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Plotting and
piloting
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Lines of position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to
navigation like churches and lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a
coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer and proved
a milestone in the development of European cartography. This work was called
“Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and included coastal profiles and tidal information
much like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the North
and for example an offshore platform, as seen from our position.
Compass courses True courses

Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a compass
course. This course first needs correction for both variation and - via ship's
heading - deviation before plotting a Line of Position (LOP) in the chart as
a true course.
Our position is somewhere along this line.
Ranges
A precise way to obtain a LOP, and
without a compass, is to locate two aids to navigation in line. The map of Laura
Island on the right shows four examples of ranges, each consisting of two aids
to navigation.
Please, note that:
 More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.

 And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid to navigation
also enhances accuracy.
One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to
provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called range lights or leading lights.
In this case they indicate the approach towards the marina and mark the
channel between the dangerous rocks along a true course of 50° . When
looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one will be
lower . Therefore, in the middle of the channel

both lights will appear vertically above each other.
Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be found
by using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example on the left
shows a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't
overlap.
Position fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the
earth.
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction.
This indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings
taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a
wider sector of for instance 10° .
The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects).
Moreover, bearings on distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our
position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving fast you should not put any
time between the bearings.
The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are
welcome to visit, but mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking
bearings at two light-vessels as their lights appear over the horizon . The
variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our
steering compass for our bearings, we can use the same deviation table.
That means a deviation of -4° with which we can calculate (cc + var + dev =
tc) the true courses.
Construction
 Compass bearing
on Will. N is 72°
 True course is 67°
 Plot LOP with
time & true course
 Compass bearing
on Will. S is 173°
 True course is
168°
 Plot LOP with
time & true course
 Draw an ellipse
where the LOPs intersect
 Notate time and
“Fix” alongside
 Position is 32°
04,2' N , 24° 46,7' E
Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false
suggestion of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors, erroneous identification of an aid
to navigation, sloppy plotting, etc. can and will cause navigation errors.
Therefore, if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be at the worst possible
position (i.e. closest to the navigational hazard).
The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these are
labeled with true courses by default; the “T” is optional. If labeled with the
corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an “M” or “C”,
respectively.
Estimated position
It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To determine
the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use a running fix.
However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine an estimated
position.
An estimated position is based upon
whatever incomplete navigational information is available, such as a single LOP,
a series of depth measurements correlated to charted depths, or a visual
observation of the surroundings.
In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a

single LOP and the ship's dead reckoning position (DR) . This is done by
drawing a line from the DR position at the time of the LOP perpendicular to the
LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead of an ellipse.
Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to

worst:
 Fix
 Running fix
 Estimated position
 DR position
Dead reckoning
Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's approximate position by
applying to the last established charted position a vector or series of vectors
representing true courses and speed. This means that if we have an earlier fix,
we plot from that position our course and “distance travelled since then” and
deduce our current position.
09:30 We start off with a Fix and plot a DR
position for 15 minutes later.
09:45 Our estimation about our speed and course

was correct, so we don't have to charge the
DR position.
10:00 and so on…
S = Speed through water (not over ground)

C = Course through water (not over ground)
T = True course (default)
M = Magnetic course for handheld compass (no
deviation correction)
C = Compass course for steering compass (deviation
correction)
Mark with an arrow, a semi-circle (circular arc) and “DR”.
Dead reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in the future.
Each time a fix or running fix is plotted, a vector representing the ordered
course and speed originate from it. The direction of this course line represents
the ship's course, and thelength represents the distance one would expect the
ship to travel in a given time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution:
a predicted DR position that will place the ship in water 1 metre deep should
raise an eyebrow…
In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to assist the
helmsman these course lines are labelled with the corresponding compass
courses.
Guidelines for dead reckoning:
 Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
 Never draw a new course line from an EP.
 Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
 Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong,
and continue from there.
Running fix
Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can
be obtained at a time. In this event, a line of position obtained at an earlier
time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP. These two LOPs should not
be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The
position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a certain
distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.
09:16 We obtain a single
LOP on LANBY
1 and plot a
corresponding (same
time) dead reckoning
position. The
estimated position is
constructed by
drawing the shortest
line between the DR
and the LOP:
perpendicular.
09:26 No LOPs at all. We

tack and plot a DR
position.
09:34 We obtain a LOP on

LANBY 2. To use the
first LOP we advance
it over a construction
line between the two
corresponding DR
positions. We use
both its direction &
distance.
To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the time of
the second LOP. This is done by using the dead reckoning plot. First, we
measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw a construction
line, which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR positions.
Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two DR
positions, it's easiest just to use the course line itself as the construction line.
Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this construction
line over the distance we measured. Et voilá, the intersection is our RFix.
If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our problem
harder. Not so! The only DR positions that matter are the two corresponding
with the LOPs.
Guidelines for advancing a LOP:
 The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR

positions.
 The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR
positions.
 Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
 Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.
Danger bearing
Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important tool to
keep the ship out of harm's way. First, the navigator

identifies the limits of safe, navigable water and determines a bearing to for
instance a major light. This bearing is marked as “No More Than” (NMT) or “No
Less Than” (NLT), depending on which side is safe. Hatching is included on the
side that is hazardous, along with its compass bearing.
In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5° variation ),
marked with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for a handheld compass
that requires no deviation correction.
Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely “More Than” - the
rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light. A possible cause
could be a (tidal) stream from east to west.
When a distance is used instead of a direction, a danger range is plotted

much the same way as the danger bearing.
Turn bearing
The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart in
advance. It should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out of safe
waters (again like the danger bearing and dead reckoning). The turn bearing is
taken on an appropriate aid to navigation and is marked “TB”. As you pass the
object its bearing will slowly change. When it reaches the turn bearing turn
the vessel on her new course.
This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or diving
position.
Snellius construction
© sailingissues.com
Willebrord Snellius - a 16th century mathematician from Leiden, the
Netherlands - became famous for inventing the loxodrome and his method of
triangulation.
The Snellius construction was first used to obtain the length of the meridian
by measuring the distance between two Dutch cities . He took angles from and
to church towers of villages in between to reach his objective. Nowadays we use
the Snellius method to derive our position from three bearings without the use
of LOPs, and while leaving out deviation and variation, which simplifies things.
Also, since only relative angles are needed a sextant can be used to measure
navigation aids at greater distances. Closer in a compass can be used.
The construction:
 See figure 1: Compass bearings are 320° on A; 360° on B; 050° on

object C.
 The angle between A and B = 40°.
 The angle between B and C = 50°.
 Draw lines from A to B and from B to C.
 Add the two light-blue perpendicular bisectors of lines AB and BC.
 Draw at object A a construction line 40° inland of line AB.
 Draw at object C a second construction line 50° inland of line CB.
 See figure 2: At object A: draw a line perpendicular to the construction

line.
 At object C: draw another line perpendicular to the construction line.
 The two intersections with the light-blue lines indicate the centres of two
circles.
 Finally, draw the first circle using A and B and the second circle using B
and C.
 The off shore intersection of the two circle gives us our position fix.
The advantage: deviation and variation can be left out since the angles (here
40° and 50°) are relative ones. Moreover, a sextant can be used to obtain
angles between objects at greater distances, that with a compass would be less
precise.
International notation
International notation conventions for plotting in the chart
Fix LOP
Running Fix LOP advanced

Course &
Estimated Position
Speed
Dead Reckoning Set & Drift
Electronic Fix
(GPS)
Electronic Fix
(Radar)
Note, that a few countries use an alternative symbol
Plotting should be done with a soft pencil. Moreover, avoid drawing lines
through the chart symbols. This is to prevent damage to the chart when you
have to erase the construction.
Learn sailing and navigation via yacht charters with instruction in

