13

Mineral Nutrition

R Scan JOHNSON AND K. URIU

o r normal growth and optimum production, fruit the quantities that they are in certain annual crops.
F trees require 13 essential nutrients in varying
amounts (table 13.1). Those needed in relatively large
Generally, nitrogen is the only macronutrient that must
be consistently supplied to fruit trees in California.
amounts are termed macronutrients - nitrogen (N), Under certain conditions, other nutrient deficiencies
phosphorus (P), potassium (K) , calcium (Ca), mag­ can develop. Toxicities can also become a problem.
nesium (Mg), and sulfur (5). Those needed in smaller These will be discussed in the sections for individual
concentrations are called micronutrients - chlorine nutrients.
(CI), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron Nutrient problems (deficiencies and excesses)
(B), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo). can often be identified visually, but it is advisable to
Growers must learn to manage these nutrients chemically analyze leaf samples to confirm the prob­
for optimum growth and production and to minimize lem and quantify its severity Even without obvious
adverse environmental effects. Most important is bal­ problems, leaf samples should be taken to check the
ancing the nutrients - when one element is deficient, effectiveness of one's nitrogen fertilization program
its absence can negatively affect plant processes and and to watch for gradual changes in nutrient levels .
thereby inhibit optimum uptake, utilization, or distri­ Leaf samples should be taken in June or July when
bution of other elements. On the other hand, an nutrient levels are relatively stable. For peach and
excess of any element may be toxic to trees, thus nectarine, basal to midshoot leaves on moderately
affecting the availability of other nutrients in the soil. vigorous fruiting shoots (10 to 20 inches long) are
Besides the great variation in amounts of differ­ sampled. For plum, the standard is nonfruiting spur
ent nutrients needed by plants, concentrations of leaves . Each sample should include 60 to 100 leaves
nutrients in individual organs and at different times taken randomly from within the orchard. The leaves
during the season also differ substantially For instance, are washed , dried at 150 0 to 160 0 F (66 0 to n° C),
the calcium content of leaves can be 10 to 30 times and sent to a chemical laboratory for analysis . Opti­
higher than that in the fruit (table 13.1). Also, the mum leaf concentrations for each element are shown
percentage of leaf calcium steadily increases over the in table 13.1.
season, while leaf nitrogen content declines. There­
fore , efficient nutrient management calls for supply­
ing the right nutrient to the right organ at the right Nitrogen (N)
time. Most of the elements essential to trees need not
be supplied in a regular fertilizer program because In soil
(1) many elements are abundant (and available)
enough in most soils to provide an adequate supply; In soil, nitrogen can exist in several forms. Its conver­
(2) perennial trees recycle a substantial portion of sion from one form to another must be understood
some nutrients from the leaves back into the tree to manage nitrogen efficiently so that as much as
structure before leaf fall, and (3) for some nutrients possible is available to the plant.
(i.e ., phosphorus), very little is removed in the crop, In soil, nitrogen can exist in a soil organic form,
leaves, and prunings, Because of the last two reasons, or as an ammonium ion (NH4+), nitrite ion (N0 2 - ) ,
nutrients like phosphorus are not needed in nearly or nitrate ion (N0 3 -). In most soils, more than 90

68

 Table 13.1. Nutrient elements in stone fruit

Level in leaves
Peaches and Nectarines Plums
Range in Mobility- Occurrence
Deficient Optimum Toxic Deficient Optimum Toxic mature in of deficiency
Element below range over below range over fruit plant in California
% % % % % % %
N 2.3 2.6- 3.0 -t 2.3- 2.8 1.0-1.5 Med. Common
P 0.1-0.3 0.1 -0.3 0.1-03 High Rare
K 1.0 Over 1.2 1.0 Over 1.1 1.5-2.5 High Occasional
Ca Over 1.0 Over 1.0 .05-.15 Low Unknown
Mg 0.25 Over 0.25 0.25 Over 0.25 .05- .15 High Occasional
CI 0.3 03 High Unknown
S Low Unknown
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
Fe 60+ Over 60+ 20-80 Low Common
Mn 20 Over 20 20
Over 20 5-10 Med. Occasional
Zn 15 Over 20 18
Over 18 10-20 Low Common
B 18 20-80 100 25
30-60 80 20-50 Low Rare
Cu Over 4 4
Over 4 5- 10 Low Rare
Mo
Med. Unknown

"Indicates abil ity to move from older leaves to developing leaves and fruit.

tData unavailabl e.

:l:Leaf samples need to be taken in April or Ivlay.

percent of the nitrogen is in the soil in organic form, to-nitrogen ratio of the soil is high , as when straw or
tied up in living organisms and decaying matter. wood shavings are applied.
Under natural conditions, this form breaks down Nitrogen can be lost from the soil as a gas in
slowly into ammonium ions. About 2 to 3 percent of several different forms: ammonia gas, elemental nitro­
organic nitrogen is converted each year, an amount gen, and nitrous oxides. When ammonium fertilizers
usually insufficient to sustain vigorous plant growth ­ are applied on the soil surface, the ammonium ion
so fertilizer nitrogen must be added . can be readily converted to ammonia gas and lost to
The next step in the conversion of soil nitrogen, the atmosphere. Therefore, after application, ammo­
from the ammonium form to the nitrate form, occurs nium fertilizers must be quickly incorporated. It is
in two distinct steps involving two groups of bacteria. also advisable to avoid using ammonium fertilizers on
The first step is from ammonium to nitrite and the alkaline soils. Under high pH conditions a greater
conversion of ammonium ions to ammonia gas occurs,
second step from nitrite to nitrate.
leading to a greater loss of nitrogen. Furthermore,
NH4+ --7 N0 2 - --7 N0 3­ nitrite can build up because ammonium ions inhi bit
the second step of nitrification. Not only is nitrite
These two steps, referred to as nitrification, toxic to plants but it can also be readily converted to
occur rapidly (within 2 weeks) under most soil and various forms of nitrogen gas and lost from the soil.
environmental conditions. Both nitrite and ammo­ A second source of nitrogen loss in gaseous form
nium can be toxic to plants, so it is necessary to is termed denitrification. Here, nitrates are converted
understand the nitrification processes. (Actually, the to elemental nitrogen and nitrous oxides. Although
ammonium ion itself is not toxic, but it can be par­ the process occurs naturally in soil, it is enhanced
tially converted to ammonia gas, which is toxic.) under anaerobic conditions since the bacteria involved
Nitrification can be affected by temperature, soil use nitrates for an oxygen source when oxygen gas
water conditions, soil pH , and the carbon-to-nitrogen (0 2 ) is limited. Therefore, denitrification is much
ratio in the soil. Optimum conditions for nitrification higher under waterlogged and other anaerobic soil
occur at soil temperatures of 80° to 90° F (27° to conditions.
32° C) , moderate soil water status, and a pH of 6 to 7. Another source of nitrogen loss is through leach­
The process is inhibited for a time when the carbon- ing. Generally, soil particles are negatively charged.

