EARTH SCIENCE Nuclear Fission- Split

What is Earth Science? • Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse

hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in
It is the study of our Earth, its life-
their
supporting properties, materials and
geologic processes occurring in its layers cores; outward pressure resulting from
and all the important natural changes in its nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational
over-all environment. forces
Geomorphic processes, could be endogenic • Light years - the distance light can travel
or exogenic. in a year; a unit of length used to measure
astronomical distance
SOME FIELDS RELATED TO EARTH
SCIENCE WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
STUDYING EARTH SCIENCE?
• Geology(“Geo” meaning Earth, “Logos”
meaning study) – the study of the materials  Develop an understanding of the earth’s
and processes that operate beneath and upon structure, composition and natural processes
the earth’s surface. significant to ones environment
• Oceanography – the study of the  Recognize and appreciate the importance of
composition and movements of seawater as sunlight, resources, minerals and
well as coastal processes, seafloor atmospheric conditions favoring the
topography and marine life existence and growth in one’s current
• Meteorology – the study of the environment
atmosphere and the elements that produce  Learn the natural hazards brought by
weather and climate. earthquakes, volcanoes, floods and typhoons
• Astronomy – the study of the universe, that enable us to prepare for the dangers to
our planet’s origin, and the members of the our lives and properties
solar system.  Improve standard of living
• Cosmology – the science of the origin and
development of the universe. Modern STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND
astronomy is dominated by the Big Bang AGE
theory, which brings together observational It comprises all space and time, and all
astronomy and particle physics. matter & energy in it.
- an account or theory of the origin of the • It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter, 24%
universe. cold dark matter, and 71.4% dark energy
UNLOCKING OF TERMS (a source of antigravity)
• Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter • Hydrogen, helium, and oxygen are the
consisting of protons, electrons, and three most abundant elements.
neutrons that comprises atoms, planets,  Stars - the building block of galaxies born
stars, galaxies, and other bodies out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies
• Dark matter - matter that has gravity but Instabilities within the clouds eventually
does not emit light. results into gravitational collapse, rotation,
heating up, and transformation to a
• Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a protostar-the core of a future star as
force that counteracts gravity and causes the thermonuclear reactions set in.
universe to expand.  Stellar interiors are like furnaces where
elements are synthesized or combined/fused
• Protostar- an early stage in the formation together. Most stars such as the Sun belong
of a star resulting from the gravitational to the so- called “main sequence stars.” In
collapse of gases. the cores of such stars, hydrogen
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and
• Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In
fusion reaction responsible for the energy between the clusters is practically an empty
produced by stars. space. This organization of matter in the
Nuclear Fusion- Combine universe suggests that it is indeed clumpy at
 a certain scale. But at a large scale, it - The Morningstar is Venus.
appears homogeneous. - Uniform circular motion
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 - Geo-centric meaning Earth-centered.
billion years old. The diameter of the RETROGRADE MOTION
universe is possibly infinite but should be at
- Different motion from what is believed to
least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year =
be.
9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is 4.5 x 10-
31 g/cm3.
Diameter
- 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 THREE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
× 1012 km). a. Rotation
Density b. Revolution
- 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3. c. Precession(Wobbling Motion)(every 26000
*Nucleosynthesize means to form. years)
INTERPRETATION *The moon rotates if seen farther away.
- The galaxies are less dense than water and *The retrograde motion cannot be explained
so it can float on water. by the Geocentric Model.
CLASSICAL ASTRONOMY
•Plato and Aristotle were the two greatest ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
philosophers that shaped the history of A. THE CREATIONIST THEORY
astronomy. •This is also known as the Biblical
•Main method used in investigating – theory(needs to be proven) of the origin of
reasoning from first principles. the universe
FIRST PRINCIPLE •God, the Supreme Being created the whole
- They can just reason out universe in 6 days out of nothing
- If possibly true, it is already considered true. •The proof can be read in the Holy Bible
- Based on observations only.
*People back then did not believe that the *Everything started with Oral Traditions.
Earth moved until Galileo Galilei. *Under the influence of the Holy Spirit.
*Anything observed is considered to be true. *Supreme being.
• Has three important ideas
B. THE BIG BANG THEORY
THREE IMPORTANT IDEAS OF THE  Started from the ideas of Belgian priest of
FIRST PRINCIPLE Georges Henri Lemaitre
1. The Earth was located at the center  The universe started as a single point, it
(geocentric) and that everything in the stretched and expanded up until now
heavens moved in uniform circular motion. (happened 13.8 billion years ago)
They did not see the shifting of the shifting
 The universe sprang into existence as a
of the stars called parallax.
“singularity”
2. Observed that the motion of the planets did
not fit the theory well because of the
retrograde motion of the planets.
3. Claudius Ptolemy explained the motion of
planets mathematically by devising a small What is a Singularity?
circle called epicycle rotating along the edge - A point at which a function takes an infinite
of a larger circled called the deferent. The value, especially in space-time when matter
speedof the planets vary slightly. is infinitely dense.
PLANET
- Came from the word “Planetis” meaning
 The universe originated in an explosive act
“wanderer.”
of a primeval atom or the “Cosmic Egg.”
- 7 planets back then including the sun and
 The universe came from a hot state and as a
moon.
proof traces of cosmic rays are present.
- Stars twinkle, planets do no.
 What are a Cosmic Rays? EVIDENCE OF UNIVERSE EXPANSION
- Are showers of high energy particles occur 1. Hubble’s Observations of Redshift, tells us
when energetic cosmic rays strike the top of that most galaxies and stars are moving
the Earth’s Atmosphere. apart.
2. Temperature Measurements of Cosmic
Microwave Background(CMB) Radiation
BIG BANG are as the predicted by the Big Bang Theory.
- Came from something full of energy. 3. The darkness of the Night Sky tells us there
- Matter when heated expands. must be galaxies whose light has still to
reach us. So they cannot be infinitely old.
TIMELINE
HUBBLE’S LAW
- The speed of motion stars or planets is
directly proportional to their distance.
- The objects are moving fast from afar.
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
- The farther the objects are, the more the area
it appears to cover.

