UNIT 1 Food Standards and pastries

Importance of Food Standards

Meaning and importance of standards and standardization

A standard is a document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines or
characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes and
services are fit for their purpose. Product standards and code of practice assist manufacturers
to produce commodities that meet minimum specifications for quality and safety.
Standardization is a process of ensuring uniformity in products and services by use of
appropriate standards. The process ensures efficient utilization of resources through reduction
of wastes. Food standards are documents containing requirements, specifications, guidelines or
characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that food materials, products, processes
and services produced are fit for human consumption. In any country, food standards are
established by regulatory authorities and enforced by governments, food companies and
retailers.
Importance of food standards
1. Safeguards the health of consumers
2. Ensure confidence of consumers in the food systems (from farm to table)
3. Enable consumers to make informed decisions concerning the food they purchase.
4. Used to differentiate different food products
5. Used to communicate product quality and safety to consumers
6. Used as a competitive strategy to enhance product marketing- (standards provide
opportunities to companies/firms who use them to their competitive advantage).
There are three kinds of standards, namely:
1. Process standards: which specify how the product should be produced
2. Product standards: which specify the features and characteristics of the food product
3. Information standards: These are concerned with labelling and other communications that
go with the product. Labelling and packaging standards add value to food by ensuring that the
food is protected, is well presented and that the right information on the food product is
passed to the consumer. Labels also add value by providing ease of retailing and traceability
through bar coding.

Standards may further be classified into:

Mandatory/compulsory standards: These are minimum quality and safety requirements that
a product needs to meet for to be allowed into the market. These requirements ensure that
consumers are not exposed to unsafe foods.
Governments, International organizations and private companies try to ensure food safety and
quality by imposing compulsory minimum standards for a product and banning the sale of any
item that does not comply with certain minimum criteria.
Voluntary standards: These are extra standards adopted by food industries/firms in addition
to the mandatory standards that give their products a competitive marketing advantage.
Specific requirements related to grading and classification may be used to help in market
stratification. This enables products to penetrate many more markets based on pricing,
consumer preference and tastes.

Mandatory and voluntary standards – an overview

Mandatory standards are set by governments and are enforced by liability rules in case of non-
compliance. Voluntary standards are set by various stakeholders to harmonise national food
safety regulations or to meet speciic attributes.

Mandatory and voluntary standards

– an overview
While tariff and quota regulations tend to decline, the opposite is true for mandatory technical
regulations and voluntary private standards. Growing concerns about consumer protection and
global competitiveness, both of which are closely linked to food quality and safety, resulted in
an ever expanding number of standards and regulations released by manifold organisations. In
line with the globalisation of food markets, different levels of standards have to be observed,
be they mandatory or voluntary. As explained before, four levels of standard ruling/standard
setting organisations can be distinguished (see also Graph 2 on the following page):
• multilateral standard ruling (e. g. WTO)
and multilateral standard setting organisations (e. g. Codex Alimentarius)
• supranational standard setting organisations (e. g. trading blocs such as the EU)
• national standard setting organisations (e. g. EU Member States)
• private industry and trade (e. g. collective and corporate standards)
Mandatory and voluntary standards become increasingly interlinked. Nowadays, standards set
or ruled by multilateral bodies have an increasing impact on standardisation policies at other
levels:
• Standards elaborated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), the International
Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office
Internationale des Epizooties – OIE) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
are recognised by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which by itself is not a standard setting
but a standard ruling organisation. Members of the WTO have to adapt their standardisation
policies at multilateral and national levels based on these references.
• Although voluntary, standards elaborated by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) have become an integral part of an increasing number of standards at all
levels. ISO’s work is strictly regulated by the organisation’s own procedures and the WTO’s
‘Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and Application of Standards’ (Annex 3 to
the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade).
• The same applies to several codes of good practice established by the Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) or the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE).
• Voluntary standards increasingly become de facto requirements (‘soft law’14)) for producers,
processors and distributors as their importance for competitiveness in international markets
has significantly increased over time. As a consequence of these increasing interdependencies,
the distinction between different standard setting levels becomes volatile, and the distinction
between mandatory and voluntary standards becomes irrelevant in practice.
The following graph provides an overview of the different levels of and linkages between
standards, which are, in fact, relevant for approaching the EU market.

2. WHO standards – Voluntary and Compulsory standards

What are voluntary standards?

Voluntary standards are standards established generally by private-sector bodies and that are
available for use by any person or organization, private or government. The term includes what
are commonly referred to as “industry standards” as well as “consensus standards.” A
voluntary standard may become mandatory as a result of its use, reference, or adoption by a
regulatory authority, or when invoked in contracts, purchase orders, or other commercial
instruments. (Source: ANSI’s “Standards Management: A Handbook for Profit”)

What is a Compulsory standard?

A Compulsory standard is a standard that requires compliance because of a government statute
or regulation, an organization internal policy, or contractual requirement. Failure to comply
with a mandatory standard usually carries a sanction, such as civil or criminal penalties, or loss
of employment. (Source: ANSI’s “Standards Management: A Handbook for Profit”)

3. Common Adulterants and their detection

The methods for detection of common adulterants in food.

Detection from Milk:
1. Water:
The presence of water can be by putting a drop of milk on a polished slanting surface. The drop
of pure milk either or flows lowly leaving a white trail behind it, whereas milk adulterated water
will flow immediately without leaving a mark,

2. Starch:

Add a few drops of tincture of Iodine or Iodine solution. Formation of blue colour indicates the
presence of starch.

Iodine solution is easily available in the medical stores.

3. Urea:

Take a teaspoon of milk in a test tube. Add ½ teaspoon of soybean or arhar powder. Mix up the
contents thoroughly by shaking the test tube. After 5 minutes, dip a red litmus paper in it.
Remove the paper after ½ a minute. A change in colour from red to blue indicates the presence
of urea in the milk.

4. Vanaspati:

Take 3 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 10 drops of hydrochloric acid. Mix up one teaspoonful of
sugar. After 5 minutes, examine the mixture. The red colouration indicates the presence of
vanaspati.