69

Therefore, positive ions (cations) are attracted to and in seeds where nitrogen materials are synthesized,
held by the soil and are not readily leached out with moved around, and stored. Therefore, when various
water. Negatively charged ions (anions), however, are plant parts are analyzed, nitrogen content tends to be
repelled by soil particles and leach out easily For this high in growing shoot tips, growing leaves, young
reason, ammonium ions that are positively charged fruits , and seeds. It is also fairly high in mature leaves,
do not move far into the soil, even with heavy irriga­ since photosynthesis requires a large quantity of
tions or rainfall. On the other hand, nitrates move enzymes. It is important to note that nitrogen is not
readily with water and can be leached from the root particularly high in woody tissues or in the flesh of
zone in substantial amounts, especially in sandy soils. fruit tissues near harvest. Fruits can be expanding
All of these processes combined can account for rapidly near harvest, but this is mostly a function of
significant losses of soil nitrogen. Even with good cell expansion from water uptake, which does not
management, losses of 25 to 50 percent of applied require as much enzymatic activity as the cell division
nitrogen have been reported. Therefore, careful atten­ stage of growth. Therefore, large quantities of nitro­
tion must be paid to each process mentioned to mini­ gen applied to trees near harvest would not be expected
mize loss and environmental contamination. A well­ to directly affect fruit size.
managed, low-volume irrigation system can help Nitrogen is very efficiently remobilized in senes­
reduce nitrogen losses. First, water is applied more cing leaves. Approximately 50 percent is transported
uniformly to the field, thus reducing losses to deep out of the leaves before they abscise. This nitrogen is
drainage and runoff. Second, nitrogen can be por­ then stored as arginine and other amino acids in the
tioned out in small amounts over a period of time and shoots, branches, and roots. In spring, this stored
consequently taken up much more efficiently by the nitrogen is very important for the initial flush of
tree. growth.

In the tree Deficiency, excess, and correction

Nitrogen exists in many different forms in fruit trees; Nitrogen is the only major element that must be
each has a separate function and each exists in widely added regularly to typical stone fruit orchards in Cali­
varying amounts. Nitrogen is mostly taken up in fornia. Because detrimental effects can result from
nitrate form by roots. Some uptake occurs in ammo­ either insufficient or excess amounts, only the opti­
nium form but is probably small in fruit trees. Uptake mum amount necessary in a regular maintenance pro­
of nitrate requires energy; therefore, the roots must gram should be applied.
be supplied with carbohydrates. Once in the plant, Deficiency symptoms are similar for peach and
nitrate is reduced to the ammonium form and then plum showing pale green leaves near the terminal of
incorporated int o amino compounds. These corn­ the shoot and yellow leaves at the base. In peach
pounds, which include amino acids , amines , and and nectarine, leaf midribs and stems are character­
arnides, are the form in which nitrogen is stored and istically red (fig . 13.1). As the season progresses,
moved around the plant. Arginine, the most common red and brown spots develop in leaves (fig. 13.2).
amino acid in peach trees, is the principal storage Shoot growth and leaf size are reduced, but not
form in the dormant season. Amino compounds con­ nearly to the extent of zinc deficiency Premature leaf
stitute about 5 percent of the total nitrogen in the drop often occurs. Fewer flower buds are produced
plant. and the resulting fruits are smaller and more highly
Most nitrogen in a growing plant is found in colored.
proteins and nucleic acids. An estimated 10 percent Correction is easily achieved with any nitrogen­
exists as nucleic acids and 80 to 85 percent as pro­ containing fertilizer (table 13.2). TIle form of fertil ­
teins. These compounds play key roles in essentially izer makes little difference in terms of supplying
all the active processes occurring in plants. Proteins nitrogen to the tree. Instead, the choice of material
function mainly as enzymes for such plant processes should be based more on other considerations. For
as nutrient uptake, photosynthesis, carbohydrate move­ instance, ammonium fertilizers are usually the least
ment, and cell division . The nucleic acids , in RNA and expensive but are not available for root uptake until
DNA molecules, constitute the genetic material of converted to nitrate. TIley also lower the pH of the
plants. Obviously, nitrogen is vital to plant growth, soil and are subject to volatilization if not incorpo­
development, and reproduction. rated immediately. Nitrate fertilizers offer the advan­
Nitrogen is needed most where plant growth is tage of being immediately available for uptake by the
actively occurring, especially in those processes in­ plant. Manure and other organic fertilizers improve
volving cell division. Large quantities are also needed soil structure and water penetration by flocculating

70

 Table 13.2. Nitrogen-containing fertilizers

Equivalent
acidity or basicity
(in lb CaCO J )
Fertilizer Formulation Nitrogen ( %) Acid Base
Ammonium nitrate NH 4NO ] 33.5-34 62
Ammonium sulfate" (NH 4) 2S04 21 110
Anhydrous ammonia NH ) 82 148
Aqua ammonia NH 40H 20 36
Calcium ammoniumt Ca(N0 2) 2 · NH 4NO) 17 9
nitratesolution
Calcium nitrate Ca(NOJ ) 2 15.5 20
Manure (dry)! 1-3
Sodium nitrates NaNO) 16 29
Urea CO(NH 2) 2 45-46 71
Urea ammoniumt NH~O)· CO(NH 2) 2 32 57
nitrate solution

