Camurri (2008) PDF
Camurri (2008) PDF
Camurri (2008) PDF
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This work aimed to model the temperature distribution, phase transformation and resid-
Received 24 April 2007 ual stress induced during the heat treatment of grinding balls of 3 and 5 in. diameter. The
Received in revised form temperature model considered factors such as the heating of the water and the formation
25 October 2007 of a steam layer that surrounds the balls at the start of the quenching. The model of the
Accepted 8 January 2008 residual stress field considered: the temperature distribution, the force equilibrium equa-
tions and the constitutive thermo-elastic relationships, including the expansion due to the
austenite–martensite transformation.
Keywords: A good agreement between the experimental and theoretical values for the temperature
Grinding balls distribution was obtained with the differences at the end of the quenching being no higher
Heat treatment than 0.5%. The experimental behavior of the balls in a mill simulator, as well as the residual
Martensite stress measured by X-ray diffraction, agreed satisfactorily with the theoretical predictions.
Residual stress © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 41 2207170; fax: +56 41 2203391.
E-mail address: ccarrascoc@udec.cl (C. Carrasco).
0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.01.007
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 450–456 451
Nomenclature
Cp caloric capacity
E elasticity modulus of the mix
austenite–martensite
h heat transfer coefficient ball ambient
hconvective convective heat transfer
hradiant radiant heat transfer
K thermal conductivity
Ms temperature of beginning of martensitic trans-
formation
R radius of the balls
r radial coordinate
ra radius of a sphere of 1 g of austenite used as
reference for calculus
rma radius of a sphere of 1 g of the mix Fig. 1 – Micrography of the center zone of a 5 in. diameter
austenite–martensite ball.
T radial temperature of the balls.
Ts surface temperature of the balls
Tam ambient (steam, water, air) temperature • The heat losses by radiation and the heats of reaction of the
u radial displacement phases formed during the process are neglected.
• The thermal conductivity K and caloric capacity of the
Greek letters steel Cp depends linearly on the temperature. Addition-
˛ thermal lineal expansion coefficient ally, the densities of the only two possible phases presents
ˇ lineal expansion coefficient due to phase trans- (see Fig. 1), austenite and or martensite, were assumed as
formation 8.03 g/cm3 and 7.75 gr/cm3 , respectively (Totten et al., 1992).
εrr , ε radial and circumferential strain, respectively • The heat losses from the water used for quenching are neg-
Poisson modulus ligible.
i density of “i” phase (i = a, austenite; i = m,
martensite) With this assumption, the heat equation to resolve is
rr , , ef , 0 , R radial, circumferential, effective or
equivalent, yield and rupture stress, respec- ∂2 T 2 ∂T ∂
tively K + = (TCp ) (1)
∂R2 r ∂R ∂t
M volumetric fraction of martensite (or annealed
martensite) With the following border conditions
∂T ∂T
(0, t) = 0 and −K (R, t) = h(Ts − Tam )
∂r ∂r
where h is the coefficient of heat transfer between the surface
2. Models
of the ball at T = Ts and the media at T = Tam .
The thermal and residual stress models are as follows. In a previous work (Camurri et al., 2003; Garcı́a, 2000), the
temperature of the quenching water was assumed to be con-
stant and the vapor layer formed around the balls at the
2.1. Temperature distribution of the balls
beginning of the process was neglected. These hypotheses
yielded a poor correlation between theory and experience, so
For modeling the radial temperature of the balls T, the follow-
both effects were included in the present model.