Greece.
Glossary
 Line Of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's position
must lie. A minimum of two LOPs are necessary to establish a fix. It is standard
practice to use at least three LOPs when obtaining a fix, to guard against the
possibility of and, in some cases, remove ambiguity.
 Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to obtain an LOP.
 Leading lights or Range lights: A pair of lights or day marks
deliberately placed to mark a narrow channel.
 Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.
 Cross bearing: The use of LOPs of several navigational aids to obtain a
position fix. Remember to use an optimal angular spread.
 Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure to use only the
corresponding DR positions. Also don't use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
 Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and speeds
from a known position. It is also used to predict when lights become visible or
to determine the set and rate of a current.
 Estimated position: Combine a corresponding DR position with a single
LOP to get an EP position.
 Snellius construction: Another way to combine three compass bearings
to obtain a position fix. The advantage over a cross bearing is that both
magnetic variation and deviation don't need to be taken into account.
 Course: (C) The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to be
steered (direction through the water).
 Speed: (S) The speed of the boat through the water.
 Set: (SET) The direction in which the current is flowing (see chapters 6,7
and 8).
 Drift: (DFT) The speed (in knots) of the current (see chapters 6,7 and 8).
 Default heading is True course (M = magnetic , C = compass).
 Default time is 24 hour clock ship time else UTC.
Piloting and
navigation
Doubled angle fix
The Doubled angle on the bow fix resembles a running fix though only one
navigation aid is used.
In the example on the right the initial angle (30°) on
the bow is doubled (60°) yielding an isosceles
triangle . The distance travelled between the
bearings is the same as the distance from the visible
wreck.
 Start with the visible wreck having a bearing of α = 30° , β = 60°

less than 45° off the bow (α), note the log distance. δ = 120° , γ = 30°
 Proceed along the course until the angle on the Isosceles d1 = d2
bow is doubled (β), read the log: d1 is 10 nm.
 Use the log distance to find the position on the second LOP. It is an
isosceles triangle, so d2 is also 10 nm.
 Label it with an ellipse and "RFix" but realize it is less precise than a
running fix that involves two navigation aids.
Four point fix

If the first angle on the bow is 45°, a special situation occurs: The Four point
fix, so called since 45 degrees equals 4 points on the compass (1 point =
11,25° ).
 Start with a bearing with 45° on the bow (α), note
the log.
 Proceed along the course till the angle on the bow is
90° (β), read the log: d1 is 4 nm
 Use the log distance to find the position on the
second LOP. Isosceles, so d2 is also 4 nm.
 Label it with an ellipse and "RFix". α = 45° , β = 90°
δ = 90° , γ = 45°
Isosceles d1 = d2
Special angle fix

The Special angle fix requires the mariner to know some special pairs of
angles (a : b) that give the distance travelled between bearings as equal to the
distance abeam .
In the example on the right α = 21° and β = 32° are
used. Now, the log distance equals the shortest
distance between wreck and course line (6 nm).
A few practical pairs:
16 : 22 21 : 32
α = 21° , β = 32°
25 : 41 32 : 59 d1 = d2
37 : 72 40 : 79
Remember: the greater the angular spread the better. Hence, of these three
fixes the four point fix is the most precise one.
Enter α (1-45°): β:
Mathematics: isosceles triangle fixes
Distance of the horizon

On a flat world there would be no
difference between the visible and
sensible horizon. However, on Earth
the visible horizon appears several
arc minutes below the sensible
horizon due to two opposing effects:
 the curvature of the earth's surface;
 atmospheric refraction.
Atmospheric refraction bends light rays passing along the earth's surface toward
the earth. Therefore, the geometrical horizon appears elevated, forming
the visible horizon.
The distance of the visible horizon is a (semi-empirical) function of Eye Height:
Mathematics: horizon distances
Dipping range
If an object is observed to be just rising above or just dipping below the
visible horizon, its distance can be readily calculated using a simple
formula. The object's elevation(the height of a light above chart
datum ) can be found in the chart or other nautical publication such as
the 'List of Lights'. Note that in some charts elevation is referred to a different
datum than soundings . Click on the image on the right to view a magnificent
lighthouse.
The formula contains the two distances from the visible horizon and can be
simplified by the equation: 2.08 x (√Elevation + √Eye height) . Many nautical
publications contain a table called "distances of the horizon" which can be used
instead of the equation.
Use the dipping range to plot a Distance LOP in the chart: a circle equal in
radius to the measured distance, which is plotted about the navigation aid.
Finally, take a bearing on the object to get a second LOP and a position fix.
Enter Eye height (metres):
Enter Elevation (metres):
Distance is (nm):
Vertical sextant angle

Similarly, a distance LOP can be obtained by using a sextant to measure the
angle (arc) between for instance the light and chart datum of a lighthouse or
any other structure of known elevation. Once the angle is corrected for index
error the distance can be found in a table called: "Distances by Vertical Sextant
Angle", which is based on the following equation.
 The angle in minutes total, thus 1° 12' = 72' total, and corrected for
index error.
 Elevation in metres .
 Water height in metres above or below chart datum of object.
 Distance or Range in nautical miles.
 Ascertain whether the base of the object is beyond the horizon
 Corrected angle should be greater than 20'.
Though tables can be used for quick reference, this function is valid for objects
higher than usually tabulated . An example with a lighthouse of 80 metres:
 Measured angle is 1° 19', index error is +6': angle = 73'.

 Let's assume water height at 3 metres above Mean Level datum.
 Range = 1.854*(80-3/73) = 1.96 nm.
The range can be used as a danger bearing.

Together with a compass bearing one object with known elevation results in a
position fix. If more than one vertical sextant angle is combined the optimum
angular spread should be maintained.
Enter Angle (minutes total ):
Distance is (nm):
Often, the correction for water height can be left out. Though, realizing that the
horizon is closer than one might think , another correction is sometimes
needed. In the Mediterranean Sea for example we can see mountain tops with
bases lying well beyond the horizon. Mutatis mutandis, the structures, which
they bear have bases beyond the horizon as well.
This is the equation for finding the distance of an object of known elevation
located beyond the horizon. In the denominator of this equation a compensating
factor is included by which the measured angle should be reduced.
Enter Eye Height (metres):
Enter Angle (minutes total ):
Distance is (nm):
Mathematics: vertical sextant angles
Estimation of distance
The most obvious way to estimate distances is of course by using the distance
between our eyes. If we sight over our thumb first with one
eye then with the other, the thumb moves across the
background, perhaps first crossing a tower second crossing a
bridge.
The chart might tell that these structures are 300 m apart.
Use the ratio of: distance between eye and outstretched
arm/distance between pupils: usually 10 .
The objects are 3 kilometres away.
Other physical relationships are useful for quick reference. For example, one
finger width held at arm's length covers about 2° arc, measured horizontally or
vertically.
Two fingers cover 4°. Three fingers cover 6° and give rise to the three finger
rule:
"An object that is three fingers high is about 10 times as far away as it is high."
Estimation with horizon

The image on the right shows us that it is possible to estimate the height of any
object that crosses the horizon as seen from our own point
of view.
This picture of the 'Pigeon Rocks' near Beirut harbour was

taken from a crow's nest at a height of 34 metres.
The distance of the visible horizon (12 nm) is far larger
than 34 metres . Therefore, we can - without any other
information - estimate that these rocks have a height of 34
metres as well.
Factum: All tops crossing the horizon and with bases at sea level are on
eye level .
Furthermore, if we see these rocks over a vertical angle of for example 7° =

0.1225 rad., then the range is 34/0.1225 = 277 metres.
Finally, plot both range and bearing in the chart to construct an EP, et Voilà!
Fix by depth soundings

