Animal Reproduction Research in Assisted Reproductive Technologies

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Research in Assisted Reproductive Technologies

NIFA-supported research in assisted reproductive technologies includes:
 Assisted Reproductive Technologies

 Artificial Insemination and Cryopreservation
 Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer
 In Vitro Fertilization
 Sex Determination of Sperm or Embryos
 Nuclear Transfer or Cloning
Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Various techniques have been developed and refined to obtain a large number of
offspring from genetically superior animals or obtain offspring from infertile (or subfertile)
animals. These techniques include: artificial insemination, cryopreservation (freezing) of
gametes or embryos, induction of multiple ovulations, embryo transfer, in vitro fertilization,
sex determination of sperm or embryos, nuclear transfer, cloning, etc. To take full
advantage of the benefits of assisted reproductive technologies, one must understand the
basic physiology of the female and malereproductive systems as well as various methods
to synchronize reproductive cycles.
Artificial Insemination and Cryopreservation

Artificial insemination (AI) has been used to obtain offspring from genetically superior
males for more than 200 years. Improvements in methods to cryopreserve (freeze) and
store semen have made AI accessible to more livestock producers. In the same manner
as cryopreservation of semen, embryo freezing allowed for the global commercialization
of animals with high genetic qualities. Semen from bulls is especially amenable to freezing
and long-term storage. In the dairy industry, where large numbers of dairy cows are
managed intensely, AI is simple, economical, and successful. More than 60 percent of
dairy cows in the United States are bred by AI. However, the situation is different for beef
cattle, where breeding populations are usually maintained on range or pasture conditions.
In the United States beef industry, AI accounts for less than 5 percent of inseminations.
For reasons that are not yet well understood, it is more difficult to freeze and store semen
from other livestock species, including horses, pigs, and poultry, than it is to freeze cattle
semen. NIFA has supported research projects to understand the physiological processes
associated with cryopreservation of semen or embryos and to develop improved methods
of cryopreservation for gametes (eggs and sperm) and embryos from several livestock
species.
Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer

Development of embryo transfer technology allows producers to obtain multiple progeny
from genetically superior females. Depending on the species, fertilized embryos can be
recovered from females (also called embryo donors) of superior genetic merit by surgical
or nonsurgical techniques. The genetically superior embryos are then transferred to
females (also called embryo recipients) of lesser genetic merit. In cattle and horses,
efficient techniques recover fertilized embryos without surgery, but only one or sometimes
two embryos are produced during each normal reproductive cycle. In swine and sheep,
embryos must be recovered by surgical techniques. To increase the number of embryos
that can be recovered from genetically superior females, the embryo donor is treated with
a hormone regimen to induce multiple ovulations, or superovulation. NIFA has
supported basic and applied research to enhance the efficiency of superovulation and
embryo transfer in livestock species.
In Vitro Fertilization
As an alternative to collecting embryos from donor animals, methods have been
developed recently to produce embryos in vitro (in the laboratory). The methods are also
called in vitroembryo production or IVP. Immature oocytes (female eggs) can be obtained
from ovaries of infertile or aged females, or from regular embryo donors (described
above). Ovum (egg) pick up is a nonsurgical technique that uses ultrasound and a guided
needle to aspirate immature oocytes from the ovaries. Once the immature oocytes have
been removed from the ovary, they are matured, fertilized, and cultured in vitro for up to
seven days until they develop to a stage that is suitable for transfer or freezing. NIFA has
supported a number of basic research projects to understand the physiological
mechanisms associated with production of embryos in vitro.
Sex Determination of Sperm or Embryos

The beef industry in the United States prefers male calves, which tend to have higher
body weights and higher feed efficiency (compared to female or heifer calves) when
placed in feedlots for the growing and finishing stages of meat production. In contrast, the
dairy industry prefers heifer calves, which will ultimately produce offspring and milk for
human consumption. Thus, methods are needed to determine the sex of sperm or
embryos so producers can control the sex of the offspring of their livestock. Using a
specific dye that binds to DNA (the Hoechst 33342 stain) and a flow cytometer/cell sorter,
the DNA content of individual sperm is measured. In cattle, the X-bearing sperm contain
3.8 percent more DNA than the Y-bearing sperm. In mammals, the presence of a Y
chromosome (and one X chromosome) determines that the individual will be a male.
Female mammals contain 2 X chromosomes. Although the process to sort the X and Y
bearing sperm is slow (approximately 10 million live sperm of each sex can be obtained
per hour—this is about the number of live sperm required for one conventional dose of
frozen semen for artificial insemination), this procedure determines the sex with higher
than 95 percent accuracy.
The ability to sex semen has a large potential for commercialization; thus, much of the
research to develop and refine sperm sexing technology has been conducted in the
private sector. XY, Inc., a small company in Ft. Collins, CO, has been the leader in
developing sperm sexing technology in cattle, horses, and pigs. Researchers at
the USDA Agricultural Research Servicehave also played a major role in developing
sperm sexing technology for poultry and swine.
NIFA has supported basic and applied studies on male reproductive physiology that have
laid the groundwork for many of the advances made by private industry. In addition, NIFA
has supported basic research to develop novel methods to determine the sex of bovine
embryos:
 Sex determination of bovine embryos by noninvasive immuno-PCR (NRI grant 98-
35208-6598).
 Non-invasive bovine embryo sexing via sperm-mediated transgenesis.
Nuclear Transfer or Cloning

Since the mid 1980s, technology has been developed to transfer the nucleus from either
a blastomere (cells from early, and presumably undifferentiated cleavage stage embryos)
or a somatic cell (fibroblast, skin, heart, nerve, or other body cell) to an enucleated oocyte
(unfertilized female egg cell with the nucleus removed). This “nuclear transfer” produces
multiple copies of animals that are themselves nearly identical copies of other animals
(transgenic animals, genetically superior animals, or animals that produce high quantities
of milk or have some other desirable trait, etc.). This process is also referred to as cloning.
To date, somatic cell nuclear transfer has been used to clone cattle, sheep, pigs, goats,
horses, mules, cats, rabbits, rats, and mice.
The technique involves culturing somatic cells from an appropriate tissue (fibroblasts)
from the animal to be cloned. Nuclei from the cultured somatic cells are then microinjected
into an enucleated oocyte obtained from another individual of the same or a closely
related species. Through a process that is not yet understood, the nucleus from the
somatic cell is reprogrammed to a pattern of gene expression suitable for directing normal
development of the embryo. After further culture and development in vitro, the embryos
are transferred to a recipient female and ultimately result in the birth of live offspring. The
success rate for propagating animals by nuclear transfer is often less than 10 percent and
depends on many factors, including the species, source of the recipient ova, cell type of
the donor nuclei, treatment of donor cells prior to nuclear transfer, the techniques used
for nuclear transfer, etc. NIFA has supported research projects to obtain a better
understanding of the basic cellular mechanisms associated with nuclear reprogramming.

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ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Research in Assisted Reproductive Technologies

 Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Artificial Insemination and Cryopreservation

Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer

Sex Determination of Sperm or Embryos

Nuclear Transfer or Cloning

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