5. Formalin:

Take 10 ml of milk in a tests tube and add 5 ml of con sulphuric acid from the sides of the wall
without shaking. If a violet or blue ring appears at the intersection of two layers then it shows
presence of formalin.

Formalin enhances the life of milk and thus is added for it preservation purpose.

6. Detergent:

Shake 5-10 ml. of sample with an equal amount of water lather indicates the presence of
detergent.

7. Synthetic milk:

Synthetic milk has a bitter after taste, gives a soapy feeling on rubbing between the fingers and
turns yellowish on heating.
8. Synthetic milk test for protein:

The milk can easily be tested by Urease strips (available in the Medical stores) because
Synthetic milk is devoid of protein.

9. Test for Glucose /inverted sugar:

Milk does not contain glucose /invert sugar, if test for glucose with urease strip found positive.
It means milk is adulterated.

If it is made; synthetically by; adding while colour water paint. Oils, alkali, urea and detergent
etc. Glucose, inverted sugar syrup is added in milk to increase the consistency and test.

10. Ghee, cottage cheese, condensed milk, khoa, milk powder (Coal Tar Dyes):

Add 5 ml of dil. H2SO4 or conc. HCl to one teaspoon full of melted sample in a test tube. Shake
well. Pink colour (in case of H2SO4) or crimson colour (in case of HCl) indicates coal tar dyes. If
HCl does not give colour dilute it with water to get the colour.

B. Detection from Milk and Milk Product:

1. Sweet Curd:

Vanaspati:

Take1 teaspoon full of curd in a test tube. Add 10 drops of hydrochloric acid. Mix up the
contents shaking the test tube gently. After 5 minutes, examine the mixture. The red
colouration indicates the presence of vanaspati in the curd.

2. Rabdi:

Blotting paper:

Take a teaspoon of rabri in a test tube. Add 3 ml of hydrochloric acid and 3 ml of distilled water.
Stir the content with a glass rod. Remove the rod and examine. Presence of fine fibres to the
glass rod will indicate the presence of blotting paper in rabri.

3. Khoa and its products:

Starch:

Boil a small quantity of sample with some water, cool and add -a few drops of Iodine solution.
Formation of blue colour indicates the presence of starch
4. Chhana or Paneer:

Starch:

Boil a small quantity of sample with some water, cool and add a few drops of Iodine solution.
Formation of blue colour indicates the presence of starch.

C. Detection from Oil and Fats:

1. Ghee:

i. Vanaspathy or Margarine:

Take about one tea spoon full of melted sample of Ghee with equal quantity of concentrated
Hydrochloric acid in a stoppered test tube and add to it a pinch of sugar. Shake for one minute
and let it for five minutes. Appearance of crimson colour in lower (acid) of Vanaspati or
Margarine.

The test specific seasame which is for oil compulsorily added is to Vanaspati and Mrgarine.
Some coal tar colours also give a positive test. If the test is positive i.e. red colour develops only
adding strong by Hydrochloric acid (without adding crystals of sugar) then the sample is
adulterated with coal tar dye.

If the crimson or red colour develops after adding and shaking with sugar, then alone Vanaspati
or Margarine is present.

ii. Mashed Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes and other starches:

The presence of mashed potatoes and sweet potatoes in a sample of ghee can easily be
detected by adding a few drops of Iodine, which is brownish in colour turns to blue if mashed
potatoes/sweet potatoes/other starches are present.

2. Butter:

i. Vanaspati or Margarine:

Take about one teaspoon full of melted sample of butter with equal quantity of concentrated
Hydrochloric acid in a stoppered test tube and add to it a pinch of sugar. Shake for one minute
and let it for five minutes. Appearance of crimson colour in lower (acid) of Vanaspati or
Margarine.

The test is specific for seasame oil which is compulsorily added to Vanaspati and Margarine.
Some coal tar colour also give a positive test.
If the test is positive i.e. red colour develops only by adding strong Hydrochloric acid (without
adding crystals of j sugar) then the sample is adulterated with coal tar dye. If the crimson or red
colour develops after adding and shaking with sugar, then alone Vanaspati or Margarine is
present

ii. Mashed potatoes other starches:

The presence of mashed potatoes and sweet potatoes in a sample of butter can easily detected
by adding a few drops of iodine (which is brownish in colour), turns to blue.

3. Edible oil:

Prohibited colour:

Take 5 ml of sample in a test tube and add 5 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Shake gently,
let it stand for 5 minutes. Colour will separate in the upper layer of the solution.

4. Coconut oil:

Any other oil:

Place a small bottle of oil in refrigerator. Coconut oil solidifies leaving the adulterant as a
Separate layer.

D. Detection from Sweetening Agents:

1. Sugar:

i. Chalk powder:

Dissolve 10 gm of sample in a glass of water, allow settling, Chalk will settle down at the
bottom.

ii. Urea:

On dissolving in water it gives a smell of ammonia.

iii. Chalk powder:

Dissolve 10 gm of sample in a glass of water, allow to settle, chalk will settle down at the
bottom.

iv. Yellow colour (Non- permitted):

Take 5 ml in a tests tube from the above solution and add a few drops of conc. Hc1. A pink
colour in lower acid layers shows the presence of non-permitted colour.

2. Honey:

Sugar solution:

A cotton wick dipped in pure honey when lighted with a match stick burns and shows the purity
of honey. If adulterated, the presence of water will not allow the honey to burn, If it does; it will
produce a cracking sound.

This test is only for added water.

3. Jaggery:

i. Washing soda:

Add a few drops of solution HC1. Effervescence shows presence of washing soda.

ii. Chalk powder:

Dissolve a little amount sample in water in a test tube, chalk powder settles down. -Or-

Add a few drops of solution Hc1. effervescence indicates the presence of adulterant.

iii. Metanil yellow colour:

Take ¼ of a teaspoon of the jaggery in a test tube. Add 3 ml of alcohol and shake the tube
vigorously to mix up the content. Pour 10 drops of hydrochloric acid in it. A pink colouration
indicates the presence of metanil yellow colours in jaggery.

iv. Sugar solution:

Add a drop of honey to a glass if water, if the drop does not disperse in water it indicates that
the honey is pure. However, if the drop disperses in water it indicates presence of added sugar.