ing assumptions were made (Camurri et al., 1997; Kreith, 1973;
Hence, in a first cooling stage during the quenching, until
Incropera and Dewit, 1999; Mills, 1995; Welty, 1979; Farlow,
the surface temperature Ts of the balls is around 220 ◦ C, a
1982):
radiation and convection heat transfer mechanism across the
vapor layer surrounding the balls is considered. In this case,
• The balls are completely spherical and homogeneous, i.e., Tam = 100 ◦ C and h = hconvective + 0.75 hradiant . The formula for
they only have radial temperature gradients. determines the coefficient hconvective as a function of the tem-
3 1.13 0.93 0.01 0.01 0.23 0.76 0.05 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.2 0.05
5 0.74 0.94 0.01 0.02 0.21 0.80 0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.05
452 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 450–456
perature can be found in Incropera and Dewit (1999). This In general, the modeling of coupled thermo mechanical
formula involves the ball diameter and physics and thermal problems with also phase’s transformations normally use
properties of the liquid and vapor water such as density, ther- numerical techniques such as finite elements for its resolu-
mal conductivity and cinematic viscosity; also the formula tion. For example, in Hossain et al. (2004), this methodology
has a constant which depend of the geometry of the bodies, is addressed in the modeling with a posterior experimental
in this case 0.67 for spheres. For the radiation coefficient an validation by means of neutrons diffraction, of the resid-
emissivity of the steel of 0.9 was supposed. ual stresses induced during the quenching of stainless steel
In the second cooling stage during the quenching, until spheres of 30 mm diameter. In the present work, a simple ana-
Ts ∼ 105 ◦ C, the cooling of the balls is produced by vapor lytical solution for the residual stresses field in grinding balls
transport from its surface, and the temperature is considered is presented based on the following equations.
as Tam = 100◦ C. In this stage the coefficient h can be found
in Incropera and Dewit (1999) and depends of the thermo- 2.2.1. Equation of Equilibrium of radial forces
physics properties of saturated liquid and/or vapor such as ∂rr (rr − )
+2 =0 (2)
density, specific heat, cinematic viscosity and superficial ten- ∂r r
sion. There are also two constant, C and n, in the formula
where rr and are the normal, radial and circumferential
for obtain h. These constants are related with the system
stresses, respectively.
surface-fluid, and the values for the studied steel–water are
0.013 for C and 1.0 for n (Incropera and Dewit, 1999). Finally,
2.2.2. Equations relating deformations and displacements
the third cooling stage begins when the surfaces of the balls ∂u u
reach the boiling temperature of the water, and the heat trans- εrr = and ε = (3)
∂r r
fer mechanism is pure convection. In this case Tam is equal to
the instantaneous temperature of the water, which is calcu- where u, εrr and ε are the radial displacements, and the radial
lated by main of a heat balance among the heat loosed for and circumferential strain, respectively.
the ball and transfer to the water, with initial temperature of
50 ◦ C. 2.2.3. Constitutive thermo-elastic-phase transformation
During the equalization and annealing, the heat losses equations
from the surface of the balls to the air are only by convec- These include the thermal expansion coefficient of the
tion. In all cases, h is function of the surface temperature of steel and the linear coefficient of expansion due to the
the balls. austenite–martensite phase transformation.
Eq. (1) was solved by the explicit finite difference method,
using algorithms for the internal, central and superficial (rr − 2 ) (1 − )
εrr = + F(r) and ε = − rr + F(r)
nodes. Performing with the stability conditions, in the case E E E
of 3 in. diameter balls, the radial increments were R/20 and (4)
the temporal increments were 0.02 s and 0.05 s in quenching
and equalization, respectively. For 5 in. diameter balls, those and
increments were R/40, 0.05 s in quenching and 0.025 in both
F(r) = ˛ T(r) + ˇ M(r)
equalization and annealing. The temperature distribution was
validated by inserting thermocouples in three different posi- where E and are the elasticity and Poisson modulus,
tions in the balls: the center, R/2 and R—0.7 mm, where R is respectively of the austenite–martensite mix at temperatures
the radius of the balls. Additionally, the temperature of the below Ms , obtained from reference data for their individual
quenching water was continuously measured during the pro- modulus (Okamura and Kawashima, 1988) and, in the case of
cess in order to compare it with the model results. the Young’s modulus E, were also obtained experimentally in
this research from tensile curves of standard samples of 5 mm
in diameter and 25 mm gage length L0 . These samples were
2.2. Residual stress of the balls
quenched at temperatures below Ms and subjected to tensile
tests by an Instron machine at those temperatures. The slope
To model the residual stress field, the following hypotheses
of the linear part of the stress–strain curve corresponded to
were made:
the E values (Rodrı́guez, 2006).