·Will acidify thesoil when used exclusively over a period of time.

tOften injected through low volume irrigation systems.
:I=Also improves soil structure but can contain high levels ofsalt.
§Not recommended in SanJoaquin Valley because ofsodium salt content.
This table was prepared from information in the Western Fertilizer Handbook.

soil particles. However, these materials are slower Foliar application of fertilizers cannot supply suffi­

than commercial fertilizers in terms of releasing nitro­ cient nitrogen to correct a deficiency.

gen for uptake, and they may add undesirable salts to Time the application for late summer, after har­

soil. With any fertilizer, one should take into account vest. Early spring applications are also effective. For

the potential beneficial and detrimental effects of the sandy soils, split the application to minimize leaching

other nutrients making up the fertilizer material. losses . Little nitrogen is taken up when leaves are

Fig. 13.1. Nitrogen deficiency in peach, showing characteristic Fig. 13.2. Severe nitrogen deficiency in peach. Leaves are very
reddening of stem and leaf midrib. chlorotic and have developed typical brown spots.

71
absent from the tree, so a dormant application is inef­ Phosphorus (P)
ficient due to leaching, volatilization, and denitrifica­
tion losses. Late spring and summer applications are In soil
too late for the cell division phase of fruit growth and
tend only to stimulate additional vegetative growth. The chemistry of phosphorus in soil is complicated
With low-volume irrigation systems, the recommended and not fully understood. Nevertheless, several prin­
timing does not change, but toxicity can occur if the ciples tend to hold true. ( 1) Phosphorus readil y reacts
ful1 rate is applied at one time through the system. with numerous elements in soil to form insoluble
Therefore, apply in smaller amounts over an extended compounds. (2) These reactions are pH dependent.
period. At a low pH, certain reactions dominate and the phos­
A rate of 100 to 150 pounds actual nitrogen per phorus is tied up in insoluble compounds containing
acre (112 to 168 kg per ha) is usuall y adequate for iron, aluminum, and magnesium. Likewise, at high pH
maintaining trees at an optimum level. This rate may values, other reactions dominate and phosphorus
vary considerably with tree status, soil type, ground becomes tied up in calcium phosphates. Usually, a pH
cover, variety, and irrigation method. With severely of 6 is considered optimum for phosphorus availabiJ­
deficient trees, more may be needed initiall y. On the ity to plants. Even at this level, onl y a small amount of
other hand, overly vigorous trees should be left un­ the total phosphorus exists in a soluble form that is
fertilized for a year or two to allow the nitrogen level readily available to plants. By some estimates, onl y a
to drop to a more optimum range. Soil types can vary third of a crop's immediate requirements for phos­
in their natural fertility levels and the ground cover phorus exists in readily avaiJable form. However, this
can either add to or compete for nitrogen, depending readily available form is in equilibrium with less avail­
on how it is managed. Generally, early season varie­ able forms so that as plants take up phosphorus it is
ties should receive less nitrogen than mid- and late quickly replenished in the soil solution. When com­
season varieties. Not only is there less removal in the mercial fertilizers containing phosphorus are added
crop, but it is also desirable to prevent excessive to soiJs, these chemical reactions quickly render most
postharvest vegetative growth. Substantial amounts of of the phosphorus unavailable to plants. Even though
nitrogen can be found in many wells in the San Ioaquin this phosphorus will slowl y become available over
Valley. Since this can contribute a substantial portion time, there is typically only a 5 to 20 percent recov­
of the tree's requirements, wells used for irrigation ery of fertilizer phosphorus in the year of application.
should be tested for nitrates (1 ppm N0 3- - N 2.7 = However, there is minimal leaching loss of phospho­
lb Nzacre-foot) and accounted for in the fertilization rus from the soil because it exists predominately in
program. Studies with nitrogen fertilizers applied these insoluble forms.
through low volume irrigation systems indicate much
greater uptake efficiency. Therefore, to get the same In the tree
response as with broadcast fertilization under flood
irrigation, usual1y about half the recommended rate Even though phosphorus levels in plants are low com­
is sufficient. pared with those of other macronutrients, they are
Rather than relying on a standard application rate essential to many plant processes. Three principal
each year and trying to account for all of the above forms of phosphorus in plants are: in RNA and DNA
factors, growers should monitor the nutrient status molecules, in cell membranes, and in ATP molecules.
of trees with a yearl y leaf sampling program. Leaf The last form , ATP, is a molecule that stores the
nitrogen levels should be maintained between 2.6 energy from photosynthesis and the breakdown of
and 3.0 percent N for peaches and nectarines and sugars. It is very mobile and can therefore be trans­
between 2.3 and 2.8 percent N for plums. ported to sites requiring a great deal of energy such
Detrimental effects can result at high nitrogen as expanding shoots, leaves, and fruits. When phos­
levels. These include a delay in fruit maturity, decreased phorus is deficient, this last form is particularly
red coloration on the fruit , and excessive vegetative depleted , so developing shoots and fruits are espe­
growth resulting in shading out and eventual death of cially sensitive.
lower fruiting wood. Sometimes, yield and fruit size
are decreased. Deficiency and correction
At very high rates of nitrogen, fertilizer burn can
occur. Symptoms of this disorder include leaf burn In California, phosphorus deficiency has seldom been
and defoliation and dark discoloration in the xyJem ob served in stone fruits, possibly because: (1) Phos­
but not in the phloem. It can be severe enough to kil1 phorus is very efficiently recycled in senescing peach
the tree. leaves. Estimates of 70 percent recovery have been