A series of depth soundings - in this example every 10 minutes - can greatly
improve your position fix:
 correct your soundings for tide, etc. ;
 copy the DR course line on a transparent sheet;
 write the depths adjacent according to the times of the soundings;
 move the sheet over the chart to find its best location.
Due to leeway, currents or other factors the two course lines need not be
parallel to or of same length as each other.
Yacht charters and learning how to sail in Greece with instruction.
Overview
 Line Of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's position
must lie. A minimum of two LOP's are necessary to establish a fix. It is standard
practice to use at least three LOP's when obtaining a fix, to guard against the
possibility of and, in some cases, remove ambiguity.
 Range or Distance LOP: Obtained by using a stadimeter, sextant or
radar. A circle equal in radius to the measured distance is plotted about the
navigation aid; the ship must be somewhere on this circle.
 Running fix: A position determined by crossing lines of position obtained
at different times and advanced or retired to a common time.
 Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and speeds
from a known position. It is also used to predict when lights become visible or
to determine the set and drift of a current. DR positions are drawn in advance
to prevent sailing into danger. A DR position will be plotted:
o every hour on the hour;
o at the time of every course change or speed change;
o for the time at which a (running) fix is obtained, also a new course
line will be plotted;
o for the time at which a single LOP is obtained;
o and never draw a new course line from an EP position!
 Estimated position: The most probable position of a craft determined
from incomplete data or data of questionable accuracy. Such a position might
be determined by applying a correction to the dead reckoning position, as for
estimated current; by plotting a line of soundings; or by plotting a LOP of
questionable accuracy.
 Double angle on the bow: A method of obtaining a running fix by
measuring the distance a vessel travels on a steady course while the relative
bearing (right or left) of a fixed object doubles. The distance from the object at
the time of the second bearing is equal to the run between bearings, neglecting
drift.
 Four point fix: A special case of doubling the angle on the bow, in which
the first bearing is 45° right or left of the bow. Due to angular spread this is the
most precise isosceles fix.
 Special angle fix: A construction using special pairs of relative angles
that give the distance travelled between bearings as equal to the navigation
aids' range abeam.
 Distance from horizon: The distance measured along the line of sight
from a position above the surface of the earth to the visible horizon.
 Sensible horizon: The circle of the celestial sphere formed by the
intersection of the celestial sphere and a plane through the eye of the observer,
and perpendicular to the zenith-nadir line.
 Visible horizon: The line where Earth and sky appear to meet. If there
were no terrestrial refraction, visible and geometrical horizons would coincide.
Also called : apparent horizon.
 Geometrical horizon: Originally, the celestial horizon; now more
commonly the intersection of the celestial sphere and an infinite number of
straight lines tangent to the earth's surface and radiating from the eye of the
observer.
 Dipping range or Geographic range: The maximum distance at which
the curvature of the earth and terrestrial refraction permit an aid to navigation
to be seen from a particular height of eye (without regard to the luminous
intensity of the light).
 Elevation: The height of the light above its chart datum in contrast to
the height of the structure itself.
 Chart Datum: Officially: Chart Sounding Datum: An arbitrary reference
plane to which both heights of tides and water depths are expressed on a chart.
In the same chart heights can be related to other datums than depths.
 Vertical sextant angle: The method of using the subtended angle of a
vertical object to find its range.
 Index error: In a marine sextant the index error is primarily due to lack
of parallelism of the index mirror and the horizon glass at zero reading. A
positive index error is subtracted and a negative index error is added.
 Estimation with horizon: Estimation of heights using the horizon: All
tops crossing the horizon and with bases at sea level are on eye level.
 Estimation with depth effect: .
 Estimated position with soundings: .
Mathematics: isosceles triangle fixes
Mathematics: horizon distances
Mathematics: sextant angles
Mathematics: Running fixes

The sum of angles in a triangle is
180°
Draw a triangle ABC, then draw a line DAE parallel to
line BC. Now, angles α and β in the triangle equal
angles DAB and EAC, respectively. Therefore, the sum
of angles in the triangle is 180° : a straight line.
“Doubling the angle” yields two equal

angles
So, α + δ + γ = 180°
α + 180 - β + γ = 180°
2α = β
α + 180 - 2α + γ = 180°
180° - α + γ = 180°
α = 30° , β = 60°
-α + γ = 0 thus γ = 30°
γ=α
Two equal angles render an triangle

isosceles
In the triangle on the right, α = γ and β = 2α.
By constructing the bisector h of angle β we create two
little triangles in which x=y.
Therefore, d1=d2.
Mathematics: Distance of
horizon
Distance of horizon
AD = h is the height of eye above the earth.
DO = BO = CO = r (radius of the earth).
Factum: any angle between a tangent line to a
circle and the radius of the circle is a right
angle.
Since we have a right triangle ABO where AB = d,
AO = h+r and BO = r,
we can find a formula for d in terms of h:
(AO)2 = AB2+BO2
(h+r)2 = d2+r2
d = sqrt[(h+r)2-r2)],
where r is approx. 3.440.1 nm
An example: Let the eye height (h) be 4 meters (= 0.0022 nm); find the
distance in nm of the geometrical horizon.
d = sqrt[(0.0022 + 3.440.1) - 3.440.1 )] ; d = sqrt[11834303 - 11834288]
2 2
d = sqrt[15.146] ; d = 3.89 nm (geometrical)
The distance of the visible horizon as found in the table is greater (4.2 nm)
due to atmospheric refraction.
The semi-empirical function used is:
d = sqrt[ (2x3440.1xh) / (1852xρo) ], where ρo accounts for refraction
(0.8279).
Next math chapter: Sextant angles
Further reading:
Online navigation courses.
Flotilla sailing holidays.
RYA & ASA sailing schools in Greece.
Yacht charters guide.
Mathematics: Sextant angles

Vertical sextant angle
The triangle OBL (see fig. below) can be described in terms of H, α and
Distance:
Distance = H/tan(α)
The angle in rad. (0-2π) and both height and distance in metres.
 From rad. to degrees: α = A * π/180, 'A' being the same angle in

degrees.
 To describe angle A in minutes total, then A*60 = a, thus α = (a/60) *
(π/180). So, α = a/3438, 'a' being the angle in arc minutes.
 FACTUM: tan(x) = x, if angle x is small.
Resulting in (with π = 3.14): Distance (m)= H * 3438/a
 Furthermore, distance in nm. = distance in meters/1852.
Voilà, la very practical equation:
Distance = 1.856 * H/a
It contains just two approximations, both of

neglitible influence. First, we left out
the tan function and second we used 3.14
for π.
Please realize that a smaller angle improves the approximation of the tan. Yet,
as an opposing effect the instrument error of a smaller sextant angle increases.
All in all, the factor 1.856 is not a typo, and just by chance near to the nautical
mile: 1.852 kilometres. If you are still reading, you are very brave person and
might perhaps agree that it originates from: (60 * 180)/(π * 1852).
So far we considered a perfect triangle (OBL) and forgot that life isn't always
perfect. Height h is usually quite small, but distance SB sometimes is not. This
leads to an extra premise, which is seldom mentioned by other navigation
textbooks:
Angle OLS should be bigger than 15°.
Tides

Tidal movements
The tide is the vertical rise and fall of the sea level surface caused primarily by
the change in gravitational attraction of the moon, and to a lesser extent the
sun.
As the earth spins on its axis the centrifugal force results in slightly deeper
water near the equator as opposed to shallower water at the poles. In fact it
causes a flow from the poles to the equator.
The earth is also in orbit around the sun (one revolution in one year) creating
not only another centrifugal force but also a gravitational interaction. These two
yield a bulge on the night site (centrifugal) and a bulge on the day site
(gravitational) both of them moving as the world turns. Therefore, a certain
place on this world will experience two high and two low tides each day.
With these forces alone, we would not have spring tides and neap tides .
Spring tides have higher high tides and lower low tides whereas neap tides have
lower high tides and higher low tides. Hence, the range (difference in water
level between high and low tide) is much larger in a spring tide than in a low
tide.
This animation shows how

