MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION is a method of locating surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials

This magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and generally indicates its location, size, shape,
and extent

Non-ferromagnetic materials cannot be inspected by magnetic particle inspection. Such materials include aluminium alloys,
magnesium alloys, copper and copper alloys, lead, titanium and titanium alloys, and austenitic stainless steels

For this reason, the direction, size, and shape of the discontinuity are important. The direction of the magnetic field is also
important for optimum results, as is the strength of the field in the area of the discontinuity.

no indication of its presence, because it is regular in shape and lies parallel to the magnetic field. If the discontinuity has an irregular
shape but is predominantly parallel to the magnetic field, there is a good possibility that a weak indication would form

the residual method can be used only on materials having sufficient retentivity; usually the harder the material, the higher the
retentivity. The continuous method can be used for most parts.

The only difference between rectified three-phase alternating current and straight direct current is a slight ripple in the value of
the rectified current, amounting to only about 3% of the maximum current value

Half-wave current, used in magnetization with prods and dry magnetic particles, provides the highest sensitivity for discontinuities
that are wholly below the surface, such as those in castings and weldments.

Portable equipment’s- are designed to use 115-, 230-, or 460-V alternating current and to supply magnetizing-current outputs of
750 to 1500 A in half-wave or alternating current
The major disadvantage of portable equipment is the limited amount of current available.
portable equipment cannot supply the full-wave direct current.

Mobile units are generally mounted on wheels to facilitate transportation to various inspection sites.
supplies half-wave or alternating magnetizing-current outputs.
Mobile equipment is usually powered by single-phase, 60-Hz alternating current (230 or 460 V) and has an output range of 1500
to 6000 A.
current control is provided by a power-tap switch, which varies the voltage applied to the primary coil of the power transformer;
most of these have either 8 or 30 steps of current control
control on more advanced units is provided either by solid-state phase control of the transformer or by use of a saturable core
reactor to control the transformer.
Phase control of the transformer is achieved by silicon-controlled rectifiers or triacs in series with the transformer

Stationary equipment can be obtained as either general-purpose or special-purpose units

primarily intended for use in the wet method
Self-contained ac or
dc power supplies are available in amperage ratings from 2500 to 10,000 A. Maximum opening between contact plates
varies from 0.3 to 3.7 m (1 to 12 ft).
Stationary power packs serve as sources of high-amperage magnetizing current to be used in conjunction with special
fixtures or with cable-wrap or clamp-and-contact techniques. Rated output varies from a customary 4000 to 6000 A to as high as
20,000 A. The higher-amperage units are used for the overall magnetization of large forgings or castings that would otherwise
require systematic prod inspection at much lower current levels.

Multidirectional Magnetizing. Some units feature up to three output circuits that are systematically energized in
rapid sequence, either electrically or mechanically, for effectively magnetizing a part in several directions in the same
time frame. This reveals discontinuities lying in any direction after only a single processing step.

Special-purpose stationary units are designed for handling and inspecting large quantities of similar items.
Generally, conveyors, automatic markers, and alarm systems are included in such units to expedite the handling of parts.

Coils- the effective overall distance that can be inspected is 150 to 230 mm (6 to 9 in.) on either side of the coil. Thus, a part 305
to 460 mm (12 to 18 in.) long can be inspected using a normal coil approximately 25 mm (1 in.) thick. In testing longer parts, either
the part must be moved at regular intervals through the coil or the coil must be moved along the part.

When using a coil for magnetizing a bar-like part, strong polarity at the ends of the part could mask transverse defects. An
advantageous field in this area is assured on full wave, three phase, direct current units by special circuitry known as "quick" or
"fast" break. A "controlled" break feature on alternating current, half wave, and on single-phase full wave direct current units
provides a similar advantageous field
Central Conductor -If the conductor carrying direct current is a solid bar of steel or other ferromagnetic material, the same
distribution of magnetic field exists as in a similar nonmagnetic conductor, but the flux density is much greater.

If the axis of a central conductor is placed along the axis of a hollow cylindrical part, the magnetic field in the part will be concentric
with its cylindrical wall. However, if the central conductor is placed near one point on the inside circumference of the part, the
flux density of the field in the cylindrical wall will be much stronger at this point and will be weaker at the diametrically opposite
point.