Oscillating Universe Theory

- The Oscillating Universe Theory simplified,
is that the universe will continue expanding
Trend of the timeline and contracting forever.
- The temperature is gradually cooling. - Richard Tolman from Massachusetts
created Oscillating Universe Theory in the
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE 1920's.
- American astronomer Edwin Hubble - The Oscillating Universe theory is the best
showed that the universe is expanding in of both worlds, it states that the universe
1930. keeps expanding and contracting, so that it
- The universe after the Big Bang was filled will never explode, or implode.
with intense, high energy radiation that *This theory was created after Big Bang
extends in all directions. Theory and The Crunch Theory.
- The universe expands slowly in a Doppler The Steady State Theory
red shift in the light we receive. - Scientists first thought the universe was
- The expansion is caused by the mysterious static(at rest) and the appearance never
force known as the Dark energy. changed.
- The creators of this theory were Thomas
WHAT IS DOPPLER RED SHIFT? Gold, Fred Hoyle, and Hermann Domdi.
- The light from distant stars and more distant - In this theory, galaxies are not moving away
galaxies is not featureless, but has distinct from one another.
spectral features characteristic of the atoms - New stars are made from energy in the
in the gases around the stars. When these center of galaxies.
spectra are examined, they are found to be
shifted toward the red end of the spectrum. MILKY WAY GALAXY
This shift is apparently a Doppler shift and - is a spiral galaxy.
indicates that essentially all of the galaxies - Constellations look the same.
are moving away from us. Using the results - Even thought it is expanding but its
from the nearer ones, it becomes evident that appearance never changes.
the more distant galaxies are moving away - No beginning, no end.
from us faster. This is the kind of result one
would expect for an expanding universe.

WHAT IS DOPPLER EFFECT?

- Change in frequency or wavelength in
relation to an observer who is moving.
 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM JOHANNES KEPLER’S IDEAS
• Adopted the Copernican model
A. Nebular Hypothesis • Discovered that the orbit of Mars is not a
B. Two Star Hypothesis circle but slightly elongated ellipse
C. Big Bang Theory • Planets do not move at uniform speeds
• Planets move faster when closer to the sun
(perihelion) and slower when farther away
PLANETISIMAL VS. PROTOPLANET (aphelion)
a. Planetesimal • Formulated the 3 Laws of Planetary
– solid bits of matter – metal, rock, ice, that Motion
will eventually make planets.
APOGEE
b. Protoplanet - Farther from the moon.
– the massive objects destined to become PERIGEE
planets made from the coalescing - Nearest to the moon.
Planetesimal. PERIHELION
*planetesimal coming together. - Near the sun.
APHELION
- Far from the sun.
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS’S IDEAS
- Proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered) KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY
model of the universe. MOTION
- Suggested the moon(first I. The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the
planet)(Geocentric). sun at one focus.
- He proposed that the Earth rotates on its axisII. A line from a planet to the sun sweeps over
and revolves around the sun. equal areas in equal intervals of time.
- This solved the problem as to the place of
the earth in the system.
- However, the model is inaccurate because
the planets don’t follow circular orbits and
uniform circular motion.

HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
- In 1543, Copernicus proposed that: III. A planet’s orbital period squared is
proportional to its average distance from the
o The sun, not the Earth, is the center of the
sun cubed.
solar system.
- Such a model is called a heliocentric system.
- Ordering of planets known to Copernicus in
this new system is illustrated in the figure.
- Represents modern ordering of planets.