72

reported. (2) Phosphorus levels in fruit tissues are In the tree

not very high; thus, minimal amounts are removed in
harvest. (3) Plants generally deal with soil phospho­ Potassium exists in large quantities in both leaf and
rus unavailability by exuding organic substances from fruit tissues. Although one of its functions is to acti­
their roots that help solubilize this nutrient. (4) Cer­ vate enzymes, most potassium ions are not tied up in
tain soil fungi, calJed mycorrhizae, exist in associ­ complex molecules, but are used in the ionic form by
ation with tree roots. This relationship increases the cells as a solute to help maintain turgor. This includes
uptake of phosphorus into the roots. both young, actively growing cells and also guard
The first two points suggest that not much phos­ cells, which control the opening and closing of sto­
phorus is required from the soil each year. In fact , mates. Potassium, therefore, is mobile, readily mov­
annual requirements of fruit trees in general range ing in and out of cells and from one part of the plant
from 5 to 10 lb/acre (6 to 11 kglha), which is much to another. At the same time , potassium is not retrieved
lower than for many field crops. efficiently from senescing leaves. A 30 percent retrieval
On the other hand, deficiencies of phosphorus for peaches has been reported. Also, potassium is
in the field have been reported in the U.S., including apparently not stored extensively over the dormant
California. Leaves on deficient peach and nectarine period; most potassium in the plant, therefore, is
trees are dark green, eventually rurning bronze and derived through active soil uptake. Potassium uptake
developing a leathery texture. A purple or red colora­ appears to be proportional to vegetative growth,
tion appears on the leaves, petioles, and young shoots. reaching its maximum in early summer. Potassium
Leaf size may be reduced and premarure defoliation accumulates substantially in fruit tissues and appears
may occur, beginning with basal leaves . Yield and to have a role there in fruit growth, since potassium­
fruit size are reduced. The fruit are more highl y col ­ deficient trees have been shown to have greatly
ored and ripen earlier but exhibit surface defects and reduced fruit sizes . On low potassium soils , a heavy
poor eating quality. crop load can induce deficiency symptoms.

Deficiency and correction

Potassium (K) Potassium deficiency is sometimes found in peaches,
plums, and nectarines in California, although it is not
In soil nearly as much a problem as it is in prunes. Symp­
toms first develop in early summer on midshoot leaves,
In California, potassium exists in large quantities in which exhibit a pale color similar to that of nitrogen
most stone fruit orchard soils. More than 90 percent deficiency. Leaves show a characteristic curling or
of it is relatively unavailable to the tree, being tied up , rolling, especially in peaches (fig . 13.3). Leaf margins
or "fixed,' by clay particles or in micas and other
minerals. Its predominant, more available form is a
positively charged ion (cation). Only a small propor­
tion of these potassium ions is actually in solution at
any given time; the remainder is adsorbed on negatively
charged clay or humus particles. These different
forms are in equilibrium with each other. Therefore,
as potassium ions in solution are depleted by plant
uptake, they are quickly replaced by adsorbed ions,
which are then gradually replaced by weathering of
more unavailable forms . This provides a tremendous
sto rage of potassium so that trees can usually be
amply and continuously supplied without adding any
fertilizer.
Potassium tends to be more concentrated near
the soil surface (top 6 to 8 inches) in most California
stone fruit orchards. Therefore, deficiencies are more
likely to occur where scraping has occurred for land
leveling or topsoil removal.
Fig. 13.3 . Potassium deficiency (right) compared with normal
peach shoots (left). Note pale color and leaf-roUingsymptoms.

73

become chlorotic and then necrotic, leading to a mar­ to soils can therefore increase calcium leaching due
ginal scorch that is particularly evident in plums. This to acidification of the soil. Highly weathered soils
necrosis eventually extends inward, leading to cracks, with low pH are generally low in calcium.
tears, and necrotic spots. Terminal leaves are least Adsorbed Ca" " is important for soil structure by
affected and defoliation of older leaves mayor may promoting the aggregation of so il particles. Thi s
not occur. Both shoot growth and leaf size are reduced. improves water and root penetration through the soil
Fewer flower buds are produced and the resulting and maintains the stability of soil particles.
fruit are definitely smaller. Fruit color in peaches is
poor, either lacking color or having a dull, dirty
looking, orange color. In the tree
Correction can be obtained with a soil applica­
Where it is abundant in the soil, calcium is abundant
tion of potassium sulfate shanked in to a depth of 6 to
in leaves, since it is taken up passively by growing
8 inches. Five to 10 pounds (2 .3 to 4.5 kg) of fertil ­
roots (not requiring an energy source). Apparently,
izer per tree will bring about correction for several
only the region just behind the tips of a growing
years in sandy soils. In many fine-textured California
root is capable of calcium uptake (unlike potassium
soils, higher rates are required since a large portion
of the potassium is "fixed" by minerals and clay par­ and phosphorus), so factors inhibiting root growth
ticles. Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate can also inhibit its uptake. Calcium moves almost exclu­
sively in the xylem with very small concentrations
also correct deficiency symptoms. However, potas­
being found in the phloem. Therefore, once in an
sium chloride is not recommended in the San)oaquin
Valley because of chloride's detrimental effects. The organ ( such as a mature leaf) , calcium is not readily
transported out, even during senescence. Fruit cal­
nitrogen component must be accounted for when
applying potassium nitrate. Heavy applications may cium levels are low, since nutrients in fruit tissues are
supply more nitrogen than is desirable for good fruit supplied mostly by the phloem. For this reason, fruit
and leaf calcium levels are poorly correlated, mean­
quality
ing leaf samples cannot be used to determine the
Potassium sulfate can also be applied through a
low-volume irrigation system to correct potassium fruit's calcium status.
Calcium is involved in many plant processes,
deficiency. Research on prunes indicates that correc­
including cell elongation, cell division , germination,
tion can be achieved with approximately half the
recommended rates for conventional irrigation sys­ pollen growth, and senescence. One of its most
important functions is the maintenance of membrane
tems. The fertilizer can be applied at one time or
metered out through the season with no apparent permeability and cell integrity. When it is deficient,
difference in response. cells become "leaky" and lose control over the import
and export of nutrient elements, leading to tissue
breakdown. Due to its immobility, deficiency symp­
toms first appear in young tissues. This sort of tissue
Calcium (Ca) breakdown also occurs commonly in fruit tissues,
since calcium levels are naturally low. In fact , more
In soil than 35 calcium-related disorders have been identi­
fied in fruits and vegetables. These disorders often
Calcium, abundant in most soils, exists in several
develop with poor root growth rather than because
forms, including insoluble compounds and as Ca" "
ions. The ionic form accounts for a substantial amount of inadequate calcium supplies. Such disorders among
fruit crops have mostly been related to apple and
of the total calcium, either as adsorbed ions on
negatively charged soil particles (exchange sites) or have not been verified for peach, plum, and nectarine.
dissolved in the soil solution. As many as 80 percent
of the exchange sites in a typical soil can be occupied Deficiency
by calcium ions. As these adsorbed ions are in equi­
librium with the ions in solution, calcium is generally Calcium deficiency in peach, plum, and nectarine has
available to plants. never been documented in California. From sand cul­
Having a substantial portion of the calcium in ture experiments and a few field reports from other
ionic form also makes it subject to leaching. Although states, deficiency symptoms have been described .
it has a double positive charge and is, therefore, These include reduced shoot growth, due to shortened
bound tightly to negatively charged soil particles, it internodes, followed by twig dieback and defoliation.
can still be replaced by hydrogen ions (H+) or other Chlorotic patches often develop on leaves before
cations (Mg++, K+, Na+). Applications of acids or salts abscission occurs.