When the conductor passing through the inside of the part is placed against an inside wall of the part, the diameter will be
considered the sum of the diameter of the central conductor and twice the wall thickness

The distance along the part circumference (interior or exterior) that is effectively magnetized will be taken as four times the
diameter of the central conductor. The entire circumference will be inspected by rotating the part on the conductor, allowing for
approximately a 10% magnetic field overlap
Conductor size is usually based on its current-carrying capacity and ease of handling

For the inspection of large and massive parts too bulky to be put into a unit having clamping contact heads, magnetization is often
done by using prod contacts Prod contacts are often used in the magnetic particle inspection of large castings and weldments

Inspection of Steel Balls. Direct contact is not permitted during the inspection of hardened, finished steel balls for heat treating
or grinding cracks, because of the highly polished surface finish. Because of the highly retentive nature of the material, residual
magnetization with direct current and quick break circuitry is used for magnetizing the balls
Balls are inspected along the x-, y-, and z-axes in three separate operations. The operation for each axis consists of:
· An induced-current shot
· Bathing the ball with the wet-particle solution
· Inspection while rotating the ball 360°

For most engineering steels, the maximum material permeability ranges from 0.06 to 0.25 T/A · m-1 (500 to 2000 G/Oe) or more.

If the hysteresis loop is slender, the indication usually means that the material has low retentivity (low residual field) and is easy
to magnetize (has low reluctance). A wide loop indicates that the material has high reluctance and is difficult to magnetize.

If high in coercive force, wet particles become strongly magnetized and form an objectionable background
Highly retentive wet particles tend to clump together quickly in large aggregates on the test surface

Large, heavy particles are not likely to be arrested and held by weak fields when such particles are moving over a part surface, but
fine particles will be held by very weak fields. However, extremely fine particles may also adhere to surface areas where there are
no discontinuities (especially if the surface is rough) and form confusing backgrounds. Coarse dry particles fall too fast and are
likely to bounce off the part surface without being attracted by the weak leakage fields at imperfections. Finer particles can adhere
to fingerprints, rough surfaces, and soiled or damp areas,
thus obscuring indications.

When such a suspension is applied over a surface, the liquid drains away, and the film remaining on the surface becomes thinner.
Coarse particles would quickly become stranded and immobilized. The stranding of finer particles as a result of the draining away
of the liquid occurs much later, giving these particles mobility for a sufficient period of time to be attracted by leakage fields and
to accumulate and thus form true indications.

The greatest sensitivity for the formation of strong indications is provided by a blend of elongated and globular shapes.

The natural colour of the metallic powders used in the dry method is silver-grey, but pigments are used to colour the particles.
The colours of particles for the wet method are limited to the black and red of the iron oxides commonly used as the base for wet
particles

Wet particles are better than dry particles for detecting very fine surface discontinuities regardless of which form of
magnetizing current is used
Red particles are more visible than black or grey particles against silvery and polished surfaces

Dry particles are available with yellow, red, black, and grey pigmented colouring and with fluorescent coatings
Dry particles are most sensitive for use on very rough surfaces and for detecting flaws beneath the surface
Powder that is forcibly applied is not free to be attracted by leakage fields
Wet particles are available in red and black colours or as fluorescent particles that fluoresce a blue-green or a bright
yellow-green colour
Fine indications may be missed entirely with a weak bath. Too heavy a concentration of particles gives a confusing background
and excessive adherence of particles at external poles, thus interfering with clean-cut indications of extremely fine discontinuities

settling test. In this test, 100 mL (3.4 oz.) of well-agitated bath is placed in a pear-shaped centrifuge tube. The volume of solid
material that settles out after a predetermined interval (usually 30 min) is read on the graduated cylindrical part of the tube. Dirt
in the bath will also settle and usually shows as a separate layer on top of the oxide. The layer of dirt is usually easily discernible
because it is different in colour from the magnetic particles.

a band in the long-wave ultraviolet spectrum is used for fluorescent liquid penetrant or magnetic particle inspection.