4. Bura sugar:

Washing soda:

Add 1 ml of HC1 to a little of bura sugar. Effervescence occurs if washing soda is present.
Dissolve 2 gm of sugar in water; dip a red litmus paper in the solution. If washing soda is
present, it will turn blue.
5. Sweetmeats, Ice-cream and beverages:

i. Metanil yellow (a non- permitted coal tar colour):

Extract colour with luke warm water from food articles. Add few drops of concentrated
Hydrochloric acid. If magenta red colour develops the presence of metanil yellow is indicated.

ii. Saccharin:

Taste a small quantity. Saccharin leaves a lingering sweetness on tongue for a considerable time
and leaves a bitter taste at the end.

E. Detection from Food Grain and their Products:

1. Wheat, Rice, Maize, Jawar, Bajra, chana, Barley etc.:

Dust, pebble, stone, straw, weed seeds, damaged grain, weevilled grain, insects, rodent hair
and excreta:

These may be examined visually to see foreign matter, damaged grains, discoloured grains,
insects, rodent contamination etc.

Damaged / discoloured grains should be as low as possible since they may be affected by fungal
toxins, argemone seeds, Dhatura seeds etc. In moderately excessive amount can resultin risk to
health,Discard the damaged undesirable grains before use

2. Maida:

Resultant atta or cheap flour:

When dough is prepared from resultant or left out atta, more water has to be used. The normal
taste of chapattis prepared out of wheat is somewhat sweetish whereas those prepared out of
adulterated wheat will taste insipid.

3. Maida/ Rice:

Boric Acid:

Take a small amount of sample in a test tube, add some water and shake. Add a few drops of
HCl. Dip a turmeric paper strip if it turns red, boric acid is present.

4. Wheat barja and other grains:

i. Ergot (a fungus containing poisonous substance):

(i) Purple black longer sized grains in Bajra show the presence of Ergots,

(ii) Put some grains In a glass tumbler containing 20 per cent salt solution (20 gm common salt
to 100 ml water) purple black longer size grain Ergot floats over the surface while sound grains
settle down.

ii. Dhatura:

Dhatura seeds are flat with edges with blackish brown colour which can be separated out by
close examination.

iii. Karnel Bunt:

The affected wheat kernel have a dull appearance, blackish in colour and rotten fish smell,

5. Spella Rice(Parboiled Rice):

i. Metanil yellow (a non- permitted coal tar colour):

Rub a few grains in the palms of two hands. Yellow would get reduced or disappear. Add a few
drops of dilute Hydrochloric acid to a few rice grains mixed with little water, presence of pink
colour indicates presence of Metanil yellow

ii. Turmeric (colouring golden appearance):

Take a small amount of sample in a test tube, add some water and shake.

Dip Boric acid paper (filter paper dipped in Boric acid solution) If it turns pink turmeric is
present. Take some rice and sprinkle on it a small amount of soaked lime for some time, grains
will turn red if turmeric is present.

6. Parched rice:

Urea:

Take 30 numbers of parched rice in a test tube. Add 5ml of distilled water in it. Mix up the
contents thoroughly, by shaking the test tube. After 5 minutes, filter the water- contents, and
add VI teaspoon of powder of arhar or soybean in it.

Leave it for 5 minutes, and then dip a red litmus paper in the mixture. Take out the litmus paper
after 30 seconds and examine it. A blue colouration indicates the presence of urea in the
parched rice.
7. Wheat flour:

i. Excess bran:

Sprinkle on water surface. Bran will float on the surface.

ii. Chalk powder:

Shake sample with dil. HC1 Effervescence indicates chalk.

Chalk powder is used as an adulterant due to its weight.

8. Dal whole spilt:

i. Khesari Dal:

(i) Khesari dal has edged type appearance showing a slant on one side and square in
appearance in contrast to other dals.

(ii) Add 50 ml of dilute Hydrochloric acid to the sample and keep on simmering water for about
15 minutes. The pink colour developed indicates the presence of Khesari dal.

The test is only for Khesari dal. (Metanil yellow if Present will give a similar colour immediately
even without simmering).

ii. Clay, stone, gravels, webs, insects, rodent hair and excreta:

Visual examination will detect these adulterants

Reject if the number of Insects is large or if the odour is unpleasant and taste bitter or gritty

iii. Metanil yellow (a non-permitted coaltar colour):

Take 5 gms of the sample with 5 ml. of water in a test tube and add a few drops of
concentrated Hydrochloric acid. A pink colour shows presence o Metanil yellow

9. Atta, Maida Suji (Rawa):

i. Sand, soil, insects, webs, lumps, rodent hair and excrete:

These can be identified by visual examination.

ii. Iron Fillings:

By moving a magnet through the sample, iron filling can be separated

10. Bajra:

Ergot infested Bajra:

Soak bajra in water, swollen and black Ergot infested grains will turn light in weight and will
float in water

11. Sago:

Sand or talcum:

Put a little quantity of sago in mouth, it will have a gritty feel, if adulterated. Burn the sago, if
pure, it will swell and leave hardly any ash. Adulterated sago will leave behind appreciable
quantity of ash.

12. Besan:

i. Mentanil Yellow:

Take 1/2 teaspoon of the besan in a test tube. Pour 3 ml of alcohol in the test tube. Mix up the
contents thoroughly by shaking the test tube. Add 10 drops of hydrochloric acid it. A pink
colouration indicates presence of metanil yellow in the gram powder.

ii. Khesari flour:

Add 50 ml of dilute Hydrochloric acid to 10 gms of sample and keep on simmering water for
about 15 minutes. The pink colour, if developed, indicates, the presence of Khesari flour

The test is only for Khesari dal (Metanil yellow, if present will give a similar colour even without
simmering).

