms of
section 65 and 65A (included by WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988), the Forest
Officer, not below the rank of Range Officer, may release the arrested officer
on execution of a bond.
It is advised to go through Lesson 15 of Forest Law to know the stipulations
under CrPC and Human Rights in connection with arrest.
• Power to Compound Offences – Section 68 of IFA read with WB Amendment Act XIV
of 1975 and WB Amendment Act XXII of 1988 empowers a forest officer, not below
the rank of a forester, to compound a forest offence except under certain
circumstances provided in the said Act.
• Power to prevent commission of offence - Under section 66 of IFA, every forest
officer is empowered to interfere for the purpose of preventing the commission of
forest offence. Thus a forest officer is authorized to take such actions as he thinks
are necessary for prevention of forest offence. In essence, the section also vests in
the forest officer the responsibility of taking such preventive measures.
4.2 Offence Reports
Forest offences relating to illicit felling and illicit removal of forest produce are dealt with in
three different manners and accordingly the offence reports are classified into three different
types, which are mentioned below.
1) Undetected Forest Offence Report (UDOR) – Offences under the following
circumstances come under the purview of UDOR.
50
• The offender is unknown; and

• The forest produce in respect of which offence has been committed belongs
to the State Government
Once such offence is detected, the forest officer, authorized to seize forest produce, will
make seizure of trees/logs/ wood illicitly felled as well as of stumps where trees have
been illicitly felled, following the procedure described earlier. Since the produce is the
property of the State Government, such produce on seizure may be sent to timber
depot of the department to form depot lot. The said lot will add to the depot stock and
will be disposed like other lots by the competent authority.
The officer making seizure will draw a UDOR which should contain the following
information –
• Place of occurrence of offence;
• Date of detection of offence;
• Names of the officers present and circumstances leading to detection of offence;
• A brief account of offence indicating number of trees species wise that have
been felled, Volume of wood, actual or estimated (if part of produce has been
illicitly removed), involved in the offence.
• Seizure report (Details of seizure report may be seen in Lesson 15 of Forest
Law.)
2) Compounding Offence Report (COR) – Offences under the following circumstances
come under the purview COR.
• The offender agrees in writing to compound the case.
• The offence is compoundable. (Please see Lesson 4 of Forest Law, portion
relating to Sec 68 of IFA, to know the cases when the offence cannot be
compounded.)
The officer compounding an offence under sec 68 of IFA will draw a COR which should
contain the following information –
• Place and date of detection of offence;
• Names of the officers present and circumstances leading to detection of offence;
• A brief account of the offence; description and measurement of forest produce,
if any, in respect of which offence has been committed;
• Name and other particulars of the offender who is suspected to have committed
the offence;
• Whether any property has been seized as liable to confiscation, if so, the seizure
report (Details of seizure report may be seen in Lesson 15 of Forest Law.);
• Statement of the offender expressing his willingness to compound;
• Amount realized as compensation for the offence;
• Market value of the seized property, if any;
51
• Amount, if any, realized being double the market value of such property;
• Whether the seized property has been released on payment by the offender of
an amount equivalent to double the market value;
• whether the offender was taken in forest custody and discharged on payment of
compensation;
(3) Prosecution Offence Report (POR) - It is a complaint made by the Forest Officer to a
Magistrate, alleging about an offence committed by some person(s), and praying for
issue of process under the law. Offences under the following circumstances come
under the purview POR.
• Offences that do not come under UDOR and COR;
• The offender is known. There could be following likely situations
 The offender was arrested under section 64 of IFA and produced before the
Magistrate earlier; or
 The offender was arrested under section 64 and released under section 65
on execution of a bond to appear before the magistrate; or
 The offender could not be arrested, but on due investigation, there
appears reasonable suspicion of his having been concerned in the forest
offence, and thus the case merits prosecution under the law.
Details of what a POR should contain have been described in Lesson 15 of Forest Law,
which may please be seen.
5. Information regarding illicit felling cases detected during the period from 2009-10 to 2013-
14 may be seen in Appendix 1.
Reference materials

2. Lesson materials on Forest Law.
52
Appendix 1
Cases of Illicit Felling
(From 2009 – 2010 to 2013 – 2014)
Sl. Particulars 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

No.
01 Illicit Felling Cases detected (in Nos) 8382 8756 14080 15900 10447
No. of POR 156 291 356 301 220
No. of COR 3298 3486 7743 8497 4798
No. of UDOR 4928 4979 5981 7102 5029
3
02 Volume of Timber seized (m ) 5865.455 6435.535 9236.30 7803.64 5417.742
03 Value of Timber seized ( in lakh) 582.70 628.70 1160.21 277.20 629.96
04 No. of vehicles seized
a) Truck 89 89 109 84 194
b) LMV 11 43 18 15 11
c) Van 888 1118 365 992 421
d) Boat
35 71 93 47 19
e) Others
65 192 1480 114 1794
05 No. of vehicles confiscated
a) Truck 19 51 25 37 31
b) LMV 8 0 3 6 9
c) Van 888 20 --- 98 25
d) Boat
--- 4 --- --- 17
e) Others
65 42 5 --- 897
06 No. of Persons arrested 604 720 467 404 476
07 No. of Persons convicted in court 33 22 61 38 14
08 No. of forest personnel assaulted 13 18 9 16 8
(Source: Annual Report 2013-14 of W.B. Forest Directorate)
53
Forest Protection-Lesson 8
Lesson 8
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
 Faulty management
- Defects in management plan
- Defects in execution of plan
 Other damage
• Injuries by plants
 Damage due to excess number of desired species
 Injuries by unwanted species
- Preventive and remedial measures
Backward Linkage: Human interface dealt with in lesson 5, 6 and 7.
Forward Linkage:
• To be briefed, during tour, about salient points of management plan and measures
to control injuries by plants.
Allocation of time:
Faulty management
• Defects in management plan – 7 mts
• Defects in execution of plan – 10 mts
Other damage - 5 mts

Injuries by plants
• Introduction - 3 mts
• Damage due to excess number of desired species – 6 mts
• Injuries by unwanted species – 10 mts
- Preventive and remedial measures – 6 mts
Human Interfaces and their Control (Continued)
1. Faulty Management
Through faulty management man does damage to forests. Defects creep in the
management practice in two ways. Firstly, prescription in the management plan may
be defective, and secondly, execution of working plan may be faulty.
2. Defects in management plan
Forest is a complex and sensitive ecosystem about which human knowledge is
insufficient and incomplete. Thus though forest managers may always try to adopt
scientific system of management based on their understanding and knowledge,
slight error in their judgment may produce adverse effect on the forest ecosystem.
The management planner also finds his job quite difficult as he has to judiciously
balance people’s demands of forest resources with the silvicultural and ecological
requirement of forests. It is thus quite likely that prescriptions in one working plan
turn out to be not appropriate and put to revision in the next plan. Making
management plan to ensure sustainable eco system services from forests becomes
more difficult with increasing population and rising dependence on forests whose
capacity to produce is limited.
2.1 Some salient points in a management plan
• Defect in the perception- Wrong perception about objective of forest
management may invite defects in management. For example, if aim of
management is over-influenced by the idea of earning quick revenue in a short
term by intensive production of raw materials to meet the demands of industry
and household, forests may be subjected to over-exploitation and their potential
of supplying ecosystem services may suffer in the long run. Conversely, if the
forests are preserved with little exploitation so much so that they do not supply
even the legitimate demands of the JFMC members, particularly in respect of the
non-wood products, the management prescription will be counter-productive,
and participatory forest protection may lose its significance.
• Bias towards Timber management - Working plan or management plan often
turns out to be timber or wood management plan. Focus is on trees, particularly
on trees of commercial value. However, non-wood forest products, though
known as minor forest produce, are an important component of forest
resources. People’s dependence on forests in terms of their daily needs and
livelihood is more through non-wood forest products than timber. Even in terms
of money value which the villagers (JFMC members) may earn as usufruct share,
the non-wood forest products are by no means inferior to timber products. A
good working plan should therefore provide prescriptions for regeneration and
harvest of non- timber species, including medicinal plants, that can supply non-
wood products sustainably.
55
• Perfunctory treatment of soil and moisture conservation measures - Working