74

 Magnesium (Mg) Deficiency and correction

In soil Magnesium deficiency, rare in California orchards, is

usually caused by high potassium in soil rather than by
Most magnesium in soil exists as various minerals in a naturally low magnesium levels. Trees are usually vig­
nonexchangeable form. However, exchangeable Mg++ orous, despite the deficiency, and yield , fruit size, and
is usually the second most abundant cation, occupy­ leaf size are not affected. The characteristic pattern
ing from 4 to 20 percent of the cation exchange sites. on the leaf is a marginal chlorosis, leaving an inverted
Also, like calcium, there is a fairly high concentration green "V ' around the midrib (fig. 13.4). These symp­
in the soil solution. It can , therefore, easily be leached toms appear first on the most basal leaves and develop
from the soil , especially with the addition of other sequentially up the shoot. As the season progresses,
cations. Magnesium is also subject to competition by the chlorotic area increases and develops into necro­
other cations. Reports of magnesium deficiency due sis. Eventually, the whole leaf is affected and then
to heavy applications of potassium and ammonium abscises from the shoot. Thus, the lower part of the
fertilizer have been cited for some crops. The effect shoot becomes devoid of leaves.
is apparently a result of Mg' " being replaced on the As mentioned, magnesium deficiency in Califor­
cation exchange sites by K+, NH4+, and H+. nia usuall y does not damage yield and therefore no
treatment is required. Nevertheless, when correction
In the tree is desired , soil applications of magnesium sulfate,
magnesium oxide, and dolomite have proved effective.
Levels of magnesium in the tree are generally less
than either calcium or potassium - calcium is more
abundant in soil and potassium is taken up actively by
the plant. Magnesium functions as an activator of Sulfur (S)
many important enzyme reactions and as a major
component of the chlorophyll molecule. However, as In soil
much as 70 percent of the magnesium in the plant is
associated with diffusible anions; thus, it is very The most abundant reservoir of sulfur in soil is in the
mobile. Deficiency symptoms, therefore, are first seen organic form , such as lipids, amino acids , and pro­
in older leaves. teins. These compounds are broken down by micro­
organisms to inorganic sulfates (504=). At any given
time , a substantial amount of the total sulfur exists in
this form , which is readily available to plants and
activel y taken up by the roots. Orchard soils in Cali­
fornia are rarely deficient in sulfur, partly because it
is added in many different ways including fertilizers
(i .e., ammonium sulfate), gypsum (Ca504 • 2H20),
manure, and other organic matter, and atmospheric
50 2, which is carried into the soil by rain.

In the tree
Sulfur 's uptake and availability is not influenced by
soil pH and is thu s taken up readily over a range of
orchard soil conditions. In the tree, it is incorporated
into certain amino acids (cysteine, methionine) and
subsequently becomes part of certain enzymes, vita­
mins , and oils. Once in these complex molecules,
sulfur is not easily mobilized within the plant. Defi­
ciency symptoms, therefore, occur in young tissues
before older ones.
Senescing leaves efficiently retrieve sulfur. As
complex molecules are broken down, sulfur is con­
Fig. 13.4. Magnesium deficiency in peach leaves, showing the
typical, inverted, green "V" around the midrib. Healthy leaf is far verted into 504 =, which is readily transported out of
right. the leaf and into the rest of the plant.

75

 Sulfur is also taken up by leaves in gaseous form out several processes to improve uptake. (1) Hydro­
as 50 2. In heavily industrialized areas, 50 2 concentra­ gen ions (H+) are exuded from the roots, thus lower­
tions can be high enough to be toxic to plants. How­ ing pH in the immediate root vicinity. (2) Various
ever, under most conditions, the normal 50 2 level of morphological and physiological changes occur at the
the atmosphere can supply a significant portion of root surface which allow for reduction of Fe+++ to
the needed sulfur for trees without detriment. Fe" ". (3) Roots have been shown to excrete chelates,
which combine with iron molecules and greatly
Deficiency and correction improve their availability to the plant. Different plants
and rootstocks vary in their ability to carry out these
Sulfur deficiency in stone fruit has never been doc­ processes.
umented in California. The reasons for this probably Iron complexes with proteins to form important
include the abundance and availability in the soil and enzymes in the plant. However, this only accounts for
atmosphere, the efficient recycling in senescing leaves, a small percentage of the total iron . Most of this nutri­
and the minimal removal by the crop and prunings, ent is associated with chloroplasts, where it has some
If a deficiency were ever to occur, one would role in synthesizing chlorophyll. In this role, it is not
expect symptoms similar to nitrogen deficiency. In very mobile within the plant and explains why defi­
other plants there is uniform yellowing over the leaf. ciency symptoms first appear in young leaves .
In contrast to nitrogen deficiency, symptoms gener­
ally occur on young leaves first, since sulfur is not Deficiency and correction
easily remobilized from older leaves. The deficiency
is easily corrected with applications of ammonium A symptom of iron deficiency is loss of chlorophyll,
sulphate, gypsum, or elemental sulfur. leading to chlorotic leaves. However, in early stages,
only the interveinal areas of the leaf are affected; thus,
veins remain dark green (fig. 13.5). Young leaves are
Iron (Fe) the first to show symptoms. As the severity increases,
leaves can become almost white as chlorophyll com­
In soil pletely disappears (fig .13.6). Eventually the leaves