13. Pulses

Lead chromate:

Shake 5 gm. Of pulse with 5 ml. Of water and add a few drops of HC1. Pink colour indicates
Lead Chromate.

F. Detection from Spices:

1. Whole spices:
Dirt, dust, straw, insect, damaged seeds, other seeds, rodent hair and excrete

These can be examined visually

2. Black pepper:

i. Papaya seeds:

Papaya seeds can be separated out from pepper as they are shrunken, oval in shape and
greenish brown or brownish black in colour.

ii. Light black Pepper:

Float the sample of black pepper in alcohol (rectified spirit). The black pepper berries sink while
the papaya seeds and light black pepper float.

Press the berries with the help of fingers light peppers will break easily while black berries of
pepper will not break.

iii. Coated with mineral oil:

Black pepper coated with mineral oil gives Kerosene like smell.

3. Cloves:

i. Volatile oil extracted (exhausted cloves):

Exhausted cloves can be identified by its small size and shrunken appearance. The characteristic
pungent of genuine cloves is less pronounced in exhausted cloves

ii. Coated with mineral oil:

Cloves coated with mineral oil gives kerosene like smell

4. Mustard seed:

Argemone seed:

Mustard seeds have a smooth surface. The argemone seed have grainy and rough surface and
are black and hence can be separated out by close examination. When Mustard seed is pressed
inside it is yellow while for Argemone seed it is white.

Use magnifying glass for identification.

5. Powered spices:

i. Added starch:

Add a few drops of tincture of Iodine or Iodine solution. Indication of blue colour shows the
presence of starch.

Iodine test for added starch is not applicable for turmeric powder.

ii. Common Salt:

Taste for addition of common salt.

6. Turmeric Powder:

Coloured saw dust:

Take a tea spoon full of turmeric powder in a test tube. Add a few drops of concentrated
Hydrochloric acid. Instant appearance of pink colour which disappears on dilution with water
shows the presence of turmeric. If the colour persists, metanil yellow (an artificial colour) a not
permitted coal tar colour is present.

This test is only for Metanil yellow.

7. Turmeric whole:

i. Lead chromate:

Appears to be bright in colour which leaves colour immediately in water.

ii. Chalk Powder or yellow soapstone powder:

Take a small quantity of turmeric powder in a test tube containing small quantity of water. Add
a few drops of concentrated Hydrochloric acid, effervescence (give off bubbles) will indicate the
presence of chalk or yellow soap stone powder.

8. Chilles powder:

i. Brick powder, salt powder or talc, powder:

Take a tea spoon full of chillies powder in a glass of water. Coloured water extract will show the
presence of artificial colour.
Any grittiness that may be felt on rubbing the sediment at the bottom of glass confirms the
presence of brick powder/sand, soapy and smooth touch of the white residue at the bottom
indicates the presence of soap stone.

To a little powder of chilli add small amount of conc HC1 and mix to the consistency of paste,
dip the rear end of the match stick into the paste and hold over the flame, brick red flame
colour due to the presence of calcium slats in brick powder.

This test is only for earthy material

ii. Artificial colours:

Sprinkle the chilli powder on a glass of water. Artificial colorants descend as coloured streaks.

iii. Water soluble coal tar colour:

Water soluble artificial colour can be detected by sprinkling a small quantity of chillies or
turmeric powder on the surface of water contained in a glass tumbler. The water soluble colour
will immediately start descending in colour streaks

9. Asafoetida (Hing):

i. Soap stone or other earthy material:

Shake little portion of the sample with water and allow to settle. Soap stone or other earthy
mailer will settle down at the bottom.

In compounded asafoetida due to presence of starch, a slight turbid solution may be produced.
However, this will settle down after keeping

ii. Starch:

Add tincture of iodine, appearance of blue colour shows the presence of starch.

Compound of asafetida contains starch which is declared on the label. This test is not applicable
for compound as asafoetida.

iii. Foreign resin:

Burn on a spoon, if the sample burns like camphor, it indicates the sample is pure.

Pure hing burn like aromatic camphor

11. Spices:
Powdered bran and saw dust:

Sprinkle on water surface. Powdered bran and sawdust float on the surface.

12. Cinnamon:

Cassia bark:

Cinnamon barks are very thin and can be rolled. It can be rolled around a pencil or pen. It has a
distinct smell. Whereas cassia ark comprise of several layers in between the rough outer and
inner most smooth layers. On examination of the ark loosely, a clear distinction can be made.

13. Cumin seeds:

Grass seeds coloured with charcoal dust:

Rub the cumin seeds on palms. If palms turn black adulteration is indicated.

14. Green chilli and green vegetables:

Malachite green:

Take a cotton piece soaked in liquid paraffin and rub the outer green surface of a small part of
green vegetable. If the cotton turns, green, we can say the vegetable is adulterated with
malachite green.

15. Green Peas:

Artificially coloured:

Take a little amount of green peas in a 250 ml beaker add water to it and mix well. Let it stand
for half an hour. Clear separation of colour in water indicates adulteration.

16. Saffron:

Dried tendrils of maize cob:

Genuine saffron will not break easily like artificial. Artificial saffron is prepared by soaking maize
cob in sugar and colouring it with coal tar colour. The colour dissolves in water if artificially
coloured. A bit of pure saffron when allowed to dissolved in water will continue to give its
saffron colour so long as it lasts.

G. Detection from Miscellaneous Products:

1. Common salt:

White Powder:

Stir a spoonful of sample of talk in a glass of water. The presence of chalk will make solution
white and other insoluble impurities will settle down.

2. Iodized salt:

Common salt:

Cut a piece of potato, add salt and wait minute and add two drops of lemon juice. If iodized salt
blue colour will develop. In case of common salt, there will be no blue colour.