Plan often deals with soil and moisture conservation works perfunctorily. A
sound plan for soil and moisture conservation is a prerequisite for supporting a
healthy forest crop.
• Focus on fast growing and commercially valuable species - The regeneration
plan is sometimes biased towards commercially important species, or those trees
which are fast growing and easy to establish. While those species are definitely
important constituents of planting stock, we cannot exclude from regeneration
plan those species which are slow-growing and difficult to raise, especially when
they are important members of the indigenous group of species of the locality
and whose existence is threatened. A good management plan will identify the
spectrum of indigenous species and those which are already threatened locally or
in the region. Among other species, plantation programme should have
mandatory obligation to establish the threatened indigenous species.
• Rotation age - The rotation age or frequency of harvest should not be guided by
silvicultural consideration alone. Areas of a forest division are distributed in
different working circles which may be worked, depending on their objective of
management, on different rotations. Different from silvicultural rotation, they
may be of shorter duration to meet local demands or industrial demands. While
fixing shorter rotations for local or industrial demands, the limiting factor is not
to allow much compromise on production potential and to ensure that frequency
of harvest does not affect the sustainability of production.
• Harvest in eco-fragile zones - Driven by the concern to enhance production level,
the management plan should not encourage extensive harvest in forests in high
altitude, estuarine forests with fragile ecosystem, and forests bearing highly
endangered species. Rather in such areas, the plan should regulate, as far as
possible, human interference and allow only such management intervention
which is necessary for protection against fire, epidemic or natural calamities.
3. Defects in execution of plan

It is obvious that even though a management plan is faultless, its impact on forests
will depend on the quality of execution. Nature of defects in execution may be many.
We discuss only some common defects.
• Harvest not commensurate with regeneration - Harvesting plan should be
commensurate with regeneration. In other words, area harvested every year
should be invariably planted in the following planting season. The
management plan will definitely prescribe this stipulation. But, it will be a
gross defect in execution, if area successfully planted falls short of area
harvested, which may happen due to many reasons like, paucity of fund,
shortage of staff, faulty regeneration plan, natural calamities etc. If for any
reason, plantation in a year falls short of harvest which had immediately
56
preceded such plantation, area of succeeding harvest should be reduced by

the area of deficiency in plantation. For example-
Suppose according to prescription, in a working circle, area of annual
harvest and annual plantation is 100 ha each. However, against harvest in
2014-15 (October 2014-March 2015) over 100 ha, plantation in 2015-16
(April 2015 – Sept 2015) could be done on 80 ha, leaving a deficiency of 20
ha in plantation. In such circumstances following adjustment in succeeding
harvest area may be done.
In Year 2015-16
Area of Harvest (October 2015 – March 2016) should be 80 ha.
The plantation to be done in 2016-17 (April 2016 – September 2016) will be
again as per Plan prescription, that is, over 100 ha, comprising land of 80 ha
harvested in 2015-16 and part of land of 20 ha which was harvested in 2014-
15 but left unplanted.
• Harvest without due regard to illicit removal of timber – Area or extent of
harvest prescribed also needs to be adjusted against illicit removal of
produce. Otherwise, effective harvest will exceed the prescribed felling. It is
explained below.
Suppose in 2014-15, the annual harvest as per plan in a working circle is 100
ha, and illicit removal of produce recorded in the previous year (2013-14) in
the same working circle is equivalent to produce over 10 ha area. Then
harvest in 2014-15 should be undertaken over an area of 90 (=100-10) ha. It
would ensure that felling including illicit felling will not exceed the annual
felling prescribed in the Working Plan.
• Easy option to raise mono-crop and only fast growing species - Keeping
species diversity in view, the plan normally prescribes planting/sowing of
planting materials of varieties of species compatible with the local
environment. However, during execution, a forest manager may take an easy
option of planting mono-crop or a few species which are easy to grow, not
prone to grazing damage, and which do not need much care and protection.
The purpose of greening may be served by such strategy, but it is a poor
quality forest that will be raised. Going for mono-crop or a few numbers of
easy-to-grow species is a serious defect in execution.
• Introduction of exotic species or plants of new provenance without trial –
Forest managers are sometimes inclined to introduce in plantation exotic
species (species of foreign origin) or individuals of native species of new
provenance without trial, though such introduction is not permitted in the
working plan. If it is considered worthwhile to explore new species or new
provenances, it is necessary to conduct field trial and assess the performance
of such planting materials in the areas under afforestation. It is the
57
responsibility of the Research Wing to conduct such trial and communicate

their observation to the Working Plan wing.
• Omission of soil and moisture conservation works – The working plan
normally recommends, as part of an afforestation programme, soil works for
the purpose of soil and moisture conservation. However, quite often such
conservation works are either omitted or done very casually. The quality of
plantation and the object of eco-conservation are thereby adversely affected.
4. Other Damage
Humans cause damage to forests in many other ways. We describe some of this
damage.
• Lopping – Some of the forest trees are regularly lopped to provide fodder. It
was observed in the past in south West Bengal forests that young Sal trees
were being lopped to serve as tusser host. Repeated lopping weakens the
trees, retard their growth and render such trees prone to attack by insects.
• Removal of leaf litter – In certain forest areas the villagers remove leaf litter
from the forest floor on a regular basis for fuel. It is a common scene in the
forests of Acacia auriculiformis (Akashmoni) in south West Bengal that forest
floors are swept clean of Akashmoni leaves, as these leaves are excellent fuel
and of good use by the villagers. It is well known that leaf litter on
decomposition improves the physical characters of the soil, and adds to the
soil nutrients. Leaf litter also reduces runoff and checks to some extent soil
erosion. The practice of removing leaf litter thus causes damage to forests on
all these counts. However, if it is a practice of the villagers to collect leaf litter
for fuel or some other purpose, it is not advisable to try to stop the practice
altogether, because trees are saved as much as leaf litter serves as fuel. It is
rather desirable to try to control and regulate collection of leaf litter from the
forest floor.
• Poaching – Fauna and flora together constitute the biotic components of
forest ecosystem. Both flora and fauna discharge important functions in
maintaining the dynamic equilibrium of the ecosystem. Their existence and
role are interdependent. It is thus natural that destruction of forest fauna by
poaching or otherwise will upset the food chain and ecological balance
resulting in damage to the forests. Therefore protection of wildlife should
form a major task in forest management. Protection measures should include
(1) creation of awareness among people, (2) intensive patrol and field visit,
and (3) legal measures in wildlife offences.
• Environmental Pollution – Environmental pollution is increasing due to
growing population, increasing demand of energy and rapid industrialization.
58
Pollution badly affects the three major components of environment, namely,

soil, water and air. As these components get polluted, their capacity and
quality to support life degenerate. Consequently, pollution creates an
adverse impact on the varieties of life borne by forests.
Injuries by Plants
5. Introduction
A well managed forest is one which is stocked with healthy plants of a number of
desired species occupying various storey of the forest. In order that the desired
species grow without undue competition for space and nutrients, and do not suffer
casualty due to suppression by unwanted species, they should be protected from
damage caused by (1) excessive congestion of the desired species and (2) presence
of unwanted species.
6. Damage due to excessive number of desired species