Iron, one of the most abundant minerals in the soil,

constitutes about 5 percent of the weight of the
earth's crust. Despite this abundance, iron deficiency
is common because of its unavailability to plants or
because of utilization problems. Most iron exists as
insoluble minerals. Only a very small amount exists in
the soluble form as Fe(OH)2+, FeOH++, Fe+++, and
Fe"". The first three forms dominate under aerobic
conditions, while Fe++ prevails in anaerobic situa­
tions. The concentration of these soluble forms is pH
dependent, reaching a maximum at a low value (pH
3) and a minimum at a pH of about 6.5 to 7.5.
Unfortunately, this is about the optimum pH for most
other nutrients and accounts for some iron deficiency.
At pH values higher than 4.5 , soluble iron levels
in the soil are less than 1 percent of that required by
plants. Many plants have mechanisms for dealing with
this so that iron deficiency does not become a prob­
lem, as discussed in the next section.

In the tree
Iron is absorbed only by root tips, so continual devel­
opment of new roots is important. It is taken up in
the form of Fe++ or iron chelates. Because concentra­
tion of Fe++ is extremely low in well-aerated soils and Fig. 13.5. Iron deficiency in peach. Veinsremain green while the
natural chelates are also rare, the roots actively carry rest of the leaf turns chlorotic.

76

turn necrotic and abscise, leaving the terminal half of minerals occurs rapidly. Synthetic iron chelates applied
the shoot bare. to soil or foliage have been effective, but results are
Iron deficiency results from several conditions often short lived and may not be cost effective. Also,
that can be grouped into three categories: (1) in­ one must be careful with soil applications, especially
sufficient amounts in the soil, (2) sufficient but in situations of lime-induced chlorosis. With less
unavailable supplies, and (3) sufficient and available stable chelates, calcium or other cations can displace
supplies that are not properly utilized within the iron, thus creating calcium chelate and insoluble iron,
plant. The first category is rare, especially in Califor­ which is then unavailable to the plant.
nia orchard soils; therefore, it will not be discussed With lime-induced chlorosis, applications of sul­
further. The second category is common and may fur to lower the soil pH are sometimes effective. The
result from trees growing in a high pH soil , outcorn­ effect may be more a direct effect of H+ ions neutral­
peting of iron by other cations (Mn"", Cu"", Ca"", izing HC0 3- rather than increased solubility of iron
Mg++, K+, and Zn""), or an inability of roots to carl)' at the lower pH. Unfortunately, the amount of sulfur
out the processes mentioned previously. needed to neutralize all of the HC03- in the full root
The third category, commonly called lime-induced zone is often prohibitive. However, recent studies
ch.lorosis, is the most common form of iron deficiency acidifying a portion of the root zone have shown
in California orchards. It results when high levels of promise.
HC03- occur in the soil. Usually sufficient iron is Finally, one other promising approach is to inject
taken up by the tree, but it is somehow immobilized or place materials into holes drilled in the trunk.
by HC03-, thus inhibiting its utilization. High levels Materials that have shown correction of symptoms
of COz in the soil are required to build up HC03-. include ferric phosphate, iron citrate, ferric ammo­
Therefore, iron chlorosis is often observed under con­ nium oxalate, ferrous sulfate, and ferric ammonium
ditions of poor soil aeration, where COz produced citrate.
by root respiration cannot escape. It follows that
correction of tills disorder can often occur by simply
preventing waterlogging and overirrigation or by irn­ Manganese (Mn)
proving soil aeration through various cultural tech­
niques. It often helps to irrigate more frequently, In soil
using shorter runs and lower quantities of water.
Applying inorganic iron to the soil seldom cor­ The total amount of soil manganese varies widely
rects the deficiency, since conversion to insoluble from one soil to another. However, there is usually an
adequate amount to supply the limited requirements
of fruit trees. The most important form for uptake by
roots is Mn" " , but it is also commonly found as oxides
ofMn+++ and Mn++++ (MnZ03, MnOz, etc.). The inter­
conversion of these various forms is controlled by
oxidation-reduction reactions in soil. Therefore, such
factors as pH, organic matter, and soil moisture strongly
influence manganese availability. For instance, man­
ganese deficiency is often found on high pH soils
with a high organic matter level.

In the tree
High levels of other cations in soil can inhibit uptake
of manganese. Magnesium ions are especially effec­
tive in tills cation competition. Also, in heavily limed
soils, manganese uptake may be reduced by both high
pH and competition with calcium ions.
Manganese in the plant participates in several
important processes including photosynthesis and
nitrogen and carbohydrate metabolism. It is generally
considered to be somewhat immobile in the plant,
Fig. 13.6. Increasing iron deficiency (right to left) in peach. but it is preferentially supplied to young growing
With severe deficiency the leaf turns almost white. tissue.

77

 Zinc also complexes with organic matter, which

can either increase or decrease its availability to
plants. Some complexes render zinc unavailable to
trees, which may partially explain zinc deficiency
often observed on trees in old corral sites or with
heavy applications of manure. Trees grown on sandy
soils are also more prone to zinc deficiency than those
grown on heavier soils.