The fluorescent materials used in liquid penetrant and magnetic particle inspection are combinations of elements chosen to
absorb light in the peak energy band of the mercury-arc lamp fitted with a Kopp glass filter. This peak occurs at about 365 nm
(3650 Å).
In contrast to the harmful ultraviolet light of shorter wavelengths, which damages organs such as the eyes and the
skin, the black light of 365 nm (3650 Å) wavelengths poses no such hazards to the operator and provides visible evidence of defects
in materials

Meters have been developed that measure the overall intensity of long-wave ultraviolet light only in a band between 300 to 400
nm (3000 to 4000 Å) and that are most sensitive near the peak energy band of the mercury-arc lamp used for fluorescent
inspection. These meters read the intensity level in microwatts per square centimetre (μW/cm2). For aircraft-quality fluorescent
inspection, the minimum intensity level of ultraviolet illumination is 1000 μW/cm2. High-intensity 125-W ultraviolet bulbs are
available that provide up to 5000 W/cm2 at 380 mm (15 in.).

An indication is an accumulation of magnetic particles on the surface of the part that forms during inspection.

Relevant indications are the result of errors made during or after metal processing. They may or may not be
considered defects.

A non-relevant indication is one that is caused by flux leakage. This type of indication is usually weak and has no
relation to a discontinuity that is considered to be a defect. Examples are magnetic writing, change in section due to part design,
or a heat affected zone line in welding.

False indications are those in which the particle patterns are held by gravity or surface roughness. No magnetic
attraction is involved.

A discontinuity is any interruption in the normal physical configuration or composition of a part. It may not be a defect.

A defect is any discontinuity that interferes with the utility or service of a part.

Interpretation consists of determining the probable cause of an indication, and assigning it a discontinuity name or
label.

Evaluation involves determining whether an indication will be detrimental to the service of a part. It is a judgement
based on a well-defined accept/reject standard that may be either written or verbal.

Surface cracks or discontinuities are effectively located with magnetic particles

Magnetic particle inspection is capable of locating seams, laps, quenching and grinding cracks, and surface ruptures in
castings, forgings, and weldments. The method will also detect surface fatigue cracks developed during service.

A surface scratch, which may be as wide at the surface as it is deep, usually does not produce a magnetic particle pattern, although
it may do so at high levels of magnetization

but in general a surface discontinuity whose depth is at least five times its opening at the surface will be detectable

Magnetic writing is usually associated with parts displaying good residual characteristics in the magnetized state. If such a part is
contacted with a sharp edge of another (preferably magnetically soft) part, the residual field is locally reoriented, giving rise to a
leakage field and consequently a magnetic particle indication

With alternating current at lower frequencies, the skin effect is less pronounced, resulting in deeper penetration of the lines of
force.
The strength of magnetization, which is determined by the value of the peak current at the top of the sine wave of the
cycle, is 1.41 times that of the current indicated on the meter

The hardness of the test piece also had an effect on the current level needed to produce indications

For the inspection of finished parts such as machined and ground shafts, cams, and gears of precision machinery, direct current is
frequently used. Alternating current is used for detecting fine cracks that actually break the surface, but direct current is better
for locating very fine non-metallic stringers lying just beneath the surface.

Residual Method is reliable only for detecting surface discontinuities

when magnetizing by passing current directly through a part, the current should range from 12 to 31 A/mm (300 to 800 A/in.) of
the diameter of the part.
(800 A/in.) used to inspect for inclusions or to inspect alloys such as precipitation-hardened steels

Oil well tubing is made of high-strength steel using hot finishing operations and has upset ends for special threading. The
discontinuities most expected are longitudinally oriented on the main body of the tube and transversely oriented on the upset
ends. For these reasons, the entire length of the tube is circularly magnetized and inspected for longitudinal-type discontinuities.
Also, the upset ends are longitudinally magnetized and inspected for transverse-type discontinuities. Tube sections are usually
more than 6 m (20 ft) long.

The central-conductor technique used for circumferential magnetization of the tube body. The magnetic particles are applied to
the outside surface of the tube. The residual-magnetism technique is used. The current density for this test is usually 31 to 39
A/mm (800 to 1000 A/in.) of tube diameter.
The encircling-coil technique used to magnetize the upset ends in the longitudinal direction. The residual-magnetism technique is
used. Both the inside and outside surfaces are inspected for discontinuities.