3. Tea leaves:

i. Exhausted tea:

Take a filter paper and spread a few tea leaves. Sprinkle with water to wet the filter paper. If
coal tar colour is present it would immediately stain the filter paper. Wash the filter paper
under tap water and observe the stains against light Spread a little slaked lime on white
porcelain tile or glass plate; sprinkle a little tea dust on the lime.

Red, orange or other shades of colour spreading on the lime will show the presence of coal tar
colour. In case of genuine tea, there will be only a slight greenish yellow colour due to
chlorophyll, which appear after some time.

ii. Iron Filling:

By moving a magnet through the sample iron filling can be separated.

iii. Chicory:

Gently sprinkle the coffee powder sample on the surface of water in a glass. The coffee floats
over the water but chicory begins to sink down within a few seconds. The falling chicory
powder particles leave behind them a trail of colour, due to large amount of caramel

4. Supari pan Masala:

i. Colour:

Colour dissolves in water

ii. Saccharin:
Saccharin gives excessive and lingering sweet taste and leaves bitter taste at the end.

5. Catachu chalk:

Chalk:

Chalk gives effervescence (gives off bubbles) with concentrated Hydrochloric acid

This a test is only chalk

6. Lemonade soda:

Mineral acid:

Pour 2 drops of the lemonade soda on a metanil yellow paper- strip. A violet colouration
indicates the presence of mineral acid in aerated water. The colour impression gets retained
even after drying the paper (you can prepare metanil yellow paper strips by soaking filter paper
strips in 0.1 % aqueous solution and then drying the paper – strips).

7. Sweet Potato:

Rhodamine B colour:

Take a cotton piece soaked in liquid paraffin, and rub the outer red surface of the sweet potato.
If the cotton absorb colour, it indicates the use of rhodamine B colours on the outer surface of
the sweet potato

8. Pulses:

Lead Chromate:

Shake 5 gm. Of pulse with 5 ml. Of water and add a few drops of HC1. Pink colour indicates
Lead Chromate

10. Iodized salt:

Common salt:

Cut a piece of potato, add salt and wait minute and add two drops of lemon juice. If iodized salt
blue colour will develop. In case of common salt, there will be no blue colour.
(i) On ignition, genuine silver leaves burn away completely, leaving glistering white spherical
ball of the same mass whereas aluminium leaves are reduced to ashes of dark grey blackish
colour,

(ii) Take silver leaves in test tube, add diluted Hydrochloric acid. Appearance of turbidity to
white precipitate indicates the presence of silver leaves. Aluminium leaves do not give any
turbidity or precipitate

(iii) Take aluminium leaves in palm and rub between both the palms of the hand, silver leaves
completely disappear in the hand; however presence of small ball in the palm indicates
adulteration with aluminium leaves.

11. Vinegar:

Mineral Acid:

Test with the Metanil yellow indicator paper, in case, the colour changes from yellow to pink,
mineral acid is present.

4. Classification of additives and their role

Throughout history, mankind has needed to prolong the shelf life of food, modify its
organoleptic characteristics or stabilise its physical properties, with the aim of surviving periods
of shortage, drought or winters. In the past, the classification of additives was less common and
food consumption was seasonal, but with the development of agriculture and livestock
mankind began to manipulate food in order to preserve them better and transform them into
more durable and stable products.

The first techniques developed were based on physical treatments, which were sometimes
combined with chemical treatments. Some of these treatments are still currently used, for
example: drying, salting, smoking, and freezing, among others.

Food additives are one of the great technologies that have been developed in terms of food
preservation and transformation. Due to massive urbanisation and the rhythm of life in the
twentieth century, it has become necessary to use food additives to adapt products to current
needs. Without additives, many foods could not be manufactured or even consumed.

Today, additives are part of our daily lives, since virtually all beverages and processed foods we
consume contain any of these substances. However, the incorporation of additives into the
food industry’s products is a controversial issue due to both ignorance and concern on the part
of consumers. On one hand, there is ignorance in the classification of additives and their types
and on the other, there is concern about the possible impact of certain additives on human
ihealth.
According to the Codex, international food standards proposed by FAO and approved by WHO,
a food additive is defined as: “any substance which is not normally consumed as a food, nor is it
used as a basic food ingredient, having a nutritional value or not and whose intentional addition
to the food for technological purposes in its manufacturing, processing, preparation,
processing, packaging, packaging, transport or storage phases, results or can reasonably be
expected to result in itself or its by-products in a component of the food or an element that
affects its characteristics.”

Main characteristics of food additives

In the food industry, for a substance to be admitted as an additive and to be used, it must
overcome toxicological controls, be chemically characterised and demonstrate that its use
provides consumer benefits and / or technological benefits.

The 7 main functions of the additives are:

– Ensure the safety and edibleness of the food.

– Preserve or increase the nutritive value of the ingredients.
– Increase stability or improve organoleptic properties.
– Prolong the shelf life of the food and contribute to its conservation.
– Make possible the availability of food out of season.
– Facilitate the manufacturing processes of the products.
– Provide food for groups of consumers with particular dietary needs.

Classification of food additives

The following classification of additives is based on criteria on their technological functions.

However, it is necessary to emphasize that there are other classifications based on the origin
(natural or synthetic) or the type of additive.

1) Stabilizers of physical characteristics

– Emulsifiers: Substances that allow the maintenance or formation of a homogeneous mixture

of two or more non-miscible phases. For example, water and oil.
– Thickeners: macromolecules that preserve the textures of foods such as viscosity or gelling
effect. For example, adding E-406 (agar-agar) to a jam preserves for its texture.
– Anti-caking agents: substance that prevents the formation of clumps or lumps that affect
product homogeneity. They are usually used in soups, sauces, juices or dairy products.
– Acidity correctors: substances that control or alter the pH of food. Inadequate control can
lead to the proliferation of undesirable bacteria in the food which could suppose a health risk.

2) Inhibitors of chemical and biological alterations

– Antioxidants: they are additives that are added mainly in fatty ingredients to delay or prevent
the rancidity of foods due to the oxidation. There are two types of antioxidants on the market:
natural and synthetic.
– Conservatives: substances that when added protect food against deterioration caused by
unwanted microorganisms. They are often used in food containing water, such as bakery,
pastries, dairy, beverages or meat products.