At the initial stage, number of plants per unit area of a forest – natural or
p l a n t a t i o n – remains quite high. For example, a plantation normally starts with
1500 to 2500 plants per ha. Transplanting in large number per unit area is done to
take care of natural mortality that will take place. However, excessive crop density
even of the desired species is not sustainable or desirable for the forest to grow
healthy. Each plant, for its survival and growth, demands space, food, water and light,
which are all limited in a given site. As the plants grow, the demand of each plant
increases and soon a stage is reached when the site cannot afford to meet the
increasing demand. The plants therefore enter into competition for the essentials and
with time the competition becomes fiercer. The dominant individuals which suppress
the weaker ones are also denied of optimum growth because the weaker plants still
continue to share the limited food and water the site can afford. If the situation is not
intervened, the resulting crop of the desired species will consist of under-nourished,
under-sized and disease prone trees/plants with little utility.
6.1 The management intervention that is necessary is to progressively reduce the
number of plants per unit area, as the demand of each plant for food and water
increases with its age. The objective is to restrict the total demand of the entire stock
for essentials within the limit that the site can provide. It is done by carrying out
cleanings in the sapling stage and regular thinning at pole stage and thereafter. This
will result in a mature crop of the desired species which would consist of healthy
individuals of optimum growth and vigour.
7. Injuries by unwanted species

Forests are damaged by the following unwanted species.
• Weeds – Weeds are undesirable and troublesome plants that grow profusely in
forest floor, particularly in the blanks, cleared lands and in young plantations.
59
The weeds may be shrubs, herbs or grass. If left unchecked, the weeds will
suppress the seedlings of the desired species, retard their growth and, in
extreme circumstances, can annihilate them. Certain weeds also act as host to
insect pests and rust diseases. When weeds infest open areas and blanks of
forests and plantations in their infancy, regeneration of desired species becomes
extremely difficult. In the process of creation of plantations, shoots that come up
from seeds sown get suppressed before they attain the height and vigour to
steer up clear from the reach of weeds. The transplants of species which are
slow-growing are also easy victims. In North Bengal forests, the normal method
of artificial regeneration of Sal is by sowing, and one major problem being faced
is the vigorous attack by weeds. Some of the common weeds that invade forests
are Clerodendron, Mikania, Ageratum conyzoides, Eupatorium, Lantana etc.
Grasses are equally harmful as shrub/herbaceous weeds. The effect is very

menacing when the root system forms a mat on the forest floor. It prevents
germination of seeds and kills most of those which manage to germinate.
Moreover, it remains a permanent source of fire hazard, particularly in dry
season.
• Climbers – Climbers by their nature use other plants (forest trees) as support and
climb up, and cause damage to desired plants. At any stage of their growth the
plants can be harmed by the climbers. Sometimes the slender climbers get on to
the top of young saplings, enclose them and either kill those saplings or badly
affect their growth. When thicker climbers twine round the pole crop, they get
grooved into the tender bark as the poles grow in diameter. Woody climbers
(example: Bauhinia vahlii), by their sheer weight, bend the trees and may even
kill them by total suppression.
• Parasites - In some parasitic plants like species of Cuscuta (Swarnalata), small
adventitious root-like structures, i.e rootlets called haustoria or sucking roots
develop from stems of the parasites. These roots penetrate the tissues of the
host plant and suck the latter. The parasite thus lives by sucking the host plant
with the help of sucking roots. They weaken the host plant, cut into the stem of
host plant as they twine up and may even kill the host plant.
Given below is an extract of tour note of A Basu Ray Chaudhuri, IFS (Retd)
relating to his inspection as CCF Research and Monitoring of an experimental
2001 Sal plantation at Beliatore (Bankura) in November 2006.
“…..more than anything what attracts my attention is the serious infestation of

the plantation by Cuscuta reflexa (Swarnalata). Invading from north, the weed
has attacked a large number of Sal saplings climbing and twining up to the
crown. It has created a kind of mesh on the floor suppressing medicinal plants
60
that were planted as intercrop in 2004. The weed is known for its power of
vigorous growth and habit of killing its hosts. …”
7.1 Preventive and remedial measures
Preventive measure against the unwanted species, in man-made forests, is to deny

these species space to emerge and establish. It is the open space between sowing
strips and transplant lines where the weeds/unwanted species easily emerge fast
and profusely. As they get established they spread and try to cover the young
seedlings of the forest crop lines. Thus an effective preventive measure is to grow
some crop, generally annuals or short-lived perennials, in the interspaces and thus
prevent the emergence of the unwanted species in such space. Leguminous
agricultural crop like Cajanus cajan (Arhar) or suitable vegetable crop may be raised
in the interspaces during the first couple of years since creation of a plantation. In
fact, Taungiya system of cultivation adopted in Sal regeneration in North Bengal
comes in good stead to contain and suppress the weeds in the interspaces and help
the Sal seedlings grow healthy in profuse numbers. The procedure is to allow the
dwellers to raise agricultural crop or vegetables in the intervening spaces between
the strips of Sal in the first year. Regular weeding and cleaning undertaken by the
villagers to raise the agricultural crop automatically keep the weeds away from the
forest crop.
7.1.1 Preventive measure described above applies to man-made forests. In primary

forests, such measure of raising agricultural or vegetable crop cannot be adopted
and is not permissible. Even in plantations, despite taking all good preventive
measures, emergence of weeds or unwanted species cannot be stopped altogether.
The remedial measure upon emergence of unwanted species is to remove them
physically as early as possible. This is done by carrying out cutting, weeding, cleaning
in the infested area as deemed necessary. These should also be done while carrying
out routine cultural operations like marking, thinning etc. In case of plantations,
during the first few years the plantation block should be subjected to thorough
weeding –cleaning a number of times every year. In an afforestation programme. a
plantation generally undergoes four to five cleanings in the first year, that is, year of
creation, and further cleanings, fewer in number, in the next few years as part of
creation of the plantation. In weed infested areas - most of the forest blocks in North
Bengal - the schedule of cleaning followed is often found to be inadequate. The
Taungiya system of cultivation turns out to be very essential in such cases.
7.1.2 A number of weedicides are available in the market. There are also reports that
some of the weedicides have been found to be quite effective in annihilating weeds
like Clerodendron, Mikania etc. and liana like Bauhinia vahlii. However, one has to be
very careful while applying chemical weedicides because of their toxic effects.
Besides weedicides, they may also kill desired species and many other life forms
61
beneficial for the forest eco-system. It is thus better to avoid application of chemical
weedicides. It is rather worthwhile to explore for suitable organic weedicides. But
before deciding to use any particular organic weedicide, it is necessary to assess its
efficacy and economics by conducting trial over sample plots.
Reference materials

2. Lesson materials on Forest Botany
Lesson 9
1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
To study
 Introduction
 Role played by carnivores
 Injury by herbivores
 Protection measures
• Injuries by insects
 Pests in nurseries
 Pests of important forest trees
• Injuries due to diseases
 Vulnerability of plantations and exotics
 categories of disease
 progress - what is expected of forest manager
 Common symptoms
 Disease in forest trees

Forward Linkage:
to control injuries by wild animals, pests and diseases.