TYCHO BRAHE’S IDEAS

• Rejected the Copernican hypothesis and
the Ptolemaic model.
• Earth is immobile and is the center of the GALILEO GALILEI
system.
• The moon and the sun revolves around the
Earth while the other planets revolve around
the sun.
• All motion was along circular paths.
• He successfully mapped the position of
stars.
WHAT ABOUT NEWTON’S
CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOTION
OF PLANETS?

TWO CONCEPTIONS OF EARTH’S

HISTORY: Catastrophism
• Assumption: Great Effects Require Great
Causes
• Earth History Dominated by Violent
Events
Uniformitarianism
• Assumption: We Can Use Cause And
Effect to Determine Causes of Past Events
• Finding: Earth History Dominated by
Small-scale Events Typical of the Present. HOW WERE PLANETS FORMED?
• Catastrophes Do Happen But Are • Solar Nebula Disk starts condensation
Uncommon • Formation of planetisimal – an aggregate
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS of solid bits of matter (metal, rock, ice). The
• This theory was proposed by French planetisimal grows by a process called
astronomer Marquis de Laplace accretion or by gravitational collapse (rapid
• The solar system evolve from a slowly accumulation of gas)
rotating gaseous cloud (nebula) • Planetisimals coalesce to form massive
• Cooled and contracted and rotated faster objects called protoplanets
and faster causing the gas to take a disk-like • Protoplanets undergoes differentiation –
form separation of material according to density.
• At high speeds, gravity could no longer This is caused by heat from short-live
hold the outer material and broke into ring radioactive elements
• The ejected material condensed and • The resulting planet has a metallic core and
formed the planets. low density crust
*FOG THEORY • Outgassing – the release of gas from the
planet’s interior resulting to the planet’s
atmosphere.