the tide changes during the
lunar cycle. When the sun,
moon and earth are
These differences in range can be explained if we
include the moon into our earth-sun system. The aligned : spring tide.
When at right angles the
moon and the earth orbit each other around a
forces are not aligned:
point (called the barycenter or baricenter) 2000 neap tide.
odd kilometres inside the earth, creating a The time between spring and
centrifugal and a gravitational bulge. neap is approximately 7
Moreover, despite the sun's immensely larger days.
mass, the moon exerts a 2.25 times larger gravi-
tational attraction, since the moon is much closer to our earth.
It is the combined effect of the sun and moon that creates spring and neap
tides. In the animation the gravitational forces of both the sun and the moon
are taken into account. When aligned with the earth they combine their
attraction and otherwise they counteract their attraction. The sun is located in
the corner right below, far outside this picture (note the eclipse) while the moon
is revolving round the earth. One full circle corresponds to one lunar cycle
(about 28 days).
The figure below shows the ideal sinusoids of both spring and neap tides.
Vertically the water height is shown versus horizontally the time. Ideally, the
time between a low and a successive high is somewhat more than 6 hours.
The time difference between spring tide and neap tide is normally 7 days and is
in accordance with the phases of the moon. Yet, water has mass and
therefore momentum. Moreover, it is a viscous fluid that generates friction if
moved. Therefore, the actual spring tide lags a day or so behind a full moon or
new moon occurrence.
So, tidal movements are intrinsically periodical, resulting in a Tidal day of 24

hours and 50 minutes containing one tidal cycle, namely two highs and two
lows. This basic pattern may be distorted by the effects of landmasses,
constrained waterways, friction, the Coriolis effect, or other factors. Hence,
predictions are possible and we expect the the next day's high tide to come
about 50 minutes later.
However, a closer look at the orbit of the moon reveals that the moon is not
always in the equatorial plane, resulting in three types of tides:
 Semi-diurnal tide: Featuring two highs and two
lows each day, with minimal variation in the height of
successive high or low waters. This type is more likely to
occur when the moon is over the equator.
 Diurnal tide: Only a single high and a single low
during each tidal day; successive high and low waters do
not vary by a great deal. This tends to occur in certain
areas when the moon is at its furthest from the equator.
 Mixed tide: Characterized by wide variations in heights of successive
high and low waters, and by longer tidal cycles than those of the semi-diurnal
cycle. These tides also tend to occur as the moon moves furthest north or south
of the equator.
Chart Datums
Â© sailingissues.com
The depths and heights in the chart need a plane of reference: the Chart Datum
(see interactive figure below). Depths are usually described with respect to low
water reference planes (yielding lower charted depths, which are safer) and
heights are shown with respect to high water reference planes (again, yielding
lower vertical clearances on the chart, which are safer). As such, the chance
that the observed depth or vertical clearance beneath a bridge is smaller than
the charted depth or height is rather small.
In this example the This example shows In this example the

Charted Depths are the various spring and light elevation is
related to LAT. neap tides around reduced to high water.
The Observed Depth mean water level. Note Also a clearance under
or Drying Height is a that spring low water a bridge is charted in
combination of Tidal is the lowest. Both that way. The 'height'
Height & Charted ranges are indicated. refers to the building
Depth. itself. On land yet
another CD can be in
use.
Some Chart Datums and their abbreviations:
 MHWS : Mean High Water Spring

 HW : High Water
 MHWN : Mean High Water Neap
 ML : Mean Level
 MLWN : Mean Low Water Neap
 MLWS : Mean Low Water Spring
 LAT : Low Astronomical Tide
Overview
 Tide: The vertical rise and fall of the surface of a body of water caused
primarily by the differences in gravitational attraction of the moon, and to a
lesser extent the sun, upon different parts of the earth when the positions of
the moon and sun change with respect to the earth.
 Spring Tide: The tidal effect of the sun and the moon acting in concert
twice a month, when the sun, earth and moon are all in a straight line (full
moon or new moon). The range of tide is larger than average.
 Neap Tide: This opposite effect occurs when the moon is at right angles
to the earth-sun line (first or last quarter). The range of tide is smaller than
average.
 Range: The vertical difference between the high and low tide water levels
during one tidal cycle.
 Tidal Day: 24 hours and 50 minutes. The moon orbits the earth every
month, and the earth rotates (in the same direction as the moon's orbit) on its
axis once every 24 hours.
 Tidal Cycle: One high tide plus a successive low tide.
 Semi-diurnal Tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two highs
and two lows each day, with minimal variation in the height of successive high
or low waters.
 Diurnal Tide: Only a single high and a single low during each tidal day;
successive high and low waters do not vary by a great deal. Such tides occur,
for example, in the Gulf of Mexico, Java Sea and in the Tonkin Gulf.
 Mixed Tide: Characterized by wide variation in heights of successive high
and low waters, and by longer tide cycles than those of the semidiurnal cycle.
Such tides occur, for example, in the U.S. Pacific coast and many Pacific islands.
 Chart Datum or Tidal reference planes: These fictitious planes are
used as the sounding datum for the tidal heights.
 Drying Height: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) above the
chart datum.
 Charted Depth: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) below the
chart datum.
 Observed Depth: Height of tide + charted depth: the actual depth in
meters.
 Height of light: The height of light above the bottom of its structure.
 Elevation: The height of the light above the chart datum.
 Rule of Twelve: Assuming a tidal curve to be a perfect sinusoid with a
period of 12 hours. The height changes over the full range in the six hours
between HW and LW with the following fractions during each respective hour:
1/12 2/12 3/12 3/12 2/12 1/12.
 Rule of Seven: The change from spring range to neap range can be
assumed linear, each day the range changes with 1/7th of difference between
the spring and neap ranges. Hence, the daily change in range = (spring range -
neap range)/7.
Tides & tidal

prediction
1 - Information from the chart
Most often the chart presents succinct tide tables for certain positions. These
positions are marked with the “square”. The table below shows us an example
for two different positions. The first refers to Cowes (UK), the second to a
position south of Cowes.
This data only provides us with average Heights above LAT

high and low waters heights. Moreover, it is Position Mean HW Mean LW
merely valid at spring or neap tides. To use Spring Neap Spring Neap
it we need to first find out how many hours
we are from high water. Secondly, we need Cowes 1,7 m 1,5 m 0,2 m 0,4 m
to know if it is spring or neap or sometime 5,2 m 4,3 m 0,4 m 1,2 m

in between at that particular moment. We
shall use this table to solve two types of problems. Finding height of tide at a
particular location at a particular time:
 To get over a shoal.
 To pass under a bridge.
Almanacs and many other nautical publications contain predictions of the times
of high and low tides at many major standard ports . Also listed are
differences in times of tides from these ports for additional secondary ports .
To work with this succinct data we need two
extra tools:
 To interpolate between high and low

water heights we use the Rule of Twelve. We
assume the tidal curve to be a perfect sinusoid
with a period of 12 hours. The height changes
over the full range in the six hours between HW
and LW.
o During first hour after heigh water
(HW) the water drops 1/12th of the full range.
o During the second hour an
additional 2/12th.
o During the third hour an
additional 3/12th.
o During the fourth hour an additional 3/12th.
o During the fifth hour an additional 2/12th.
o During the sixth hour an additional 1/12th.
Hence, two hours after the HW the water has fallen 3/12 of the full range.
 To interpolate between spring and neap tides we use the Rule of Seven.
Since the change from spring range to neap range can be assumed linear
(instead of sinusoid), each day the range changes with 1/7th of difference
between the spring and neap ranges.
Hence, the daily change in range is (spring range - neap range)/7.
Shoal problem:
Our shoal near Cowes has a charted depth of 1 meter and we would like to
cross it at about 15:00 hours with our yacht (draft 1,5 m).
From any nautical almanac we find that HW occurs at 03:18 15:53 and LW
occurs at09:45 22:03 at a standard port nearby. We also find that at our
location HW occurs one hour later and that spring tide is due in two days.
Hence, we have a HW around 17:00.
 Via the rule of seven we find out that today the range is:
spring range - 2 x ( (spring range - neap range)/7 )
<=> 4,8 - 2 x ( ( 4,8 - 3,1)/7 ) <=> 4,8 - 2 x 0,25 = 4,3 m.
 We also need today's HW height:
which is Spring HW - 2 days x ( (5,2 -4,3)/7 ) = 5,0 m .
 Via the rule of twelve we find out that at two hours before high
water the height is:
5,0 - 3/12 x 4,3 = height at 15:00 hours = 3,9 m.
So, after three interpolations we derive the water height at 1500 hours.
Considering the charted depth leads to an observed depth of 4,9 meters,
enough for our draft of 1,5 meters.
Bridge problem:
An overhanging rock, power lines or bridges have their clearances charted with
respect to another chart datum than LAT. Normally, 'high water' or 'MHW
spring' are used as reference planes.
An example:
Above our shoal hangs the 'Cowes bridge'. At 15:00 hours we would like to pass
this bridge, which has a charted height of 20 meters to HW. Our mast is 23
meters high. In the example above we found that the water height was 1,1
meters below HW level at that time. Obviously, we will have to wait!
So, at what time will we be able to pass under this bridge?
The water height must be 3 meters lower than HW level (5,0 m). That is almost
9/12 of the range (4,3 m) indicating four hours after HW . Conclusion, we will
have to wait at least six hours in total.
2 - Information
from tide tables
Instead of mere averages, a tide
tableprovides us each day with
the times of high and low water
for a particular place. Basically,
it is same table like the one we
found in the chart, but is
extended for every day in a
year. By using this method we get more accurate water heights since it involves
less interpolation. The example shows us a part of a very detailed tide table,
which even includes heights for every hour.
3 - Information from tidal curves