3) Modifiers of organoleptic characters

– Colouring agents: substances used to modify or stabilise the colouring characteristics of a

food. Colour in food is an aspect that is associated with the quality of food and is related to
taste and smell. The use of dyes in food goes back to ancient civilizations; the use of saffron or
cochineal for colouring have a long tradition which continues to today.
– Flavour enhancers: substances that enhance the taste and / or aroma of a food without giving
its own flavour. They are widely used in sauces and soups. Monosodium glutamate is one of the
most used in processed foods.
– Sweeteners: These additives are used to provide sweet taste or to mimic flavours. Its aim is
that the flavour is the most similar to the common sugar and resist similar treatments in which
sugar is used. They are very important in products for diabetics or low calorie products.
– Aromatic substances are substances that provide a new aroma and / or correct the aroma of
food and beverages. It is possible to obtain them from extracts of vegetable origin.

4) Improvers and correctors

They are additives that are used in baking, wine making, or to regulate the maturation of dairy
products, such as cheese or meat products.

As mentioned above, there are natural and synthetic additives that are titrated according to the
ADI (acceptable daily intake) and based on available toxicological data. Each additive has a
maximum dietary level without demonstrable toxic effects and public administrations rely on
the ADI when legislating and establishing authorized quantities for the use of the additives.

The use of food additives seeks to improve the products that food manufacturers offer to
consumers. However, in many cases the consumer has a poor perception about the additives,
especially of the synthetic or artificial ones. Some believe that the food industry uses additives
to mask poor quality and to lower costs, but the truth is that the use of additives allows people
to eat healthy, tasty and safe food.

Although there is still a great deal of ignorance on the subject in the general population, the
market trend is towards the consumption of good quality food, using natural additives, easily
prepared and preserved, and without harmful effects on health.

The classification of food additives allows to synthesise and understand what type of additives
the manufacturer needs for each type of product. In addition, the regulations concerning
additives require that all food additives used in the product should appear on food labels. In
Europe, the E-number system is used, although labelling using the full name of the additive,
Tocopherols for example, a natural antioxidant used in the food industry can be labelled using
its E-306 number or as “Rich Extract in Tocopherols”.

The main bodies responsible for regulating additives are the Scientific Committee for Food (SCF)
at the European level and the FAO / WHO Committee of experts on food additives (JECFA) at
the international level. It is important to periodically review the official sources in order to stay
updated on the latest developments and changes regarding additives and the food sector in
general.

5. Mislabeling

Let us learn the proper Food labeling regulations in India. Anything that is violated from Food
regulations in India is called as mislabeling.

Food Labelling Regulations in India

All food products sold in India that is prepackaged are required to comply with the Food Safety
and Standards (Packaging and labelling) Regulations, 2011. The Food Safety and Standards
Regulation, 2011 is a notification issued by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. In this article, we look at the regulations
pertaining to food labelling in India.

Applicability of Food Labelling Regulations

The food labelling regulations require all “Prepackaged” or “Pre-packed food” to comply with
the labelling regulations in India. As per the rules, prepackaged food means food, which is
placed in a package of any nature, in such a manner that the contents cannot be changed
without tampering it and which is ready for sale to the consumer.

General Labelling Requirements

The following labelling requirements must be complied with by all prepackaged food sold in
India:

 The label must be in English or Hindi or local language. In addition to the above, the
label can contain information in any other language, as required.
 The label must not contain information about the food that could be deemed to be
false, misleading, deceptive or otherwise create an erroneous impression regarding the
product.
 The label must be affixed to the container in such a manner that it would not easily be
separated from the container.
  The contents or information presented in the label should be clear, prominent, indelible
and readily legible by the consumer.
 If the container is covered by a wrapper, then the wrapper must contain necessary
information or make the label of the product inside readily legible by not obscuring.
 The name of the food must be mentioned along with trade name and description of the
food contained. In case the food contains more than one ingredient, then a list of
ingredients must be presented in descending order of their composition by weight or
volume, as the case may be, at the time of its manufacture;

In addition to the above, there are various regulations concerning labelling that apply to various
types of pre-packaged foods. Hence, its important to consult a qualified FSSAI
consultant about the label, prior to launch.

Nutritional Information
Nutritional Information or nutritional facts per 100 gm or 100ml or per serving of the product
must be given on the label along with the following information:

 energy value in kcal;

 the amounts of protein, carbohydrate (specify quantity of sugar) and fat in gram (g) or
ml;
 the amount of any other nutrient for which a nutrition or health claim is made:

It is important to note that any “health claim” or “nutrition claim” or “risk reduction” claim
made in the label will be throughly scrutinized by the FSSAI authorities. Hence, any such claim
must be validated by test data. As per the rules the following is the definition for “health
claim”, “nutrition claim” and “risk reduction” claim:

 “Health claims” means any representation that states, suggests or implies that a
relationship exists between a food or a constituent of that food and health and include
nutrition claims which describe the physiological role of the nutrient in growth,
development and normal functions of the body, other functional claims concerning
specific beneficial effect of the consumption of food or its constituents, in the context of
the total diet, on normal functions or biological activities of the body and such claims
relate to a positive contribution to health or to the improvement of function or to
modifying or preserving health, or disease, risk reduction claim relating to the
consumption of a food or food constituents, in the context of the total diet, to the
reduced risk of developing a disease or health related condition;
 “Nutrition claim” means any representation which states, suggests or implies that a
food has particular nutritional properties which are not limited to the energy value but
include protein, fat carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals;
 “Risk reduction” in the context of health claims means significantly altering a major risk
factor for a disease or health-related condition;
Veg or Non-Veg Symbol
All packaged food that is “Non Vegetarian” must have a symbol that is a brown colour filled
circle inside a square with brown outline. If a food contains only egg as non-vegetarian
ingredient, then the manufacturer may provide a declaration that the product contains only egg
and add the non vegetarian symbol.