1. CONDENSATION,
2. ACCRETION/GRAVITATIONAL
COLLAPSE
3. DIFFERENTIATION
4. OUTGASSING
TWO STAR HYPOTHESIS / CAPTURE 2. Orbits of the planets are elliptical
THEORY and are on the same plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
• One star passed by a protostar of lesser 4. The periods of revolution of the
mass planets increase with increasing
• Attraction between the two star pulling distance from the Sun; the innermost
each other due to planet moves fastest, the outermost,
the slowest;
gravity 5. All planets are located at regular
intervals from the Sun.
• This attraction flattened the stars
CHARACTERISTICS
• The flattened protostar disintegrated and 1. Mass
broke into pieces - Much of the mass of the Solar
System is concentrated at the
• The pieces contracted into discs of center(Sun).
different sizes and cooled to form the planets 2. Orbits
- Orbits of the planets are elliptical
• The moons are captured asteroids and are on the same plane.
3. Revolution
- All planets revolve around the sun.
- The periods of revolution of the
planets increase with increasing
PLANETESIMAL THEORY distance from the sun; the innermost
being the fastest, and the outermost;
• By Thomas Chrowder Chamberlain and the slowest.
Forest Ray Moulton - All planets are located at regular
intervals from the sun.
• A passing star caused the sun to eject
filaments of material that condensed into Small Scale Features
planetesimals from which planets form by 1. Most planets rotate prograde
accretion 2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of
materials with high melting points
• The oceans and the atmosphere were such as silicates, iron , and nickel.
formed by volcanic eruptions They rotate slower, have thin or no
atmosphere, higher densities, and
Planet Earth – Could There be Life? lower contents of volatiles -
- Between Mars and Jupiter there is a hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.
large number of rocks orbiting the 3. The outer four planets - Jupiter,
sun. Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
- Each rock is known as an asteroid. called "gas giants" because of the
- The ring of rocks is called the dominance of gases and their larger
Asteroid Belt. size. They rotate faster, have thick
- Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are atmosphere, lower densities, and
the inner planets and are also known fluid interiors rich in hydrogen,
as Terrestrial planets. helium and ices (water, ammonia,
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto are methane).
outer planets and are also known as
Jovian or gas giants.
- Pluto is a big ball of ice. Galactic Neighborhood
- Galactic environment impacts
The Solar System habitability.
Large Scale Characteristics - Milky Way galaxy’s edge is a life-
1. Much of the mass of the Solar favorable spot.
System is concentrated at the center - Not near active gamma ray source.
(Sun) - Not near galactic center with high
star density and ionizing radiation.
 - Loneliness in galaxy is helpful for - HZ range should not vary over time
life. o Stars increase luminosity as
they age
Spectral Class of Star Needed for Life: o If this happens too quickly
- Spectral class indicates photospheric (super-massive star), planets
temperature are only in window for life
o 4000K to 7000K for short amount of time
- Emit high-frequency UV radiation to o Lowers time to develop life
trigger atmospheric ozone formation - Stars increase luminosity as they age.
- Emits not so much that ionization - If this happens too quickly(super-
destroys life massive star), planets are only in
window for life in a short amount of
Spectral Class of “Sun” time.
- Earth rotates around the star, the - Lowers time to develop life.
“Sun.” - Theorized that HZ can move.
- Sun - Mars might be habitable.
o G2 V star
o ~6,000K
Is Earth Located in Habitable Zone?
- Yes!
- Earth is located within the expected
shell of distance in which liquid
water can be on the surface of the
planet!
- Pictures of the planet show liquid
water covering a large portion of the
Earth’s surface!
- The relative position of Earth
appears capable of supporting life…
- Sun is in “Habstar” range! so let’s look at the planet itself!
- Ozone can form in atmosphere.
- Ionization is not deadly for life. Planet Characteristics that Support Life
*Blue Flame(non-luminous) - Terrestrial
- less visible. o Silicate rocks
*Main Sequence Stars o Rocks not accreted to
- 4000-7000K. gaseous outer layers
Low Stellar Variation? - Gas Giants = no life
- All stars change luminosity o No surface
- Stars vary in stability… stars that o Enormous Gravity
fluctuate luminosity violently are o Satellites are good candidates
poor candidates for hosting life
Composition of Earth?
SUN - Earth is a terrestrial planet, not a gas
- Is relatively stable giant
o Star variation is
approximately .1% over an Mass of Planets need to be Just Right for
11-year cycle. Life
o Slight variations dramatically - Low Mass
impact Earth. - Bad news for life
- Can burn its Hydrogen for 10 billion - Lesser gravity – difficult for
years. atmosphere retention
- AGE: 4.8 Billion Years old - Smaller planets lose energy from
formation quickly geologically dead
Habitable Zone - Approximately 0.3 Earth masses
- Theoretical shell around a star where needed to sustain life
any planet present would have liquid
water on its surface
Mass of Earth o Argon (.93%)
- High Mass o Carbon Dioxide (.0390%)
o Earth is largest by mass and - This composition could support life
density of terrestrial bodies in - Atmosphere absorbs/reflects harmful
the Solar System radiation
o Large enough for molten core o Visible and Radio reach
(heat engine) surface
o Large enough for atmosphere - Reflect of Radiation
through gravity o Presence of life(Albedo
o Large enough for liquid outer Effect)
core and metal inner core
(magnetic field) Composition of Planets
- Four elements vital for life
- Can hold its atmosphere o Carbon
- Protected from Solar Flare(Magnetic o Hydrogen
Field) o Oxygen
- Last reversal of the poles was o Nitrogen
780,000 years ago.
Earth’s Composition?
Magnetic Fields and Life - Element oxygen alone found in
- Planets need protection from solar Earth’s crust…
wind - However, other life elements are
- Solar wind- stream of charged found in atmosphere and water
particles from stars consisting of - Make amino acids (building blocks
electrons and protons of protein)
- Planet must have molten metal - Comets(gave us H2O) and
interior outgassing from volcanoes brought
these elements
IF THE POLES SHIFT: - Life can be seen on the crust,
- Magnetic field is not complete atmosphere and water.
- Harmful radiation can penetrate
- Organisms that rely on direction Tectonic Activity of Planet
might get confused. - Supply surface with life-sustaining
- material
Does Earth have a Magnetic Field? - Supply atmosphere with temperature
- Yes! moderators (CO2)
- Earth has solid metal core with liquid - Recycles important
outer core, causing magnetic field chemicals/materials
- Protects the Earth from solar wind - Earth is tectonically active!!
and solar flares.
PHOSPHORUS
Atmosphere and Life - Spontaneous combustion
- Atmosphere – layer of gases that - CO2 acts as a temperature
surround a material body of moderator.
sufficient mass *Lessen the emission.
- Held by gravity
- Helps regulate temperature Life-Supporting Orbits
- Protects planet from meteors and - Stability is critical
radiation - Eccentricity
- Composition favors life (oxygen and o Greater (ellipse)e, greater
carbon dioxide) temperature fluctuation
o Living organisms can only
Does Earth have an Atmosphere? withstand certain fluctuations
- Yes! o Is the deviation from a
- Earth’s atmosphere is made up of circular path.
o Nitrogen (78%)
o Oxygen (20.9%)
Is Earth’s Orbit Suitable?
- Yes! THE EARTH SYSTEM
- Earth’s Orbit
o Almost circular  “Earth is a complex system of
o E < .02 interacting physical, chemical and
biological processes running since
Life-Supporting Rotation the beginning of time.”
- Rotation around axis at tilt  as a set of interconnected
o Planet should have moderate components that are interacting to
seasons or biospheric form a unified whole.
dynamism will disappear
o Without tilt, planet would be Earth As A Closed System
colder (warm weather could
not move poleward)
o Should not be radically tilted
because seasons would be
extreme
- Speed of Rotation
o Should be relatively quick so
day-night cycle is not too
long
- Inertia is the tendency of an object to
resist change. Closed system: exchange of energy but
- Inertia & Gravity, but gravity is negligible exchange of mass with
greater. surroundings.
Earth’s Rotation? Earth System Science
- Earth’s tilt varies between 21.5 and  Earth is a dynamic body
24.5 degrees every 41,000 years
 with many separate, but
- Day is only 24 hours
 highly interacting parts or
- Moon plays crucial role
 spheres.
o Moderates Earth’s climate by
stabilizing axial tilt  Earth system science
 studies Earth as a system
Earth COULD have life!  composed of numerous
- Galactic Neighborhood  parts, or subsystems.
o Arm of Milky Way galaxy
- Star
o Spectral class G2 The Earth’s Four Spheres
o Low stellar variation
- Distance from Star
o Earth is located in Habitable
Zone
o Liquid Water
- Composition/Size
o Terrestrial planet, relative
high mass
o Magnetic Field
o Atmosphere
- Orbit
o Nearly circular
- Rotation
o Tilt allows seasons
o Short night/day
The Earth is a system consisting of four and oxygen (about 21%). Other(1%)
major interacting components: components exist in small quantities.

