Psychological Theories and Proponents

Theories Proponent Content

Operant Conditioning Burrhus Frederic Skinner Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes
an association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner,
1938).

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and

other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning
other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was
Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly
known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson(1913). Skinner
believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more
productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow

behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor
decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of
a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Law of Effect Edward Lee Thorndike The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:
"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become
more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a
discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation
 Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning
theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning
within behaviorism.
Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between
events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our
behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences.
Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward
Thorndike.
Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic
experiment in which he used a puzzle box

In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of

Psychosexual theory Sigmund Freud the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess
an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage –
the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by
the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half

Psychosocial Theory Erik Erickson of the 20th century by Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson is
acomprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of
eight stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through
from infancy to late adulthood.

Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows:
"Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope"
In the ninth stage, "elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities"
because one's "body inevitably weakens". Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that "while
there is light, there is hope" for a "bright light and revelation".
"Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will"
Ninth stage elders face the "shame of lost control" and doubt "their autonomy
over their own bodies". So it is that "shame and doubt challenge cherished
autonomy".
"Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence"
Industry as a "driving force" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage.
Being incompetent "because of aging is belittling" and makes elders "like
unhappy small children of great age".
"Identity confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity"
Elders experience confusion about their "existential identity" in the ninth stage
and "a real uncertainty about status and role".
"Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love"
In the ninth stage, the "years of intimacy and love" are often replaced by
"isolation and deprivation". Relationships become "overshadowed by new
incapacities and dependencies".
"Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care"
The generativity in the seventh stage of "work and family relationships", if it
goes satisfactorily, is "a wonderful time to be alive". In one's eighties and
nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, "a sense of
stagnation may well take over".
"Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom"
Integrity imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders". Wisdom requires
capacities that ninth stage elders "do not usually have". The eighth stage
includes retrospection that can evoke a "degree of disgust and despair". In the
ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one's "loss
of capacities and disintegration".
Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the
psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the
"basic trust" with which "we are blessed".
Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs
a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a
fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due
to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

There are four stages in all:

sensorimotor stage
preoperational stage
concrete operational stage
formal operational stage

Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of
those behaviors. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of
continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences.
Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow

Physiological need is a concept that was derived to explain and cultivate the
foundation for motivation. This concept is the main physical requirements for
human survival. This means that Physiological needs are universal human
needs. Physiological needs are considered the first step in internal motivation
according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. This theory states that humans are
compelled to fulfill these physiological needs first in order to pursue intrinsic
satisfaction on a higher level.

Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs
take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety –
due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, institutional
racism etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress
disorder or transgenerational trauma.

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human
needs are seen to be interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. This
need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as
witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.

Esteem needs are ego needs or status needs. People develop a concern with
getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. Most humans
have a need to feel respected
Scaffolding Jerome Bruner Self-actualization can be described as a value-based system when discussing its
role in motivation; self-actualization is understood as the goal-or explicit
motive, and the previous stages in Maslow's Hierarchy fall in line to become
the step-by-step process by which self-actualization is achievable; an explicit
motive is the objective of a reward-based system that is used to intrinsically
drive completion of certain values or goals.

Psychologist and instructional designer Jerome Bruner first used the term
'scaffolding' in this context back in the 1960s. The theory is that when students
are given the support they need while learning something new, they stand a
better chance of using that knowledge independently.

We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in
Spiral Curriculum Jerome Bruner some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. •
Make the knowledge ready for the child rather than waiting for the child to be
ready for the knowledge

is a teaching method that helps students learn more by working with a teacher
or a more advanced student to achieve their learning goals.

ZPD Zone of Proximal Development Lev Vygotsky

What a child can do with assistance today she will be able to do by herself
tomorrow

Learning by doing Attributed to Confucius I hear and I forget • I see and I remember • I do and I understand
 The cone of experience is a pictorial device use to explain the interrelationships
Cone of Experience Edgar Dale of the various types of audio-visual media, as well as their individual “positions”
in the learning process.
Moral Development Theory Lawrence Kholberg The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels of
morality: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality. For
his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinz dilemma, and was
interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar
moral dilemmas.

In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the

direct consequences of their actions on themselves.

Stage two (self-interest driven) expresses the "what's in it for me" position, in
which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in
their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider
one's reputation or relationships to groups of people.

In Stage three (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the self

enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to
approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's views. They try to be
a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations

In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to

obey laws, dictums, and social conventionsbecause of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond
the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three.

In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different
opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as
unique to each person or community.

In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based

on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only
 insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which
argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental
structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.

Id- pleasure
if not constrained by reality, it seeks immediate
gratification; satisfaction of own needs
Ego- reality
satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically
bring pleasure rather than pain; practicality
Superego- morality
Represents internalized ideals and provides
standards for judgment and for future aspirations;
inner voice or conscience

Experiential Learning Styles Theory David Kolb Kolb's experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage cycle of
learning and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb's theory is concerned
with the learner's internal cognitive processes.

In his experiential theory, learning is viewed as a four-stage cycle. First,

immediate and concrete experiences serve as a basis for observation. Next, the
individual reflects on these observations and begins to build a general theory of
what this information might mean. In the next step, the learner forms abstract
concepts and generalizations based on their hypothesis. Finally, the learner
tests the implications of these concepts in new situations. After this step, the
process once again cycles back to the first stage of the experiential process.

Attachment Theory John Bowlby Attachment theory is a concept in developmental psychology that concerns the
importance of "attachment" in regards to personal development. Specifically, it
 makes the claim that the ability for an individual to form an emotional and
physical "attachment" to another person gives a sense of stability and security
necessary to take risks, branch out, and grow and develop as a personality.
Naturally, attachment theory is a broad idea with many expressions, and the
best understanding of it can be had by looking at several of those expressions
in turn.

Classical Conditioning Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)
refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food)
is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the
learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral
stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the
one elicited by the potent stimulus.

In the early twentieth century a new movement in the field of Psychology was
being felt in educational research — behaviorism. This is a theory proposed by
J. B. Watson and based on the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev, two Russian
psychologists who developed an animal training model known as stimulus-
response (Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning -Environmental John Broadus Watson Watson argued that such conditioning is the basis of human behavior — if you
stand up every time a lady enters the room, you're acting not out of
“politeness,” but because behavior is a chain of well-set reflexes. He claimed
that “recency” and “frequency” were particularly important in determining
what behavior an individual “emitted” next — if you usually get up when a lady
enters the room, you're likely to get up if one enters now.

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