In most tables the tides can also be characterized by a tidal curve. This method
substitutes the rule of twelve providing more accurate heights. The left side
contains the water height information with the lowest heights to the left where
also the chart datum is indicated. The low water height will be marked at the
bottom and the high water height will be marked at the top.
The area under the curve will be marked with the time information.
To find the water height at a specific time we need to know first how many
hours before or after the HW this is. Then
Often this is done when the curve is not sinusoid and the rule of twelve is
rendered useless.
Overview
 Tide: The vertical rise and fall of the surface of a body of water caused
primarily by the differences in gravitational attraction of the moon, and to a
lesser extent the sun, upon different parts of the earth when the positions of
the moon and sun change with respect to the earth.
 Spring Tide: The tidal effect of the sun and the moon acting in concert
twice a month, when the sun, earth and moon are all in a straight line (full
moon or new moon). The range of tide is larger than average.
 Neap Tide: This opposite effect occurs when the moon is at right angles
to the earth-sun line (first or last quarter). The range of tide is smaller than
average.
 Range: The vertical difference between the high and low tide water levels
during one tidal cycle.
 Tidal Day: 24 hours and 50 minutes. The moon orbits the earth once
earth month, and the earth rotates (in the same direction as the moon's orbit)
on its axis once every 24 hours.
 Tidal Cycle: A successive high and low tide.
 Semi-diurnal Tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two highs
and two lows each day, with minimal variation in the height of successive high
or low waters.
 Diurnal Tide: Only a single high and a single low during each tidal day;
successive high and low waters do not vary by a great deal. Gulf of Mexico, Java
Sea and in the Tonkin Gulf.
 Mixed Tide: Characterized by wide variation in heights of successive high
and low waters, and by longer tide cycles than those of the semidiurnal cycle.
U.S. Pacific coast and many Pacific islands.
 Chart Datum or Tidal reference planes: These fictitious planes are
used as the sounding datum for the tidal heights.
 Drying Height: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) above the
chart datum.
 Charted Depth: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) below the
chart datum.
 Observed Depth: Height of tide + charted depth: the actual depth in
meters.
 Height of light: The height of light above the bottom of its structure.
 Elevation: The height of the light above the chart datum.
 Rule of Twelve: Assuming a tidal curve to be a perfect sinusoid with a
period of 12 hours. The height changes over the full range in the six hours
between HW and LW with the following fractions during each respective hour:
1/12 2/12 3/12 3/12 2/12 1/12.
 Rule of Seven: The change from spring range to neap range can be
assumed linear, each day the range changes with 1/7th of difference between
the spring and neap ranges. Hence, the daily change in range = (spring range -
neap range)/7.
Currents
Currents reflect the horizontal movement of water whereas tides reflect vertical
movements. These currents influence the ship's position and are therefore
important to understand.
The horizontal movement is primarily caused by the gravitational pull of
celestial bodies. But also other factors are in play:
 differences in water temperatures caused by heating and cooling due to
the earth's atmosphere;
 differences in salinity caused by rain, evaporation and estuaries;
 wind induced friction;
 the Coriolis force which is a consequence of the earth's rotation.
Prominent features in the map of the major oceanic surface currents include
the subtropical gyres centered on 30 degrees latitude in each of the major
ocean basins. The earth's rotation (origin of the Coriolis force) and the change
in wind direction with latitude (from the east in the tropics and from the west at
mid-latitudes) cause the circulation of the gyres to be clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The well-known
Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and its counterpart in the Pacific, the Kuroshio
Current, are strong currents that carry heat northward from the tropics.
The deep oceanic currents (not shown) are caused primarily by water density
differences and in general return the (now colder) water back towards the
tropics.
Click chart to see the whole world!
To predict the behavior of major ocean currents several references are

available. TheSailing Directions Planning Guides contain some information
on normal locations and strengths of ocean currents. Nevertheless, the Pilot
Charts are by far the best reference for predicting the direction and speed of
these currents. On these charts, arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing
current; a number printed above the arrow indicates the average speed. Since
this information is based upon historical averages, it won't predict the actual
ocean current encountered with 100% accuracy.
Ocean surface currents need not be considered in coastal areas. Usually, when
close to the continental shelf, the horizontal movement of water is defined by
two terms:
 tidal stream or tidal current: gravitational
 current: grafitational, rivers, wind
In order to predict tidal stream one needs to use tide tables in conjunction with
a tidal atlas, or a chart diamond.
Tidal streams are described by drift/rate and set, in which drift/rate is the
speed and set is the direction of the current.
Tidal Atlases
Tidal stream atlases show the tidal currents for each hour of the tidal cycle.
They comprise a total of 13 tidal charts ranging from 6 hr before HW till 6 hr
after HW . So, these charts are relative to the time of HW and to
use them we must know the absolute time of HW.
Though several layouts can be used, usually the direction of the
tidal stream is shown by arrows, which are heavier where the tidal
streams are stronger. Figures against the arrows give the mean
neap and spring drift or rate in tenths of knots.
For example, indicates a mean neap drift of 2.1 knots and a mean spring
drift of 4.6 knots.
rotterdam
Chart Diamonds
Course to Steer
The Course to Steer process, where you know your present position and
required Ground Track.
You want to find the Course to Steer to allow for the tide, and stay on the
Ground Track.
Lights and buoys

Aids to navigation
Aids to navigation are special structures like lighthouses, lightships, beacons,
buoys, etc that are used to enhance safety by providing more opportunities to
obtain LOPs.
These lights and marks are prescribed across the world by the International
Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). In 1977 this IALA endorsed two
maritime buoyage systems putting an end to the 30 odd systems existing at
that time. Region A - IALA A covers all of Europe and most of the rest of the
world, whereas region B - IALA B covers only the Americas, Japan, the
Philippines and Korea. Fortunately, the differences between these two systems
are few. The most striking difference is the direction of buoyage.
All marks within the IALA system are distinguished by:
 Shape
 Colour
 Topmark
 Light
Light identification
During daytime, the identification of aids to navigation is accomplished by
observing:location, shape, colour scheme, auxiliary features (sound
signals, RACON , RC , etc) or markings (name, number, etc).
During the night, we use the features of the aid to navigation's light to both
identify it and ascertain its purpose. There are three features to describe the
light:
 Colour: Either white, red, green or yellow. If no colour is stated in the