Allocation of time:
 Role played by carnivores - 2 mts
 Injury by herbivores - 7 mts
 Protection measures - 5 mts
• Injuries by insects
 Pests in nurseries - 5 mts
 Pests of important forest trees - 9 mts
• Injuries due to diseases
 Vulnerability of plantations and exotics – 3 mts
 categories of disease - 2 mts
 progress - what is expected of forest manager – 3 mts
 Common symptoms - 7 mts
 Disease in forest trees - 10 mts
 Discussion/ Miscellaneous – 4 mts.
63 Forest Protection 77
Injuries by wild animals
1. Introduction
Wild animals are an integral part of the forest ecosystem. In an ideal condition they
should remain in a dynamic equilibrium among themselves and with the vegetation.
That is, in an ideal scenario, the vegetation of a forest, while supplying food for the
herbivores, gets time, space and nutrients to regenerate and sustain in terms of
quantity and diversity. However, when the balance is upset, the trouble starts and
damage to forest flora becomes manifest. Damage caused by wild animals depends
on the animals, their size and feeding habit, and also on the plants, their age and the
species concerned. Normally, mature trees can escape the risk of damage, and of
course, the young plants are the worst victims.
2. Important role played by the carnivores

It is obvious that the herbivores are the agents of destruction of forest vegetation. In
that respect, the carnivores play an important role to contain the damage.
Carnivores feed on other animals. To the extent the carnivores feed on herbivorous
animals, they keep the population of herbivores in check and thus restrict the
damage potential of the herbivores.
3. Injury by Herbivores
Herbivores feed on grass, leaves, branches of shrubs and small trees, and other
vegetative parts like flowers, fruits, bark etc. So as they thrive in the forests, the
herbivores cause injury to the plants. The nature of damage caused by some of the
herbivores is described below.
• Damage by wild elephants – Elephants are the largest herbivore in our
forests and are most destructive by virtue of their size and quantity of food
they need to survive. It is estimated that an adult elephant eats daily about
1.5 quintals of forage in the form of grasses, leaves, small plants, branches,
roots, fruits and bark of trees. Tree bark is a favourite food source for
elephants. It contains calcium and roughage, which aids digestion. Tusks are
used to carve into the trunk and tear off strips of bark.
(http://seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-infobooks/elephants/diet-and-
eating-habits/). They damage Sal and Teak trees, particularly when young, by
removing bark. Bark and leaves of Ficus species, Artocarpus chaplasha are
favourite food. The elephants also like to feed on bamboo, which is destroyed
extensively in forests. Besides, consuming forage in large quantities, the
elephants playfully cause damage by breaking or uprooting small trees.
The elephant population is on the rise. They cause damage not only to
forests, but also agricultural crops, vegetable crops and human habitation.
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Elephant depredation is now very common phenomenon in West Bengal and

has become one major problem in wildlife management. Indirect method of
containing their ravage by capturing them by kheddah or pit method or by
chemically immobilising some select individuals has not been found to be
very effective. Following direct methods have been found to yield result in
varying extent.
 Scaring them away – Elephants are scared away from young
plantations and human habitations, desired to be protected, by
beating drums, firing crackers and lighting torches.
 Elephant proof trench – This method is employed to protect young
plantations or villages adjacent to forests. Trench, 2 metre wide at
the top and 1.2 m at the bottom, and 2 metre deep is dug all around
the plantation, or along the boundary between forest and village to
keep away the elephants. However, this is a costly method and the
trenches require maintenance.
 Power fencing – Entry of elephants to forests or human habitation
can be checked quite effectively by installing power fencing. Mild
shock as they come in contact with the energized fencing keeps the
elephants off from the plantations or village boundary. However, on
account of cost and need for maintenance, power fencing cannot be
employed to protect large areas for a long time.
• Damage by Indian Bison or Gaur – Gaur diet consists of grasses, herbs,
shrubs and trees, with high preference for leaves. Some recent studies have
reported that gaur feeds on a much wider variety of plants than any other
ungulate species of India, with a preference for upper portions of plants, such
as leaf blades, stems, seeds and flowers of grass species. Some early studies
had however concluded that gaurs are primarily grass eaters.
(http://www.threatenedtaxa.org/ZooPrintJournal/2009/February/o158926ii0
9128-130.pdf )
As they feed on grass and forest seedlings, the gaurs damage the
regeneration of forests. They also cause mechanical damage to young trees.
• Damage by wild boar – While being omnivorous the wild boar’s favourite
food is roots and tubers. As they look for roots and tubers, the boars dig the
forest soil and kill the young seedlings of forest species. In North Bengal,
damage of germinating Sal seeds and Sal seedlings by wild boar is very
common. The wild boars are also very fond of bamboo rhizomes, and thus
bamboo crop in forests is highly vulnerable to damage by the wild boars.
• Damage by Spotted Deer and Sambhar Deer – These herbivores cause
considerable damage to seedlings and saplings of forests. Young sal seedlings
are heavily grazed by these animals. They also browse leaves and tender
shoots of many species namely, Pterocarpus marsupium (Peasal), Alibizzia
lebek (Kalo Siris), Artocarpus chaplasha (Lathar), Chukrasia tabularis (Chikrasi)
etc.
65
3.1 Protection measures

Protection measures against damage by elephants have been described above. A
general preventive measure against the damage by herbivores is to fence out the
regeneration area. Wire fencing or vegetative fencing around young plantations for
the first two years saves a lot of damage from the herbivores. However, fencing is
not an effective measure against large herbivores like elephants and animals like
monkeys. If a plantation of sapling/pole size crop is heavily damaged by browsing,
and if the main crop is a coppicer, then the stems can be cut back to allow coppice
shoots to emerge, and the coppiced area can be fenced.
Injuries due to pests and diseases
4. Injuries by Insects
Insects bring about severe damage to the plants. The risk of damage due to insect
prevails throughout the life span of the plants. In other words, the insects can attack
at any stage of growth of the plants.
• In nurseries – The seedlings may be damaged by leaf eaters like cutworms
and crickets or root-sucking insects like cockchafers.
• At sapling/ pole stage – The plants may be damaged by defoliators, bark-
borers, cambium insects and sap-sucking insects
• At maturity – The trees are more vulnerable to attack by insects
• After death or felling- Even after the trees die or are felled, they become
victim of attack by various beetles and the wood gets deteriorated.
4.1 Pests in nurseries
A prerequisite for good plantation is preparation of healthy planting stock in the

nursery. It is therefore necessary to control the pest attack on nursery seedlings.
Some common nursery pests and their control are described below.
• Cutworms – These are surface caterpillars (larvae) of several species of night-

flying moths. The larvae are called cutworms because they cut down young
plants as they feed on stems at or below the soil surface.
(www.extension.umn.edu)
 Control measures - The silvicultural method is to remove weeds and plant
residue to help reduce egg-laying sites and seedling weeds that nourish
small cutworms. The mechanical method that can also be adopted is to
catch the larvae and kill them. Although there are chemical insecticides
that have been reported to be effective against cutworms, use of
chemical insecticides should be avoided as far as possible.
• Cockchafers – Grubs of cockchafer beetle are root feeders. They consume
rootlets and feed on tap roots and thus kill the seedlings. There are several
66
species of cockchafer beetle, and depending on their habits, specific control

measures need to be employed. Some general measures are given below.
 Control measures – The cockchafer beetles lay eggs in summer or
beginning of monsoon. So, one silvicultural control method will be to
avoid preparing seed beds during this period, as soil working invites
ovipositing. Sowing may also be avoided during this time. If it is
unavoidable to do soil working and sowing during oviposition period, the
worked soil in the bed may be covered with a layer of charcoal, sand or
sulphur; sowing may be done after removing the covering in lines, and
the covering material may be put back after sowing. The mechanical
method of control is to capture the grubs during the preparation of beds,
and destroy them. The chemical method of control, if unavoidable, may
be used over small areas where seedlings are found to be affected. In this
method, toxic material like carbon disulphide, CACN, acetic acid, or BHC is
applied to beds in the prescribed manner.
4.2 Pests of important forest trees