Geosphere: • consists of a mixture of gases

comprises the solid Earth and includes both composed primarily of nitrogen,
Earth’s surface and the various layers of the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
Earth's interior. vapor

Atmosphere: THE TROPOSPHERE(0-10km)

gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth - constitutes the climate system that
and constitutes the transition between and maintains the conditions suitable for
the vacuum of space life on the planet’s surface.
THE STRATOSPHERE(10-50km)
Hydrosphere: - contains ozone that protects life on
includes all water on Earth (including the planet by filtering harmful
surface water and groundwater) ultraviolet from the sun.
THE MESOSPHERE,
Biosphere: THERMOSPHERE AND EXOSPHERE
the life zone of the Earth and includes all are zones of diffuse atmospheric
living organisms, and all organic matter that components in the far reaches of the
has not yet decomposed. atmosphere.

Overlapping Cycles in the Earth System

The Atmosphere Atmosphere: Interactions with

The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, other Earth System components
which we call the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere consists of four Hydrosphere:
unique layers (the troposphere, the The gases of the atmosphere readily
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the exchange with those dissolved in water
thermosphere). bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.)
1. TROPOSPHERE- weather and Biosphere:
clouds. The atmosphere supplies oxygen and carbon
2. STRATOSPHERE- the most stable, dioxide that form the basis of life processes
planes, and the ozone layer. (photosynthesis and respiration).
3. MESOSPHERE- where meteorites Geosphere:
burn, auroras are seen
4. THERMOSPHERE- hottest layer Gases in the atmosphere react with water to
5. IONOSPHERE- satellites produce weak acids that aid in the
6. EXOSPHERE- outermost breakdown of rock.

• The atmosphere reaches over 560 System Interactions

kilometers (348 miles) up from the - Hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep
surface of the Earth. across the ocean (hydrosphere) and
• The atmosphere is primarily onto the land (geosphere), damaging
composed of nitrogen (about 78%) the dwellings of people (biosphere)
who live along the coast.
 • Water found on the surface of our
planet includes the ocean as well as
The Biosphere water from lakes and rivers, streams,
- The biosphere is the “life zone” of and creeks.
the Earth, and includes all living • Water found under the surface of
organisms (including humans), and our planet includes water trapped in
all organic matter that has not yet the soil and groundwater.
decomposed. • Water found in our atmosphere
• The biosphere is structured into a includes water vapor.
hierarchy known as the food chain • Frozen water on our planet includes
(all life is dependant on the first tier ice caps and glaciers.
– mainly the primary producers that
• Only about 3% of the water on Earth
are capable of photosynthesis).
is “fresh” water, and about 70% of
• Energy and mass is transferred from the fresh water is frozen in the form
one level of the food chain to the of glacial ice.
next.
Subcomponents of hydrosphere are
10% Rule for Energy: connected via the hydrologic cycle

Biosphere: Interactions with other Earth

System components Hydrosphere: Interactions with other
Earth System components
Atmosphere:
Atmosphere:
Water is transferred between the
Life processes involve a many chemical
hydrosphere and biosphere by evaporation
reactions which either extract or emit gases
and precipitation. Energy is also exchanged
to and from the atmosphere (e.g.
in this process.
photosynthesis consumes carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen, whereas respiration Biosphere:
does the opposite). Water is necessary for the transport of
Hydrosphere: nutrients and waste products in organisms.
Evaporation of water from leaf surfaces Geosphere:
(transpiration) transfers water to the Water is the primary agent for the chemical
atmosphere. and mechanical breakdown of rock
Geosphere: (weathering), to form loose rock fragments
and soil, and sculpts the surface of the Earth.
The biosphere is connected to the geosphere
through soils (mixtures of air, mineral
matter, organic matter, and water). Plant
activity (e.g. root growth and organic acid
Geosphere
production) are also for the mechanical and The geosphere is the solid Earth that
chemical breakdown of the rocks. includes the continental and ocean crust as
well the various layers of Earth’s interior.
• 94% of the Earth is composed of the
Hydrosphere elements oxygen, silicon, and
The hydrosphere contains all the water magnesium.
found on our planet.
 • The geopsphere is not static Where Do Humans Fit In ?
(unchanging), but its surface (crust) As components of the biosphere, humans are
is in a constant state of motion. temporary receptacles of the matter and
• Mineral resources are mined from energy that flows through the Earth System
the geosphere. “You are what you eat, drink, and breathe”
Human health is, to some degree, a function
of how this flow of matter and energy flows
through, and interacts with, the human body
In many cases, problems of human health
are fundamentally linked to the natural
distribution of Earth materials.