chart, default is white.
 Period: The time in seconds needed for one complete cycle of
changes. The arrow indicates the 10 second period of this
flashing light “Fl(3) 10s”.
 Phase characteristic: The particular pattern of changes within one
complete cycle (hence, within one period). Below are the most common types:
 Fixed F
This light shines with an unblinking and steady
intensity and is always on. In this example a yellow fixed light is shown.
 Flashing Fl:
The duration of the light is always less than the
duration of the darkness. The frequency does not exceed 30 times per
minute.
 Quick Flashing Q:
Again, the duration of quick flash is less than the
darkness. The frequency is at least 60 times per minute.
 Very Quick Flashing VQ:
Also here, the duration of very quick flash is less
than the darkness. The frequency is at least 100 times per minute.
 Interrupted Quick Flashing IQ:
Like Quick Flashing with one moment of darkness
in one period.
 Isophase Iso:
This Light has equal duration between light and
darkness. A period consists of both a light and a dark interval. Also called
Equal Interval (E Int).
 Group Flashing Gp Fl(x+x):
This is actually a combination of two patterns in
one period. In this example the first 2 flashes followed by the pattern of 3
flashes result in: Gp Fl(2+3).
 Occulting Occ:
Occulting is the opposite of flashing, the light is
more on then off.
 Alternating AL:
An alternating light changes colour. This special
purpose light is typically used for special applications requiring the
exercise of great caution. In this example ALT.WG is shown, alternating
between green and white.
 Morse U Mo (U):
This light shows two flashes and a longflash, which
is equivalent to the letter “U” in Morse code.
 Long-Flashing LFl:
This light has one long flash in a period. A long
flash is at least 2 seconds long.
Let's look at some examples using colour, period and phase characteristics. The
arrows mark the periods:
 Fl (4) 8s
 Oc (2+3) 10s
 Iso G 4s
All lighted aids to navigation are either major or minor lights, where major
lights are used for key navigational points along sea-coasts, channels and
harbour and river entrances. These lights are normally placed in lightships,
lighthouses and other permanently installed structures, providing both high
intensity and high reliability of the lights. Major lights are then subdivided
in primary lights (very strong, long range lights used for the purpose of
making landfalls or coastal passages) and secondary lights(shorter range
lights found for example at harbour and river entrances). Important details of
(especially) primary lights can be found in a reference called the Light
List where information (about pedestals etc.) can be found which is not
included in the chart.
Minor lights on the other hand are likely to be found within harbours, along
channels and rivers. These have a low to moderate intensity and sometimes
mark isolated dangers.
Six types of navigation buoys:

 Lateral
 Cardinal
 Isolated danger
 Safe water
 New wreck
 Special
Lateral buoys and marks

The location of lateral buoys defines the borders of channels and indicates the
direction. Under IALA A red buoys mark the port side of the channel when
returning from sea, whereas under IALA B green buoys mark the port side of
the channel when sailing towards land. Red buoys have even numbers and red
lights; green buoys have odd numbers and green lights. Lateral lights can have
any calm phase characteristic except FL (2+1).
Generally, when two channels meet, one will be designated the
preferred channel (i.e. most important channel). The buoy depicted on the right
indicates the preferred channel to starboard under IALA A. The light phase
characteristic is R FL (2+1):
The buoy depicted on the left indicates the preferred channel to

port under IALA A. These buoys are marked with the names and numbers of
both channels. The light phase characteristic is G FL (2+1):
For an example of lateral buoys used to mark a (preferred) channel,

see direction of buoyage below.
Cardinal buoys
The four cardinal buoys indicate the safe side of a danger with an approximate
bearing. For example, the West cardinal buoy has safe water on its West and
the danger on its East side. Notice the “clockwise” resemblance of the light
phase characteristics. The top marks consist of two black triangles placed in
accordance with the black/yellow scheme of the buoy. When a new obstacle
(not yet shown on charts) needs to be marked, two cardinal buoys - for
instance a South buoy and an East buoy - will be used to indicate this
“uncharted” danger. The cardinal system is identical in both the IALA A and
IALA B buoyage systems.
Marks indicating isolated dangers
This type of buoy indicates the position of an isolated danger,

contrary to cardinal buoys which indicate a direction away from the danger.
Body: black with red horizontal band(s); Topmark: 2 black spheres. The light
(when present) consists of a white flash: Fl(2).
Marks indicating safe water
Notice that whereas most horizontal

striping spells “danger”, this safe water buoy is vertically striped. These marks
are for example seaward of all other buoys (lateral and cardinal) and can be
used to make landfall. Body: red and white vertical stripes; Topmark (if any):
single red sphere. Lights are typically calm and white: Morse A, Iso, Occ or LFl
10s.
Marks for new wrecks

After the sinking of the “Tricolor” in the Pas de Calais (Dover Straits) in 2002,
several other vessels hit the wreck despite standard radio warnings, three guard
ships and a lighted buoy. This incident spawned a new type of buoy,
the emergency wreck marking buoy, which is placed as close as possible to
a new dangerous wreck.
The emergency wreck marking buoy will remain in position until: a) the wreck is
well known and has been promulgated in nautical publications; b) the wreck has
been fully surveyed and exact details such as position and least depth above the
wreck are known; and c) a permanent form of marking of the wreck has been
carried out.
The buoy has the following characteristics:
 A pillar or spar buoy, with size dependant on location.

 Coloured in equal number and dimensions of blue and yellow vertical
stripes (minimum of 4 stripes and maximum of 8 stripes).
 Fitted with an alternating blue and yellow flashing light with a nominal
range of 4 nautical miles where the blue and yellow 1 second flashes are
alternated with an interval of 0.5 seconds.
B1.0s + 0.5s + Y1.0s + 0.5s = 3.0s
 If multiple buoys are deployed then the lights will be synchronized.
 A racon Morse Code “D” and/or AIS transponder can be used.
 The top mark, if fitted, is a standing/upright yellow cross .
It is important to realize - especially for the colour-blind - that this new buoy
breaches the useful and crucial convention: vertical stripes equal safety,
horizontal stripes equal danger.
Special buoys and marks
I have saved these buoys for last since they lack an actual navigational goal.
Most of the time these yellow buoys indicate pipelines or areas used for special
purposes.
I have drawn the five official IALA shapes, from left to
right: conical, spar, cylindrical,pillar and spherical.
Chart symbols
The seafaring nations of the world - members of the International
Hydrographic Organization - agreed in 1982 on an universal set of chart
symbols, abbreviations, colours, etc to be used in the nautical chart, in order to
obtain uniformity.
On regular charts a white, red, yellow or green lights will be indicated by ,

and on GPS displays and modern multi-coloured charts in specific
colours: , with the yellow coloured lobe indicating a white light.
The precise position of a chart symbol is its center, or is indicated with a line
and circle , the “position circle”.
Two distinct types of sea mark are drawn differently in the chart:
 beacons - fixed to the seabed; drawn upright;

 buoys - consisting of a floating object that is usually anchored to a
specific location on the sea floor; drawn at an oblique angle and with oblique
numbering, descriptions of colours and light characteristics.
Major floating light (light-vessel, major light-float,
LANBY)
Light-vessel
Major light; minor light
Green or black buoys (symbols filled black): G =

Green ;B = Black
Green or black beacon (symbol filled black). Note

the upright G, instead of an oblique G
Single coloured buoys other than green and

black: Y = Yellow ; R = Red
Coloured beacon other than green and black, the

symbol is again filled black so only the shape of
the topmark is of navigational significance.
Multiple colours in horizontal bands, the colour

sequence is from top to bottom
Multiple colours in vertical or diagonal stripes, the

darker colour is given first. W = White
Spar buoy (here a safe water mark)
Lighted marks on multi-coloured charts, GPS

displays and chart plotters.
Lighted red beacon on standard charts.
Red beacon and green buoy with topmark, colour,

radar reflector and designation. Red buoys and
marks are given even numbers, green buoys and
marks are given odd numbers.
Wave-actuated bell buoy to the left, and to the
right a Light buoy, with a horn giving a single
blast every 15 seconds, in conjunction with a
wave-actuated whistle. Other sounds include
“Gong”, “Siren”, “Diaphone” (Dia).
The fog signal symbol may be omitted when a
description of the signal is given.
Leading beacons - Leading line (firm line is the

track to be followed)
Leading lights (≠ : any two objects in line under

each other). Bearing given in degrees and
minutes. The lights are synchronized. The red
light has a shorter nominal range (the distance
from which the light can be seen): 10 nautical
miles.
All-round light with obscured sector
Sector light on multi-coloured charts.