In the tree
Although zinc is needed in small amounts in the tree,
it has been identified as a component of almost 60
enzymes; therefore, it has a role in many plant func­
tions. Of particular interest is its role as an enzyme in
Fig. 13.7. Manganese deficiency symptoms in peach leaves,
showing characteristic "herringbone" pattern. Healthy leaf is producing the growth hormone lAA. This is the most
upper left. probable explanation for the shortened internodes
and small leaves observed with zinc deficiency. It
also accumulates and plays an important role in seed
Deficiency and correction development, which may explain the sensitivity of
fruit growth to zinc deficiency. The mobility of zinc
Leaf deficiency symptoms in peach, plum, and nectar­ in the tree ranges from low to high, depending on
ine include an interveinal ch.lorosis extending from several factors. With adequate supplies, zinc moves
midrib to margin. Relatively wide bands around the readily from old leaves to developing tissues. How­
major veins remain green, giving a "herringbone" pat­ ever, under zinc deficiency, little zinc moves out of
tern (fig. 13.7). In contrast to many other plants, the old leaves.
stone fruits show symptoms first on older basal leaves.
Although the whole tree usually looks pale , the termi­ Deficiency and correction
nal leaves often appear more green. Unless the defi­
ciency becomes severe, shoot growth, leaf size, and Stone fruit are particularly sensitive to zinc deficiency,
yield are not seriously affected. as is often observed in California. There is rootstock
To correct deficiency, foliar sprays of about 3 to and variety variability, especially in plum. The disor­
5 Ib/IOO gal (0.4 to 0.6 kg/IOO I) of manganese sul­ der has often been called "litt le leaf' because of the
fate have proved effective . Applying the same mate­ small pointed leaves produced (figs. 13.8 and 13.9).
rial to the soil is often ineffective, since manganese These leaves occur in rosettes on the tips of the
(Mn"") is quickly oxidized to less available forms . If
the deficiency problem is induced by high soil pH,
lowering the pH with sulfur is generally effective.
Temporary deficiency symptoms often are observed
in spring when poor root growth may be induced by
cold temperatures or dry soil.

linc (In)
In soil
Most zinc in soil is found in different minerals with
only a small percentage being adsorbed in ionic
form on soil and organic matter exchange sites . Even
less is solubilized in the soil solution, although it is
considered more soluble than other heavy metals.
This is influenced by pH, however, so zinc solubility is
especially low at high pH and even lower when Fig. 13.8. linc deficiency (left) compared to healthy plum shoot
CaC0 3 is present. (right). The most typical symptom: small, pointed leaves.

78

shoots and young spurs because of shortened inter­

nodes (fig. 13.10). The affected leaves become chlor­
otic with an interveinal mottling. Leaf margins are
often crinkled or wavy, especially in peach and nec­
tarine. These symptoms along with delayed foliation
often occur early in spring. Defoliation eventually
follows, beginning with basal leaves. Production is
drastically affected, since formation of fruit buds is
inhibited and fruit produced are small, elongated, and
misshapen.
Because this deficiency is so common, a zinc
spra y is routine for most fresh shipping fruit orchards
in California, even before symptoms appear. To pre­
vent or correct the deficiency, treatments can be put
on at several different times. Zinc sulfate (36 percent
metallic zinc) applied at a rate of about 10 to 15
Ib/acre (11 to 17 kg/ha) from mid-October (or about
50 percent leaffall) through the dormant season is
very effective. The dormant spray should not be
applied with or within several weeks of dormant oil
spray. Neutral or basic zinc (52 percent metallic
Zinc), also at a rate of about 10 to 15 Ib/acre (11 to
17 kg/ha), is effective when applied in spring or sum­
mer. However, it may leave spray deposits on fruit and
cause leaf burn and defoliation if rain occurs shortly
after application. This material can also be applied Fig. 13.10. linc deficiency in a plum tree. Rosetting on shoots
with dormant pesticide sprays for a maintenance occurs due to shortened internodes and small, pointed leaves.
treatment to prevent mild zinc deficiency develop­
ment the following growing season. Zinc EDTA cor­
rects the deficiency when applied in spring.
For chronic problems, soil applications can be
helpful. Applications of zinc sulfate trenched into the Boron (B)
soil at least 6 inches deep have been effective. The
rate is highly variable and depends on soil type, tree In soil
age, and severity of the deficiency.
Most boron in soils is unavailable to plants. The sol­
uble form is primarily boric acid (B(OH)3)' In neutral
to acid soils , boric acid has no charge and can, there­
fore , be easily leached. At higher pH values , conver­
sion to B(OH)4- occurs. The resulting negative charge
on the molecule causes its absorption by soil par­
ticles. Thus, it is less easily leached but also less avail­
able to plants.

In the tree
Boron is involved in several processes within the
plant, including protein synthesis, transport of sugars,
and the metabolism of plant hormones. Because these
functions are vital to meristematic tissues , boron defi­
ciency is particularly damaging to activel y growing
shoot and root tips. Boron moves almost exclusively
with the transpiration stream in the xylem . Like cal­
Fig. 13.9. linc deficiency (right) compared with healthy peach cium, it is virtually absent from the phloem and is
shoot (left). thus relatively immobile within the plant