The pest of important forest trees belong to following classes
• Defoliators – They destroy the tree foliage by eating up, or rolling the leaf, or
boring the leaf tissue or by cutting and carrying the leaf for purposes other than
food.
• Feeders - They feed on shoot, cambium or wood.
Pests relating to two important trees are described below.
4.2.1 Teak Defoliators
Hyblaea puera is commonly known as the teak defoliator. It is the most widespread
and serious pest in both plantations and natural forests, with as many as 14
generations per year. Defoliation does not kill the trees, but does lead to substantial
timber loss. Defoliation by H. puera in plantations four to nine years old has been
reported to cause about 44% volume increment loss of the trunk. The larvae directly
retard girth increment, reduce timber quality by forking, cause death of the leading
shoot and result in formation of epicormic branches.
(Source: http://www.atree.org/sites/default/files/articles/Hyblaea_paper.pdf)
 Control measures - The teak defoliator is present the year round in teak
plantations, but in varying population densities. Natural control of this pest to
some extent takes place due to a number of parasitoids, predators including
wasps, spiders, birds etc., and some pathogens (disease producing agents) that
include certain bacteria and fungi. These agents cause mortality to Teak
defoliators. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyblaea_puera). Silvicultural method
to contain the Teak defoliators is a preventive one. It is advised that Teak
67
plantation should not be created pure over a large area. The maximum size
recommended is about 15 to 16 ha. Teak plantations should be separated by
strips of natural vegetation. (L S khanna 1998 Forest Protection)
4.2.2 Sal Borer
Shorea robusta, is one of the most important timber species of India. The
heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis, is the most serious pest of Sal
throughout its range. Its beetles emerge soon after a few showers of monsoon
rains from the third week of June to the end of August. They are attracted to the
odour of freshly cut bast and sapwood of sal. Soon after mating, the beetle
oviposit white, cream coloured eggs in cracks on the bark. After 3-7 days of egg
period, the hatching takes place. The freshly hatched grubs bore the bark and
reach to the sapwood, where they form tunnels. After feeding the sapwood, the
grub move to heartwood where they form a wider pupal chamber, the grubs
start pupation from December onwards, develop to immature beetles between
April to May and emerge out from middle June onwards during monsoon. The
male has long antennae than their body while the female has short antennae.
The incidence of attacked sal trees due to heartwood borer goes upto 24.33 per
cent during epidemics. The borer killed more than 26 lakhs of sal trees during the
sal borer epidemics in Madhya Pradesh between 1996-02.
(Source: K. C. Joshi, N. Roychoudhury, N. Kulkarni, S. Sambath 2006, Sal
Heartwood Borer in Madhya Pradesh at http://www.indianforester. co.in/
index.php/ indianforester/article/view/4513/0)
Fig. 9.1 Sal Borer (Source: http://www.forestrynepal.org/article/1918/5000)
 Control measures – This pest is immune to all known forms of control measures
as most of its year-long life cycle passes in the tree, except for 20-30 days of
adult beetle stage. (Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0739-
B1.HTM)
However, following control measures are generally recommended.

(a) Silvicultural control – Sal crop should not be grown dense. It should be
regularly thinned. Felling should be restricted between October and March. (L S
Khanna 1998 Forest Protection)
(b) Mechanical control
(Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0739-B1.HTM)
In some epidemics in the past following control measures had been adopted.
(i) Catching and killing of insects through Trap-Tree method. In this
Operation, one to two trees ha-1 of 60-90 cm girth are felled, cut into 2-3
m long logs and the bark near cut ends is beaten up to provide shelter for
the beetle. The beetles get attracted to the smell of sap, get intoxicated
after consuming it and become sluggish, rendering their collection and
killing easier. Beetles are collected from traps every morning and evening.
The heads of beetles are severed and counted for record of daily catches.
Trap tree operation starts on the onset of monsoon and that continued
till the day the insect catches are nil.
(ii) Felling and removal of affected trees away from the sal forests.
(iii) Burning of debris and stumps after harvesting of trees.
(iii) Stacking of infested timber in depots five km away from sal forests in
order to prevent the beetles from flying back to forests.
4.2.3 Galls in Eucalyptus

Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues and can be caused by various
parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to insects and mites. Insect galls are more
common. In south West Bengal Eucalyptus plantations, on a large scale, were
infected by galls in recent past. Galls are also often found in plantations of Emblica
officinalis (Amlaki). Insect galls are formed by some herbivorous insects as their own
microhabitats. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls act as
both the habitat and food source for the insect. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall).
Leptocybe invasa, Fisher & La Salle, commonly called Blue Gum Chalcid, is a newly
described gall-inducing wasp species currently spreading in many countries and
causing damage to young eucalypt plantations and nurseries. Galls induced by this
wasp can cause serious injuries to trees, thereby weakening them.
Control Measures - No effective control measures are currently available. The
following interim measures are recommended to manage the wasp problem:
1) periodic monitoring of infestation in nurseries and plantations;
2) mechanical removal of affected plant parts and subsequent burning; and
3) avoid production and planting of highly susceptible clones.
69
Application of systemic insecticides like Rogor or Metacid 50 (@ 2ml/1 litre water)

on foliage at fortnightly intervals is effective.
(http://www.fao.org/forestry/22072-0e774d1f27c87fa48a76b498a3b4bd3b4.pdf)
Fig. 9.2 Galls in Eucalyptus (Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall).
5. Injury due to diseases

Disease in plants has been defined as sustained physiological and resulting
structural disturbances of living tissues and organs, ending sometimes into death.
(Source: L S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection). Thus when affected by disease, plant
tissues cannot perform their normal physiological functions and when such
condition is sustained over a period, the plants may suffer structural deformation.
Diseases and insects influence and eventually determine the productivity of forests.
Unless controlled, they offset the efforts of the foresters to increase wood
production.
5.1 Plantations are more disease prone

In plantations, preferred species are raised usually as a pure crop in even-aged
stands intensively managed toward increased productivity by reducing genetic
variation, eliminating competing vegetation, maintaining optimum stand density
and practicing other cultural operations. All these operations may change the
ecosystem drastically and expose plantations to the risk of diseases and insect pests
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/h2575e/h2575e04.htm). Thus the plantations are
more susceptible to disease and the damaging effect of disease is more
pronounced in plantations.
5.2 Exotics may be vulnerable

To increase productivity, foresters sometimes intend to introduce exotic species.
However, performance of an exotic over a short period may not guarantee that it
will have disease-free life cycles in the long run, because pathogens and pests take
time to build up.
5.2.1 (http://www.fao.org/docrep/h2575e/h2575e04.htm)
Exotics are exposed to two hazards: they may be attacked by an indigenous
parasite against which they may not possess any resistance or by an inadvertently
introduced foreign pathogen. An example of the first hazard is Eucalyptus, which,
planted extensively in India, is seriously affected over 40000 hectares owing to
attack by the pink disease that occurs on a wide range of indigenous
hosts. Celosterna scrabrator, the root and shoot borer of indigenous Acacia, has
found a suitable host in Eucalyptus, on which the pest has become serious in dry
areas.
5.3. Two categories of disease
Diseases in trees are classified into two categories.
1) Pathogenic – means diseases caused by pathogens like fungi, bacteria, virus
etc.
2) Physiological – they are non-pathogenic and caused by environmental
factors.
5.4 Progress of disease