The elevation is 21 metres (height of the light
structure above chart datum).
The nominal range of the white light is 18 nautical
miles. The range of the green and red light is 12
nautical miles.
Main light visible all-round with red subsidiary

light seen over danger. The fixed red light has an
elevation of 55 metres and a nominal range of 12
nautical miles. The flashing light is white, with
three flashes in a period of 10 seconds. The
elevation is higher than the red light: 62 metres
and the range of the white light is 25 nautical
miles.
Symbol showing direction of buoyage (where not

obvious)
Symbol showing direction of buoyage (where not
obvious), on multi-coloured charts (red and green
circles coloured as appropriate), here IALA A
Full example of a light description in the chart:
Fl(3)WRG.15s21m15-11M
Class of light: group flashing repeating a group of three flashes;
Colours: white, red, green, exhibiting the different colours in defined sectors;
Period: the time taken to exhibit one full sequence of 3 flashes and eclipses:
15 seconds;
Elevation of light : 21 metres;
Nominal range(s): white 15 M, green 11 M, red between 15 and 11 M, where
“M” stands for nautical miles.
Lateral Marks - direction of buoyage

Lateral marks are generally for well-defined channels and there are two
international Buoyage Regions - A and B - where these Lateral marks differ.
Where in force, the IALA System applies to all fixed and floating marks except
landfall lights, leading lights and marks, sectored lights and major floating
lights.
The standard buoy shapes are cylindrical (can) , conical , spherical ,

pillar and spar , but variations may occur, for example: minor light-
floats . In the illustrations below, only the standard buoy shapes are used.
In the case of fixed beacons - lit or unlit - only the shape of the topmark is
of navigational significance.
IALA
Region
A
Europe
Africa
New
Zealand
Australia
China
India
Russia
Indonesi
a
Turkey
Middle
East
Etc.
IALA
Region
B
Americas
Philippine
s
Japan
Korea
Visibility of lights
It is important to know at what distance we may (begin to) see a certain light,
and when we can expect to lose sight of it, especially when making landfall.
Several practical ranges are used to the describe the visibility of lights in
navigation:
 The meteorological range is based on the current atmospheric

conditions. The table below shows that the atmosphere immensely influences
the visibility of light travelling through it.
Meteorological Optical Range Table
Code No. Weather Distance (m) Code No. Weather Distance (nm)
0 Dense fog Less than 50 5 Haze 1.0 - 2.0
1 Thick fog 50 - 200 6 Light haze 2.0 - 5.5
2 Moderate 200 - 500 7 Clear 5.5 - 11.0

3 Light fog 500 - 1000 8 Very clear 11.0 - 27.0
4 Thin fog 1000 - 2000 9 Exceptionally clear Over 27.0
 The geographic range is based on the elevation of the light. A higher

light means that its horizon is farther away, see distance of horizon.
Moreover, if the observer's height of eye is higher than sea level the light can
been seen beyond its geographic range, the dipping range. However, on
sailing yachts this potential is limited.
 The nominal range of a light is based on its candlepower, and is
typically the range mentioned in the chart. The nominal range is the maximum
distance at which a light can be seen in weather conditions where visibility is 10
nm.
So, a minor light - perched on a 70m high cliff - with a geographic range of 20
nm will not be detectable by the human eye at a distance of 6 nm
1. if the nominal range is just 5 nm.

2. if the meteorological range is just 5 nm due to a light haze.
Because of the limiting factor of the geographic range, most major lights will
never be seen from a sailing yacht 20 nm away. Yet, it is sometimes possible to
take a bearing on the loom of the light: its reflection against the clouds.
Different coloured lights with equal candlepower have different ranges. White
light is the most visible followed by yellow, green and then red. Therefore, at
extreme ranges an “AL WG” can resemble a “Fl W”.
The range of a lit buoy is never indicated - with the exception of a LANBY - but
on a clear night the maximum range is 3 nm, yet often considerably less.
There are 2 visual clues to determine your distance from a buoy: at about 0.5
nm, the light will rise up from the horizon, and at about 200m, the light will
reflect in the surface.
Buoy at less Buoy at less Buoy at less

than 3 nm than 0.5 nm than 200m
Glossary
 Navigation aid: An onboard instrument, device, chart, method, etc.,
intended to assist in the navigation.
 Aid to navigation: A device or structure external to the ship, designed
to assist in determination of position, to define a safe course, or to warn of
dangers or obstructions.
 Mark, seamark, navigation mark: An artificial or natural object of
easily recognizable shape or colour, or both, situated in such a position that it
may be identified on a chart. A fixed artificial navigation mark is often called a
Beacon.
 Light characteristics: The sequence and length of light and dark periods
and the colour or colours by which a navigational light is identified.
 Topmark: One of more objects of characteristic shape placed on top of a
buoy or beacon to aid in its identification.
 Lateral Mark: An aid to navigation intended to mark the sides of a
channel or waterway.
 Cardinal Marks: An IALA aid to navigation intended to show the location
of a danger to navigation based on its position relative to the danger using the
“cardinal point”: north, east, south, west.
 Isolated danger Marks: An IALA aid to navigation marking a danger
with clear water all around it; it has a double ball topmark and is black with at
least one red band. If lighted its characteristic is Fl(2).
 Sector light: A light having sectors of different colours or the same
colour in specific sectors separated by dark sectors.
 Light sector: As defined by bearings from seaward, the sector in which a
navigational light is visible or in which it has a distinctive colour difference from
that of adjoining sectors, or in which it is obscured.
 Lighthouse: A distinctive structure exhibiting a major navigation light.
 Light List: A publication giving detailed information regarding lighted
navigational aids and fog signals.
 Landfall: The first sighting (even by radar) of land when approached
from seaward.
 Range: Two or more objects in line. Such objects are said to be in range.
An observer having them in range is said to be on the range. Two beacons are
frequently located for the specific purpose of forming a range to indicate a safe
route or the centerline of a channel.
 Leading line: On a nautical chart, a straight line, drawn through leading
marks. A ship moving along such line will clear certain dangers or remain in the
best channel.
 Range lights, leading lights: Two or more lights at different elevations
so situated to form a range (leading line) when brought into transit. The one
nearest to the observer is the from light and the one farthest from the observer
is the rear light. The front light is at a lower elevation than the rear light.
 Lights in line: Two or more lights so situated that when observed in
transit they define a position: the limit of an area, an alignment used for
anchoring, etc. Not to be confused with range lights, which mark a direction to
be followed.
 Light-float : A buoy having a boat-shaped body. Light-floats are nearly
always unmanned and are used instead of smaller lighted buoys in waters
where strong currents are experienced.
 Primary (sea-coast) light: A light established for purpose of making
landfall or coastwise past from headland to headland.
 Secondary light: A major light, other than a primary (sea-coast) light,
established at harbour entrances and other locations where high intensity and
reliability are required.
 Major light: A light of high intensity and reliability exhibited from a fixed
structure (lighthouse) or on marine site (except range lights). Major lights
include primary sea-coast and secondary lights.
 Minor light: An automatic unmanned light on a fixed structure usually
showing low to moderate intensity. Minor lights are established in harbours,
along channels, along rivers, and in isolated dangers.
 Visual range: The extreme distance at which an object of light can be
seen.
 Geographic range: The extreme distance limited by the curvature of the
earth and both the heights of the object and the observer.
 Bobbing a light: Quickly lowering the height of eye and raising it again
when a navigational light is first sighted to determine if the observer is at the
geographic range of the light.
 Luminous range: The extreme distance limited only by the intensity of
the light, clearness of the atmosphere and the sensitiveness of the observer's
eye.
 Luminous range diagram: A diagram used to convert the nominal
range of a light to its luminous range under existing conditions.
 Charted or Nominal Range: The nominal range is indicated in the chart
next to the light or can be found in the Light List. This is the maximum distance
at which a light may be seen at night based upon intensity and 10 nautical miles
of visibility.
 Meteorological Range: The nominal range is indicated in the chart next
to the light or can be found in the Light List. This is the maximum distance at
which a light may be seen at night based upon intensity and 10 nautical miles of
visibility.
Lights and shapes
Definitions
 Masthead light
A white light placed over the fore and aft centreline of the vessel showing an
unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 225° and so fixed as to show the
light from right ahead to 22.5° abaft the beam on either side of the vessel.
 Sidelight
means a green light on the starboard side and a red light on the port side each
showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 112.5° and so fixed as
to show the light from right ahead to 22.5° abaft the beam on its respective
side. In a vessel of less than 20 metres in length the sidelights may be
combined in one lantern carried on the fore and aft centreline of the vessel.
 Sternlight
means a white light placed as nearly as practicable at the stern showing an
unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 135° and so fixed as to show the
light 67.5° from right aft on each side of the vessel.
 Towing light
means a yellow light having the same characteristics as the sternlight.
 All-round light
means a light showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 360°.
 Flashing light
means a light flashing at regular intervals at a frequency of 120 flashes or more
per minute.
Legend
White light
Yellow light
Green light
Red light
Yellow flashing light
Optional white light
Power-driven vessel underway