The Bottom Line

- Considerations on how processes
within the Earth System interact are
extremely important in the
understanding of the real world.
Geosphere: Interactions with other Earth - Understanding physical and chemical
System components processes in the Earth System is as
important as understanding
biological entities in terms of
Atmosphere: understanding biological systems (all
volcanism spews significant amounts of are connected).
gases into the atmosphere. For example,
volcanoes inject large amounts of sulphur
dioxide to the upper atmosphere, resulting in
global cooling.
Minerals: Physical
Hydrosphere: Properties and Crystal
The formation of many minerals involve
incorporation or release of water. Also, Forms
water speeds up chemical reactions that
produce or destroy minerals, and aids in the Physical properties of minerals
melting of rock. • Based on the principles, minerals are
Biosphere: composed of atoms, arranged in a
Nutrients released from rocks during their specific order, with a well defined
breakdown are dissolved in water (to be chemical composition.
used by aquatic plants). • Minerals are inorganic(no carbon),
naturally occurring solid(cannot be
System Interactions manmade) that has a definite
chemical composition and atomic
1. Volcanoes (geosphere) erupt,
structure
sending ash and gases into the air
(atmosphere) and sending lava and
ash down onto surrounding forests The Physical Properties of Minerals
(biosphere) and human habitations • Color
(biosphere). • Streak
2. Earthquakes (geosphere) can damage • Luster
buildings which may kill people
(biosphere), as well as cause fires • Hardness
which release gases into the air • External Crystal Form
(atmosphere). Earthquakes in the • Cleavage
ocean may cause a tsunami • Fracture
(hydrosphere) which can eventually • Specific Gravity
hit land and kill both animals and
• Other Properties
people (biosphere).
• Chemical Tests
 Polymorphism(difference in structure
Important Physical Properties I and ability to exist in different forms) and
polymorphs
1. Luster(How light reflects off) - • Substances having the same
This property describes the chemical composition but different
appearance of reflected light from crystal structures.
the mineral's surface. – e.g. diamond and graphite
• Both minerals are composed of pure
Ex. Pyrite & Quartz carbon, but diamond is the high
pressure polymorph of graphite.
• This gives rise to extremely different
• Luster – it is the quality and
physical properties.
intensity of reflected light exhibited
by the mineral
a. Metallic – generally opaque and
exhibit a resplendent shine similar to
a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy),
adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy),
greasy, etc.

CARBONATE GROUP OF MINERALS

- Calcite
- Dolomite
- Malachite
Diamond vs. Graphite Crystal Structures

2. Hardness(is qualitative) - This is

the resistance of the mineral to
abrasion or scratching. This property
doesn't vary greatly from sample to
sample of the same mineral, and thus
is highly diagnostic. It also is a
direct reflection of the bonding type Hardness: 10 Hardness: 1-2
From: http://www.molecules.org/elements.html#diamond

and internal atomic arrangement.

- A value is obtained by comparing the
mineral to a standard scale devised
by Moh, which is comprised of 10
minerals ranging in hardness from
talc (softest) to diamond (hardest).

Fingernail Hardness (2.5) Scratches Gypsum (2)