If the growth of a plant is affected by some adverse factor, the plant becomes weak
and becomes predisposed or susceptible to attack by some of the parasites which it
hosts. The disease progresses gradually within a tree and, if not checked, may
spread to many a tree resulting in an epidemic.
5.5 What is expected of a forest manager
A forest manger should have knowledge of common diseases. He should be able to
identify symptoms of such diseases. Early detection of disease symptom is very
important and helpful in taking timely control measures. It may be beyond the
capacity of a forest manager to adopt suitable measures on all occasions, but timely
detection of symptom will enable him to seek expert’s help in the early stage of the
disease.
5.6 Some common symptoms
Common symptoms fall into three categories.
1) Necrotic symptoms - Necrosis is the symptom of death of plant tissues or

organs that results from pathogen infection. This symptom can occur in any
plant tissues, such as the leaves, petioles, stems, branches, roots, flowers,
fruits or tubers. Necrosis may appear in small areas or cover a large area of
the plant tissues (http://www.acdiainc.com/symptoms.htm). Some necrotic
symptoms are described below.
 Plant Wilting and Death - Infection of pathogens in root system, vascular

system or main stem may cause wilting or death of the whole plant.
Generally, the infected plant starts to wilt during the early stage of
infection, and then the whole plant slowly dies. In a few cases, the wilted
plant may be recovered partially or completely
(http://www.acdiainc.com/symptoms.htm). If the wilt is temporary and
attributable to physiological factors like deficiency of moisture due to
excess transpiration, it may disappear when the moisture level is restored
during night.
 Canker - Canker diseases are common, widespread, and destructive to a
wide range of trees and shrubs. A ‘canker’ is really a symptom of an injury
often associated with an open wound that has become infected by a
fungal or bacterial pathogen. It is an injury primarily of the bark and
cambium. Canker diseases frequently kill branches or structurally weaken
a plant until the infected area breaks free, often in a wind or ice storm.
(http://www.mortonarb.org/trees-plants/plant-clinic/help-
diseases/canker-diseases; L S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection).
Fig.9.3 Stem Canker (Source: http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/ppath/lect/plpath) Plant

Disease Symptoms, P.N. Sharma Department of Plant Pathology,CSK HPKV, Palampur (H.P.))
 Decay – It means decomposition of wood substance by fungi. Both living

and dead tissues of a plant may be attacked by fungi. Attack on living
tissue may cause mortality of the tree. Whereas attack on dead wood,
say, heartwood, may cause heart rot.
2) Atrophic symptoms – Atrophy means dwarfing or stunting of growth
resulting from subnormal cell division. One example is Chlorosis: The loss of
chlorophyll from the tissues of a plant, resulting from microbial infection.
Chlorotic tissues commonly appear yellowish.
72
Fig.9.4 Chlorosis (Source: http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/ppath/lect/plpath) Plant

Disease Symptoms, P.N. Sharma Department of Plant Pathology,CSK HPKV, Palampur (H.P.))
3) Hypertrophic symptom – It means a plant overgrowth due to abnormal cell

enlargement. The symptoms may manifest in the following forms.
 Wound tumors – an uncontrolled growth of tissue (s)
 Galls - An abnormal plant structure formed in response to parasitic
attack by certain microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses) or
insects.
 Witches Broom - An abnormal form of plant growth characterized by
profuse outgrowth of lateral buds to give a broom
like appearance.
 Enations - A symptom caused by certain plant viruses in which
there are small outgrowths on the plant.
(Source: http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/ppath/lect/plpath) Plant Disease Symptoms,
P.N. Sharma Department of Plant Pathology,CSK HPKV, Palampur (H.P.))
5.7 Disease in Forest Trees

Diseases seen in forest trees may be classified in two broad types.
1) Root Diseases – Root diseases are caused by fungi which may be soil-
inhabiting or root-inhabiting. The soil-inhabiting fungi cause wilt, e.g
Fusarium solani causing wilt in Sissoo. On the other hand, root-inhabiting
fungi cause root-rot, e.g Ganoderma lucidum causing root-rot in Sissoo
(Source: L S khanna 1998 Forest Protection).
Control measures –
 In general, it is difficult to control root disease, because the root, the
affected part, is not accessible, and fungicide, being toxic, should not
be applied to soil.
 Some general silvicultural guidelines may, however, be followed. In

wet Sal forests, some controlled burning may be done to contain the
moisture level resulting in reduction of weed growth (Source: L S
khanna 1998 Forest Protection). Excess moisture and profuse weed
growth favour Polyporus shorea (the fungus causing root rot in Sal) to
become epidemic. Then in a plantation programme the site selected
should be suitable for the plants. For example, Sissoo is known to
grow well in well-drained sandy loam site. If planted in waterlogged or
clayey soil Sissoo does not grow well and becomes predisposed to
root diseases. While doing advance soil work for afforestation
programme, old srumps, if affected by fungi, should be removed.
Selection of species is also very important. If resistant species form
the major component of planting stock, the risk of root disease is
reduced.
 Biological control of soil-inhabiting fungi is difficult. However, some
root-inhabiting fungi like Armillaria mellea and Fomes annosus are
reported to have been successfully controlled.
2) Heart rot
Heart rot in living trees is caused by fungi which have entered the tree
through open wounds and exposed bare wood. The presence of fruiting
bodies of the heart rot fungi, punk knots, swollen knots, dry branch stubs
sticking out of bole, and swollen boles are indications of heart rots in trees (L
S Khanna 1998 Forest Protection). Heart rot causes decomposition of wood
resulting in substantial loss of timber.
As long as a tree is growing vigorously, rot will be confined to a small central

core. This is called compartmentalization. If the tree is weakened and fresh
wood exposed by severe pruning or storm damage, decay fungi can advance
to more and more wood.
(http://forestry.about.com/od/forestdiseases/p/dis_com_hr.htm.)
Control measures - (B. K. Bakshi Heart-rots in Relation to Management of

Sal; http://www.indianforester.co.in/index.php/indianforester/article
/view/24303)
To control or reduce the incidence of heart-rot in high forests, the crop
should be nursed during the critical period of susceptibility by sound
silviculture. The silvicultural measures include –
 Protection from fire injury by control burning;
 Manipulation of the overhead canopy to prevent frost and
suppression.
74
 Thinnings and selection fellings should be carried out with a view to

stand-improvement.
 All diseased trees should be removed during felling to prevent further
loss in net volume recovery and spread of decay to the residual crop.
A second marking may be necessary after felling is completed when
trees with hidden decay become evident. Such trees and also those
damaged during fellings should be removed.
 During felling, injury to the standing crop from falling trees should be
prevented by lopping the side branches of the latter if they are many,
thick and spreading.
 Infected stumps should not be coppiced.
 Standards should be selected from healthy trees free from any
symptoms of heart-rot.
 In moribund sal, dry felling at short intervals is desirable. Felling age in
forests containing high incidence of heart-rot should be lowered.
The forest pathological considerations for the management of coppice sal
forests in the south West Bengal are different. Sal forests in this part are
worked on short rotation. Due to continued maltreatment to which these
forests were subjected in the past, the incidence of decayed stumps is high.
According to some experts, attempt to raise the rotation of these forests is
fraught with the risk that the decay will progress from the stump into the tree
when the heartwood develops. High forests in these areas should therefore
be raised from seeds/ seedlings.
Reference materials

2. Lesson materials on Forest Botany
3. Websites cited in the lesson.
Forest Protection lesson 10
Lesson 10
Time 1 hour
Lesson Plan
Objective:
To study
 Flood and landslide
 Drought
 Frost
 Snow