Non Veg Symbol

Packaged vegetarian food should have a symbol that consist of a green colour filled circle inside
a square with green.

Veg Symbol
Information Relating to Food Additives, Colours and Flavours
Food additives contained in the food product must be mentioned along with class titles along
with the specific names or recognized international numerical identifications. Addition of
colouring matter should be mentioned on the label along with certain statements like
“CONTAINS PERMITTED NATURAL COLOUR(S)”, just beneath the list of the ingredients on the
label. In case of addition of extraneous flavouring agent, then it should be mentioned in a
statement like “CONTAINS ADDED FLAVOUR” just beneath the list of ingredients on the label.

Name and Complete Address of the Manufacturer

The name and complete address of the manufacturer must be mentioned on every package of
food. In case of imported food, the package must contain the name and complete address of
the importer in India.

Net Quantity
All packaged food must carry the bet quantity by weight or volume or number, as the case may
be. The net quantity of the commodity contained in the package must exclude the weight of the
wrappers and packaging materials.

Lot Number of Batch Identification

A lot number or batch number or code number must be mentioned on all packaged food so
that it can be traced while manufacturing and distribution. Only bread and milk including
sterilised milk are not required to comply with this regulation.

Date of Manufacture or Packing

The date, month and year in which the commodity is manufactured, packed or pre-packed must
be mentioned on the label. In case of food products having a shelf life of more than three
months, then the month and the year of manufacture can be given with the “Best Before Date”.
In case of products having a shelf life of less than three months, the date, month and year in
which the commodity is manufactured or prepared or pre-packed must be mentioned on the
label with best before date.

Country of Origin for Imported Food

For imported food, the country of origin of the food should be declared on the label of food. In
case a food product undergoes processing in a second country which changes its nature, the
country in which the processing is performed should be considered to be the country of origin
for the purposes of labelling.

Instructions for Use

Instructions for use, including reconstitution, should be included on the label, if necessary, to
ensure correct utilization of the food.

6. Pastry

Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening (solid fats, including butter) that may be
savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are often described as bakers' confectionery. The
word "pastries" suggests many kinds of baked products made from ingredients such as flour,
sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs. Small tarts and other sweet baked
products are called pastries. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches, croissants, and
pasties.

The French word pâtisserie is also used in English (with or without the accent) for the same
foods. Originally, the French word pastisserie referred to anything, such as a meat pie, made in
dough (paste, later pâte) and not typically a luxurious or sweet product. This meaning still
persisted in the nineteenth century, though by then the term more often referred to the sweet
and often ornate confections implied today.

Pastry can also refer to the pastry dough, from which such baked products are made. Pastry
dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products.

Pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content, which contributes to a flaky
or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the
weight of the filling. When making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and
flour thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the flour granules are adequately
coated with fat and less likely to develop gluten. On the other hand, overmixing results in long
gluten strands that toughen the pastry. In other types of pastry such as Danish pastry and
croissants, the characteristic flaky texture is achieved by repeatedly rolling out a dough similar
to that for yeast bread, spreading it with butter, and folding it to produce many thin layers.

Types of pastries
Shortcrust pastry
Shortcrust pastry is the simplest and most common pastry. It is made with flour, fat, butter,
salt, and water to bind the dough. This is used mainly in tarts. It is also the pastry that is used
most often in making a quiche. The process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and
flour, adding water, and rolling out the paste. The fat is mixed with the flour first, generally by
rubbing with fingers or a pastry blender, which inhibits gluten formation by coating the gluten
strands in fat and results in a short (as in crumbly; hence the term shortcrust), tender pastry. A
related type is the sweetened sweetcrust pastry, also known as pâte sucrée, in which sugar and
egg yolks have been added (rather than water) to bind the pastry.
Flaky pastry
Flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to the number of layers. It bakes
into a crisp, buttery pastry. The "puff" is obtained by the shard-like layers of fat, most often
butter or shortening, creating layers which expand in the heat of the oven when baked.
Puff pastry
Puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or "puff" when baked. Puff pastry is made
using flour, butter, salt, and water. The pastry rises up due to the water and fats expanding as
they turn into steam upon heating. Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender.
Choux pastry
Choux pastry is a very light pastry that is often filled with cream. Unlike other types of pastry,
choux is in fact closer to a dough before being cooked which gives it the ability to be piped into
various shapes such as the éclair and profiterole. Its name originates from the French choux,
meaning cabbage, owing to its rough cabbage-like shape after cooking.
Choux begins as a mixture of milk or water and butter which are heated together until the
butter melts, to which flour is added to form a dough. Eggs are then beaten into the dough to
further enrich it. This high percentage of water causes the pastry to expand into a light, hollow
pastry. Initially, the water in the dough turns to steam in the oven and causes the pastry to rise;
then the starch in the flour gelatinizes, thereby solidifying the pastry. Once the choux dough
has expanded, it is taken out of the oven; a hole is made in it to let the steam out. The pastry is
then placed back in the oven to dry out and become crisp. The pastry is filled with various
flavors of cream and is often topped with chocolate. Choux pastries can also be filled with
ingredients such as cheese, tuna, or chicken to be used as appetizers.
Phyllo (Filo)
Phyllo is a paper-thin pastry dough that is used in many layers. The phyllo is generally wrapped
around a filling and brushed with butter before baking. These pastries are very delicate and
flaky.
Hot water crust pastry
Hot water crust pastry is used for savoury pies, such as pork pies, game pies and, more rarely,
steak and kidney pies. Hot water crust is traditionally used for making hand-raised pies. The
usual ingredients are hot water, lard and flour, the pastry is made by heating water, melting the
fat in this, bringing to the boil, and finally mixing with the flour. This can be done by beating the
flour into the mixture in the pan, or by kneading on a pastry board. Either way, the result is a
hot and rather sticky paste that can be used for hand-raising: shaping by hand, sometimes using
a dish or bowl as an inner mould. As the crust cools, its shape is largely retained, and it is filled
and covered with a crust, ready for baking. Hand-raised hot water crust pastry does not
produce a neat and uniform finish, as there will be sagging during the cooking of the filled pie,
which is generally accepted as the mark of a hand-made pie.