PROS OF THE MOHS HARDNESS

SCALE
 • Color - Although an obvious mass/volume; SI units: kg/m3 or kg
feature, it is often unreliable to use to m-3, but geologists often use g/cm3 as
determine the type of mineral. the unit of choice.
• Specific Gravity - Ratio of the mass
– Color arises due to electronic of a substance to the mass of an
transitions, often of trace equal volume of water. Note that
constituents, in the visible rwater = 1 g cm-3. S.G. is unitless.
range of the EM spectrum. • Examples - quartz (SiO2) has a S.G.
For example, quartz is found of 2.65 while galena (PbS) has a S.G.
in a variety of colors. of 7.5 and gold (Au) has a S.G. of
19.3.
*A mineral can be many different colors.
Below is Mica. Color and Density
• Two broad categories are
• Streak - The color of a mineral in ferromagnesian and
its powdered form; obtained by nonferromagnesian silicates, which
rubbing the mineral against an simply means iron and magnesian
unglazed porcelain plate. bearing or not. The presence or
– Streak is usually less variable absence of Fe and Mg strongly
than color. affects the external appearance
(color) and density of the minerals.
– Useful for distinguishing
between minerals with • Ferromagnesian silicates - dark
metallic luster. color, density range from 3.2 - 3.6
g/cc
– Black or white streak plates.
– Olivine - high T, low silica
rocks; comprises over 50%
Gold of upper mantle
- When gold is run across a streak – Pyroxenes - high T, low
plate it makes a yellowish-gold silica rocks
color.
– Amphiboles - esp.
- That makes sense.
hornblende; moderate T,
higher silica rocks
Pyrite or “Fool’s Gold” – Mica - esp. biotite;
- When pyrite is run across a streak moderate T, higher silica
plate, it has a black or dark green rocks
streak. – Garnet - common
- Pyrite is not worth much money, metamorphic mineral
while gold is worth a lot. They look
• Nonferromagnesian silicates -
alike, so miners call it fool’s gold.
light color, density close to 2.7 g/cc
– Mica - exp. muscovite;
Hematite moderate T, higher silica
- Hematite’s color is grey, but its rocks
streak is red. – Feldspars - plagioclase and
- Hema means blood. orthoclase; most common
- The mineral was named hematite mineral in crust; form over a
because it looked like it was bleeding wide range of temperatures
when it was taken across a streak and melt compositions
plate. – Quartz - low T, high silica
rocks; extremely stable at
Density and Specific Gravity surface, hence it tends to be a
major component in
sedimentary rocks.
• Density - Defined as the mass
divided by the volume and normally
designated by the Greek letter, rho =
 – Clay - esp. kaolinite; cleavage planes caused by mineral
different types found in twinning.
different soils • Magnetism - Property of a substance
– such that it will spontaneous orient
• Crystal form or habit - The itself within a magnetic field.
external morphology of crystals Magnetite (Fe3O4) has this property
generally reflect the internal and it can be used to distinguish it
arrangement of their constituent from other non-magnetite iron
atoms. oxides, such as hematite (Fe2O3).
• The external shape of a crystal or • Double Refraction - Seen in calcite
groups of crystals is displayed / crystals. Light is split or refracted
observed as these crystals grow in into two components giving rise to
open spaces. The form reflects the two distinct images.
supposedly internal structure (of • Acid test – minerals containing
atoms and ions) of the crystal carbonates produce a fizz in the
(mineral). It is the natural shape of presence of HCL
the mineral before the development
of any cleavage or fracture.
Examples include prismatic, tabular,
bladed, platy, and equant. A mineral
that do not have a crystal structure is
described as amorphous.

• Cleavage - Orientation and number

of planes of weakness within a
mineral. Directly reflects the
orientation of weak bonds within the
crystal structure. This feature is also
highly diagnostic.

• Fracture - This describes how a

mineral breaks if it is not along well
defined planes. In minerals with low
symmetry and highly interconnected
atomic networks, irregular fracture is
common.

Weak Bonding Yields Planer Cleavage

Special and Other Properties

• Striations - Commonly found on
plagioclase feldspar. Straight,
parallel lines on one or more of the
 • Igneous rocks form as a result of
volcanic activity, hot spots, and
melting that occurs in the mantle.

Igneous Rocks
• Felsic: light colored rocks that are
rich in elements such as aluminum,
potassium, silicon, and sodium
• Mafic: dark colored rocks that are
rich in calcium, iron, and
magnesium, poor in silicon
• Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool,
giving mineral crystals more time to
grow
• Fine-grained: cools quickly with
little to no crystals

Igneous Rocks – Classification

• Dark igneous rocks are formed from
basaltic or mafic magma. (Mafic
because it contains a lot of
magnesium and iron).
• The magma that forms these rocks is
usually very hot (around 1000°C)
and viscous (about the same
viscosity as ketchup.)
• Light colored igneous rocks are
formed from silicic (high silica
content) or felsic magmas.
• The magma that form these rocks is
usually more cool, (lower than
850°C), and more viscous (about the
viscosity of peanut butter.)

Three Types of Rocks Igneous Rocks

• There are 3 types of rocks found on Coarse-Grained: Cooled Fine-Grained: Cooled
slowly, underground quickly, at surface
Earth:
– Igneous
Felsic:
– Sedimentary Light-
colored
– Metamorphic Granite Rhyolite

• Knowing the differences between Mafic:

these 3 types of rocks allows us to Dark-
Colored
learn about Earth’s past.
Gabbro Basalt