The symbol ˛ corresponds to the thermal expansion coef-
ficient of this mix, ˇ corresponds to the linear expansion
• Throughout the cooling there are only two phases in the coefficient due to the phase transformation from austenite to
balls: austenite and/or martensite, as Fig. 1 shows. martensite during quenching and equalization or the linear
• The induced residual stresses are only normal stresses. contraction coefficient due to the phase transformation from
• The residual stresses induced in the austenite are negligible martensite to annealed martensite during the annealing of
due to the low yield stress of this phase at a temperature 5 in. diameter balls. Finally, T(r) and M(r) are the changes
above Ms , the temperature at which start the martensitic in the temperature and the volumetric fraction of marten-
transformation. For example, at 400 and 600 ◦ C the yield site formed at each radial position for temperatures below
stress of austenite is 120 and 80 MPa, respectively, while the from Ms , respectively. Determined the temperature of the balls
yield stress of martensite at 200 ◦ C is 800 MPa (Okamura and for each time and knowing the CCT curves of the steels for
Kawashima, 1988). obtain Ms , it is possible determines the volumetric fraction
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 450–456 453
rma − ra
ˇ= (5)
ra
E
∂u u
rr = (1 − ) + 2 − (1 + )F(r) (9)
(1 + )(1 − ) ∂r r
4. Conclusions
tal values measured inside the balls are only intended as a Farlow, S., 1982. Partial Differential Equations for Scientists and
reference, due to the effects of distortion and stress release Engineers. Elsevier.
when cutting the samples for the XRD measurements. Garcı́a, A., 2000. Esfuerzos residuales durante el temple de
medios de molienda. Memoria de Tı́tulo, Facultad de
Future improvement to the model can be making, such to
Ingenierı́a, Universidad de Concepción.
include the release of residual stresses in the balls due to plas- Hossain, S., Daymond, M.R., Truman, C.E., Smith, D.J., 2004.
tic micro-deformations during their heat treatment and the Prediction and measurements of residual stresses in
local deformation hardening associated to this phenomena. quenched stainless-steel spheres. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 339–349.
Finally, to use the model as a predictor of the better oper- Incropera, P., Dewit, D., 1999. Fundamentos de Transferencia de
ational conditions during the heat treatment, such as initial Calor. Prentice Hall.
temperature and flow and agitation of water for reduce resid- Krauss, G., 1990. Steels Heat Treatment and Processing Principles.
ASM Publications.
ual stresses of the balls, mayor accuracy in the in depth values
Kreith, F., 1973. Principios de Transferencia de Calor. Herreros
of the residual stresses must be obtained. For this, techniques Hnos.
such as hole drilling or neutrons diffraction must be used. Mills, A., 1995. Transferencia de Calor. Irwin.
Okamura, K., Kawashima, H., 1988. Proceedings of the 32nd Japan
Congress Materials Research, p. 323–329.
Acknowledgements Rodrı́guez, P., 2006. Esfuerzos residuales en medios de molienda:
determinación experimental del módulo de elasticidad de la
This work has been supported by The National Council mezcla austenita–martensita entre Ms y la temperatura
of Research in Science and Technology of Chile, CONI- ambiente. Memoria de Tı́tulo, Facultad de Ingenierı́a,
CYT (FONDECYT project no. 1050078). The authors gratefully Universidad de Concepción.
Rodrı́guez, D., 2007. Modelación matemática del campo de
acknowledge this support.
esfuerzos residuales inducido durante el tratamiento térmico
de bolas de molienda, M.Sc. Tesis, Universidad de
Concepción.
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