Forward Linkage:
to control injuries due to natural calamities.
Allocation of time:
 Flood - 8 mts
 Landslides - 10 mts
 Drought - 10 mts
 Frost - 12 mts
 Snow - 7 mts
Injuries due to natural calamities
1. Introduction
It has been long recognized that there is a general correspondence between the geographic
distribution of plants and climate. In other words, climate is a major factor that influences
and sustains typical vegetation and forests of a place. The earth’s climate arises from the
interaction of solar radiation and atmosphere that surrounds the earth (Burton V barnes et.
al . 1998 Forest Ecology). Climate includes unusual and extreme events as well as those that
occur with regularity. When the extreme events lead to natural calamities, the forests are
subjected to unfavourable climatic and environmental factors, and they suffer damage.
Described below are some unfavourable or adverse climatic and environmental factors
accompanying natural calamities and causing injuries to forests.
2. Flood
(http://www.extension.umn.edu/environment/trees-woodlands/flooding-effects-on-
trees/)
• Direct damage - Flooding may cause direct damage to trees by
• changing soil conditions;
 water covering the soil reduces oxygen supply to roots. Flooding
changes pH of the soil, which may not be favourable to the crop.
Flood waters may carry to the soil chemicals or other toxic materials
from urban areas or agricultural fields, which are harmful to plants.
• interrupting normal gas exchange between trees and their environment;
• Sedimentation
 Sedimentation on tree roots also tends to cut off supply of oxygen
and cause root injury.
• Physical damage.
 When floods are accompanied with strong currents, waves, or
suspended particles they may wash away the soil from the base of the
trees and expose their roots. Exposed roots can stress trees and make
them more vulnerable to be fallen by wind. Ice flows and debris
carried by rushing waters can remove bark and damage tissues. Flood
waters that cover foliage on lower branches will interfere with
photosynthesis and gas exchange, leading to death of those branches.
• Indirect damage - Flooding also may weaken trees, thus making them more
susceptible to indirect damage from insects and diseases. The degree and likelihood
of indirect damage depends upon the severity of the flood, the tree species and tree
health
• Symptoms of flood stress - Trees that are flood stressed exhibit a range of
symptoms that may include
 leaf chlorosis and subsequent defoliation;
 reduced leaf size;
 development of epicormic shoots; and
 crown dieback.
77
3. Landslides
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ba0126e/ba0126e00.htm)
Landslides cause environmental damage to forests and agricultural resources by
• removing topsoil,
• blocking rivers and
• Increasing downstream sedimentation.
All the above occurrences are detrimental to growth and establishment of forests. Removal
of topsoil would adversely affect the availability of water and nutrients. Blocking of rivers,
depending on scale, may cause overflowing of water over forest lands resulting in
environmental and physical damage of plants in varying degrees. Increased downstream
sedimentation also can cause physical damage besides root injury. In case of heavy
landslides, the physical damage becomes very conspicuous as chunks of forest blocks
carrying mature trees get uprooted and moved down the slope.
3.1 Silviculture measures
(http://gis.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/rice/RiceFAO.pdf)
As far as landslides are concerned, clear-felling is the least desirable silvicultural system, as
in this system the anchorage strength of trees in the soil is reduced simultaneously over the
whole harvest area. Another reason for avoiding clear-felling where landslide risk exists is
the effect on slope strength of any delay in achieving prompt regeneration. Landslide risks
resulting from even-aged management can be reduced by turning from a clear-felling
system to a shelterwood system. With any silvicultural system, a species which coppices
well can probably maintain slope strength at a high enough level so that the removal of
trees during the harvest will cause only a trivial increase in landslide risk. This would be true
only if management of the stand is prudent and maintains high levels of growing stock.
3.1.1 Scientific studies confirm the crucial role of trees and forests in preventing landslides
not only by reinforcing and drying soils, but also in directly obstructing smaller slides and
rock falls. However, the role of trees and forests in the case of deep-seated landslides or in
extreme events is unlikely to have any effect (http://www.fao.org/docrep
/016/ba0126e/ba0126e00.htm).
4. Drought
Drought can be defined as a prolonged and abnormal water deficiency extensive in time and
space (Burton V Barnes 1998 forest Ecology). Though not always the case, droughts are
usually accompanied by unusually warm conditions. A typical example is what we observe in
south West Bengal. A major part of this region is what we call drought prone area, as it
normally suffers from water deficiency during the period from December onwards till onset
of monsoon in middle of June. Drought or near-drought situation occurs in this region
during summer between April and June before the advent of monsoon – a period when
atmospheric temperature soars high.
4.1 Drought affects forest trees both directly and indirectly. One direct impact is reduction
in growth of the trees during growing season. The productive functions of the trees like
flowering, seed production, seed germination etc. are also greatly reduced. Regeneration
process is badly affected, as seedling survival rate drops down. Among the indirect effects,
the most obvious is the incidence of fire the probability of which goes high during drought.
Fire also burns more and spread faster in dry conditions. Drought may also be associated
with attack by insects and diseases and thus result in severe damage to forests. Recurrence
of drought may increase the probability of disease.
4.2 Recurrence of drought puts the forest soil under moisture stress and therefore favours
regeneration of drought-resistant species. Thus under drought condition in successive
summers, species diversity in forests will undergo change and reduce on account of
mortality of water demanding species and survival of less demanding ones.
4.3 Measures
Forest management has little to do relating to prevention of drought, but has lot to
contribute in taking remedial measures and ameliorating the effects of drought.
• Soil and water conservation work – The forest managers may undertake suitable
soil and engineering works to prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture. The
objective of such works is to reduce run off and recharge ground water reserve as far
as possible. In undulating terrain, any afforestation programme should include, as
mandatory steps, soil-moisture conservation works like contour trenches, checking
gully erosion, digging suitable planting pits etc.
• Choice of species – In plantation programmes in drought-prone areas, priority in
selection of species should be on those species which are drought-resistant, that is,
those which can survive under soil-moisture stress. In south West Bengal forests,
though Sal is the major species, it needs adequate moisture at the initial stage of
establishment. Left rain-fed, Sal regeneration from seeds/seedlings has been found
to have failed quite often. However, once Sal seedlings get established with a little
irrigation, they can bear the drought condition and grow into tall trees. Again the
south west Bengal forests contain a number of species that are drought-bearers.
Examples are Peasal, Haritaki, Bahera, Neem, Mahul, Kend. One example of an exotic
(from Australia) which has naturalized in this tract and has found to be perfectly
suitable under drought conditions is Acacia auriculiformis (Akashmoni). Forests
suitably planted with drought-resistant species will produce good vegetation cover
that will make optimum use of limited water available, and in the long run, enhance
soil moisture.
• Mulching – In order to lessen the effect of drought, mulching is done in the post-
transplanting stage. This is a common and routine measure in all plantations in south
West Bengal. It consists of the following steps.
 Soil working around the base of the plants to keep the soil loose; it removes
the compactness of the soil, enhances water infiltration into the soil, and
79
improves aeration of the soil; and
 Covering the soil around the base of the plants with some mulching material
in order to conserve moisture, reduce run-off and erosion, and check weed
growth. Mulching materials are usually cut grass, foliage or straw, and may
include compost, wood chips, saw dust etc.
5. Frost
Frost means chilling of air below the freezing point (0 degree Celsius) (L S Khanna 1998
Forest protection). On the basis of mode of formation, frost is classified into following
categories.
• Radiation frost – It occurs at night on account of loss of heat by radiation. On clear
winter nights air near the ground undergoes rapid cooling and when temperature
falls below freezing point, water vapour gets transformed into ice crystals that form
on soil, ground vegetation or other object surfaces near the ground. It is called
ground frost or hoar frost. It is not only the surface air but also soil air that gets
chilled.
• Pool frost – It occurs in a place when convection current of cold air of considerable
depth flows into natural depressions from adjoining areas. It is more damaging than
ground frost as cooling effect extends to a considerable height of the vegetation.
• Advection frost – Advection frosts occur when cold air blows into an area to replace
warmer air that was present before the weather change. It is associated with cloudy
conditions, moderate to strong winds, no temperature inversion1 and low humidity.
Often temperatures will drop below the melting point (0 °C) and will stay there all
day (http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y7223e/y7223e07.htm).
(1 Temperature inversion means temperature increasing with height above the
ground)
This frost occurs in northern parts of India due to cold waves coming from outside.
5.1 Frost pocket