7. Types of sponge cakes

Sponge cake is a cake based on flour (usually wheat flour), sugar, butter and eggs, and is
sometimes leavened with baking powder. Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated
during the Renaissance, possibly in Spain. The sponge cake is thought to be one of the first of
the non-yeasted cakes, and the earliest attested sponge cake recipe in English is found in a
book by the English poet Gervase Markham, The English Huswife, Containing the Inward and
Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman (1615). Still, the cake was much
more like a cookie: thin and crispy. Sponge cakes became the cake recognized today when
bakers started using beaten eggs as a rising agent in the mid 18th century. The Victorian
creation of baking powder by English food manufacturer Alfred Bird in 1843 enabled the sponge
to rise higher than cakes made previously, resulting in the Victoria sponge.

In the United Kingdom a sponge cake is produced using the batter method, while in the US
cakes made using the batter method are known as butter or pound cakes. Two common British
batter-method sponge cakes are the layered Victoria sponge cake and Madeira cake. Cakes
made using the foam method are not classed as sponge cakes in the UK; these cakes are classed
as foam cakes, which are quite different. These cakes are common in Europe, especially in
Italian patisseries. The cake was first invented by the Italian pastry chef Giovan Battista Cabona
(called Giobatta), at the court of Spain with his lord, the Genoese marquis Domenico Pallavicini,
around the middle of the 16th century.

Variations on the theme of a cake lifted, partially or wholly, by trapped air in the batter exist in
most places where European patisserie has spread, including the Anglo-Jewish "plava", Italian
génoise, the Portuguese pão-de-ló, and the possibly ancestral Italian pan di Spagna ("Spanish
bread"). Derivatives of the basic sponge cake idea include the American chiffon cake and the
Latin American tres leches cake.

The essential ingredients are eggs, fat (often butter), sugar, and flour. An authentic British
sponge cake is made by first mixing the fat with the sugar and then beating the eggs with the
sugar-fat mix until the mixture is light and creamy, then carefully sieving and folding in the
flour. Depending on the recipe, the flour may be mixed with a small amount of baking powder
though some recipes use only the air incorporated into the egg mixture, relying on the
denaturing of the egg proteins and the thermal expansion of the air to provide leavening. In the
French version the yolks are beaten with the sugar first while the whites are beaten separately
to a meringue-like foam, to be gently folded in later. The mixture is then poured into a cake tin
and baked. Both methods take great care to incorporate air in the beating, whisking, and
sieving stages.

Before the cooked cake has cooled, it is still flexible. This allows the creation of rolled cakes
such as the Swiss roll. This basic recipe is also used for many treats and puddings, such as
madeleines, ladyfingers, and trifles, as well as some versions of strawberry shortcake; the
earliest recipe for shortcake is in an English cookbook from 1588. In addition, the foam cake
technique is used in angel food cake (where only egg whites are used) and some recipes for
Belgian waffles (where the egg whites are separated from the yolks and folded into the batter
at the end of preparation).

Victoria sponge

The Victoria sponge, also known as the Victoria sandwich or Victorian cake, was named after
Queen Victoria, who was known to enjoy a slice of the sponge cake with her afternoon tea. The
sponge part evolved from the classic pound cake – equal quantities of butter, sugar, eggs and
flour. The difference was the Victorian creation of baking powder, which was discovered by
English food manufacturer Alfred Bird in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher. This
invention, writes cookery author Felicity Cloake, "was celebrated with a patriotic cake", Victoria
sponge.

A typical Victoria sponge filling consists of strawberry jam and whipped double cream (thick
cream with a high fat-content). The jam and cream are sandwiched between two sponge cakes;
the top of the cake is not iced or decorated apart from a dusting of icing sugar. The Women's
Institute publishes a variation on the Victoria sandwich that has strawberry jam as the filling
and is dusted with caster sugar, not icing sugar.
A Victoria sponge is made using one of two methods. The traditional method involves creaming
caster sugar with fat (usually butter), mixing thoroughly with beaten egg, then folding flour and
raising agent into the mixture. The modern method, using an electric mixer or food processor,
involves simply whisking all the ingredients together until creamy. Additionally, the modern
method typically uses an extra raising agent, and some recipes call for an extra-soft butter or
margarine.

Both the traditional and modern methods are relatively quick and simple, producing consistent
results, making this type of mixture one of the most popular for children and people in a hurry.
This basic "cake" mixture has been made into a wide variety of treats and puddings, including
cupcakes, chocolate cake, and Eve's pudding.

Although simple to make, Victoria sponge recipes are notoriously sensitive to cooking times and
temperatures. As such, oven manufacturers often use a Victoria sponge recipe to test their
ovens. Competitive Victoria sponge baking is part of the classic British fête.

At Passover
Since sponge cakes are not leavened with yeast, they are popular dessert choices for the
Passover feast. Typically, Passover sponges are made with matzo meal, shredded coconut,
matzo flour, potato flour, or nut flour (almond, hazelnut etc.) since raw wheat products may
not be used. No raising agent may be used due to the strict prohibition of even the appearance
of a leavening effect. Therefore, the beating of egg whites in the mix to achieve the aeration is
an essential characteristic of any Passover sponge recipe. Many families have at least one
recipe they pass down through generations, and matzo meal-based cake mixes are available
commercially. Several brands are easily found in kosher stores, especially before Passover.
Typical flavorings include almonds, apples, dark chocolate, lemon, pecans, and poppy seeds.
Apple or orange juice is the liquid ingredient. Milk is avoided, because it cannot be included in a
dessert to be served after a meat based meal. The sponge, or a heavier variant in the form of an
almond pudding, may be included as an element of the dessert in the Passover meal during the
Seder service, when it is often combined in serving with a fruit compote.

7. Types of Gateaux