79

Deficiency and correction Many sites on the western side of the San Joaquin
Valley exhibit this characteristic. In such areas, one
Boron deficiency is seldom observed on stone fruit in must pay particular attention to irrigation water.
California, since typical orchard soils are usually ade­ Boron levels as low as 1 ppm can induce toxicity
quately supplied with boron and are within the appro­ symptoms.
priate pH range. Reportedly, peaches, compared with The symptoms of peach and nectarine, consid­
other fruit trees, are not very sensitive to boron ered two of the most sensitive crops to boron toxic­
deficiency. ity, include small necrotic spots on the underside of
Other areas report initial deficiency symptoms the midrib. Also, cankers may develop along the mid­
occur at the shoot tips, leading to terminal dieback. rib, on petioles, and on young twigs. In severe cases,
This may then lead to development of many side leaf yellowing, defoliation, twig dieback, and gumming
branches. New leaves that follow are small , thick, can occur. The fruit is distorted with sharp sunken
misshapen, and brittle. Defoliation often occurs, start­ areas and kernel development is poor. Correction is
ing with terminal leaves and moving down the shoot. achieved by leaching boron out of the root zone. This
Sunken, necrotic spots have been reponed on apple is a slow process, more easily achieved in neutral to
and apricot fruit, but peach and Japanese plum are acid soils than in alkaline soils.
apparently less sensitive to this disorder.
Deficiency has bcen corrected with soil applica­
tions of y,. to Yz lb/tree (100 to 200 g) of borax. Copper (Cu)
Applications of boric acid to foliage or soil have
proved effective on other crops. However, one must In soil
be cautious since boron toxicity can easily result from
overapplication. Copper exists mainly as a divalent cation (Cu"") and
is bound tightly to soil exchange sites; its concentra­
Toxicity tion in the soil solution is low and it does not move
readily through the soil with leaching. However, it
Boron can be toxic to plants at levels slightly higher can be replaced from exchange sites by hydrogen
than normal requirements. Therefore, overfertiliza­ ions (H+) and is therefore more available in low pH
tion with boron materials can lead to toxicity symp­ soils. Plant deficiencies often occur in alkaline soils.
toms. Also, soils derived from marine sediments in Copper is also bound strongly by soil organic
arid regions can often be naturally high in boron. matter. This often has the effect of increasing the

Fig. 13.11. Midsummer copper deficiency symptoms in plum Fig. 13.12. Marginal leaf bum in peach caused by excessive

showing small, chlorotic, and malformed young leaves. Older chloride ions in the leaf.

leaves are more normal in size and color.

80
availability of this nutrient if the complex can be taken Symptoms induced in sand culture on some crops
up by plants. However, certain complexes are appar­ have included wilting and chlorotic leaves.
ently less available, probably because of being too The more serious problem with chlorine is an
large for uptake. In fact, plants growing in peat and excess of the element. Indeed, peach, plum, and nec­
muck often develop copper deficiency. tarine are three crops very sensitive to an excess of
chloride salts. The characteristic symptom of this dis­
In the tree order is a marginal leaf burn (fig. 13.12). Leaves will
start showing the symptom when chloride levels
Very small amounts of copper are needed by the tree. reach about 0.3 percent on a dry weight basis. Sodium
When adequately supplied, it moves easily from old levels and symptoms are very similar except that the
to new leaves. When deficient, however, it becomes marginal burn is often striated. If the problem of
immobile so that young leaves first exhibit deficiency excess salt is not corrected, trees will readily die.
symptoms. More than half of the copper in trees is Because chlorine is so mobile within the soil, the
located in the chloroplasts and participates in photo­ problem can be alleviated easily by leaching.
synthetic reactions. It is also found in other enzymes
involved with protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Deficiency, toxicity, and correction
The amount of molybdenum in the soil can vary
Copper deficiency in California is rare in peach and widely, but such small amounts are needed by plants
nectarine but is occasionally seen in plum. Symptoms that deficiencies are seldom encountered. In the few
in plum include terminal dieback after about 2 months cases reported (not in fruit trees), soil pH was low.
of normal growth in spring (fig. 13.11). Terminal Since molybdenum availability is strongly influenced
leaves turn yellowish. Rough bark accompanied by by pH, liming has usually solved the problem.
gumming also occurs. The initial symptoms on peach Molybdenum is known to be an essential com­
and nectarine include interveinal chlorosis on young ponent of two enzymes involved with nitrogen metab­
leaves, followed by development of small, malformed olism. Therefore, deficiency symptoms sometimes
leaves. Eventually cessation of terminal growth and resemble nitrogen deficiency. In stone fruit, the defi­
terminal dieback occurs. Finally, there is rosette for­ ciency has never been documented in the field. How­
mation due to multiple bud growth. ever, it has been induced on myrobalan plum in sand
Correction of the deficiency has been obtained culture. Symptoms included dwarf leaves, diffuse
with soil applications of 0.25 to 2 lb/tree (0.1 to mottling on some leaves, and irregular areas of dead
0.9 kg) of copper sulfate. This greatly exceeds plant tissue on tips and margins of leaves.
needs, but it is necessary due to the large amount
that is quickly and tightly bound to soil-exchange
sites. Correction can also be expected with foliar
chelate or Bordeaux sprays in early spring or soil
applications of copper chelate. Aggravation of cop­
Additional Reading
per deficiency has been observed with high applica­
Ayers, R. S., and 30 co-authors. 1983. Soil and Plant
tions of nitrogen, phosphorus, or zinc fertilizers.
Tissue Testing in California. University of California
Copper toxicity has never been observed in Cali­
Bulletin 1879, Berkeley.
fornia, but it can occur in soils naturally high in cop­
per or where Bordeaux sprays have been continu­ Chapman, H. c., editor. 1973. Diagnostic Criteria for
ously used over many years. Plants and Soils. Department of Soils and Plant Nutri­
tion, University of California, Riverside.
Mengel, K., and E. A. Kirby. 1982. Principles of Plant
Chlorine (CI) Nutrition. International Potash Institute, Bern, Switz­
erland.
Abundant in nature, chlorine is mobile in soil, being
taken up easily and in relatively large amounts by Shear, C. B., and M. Faust. 1980. Nutritional Ranges in
plants. Since the tree's physiological requirement for Deciduous Tree Fruits and Nuts. Horticultural Reviews
this element is only a few ppm, it is rarely deficient. 2:142-163.

81

PEACHES, PLUMS,
AND NECTARINES
Growing and Handling
for Fresh Market

Technical Editors:
James H. laRue
R. Scott Johnson

Cooperative
Extension

University
of California
Division of
Agriculture
and
Natural
Resources

Publication 3331