IGNEOUS ROCKS • Intrusive Igneous Rocks: magma

Igneous Rocks – Formation pushes into surrounding rock below
• Igneous Rocks are formed by the Earth’s surface, cools slowly
melting, cooling, and with larger crystal formation
crystallization of other rocks. • Extrusive Rocks: forms when
magma erupts onto the Earth’s
 surface (lava), cools quickly with
very small or no crystals formed. SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
• Igneous rocks are classified using
their texture in the following ways:
Sedimentary Rocks – Formation
– Glassy
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by
– Aphanitic (no visible weathering, erosion, deposition,
crystals) compaction, and cementation of
– Phaneritic (visible crystals) other rocks.
– Porphyritic (Some visible and • Sedimentary rocks form in areas
some not visible crystals) where water, wind, or gravity
deposit sediments.
Igneous Rocks – Texture • Sedimentary rocks are likely to form
• Crystal size is used to classify in areas such as:
igneous rocks. • Deltas
• Crystals form as the rock cools, and • Beaches
the crystal size can tell us a lot about • Rivers
its cooling history: • Glaciers
– The larger the crystals, the • Sand dunes
slower it cooled.
• Shallow seas
• Glassy igneous rocks have no crystal
• Deep oceans
structure, and probably formed by
very rapid cooling (such as on the
surface of a lava, or when a lava Sedimentary rocks – Classification
enters the water.) • Sedimentary rocks are classified into
• Aphanitic rocks have no visible two groups:
crystals, and probably formed by fast – Clastic rocks
cooling above ground. – Chemically formed rocks
• Phaneritic rocks have visible
crystals, and probably formed by Sedimentary Rock
slow cooling below ground.
 Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or
• Porphyritic rocks have both visible near the Earth’s surface
and nonvisible crystals, and probably
 No heat and pressure involved
formed by two different cooling
events.  Strata – layers of rock
 Stratification – the process in
which sedimentary rocks are
Igneous Rocks – Examples
arranged in layers
• The most common types of igneous
rocks include:
a. Clastic – made of fragments of rock
– Rhyolite
cemented together
– Andesite - Breccia is a term most often used for
– Basalt clastic sedimentary rocks that are
– Granite composed of large angular fragments
– Diorite (over two millimeters in diameter).
– Gabbro - The spaces between the large angular
fragments can be filled with a matrix
of smaller particles or a mineral
cement that binds the rock together.
b. Chemical sedimentary – minerals
crystallize out of solution to become
rock.
- Limestone is a sedimentary rock
composed primarily of calcium
 carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the
mineral calcite. It most commonly METAMORPHIC
forms in clear, warm, shallow marine
waters.
ROCKS
- It is usually an organic sedimentary Metamorphic rocks – Formation
rock that forms from the • Metamorphic rocks are formed by
accumulation of shell, coral, algal heat and pressure changing one
and fecal debris. type of rock into another type of
rock.
c. Organic sedimentary – remains of • Metamorphic rocks form near lava
plants and animals intrusions, at plate subduction
- Coal is an organic sedimentary rock zones, and in deep mountain roots.
that forms from the accumulation • Lava intrusions can provide heat that
and preservation of plant materials, causes metamorphic rocks to form.
usually in a swamp environment. These small areas of metamorphic
- Coal is a combustible rock and along rock form from contact
with oil and natural gas it is one of metamorphosis.
the three most important fossil fuels. • Rocks that metamorphose because of
increasing heat and pressure found at
• Sedimentary rocks are Clastic if they plate subduction zones and in deep
are made of pieces of other rocks that mountain roots form large areas of
have been weathered and eroded. metamorphic rock through regional
• Clastic rocks are grouped based on metamorphosis.
the size of grain that they are made
from. Metamorphic rocks – Classification
• Very small particles make up • Metamorphic rocks are classified
mudrock. into 2 major groups:
• Medium sized particles make up – Foliated
sandstone. – Nonfoliated
• Large particles make up • Foliated rocks form when
conglomerates. differential pressure causes minerals
• Sedimentary rocks that form from to form in layers.
chemical processes are called • These rocks will have stripes or
biochemical rocks (formed from planes that they will break easily
living things) or Chemical along.
precipitates (formed from lakes or • Contain aligned grains of flat
shallow seas.) minerals

Sedimentary rocks – Examples Metamorphic Rock

- Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock
• Some of the most common types of that has a banded appearance and is
sedimentary rocks include: made up of granular mineral grains.
– Conglomerate - It typically contains abundant quartz
– Sandstone or feldspar minerals.
– Shale - Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
formed in areas where the pressure
– Limestone
from all sides was equal, so there is
– Gypsum no “linear” quality to the rocks.
– Oolites - mineral grains are not arranged in
– Chert (including black flint plains or bands
and red jasper) - Marble is a non-foliated
metamorphic rock that is produced
from the metamorphism of
limestone.
 - It is composed primarily of calcium
carbonate.

Metamorphic rocks - Formations

• Structures and formations seen in
metamorphic rocks include:
– Folding
– Stretching
– Alternating dark and light
layers (gneissic foliation)

Metamorphic rocks - Examples

• Some common types of metamorphic
rock include:
– Slate
– Schist
– Gneiss
– Amphibolite
– Marble
– Quartzite
– Metaconglomerate