Frost pocket or Frost hollow is the name for low-lying area (e.g. a valley bottom or a smaller
hollow) where a frost occurs more frequently than in the surrounding area.
(http://www.weatheronline.in/reports/wxfacts/Frost-hollow.htm)
5.2 Injuries due to frost

• Injury to young plants – Ground frost which occurs at night freezes the soil
moisture. In the morning young plants get exposed to sunlight and undergo heavy
transpiration. The loss of water in the plant body due to transpiration is not
replenished as the roots cannot supply water from the soil moisture which is frozen.
As a result, the young seedlings suffer mortality.
• Cell Injury (http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y7223e/y7223e0a.htm) - Direct frost
damage occurs when ice crystals form inside the protoplasm of cells (intracellular
freezing), whereas indirect damage can occur when ice forms inside the plants but
outside of the cells (i.e. extracellular freezing). It is not cold temperature but ice
80
formation that actually injures the plants. It is believed that intracellular ice
formation causes a "mechanical disruption of the protoplasmic structure". The
extent of damage due to intracellular freezing depends mainly on how fast the
temperature drops and to what level it supercools before freezing.
As a result of extracellular ice formation, water will evaporate from the liquid water
inside the cells and will pass through the semipermeable cell membranes and
deposit on the ice crystals outside of the cells. As ice continues to grow, the cells
become more desiccated. Typically, in injured plants, the extracellular ice crystals are
much larger than the surrounding dead cells, which have collapsed because of
desiccation. Therefore, the main cause of frost damage to plants in nature is
extracellular ice crystal formation that causes secondary water stress to the
surrounding cells.
• Injury to crown – The pool frost or the cold waves generally kill back saplings and
poles to the ground level (L S Khanna 1998 Forest protection).
• Frost cracks – Under frost attack, stems of the trees develop longitudinal cracks,
called frost cracks. These fissures close later and get covered with growth of callus.
• Canker – When a branch dies due to frost, callus forms at the base of the branch.
The callus gets killed due to subsequent frost attack. As the process recurs the
wound point becomes vulnerable to attack by fungi resulting in formation of canker.
5.3 Protection Measures
The measures are preventive and described below. Depending on the circumstances,
following measures may be taken.
5.3.1 In Nursery
• Shades at night – The nursery beds may be covered with shades at night. The shades
should be slanted so that leaves of the seedlings do not get exposed to direct
sunlight in the morning. When during the day the soil temperature has risen up, the
shades may be removed so that soil receives direct sunlight.
• Watering – Watering the nursery beds in the morning during frosty season is
advised. Watering melts the ice crystals formed on the ground, provides water to the
roots and thus lessens the chilling effect of frost.
• Smoking – Sometimes brushwood and grass are burnt around nursery at night to
create a smoke screen over the nursery. This prevents radiation frost in the night.
5.3.2 In Plantation
• Nurse crop – Raising of nurse crop [example: Cajanus (Arahar), Ricinus communis
(castor oil plant)] in the interspaces reduces the frost damage to the desired species.
• Retention of frost protection shelterwood – When planting of frost tender species is
planned in frosty localities, the area in question is clear felled except that healthy, a
number of young and middle aged trees, evenly distributed, are suitably selected
from the existing stock and retained as shelterwood as a frost cover.
• Regulation of weeding – It is advisable not to do weeding during winter so that
weeds may act as frost cover to the plants.
81
5.3.3 In natural Regeneration Areas

• Shelerwood or Selection System – While trying to obtain natural regeneration in
frosty localities, it is advisable to avoid clear felling system. Shelterwood or selection
system will be an appropriate option to provide frost cover to regeneration.
6. Snow
In temperate areas much of the annual precipitation falls as snow. In western and central
Himalayas, snow normally stays above 2000 m, and in the eastern Himalayas the altitude of
snowfall is higher (L S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection).
6.1 Injuries due to Snow

• Water stress - Distinct from rain, snowfall is characterised by the fact that frozen
water is unavailable to plants. On warm days in early spring when the soil is still
frozen, trees with transpiring foliage may experience water stress (Burton. V. Barnes
et al, 1998 forest Ecology).
• Physical injuries – The young trees and saplings get buried under snow and are
broken under physical pressure. Even when snow is not deep enough to bury sapling
or poles, it settles on the uphill side at the base of the saplings and causes the stems
to bend outward. The bending of stem becomes permanent and is observed on the
mature trees. As this bending occurs at the high-girth portion of the stem, much of
valuable timber gets lost. When snow accumulates on the crown of the trees, there
are chances that tree branches or tops may break under snow pressure. As snow
slides down the slope, it causes soil erosion and, in extreme cases, may wipe out
strips of forest along its course. Hill slopes down which snow slides regularly often
become bare. Persistent snow cover may also prevent establishment of vegetation.
Reference materials

2. Burton V Barnes et al 1998, Forest Ecology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Lesson materials on Soil and Water Conservation
4. Websites cited in the lesson.

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FOREST PROTECTION

Copyright © 2016 in text

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

A Basu Ray Chaudhuri,IFS (Retd) N K Pandey,IFS

A Basu Ray Chaudhuri, IFS (Retd) N K Pandey, IFS

Forest Protection Syllabus (revised)

Forest protection (10 hours), excursion 1 day, tour 4 days

4.Human 4.1.Damage caused through human interface

5.Injuries by -Damage due to excessive number of desired

6. Injuries due to - Role played by carnivores* 1 hour

7.Injuries due to -Flood and land slide 1 hour

Field study Observation of fire lines etc.

Lesson Contents Page No.

• Lesson Plan 54-62

10 • Lesson Plan 76-82

o Injuries due to frost

In comparison to 2011 assessment,

• Total Forest Cover – 16805 km2 (18.93% of geographical area)

In comparison to 2011 assessment,

3. Need for Forest Protection:

4. Factors responsible for degradation of forests

5. Legal powers of frontline staff in forest protection

Source of Lesson materials:

1. Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010 by FAO

2. Causes of forest fires

• Leaving fire burning after cooking in forest camps;

• Throwing torch wood by the travelers at night;

• Burning the undergrowth to collect minor forest produce;

3. Types of forest fires

 Controlled burning – The objective is to burn the inflammable materials such

 Fireline – Fireline is defined as a cleared permanent fire break (a barrier from

Forest Fires (Continued)

4. Post- suppression operations

Source of Lesson materials:

1. L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection, Khanna Bandhu, Dehradun

Backward Linkage: Nil

Training Materials Required:

1.2 This lesson deals with the domestic animals.

• Increasing population of livestock in the forest fringe villages;

2.1 Classification of domestic animals

• Social forestry outside forests

In this connection it is required to create plantations containing fodder species in

 Formulate and design action plan and schedule;

Grazing Period First rotation or Second rotation Third rotation or

 In order to ensure that grazing is done in the prescribed block, it becomes

4. Damage caused by browsing animals

Source of lesson materials:

Backward Linkage: Forest fire dealt with in lesson 2 and 3.

Training Materials Required:

Human Interfaces and their control

2. Damage caused through human interface

3.1.2 Extent of diversion of forest lands.

3.2 Shifting Cultivation

3.2.2 Adverse effects of shifting cultivation

3.2.3 Measures to control shifting cultivation

operation in the afforestation programme. Invasive weeds is not only a menace to

Source of Lesson materials:

1. L.S Khanna 1998, Forest Protection, Khanna Bandhu, Dehradun

Backward Linkage: Human interface dealt with in lesson 5.