Welds in Carbon Steel Pipe. Magnetic particle inspection using the prod technique is a reliable method of detecting discontinuities
in consumable-insert root welds and final welds in carbon steel pipe up to 75 mm (3 in.) in nominal diameter. (For larger-diameter
pipe, less time-consuming magnetic particle techniques can be used.)

Castings and Forgings -High-amperage power supplies, in conjunction with flexible cable used with clamps (as contact heads),
central conductors, or wrapping, can effectively reduce inspection time because relatively large areas can be inspected with each
processing cycle.

Crane hooks are generally magnetic particle inspected with electromagnetic yokes having flexible legs. Power supplies are 115-V,
60-Hz alternating current and half-wave current. Stress areas in a crane hook are:
· The bight (in tension) on both sides and in the throat
· The area below the shank (in compression and tension) on four sides
· The shank (in tension), mainly in threads and fillet

Reason for Demagnetizing

· The part will be used in an area where a residual magnetic field will interfere with the operation of instruments that are sensitive
to magnetic fields or may affect the accuracy of instrumentation incorporated in an assembly that contains the magnetized part
· During subsequent machining, chips may adhere to the surface being machined and adversely affect surface finish, dimensions,
and tool life
· During cleaning operations, chips may adhere to the surface and interfere with subsequent operations such as painting or plating
· Abrasive particles may be attracted to magnetized parts such as bearing surfaces, bearing raceways, or gear teeth, resulting in
abrasion or galling, or may obstruct oil holes and grooves
· During some electric arc-welding operations, strong residual magnetic fields may deflect the arc away from the point at which it
should be applied
· A residual magnetic field in a part may interfere with remagnetization of the part at a field intensity too low to overcome the
Remanent field in the part

Two fields in different directions cannot exist in the same part at the same time. If the two fields (longitudinal and circular) are
applied simultaneously, a field will be established that is a vector combination of the two in both strength and direction. However,
if the fields are impressed successively, the last field applied, if it is strong enough to establish itself in the part, will destroy the
Remanent field from the previous magnetization. If the magnetizing force last applied does not equal or exceed the preceding
one, the latter may remain as the dominant field.
Small parts should not be loaded into baskets and the baskets passed through the coil as a unit, because alternating
current will not penetrate into such a mass of parts and because only a few parts on the outside edges will be demagnetized (and
these possibly only partially demagnetized). Small parts can be demagnetized in multiple lots only if they are placed in a single
layer on a tray that holds them apart and in a fixed position with their long axes parallel to the axis of the coil.

Large parts are not effectively demagnetized with 60-Hz alternating current, because of its inability to penetrate.
Alternating current with 25-Hz frequency is more effective.

Passing the current through the part is more effective on long, circularly magnetized parts than the coil method, but does not
overcome the lack of penetration because of the skin effect, unless frequencies much lower than 60 Hz are used. High field
strength ac demagnetizing coils are available with power factor correction, resulting in lower line current.

By using reversing and decreasing direct current, low frequency reversals are possible, resulting in more complete penetration of
even large cross sections. A commonly used frequency is one reversal per second. It is a successful means of removing circular
magnetic fields, especially when the current is passed directly through the part and can be used to demagnetize large parts. When
a part in a coil is demagnetized using direct current at one reversal per second, the part remains in the coil for the duration of the
entire cycle.

Oscillating circuits are a means of obtaining a reversing decaying current for demagnetizing purposes. By connecting a large
capacitance of the correct value across the demagnetizing coil, the coil becomes part of an oscillatory circuit. The coil is energized
with direct current; when the source of current is cut off, the resonant resistance-inductance-capacitance circuit oscillates at its
own resonant frequency, and the current gradually diminishes to zero.

Yokes, either direct or alternating current, provide a portable means for demagnetizing parts. The space between the
poles of the yoke should be such that the parts to be demagnetized will pass between them as snugly as possible. With
alternating current flowing in the coil of the yoke, parts are passed between the poles and withdrawn. Yokes can be used
on large parts for local demagnetization by placing the poles on the surface, moving them around the area, and then
withdrawing the yoke while it is still energized. Yokes using low-frequency reversing direct current, instead of alternating current,
are more effective in penetrating larger cross sections.

Coatings thicker than 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) should always be removed