A power-driven vessel underway shall exhibit:
 a masthead light forward;

 a second masthead light abaft of and higher than the forward one; except
that a vessel of less than 50 metres in length shall not be obliged to exhibit
such light but may do so;
 sidelights;
 a sternlight.
Power driven vessel underway, longer than 50 m

Abeam, port side Ahead Astern
Power driven vessel underway, shorter than 50 m
Sailing vessels underway and vessels under

oars
A sailing vessel underway shall exhibit:
 sidelights;
 a sternlight.
In a sailing vessel of less than 20 metres in length the lights may be combined
in one lantern carried at or near the top of the mast where it can best be seen.
A sailing vessel underway may, in addition to the lights, exhibit at or near the
top of the mast, where they can best be seen, two all-round lights in a vertical
line, the upper being red and the lower green, but these lights shall not be
exhibited in conjunction with the combined lantern.
A sailing vessel of less than 7 metres in length shall, if practicable, exhibit the
lights prescribed above, but if she does not, she shall have ready at hand an
electric torch or lighted lantern showing a white light which shall be exhibited in
sufficient time to prevent collision.
A vessel under oars may exhibit the lights prescribed in this Rule for sailing
vessels, but if she does not, she shall have ready at hand an electric torch or
lighted lantern showing a white light which shall be exhibited in sufficient time
to prevent collision.
Sailing vessel 1
Sailing vessel 2
Sailing vessel 3
Sailing vessel 4
Sailing and Motoring

A vessel proceeding under sail which has her engine running shall exhibit
forward where it can best be seen a conical shape, apex downwards.
She shall exibit lights according to a power-driven vessel.
Sailing and motoring
Day sign
Anchoring
Anchored vessel, longer than 50 m
Day sign (1 black sphere)
Anchored vessel, shorter than 50 m
Anchored sailing boat

Towing
A power-driven vessel when towing shall exhibit:
 two masthead lights in a vertical line. When the length of the tow,
measuring from the stern of the towing vessel to the after end of the tow
exceeds 200 metres, three such lights in a vertical line;
 sidelights;
 a sternlight;
 a towing light in a vertical line above the sternlight;
 when the length of the tow exceeds 200 metres, a diamond shape where
it can best be seen.
Tugboat longer than 50 m - tow longer than 200 m

Abeam, port side
Ahead, Day sign Ahead Astern

(diamond shapes)
Tugboat shorter than 50 m - tow longer than 200 m
Abeam, port side

(diamond shapes)
Tugboat longer than 50 m - tow shorter than 200 m
Abeam,
port side

(no shapes)
Tugboat shorter than 50 m - tow shorter than 200 m

Abeam,
port side

(no shapes)
Towing an inconspicuous, partly submerged

object
An inconspicuous, partly submerged vessel or object, or combination of such
vessels or objects being towed, shall exhibit:
 if it is less than 25 metres in breadth, one all-round white light at or near

the forward end and one at or near the after end except that dracones need
not exhibit a light at or near the forward end;
 if it is 25 metres or more in breadth, two additional all-round white lights
at or near the extremities of its breadth;
 if it exceeds 100 metres in length, additional all-round white lights
between these lights so that the distance between the lights shall not exceed
100 metres;
 a diamond shape at or near the aftermost extremity of the last vessel or
object being towed and if the length of the tow exceeds 200 metres an
additional diamond shape where it can best be seen and located as far forward
as is practicable.
Tow shorter than 200 m, object shorter than 100 m

Abeam, port side
Tow longer than 200 m, object shorter than 100 m
Abeam, port side
Tow longer than 200 m, object longer than 100 m
Abeam, port side
Tow longer than 200 m, object longer than 100 m & wider than 25 m
Abeam, port side
Ahead Astern
Tow longer than 200 m, any object size
Day sign, Abeam, port side
Pushing from ahead or towing alongside

When a pushing vessel and a vessel being pushed ahead are rigidly connected
in a composite unit they shall be regarded as a power-driven vessel and exhibit
the normal lights.
A power-driven vessel when pushing ahead or towing alongside, except in the
case of a composite unit, shall exhibit:
 two masthead lights in a vertical line;
 sidelights;
 a sternlight.
A vessel or object being towed shall exhibit:
 sidelights;
 a sternlight;
 when the length of the tow exceeds 200 metres, a diamond shape where
it can best be seen.
 Provided that any number of vessels being towed alongside or pushed in
a group shall be lighted as one vessel,
 a vessel being pushed ahead, not being part of a composite unit, shall
exhibit at the forward end, sidelights;
 a vessel being towed alongside shall exhibit a sternlight and at the
forward end, sidelights.
Pushing from ahead
Abeam, port side
Ahead Astern
Towing alongside
Abeam, port side
Ahead Astern
Fishing, Trawling
A vessel engaged in fishing, whether underway or at anchor, shall exhibit only
the lights and shapes prescribed below.
A vessel when engaged in trawling, by which is meant the dragging through the
water of a dredge net or other apparatus used as a fishing appliance, shall
exhibit:
 two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being green and the lower
white, or a shape consisting of two cones with their apexes together in a vertical
line one above the other;
 a masthead light abaft of and higher than the all-round green light; a
vessel of less than 50 metres in length shall not be obliged to exhibit such a
light but may do so;
 when making way through the water, in addition to the lights prescribed
hereh, sidelights and a sternlight.
 when shooting nets, white light over white light (Flag Z by day);
 when hauling nets, white light over red light (Flag G by day);
 When nets are caught on the bottom, red light over red light (Flag P by
day)
Fishing vessel, trawling

Day sign

Optional white light if shorter than Optional white light if shorter
50 m than 50 m
Fishing vessel, trawling, shooting nets (white over white, Z)
Day sign
Fishing vessel, trawling, hauling nets (white over red, G)
Day sign
Fishing vessel, trawling, nets caught on bottom (red over red, P)

Day sign
Trawling in span
When pair trawling, each vessel shows searchlights on water aiming forward
(Flag T by day).
Trawling in span, shooting nets
Ahead Astern
Fishing, other than trawling

A vessel engaged in fishing, other than trawling, shall exhibit:
 two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being red and the lower
white, or a shape consisting of two cones with apexes together in a vertical line
one above the other;
 when there is outlying gear extending more than 150 metres horizontally
from the vessel, an all-round white light or a cone apex upwards in the direction
of the gear;
 when making way through the water, in addition to the lights prescribed
here, sidelights and a sternlight.
Fishing vessel, other than trawling
Day sign

Purse seining
Purse Seiners will exhibit two all-round yellow lights in a vertical line, flashing
alternately.
Purse Seiner
Constrained by draught
A vessel constrained by her draught may, (and not “shall”!) in addition to the
lights prescribed for power-driven vessels, exhibit where they can best be seen
three all-round red lights in a vertical line, or as day sign a cylinder.
Power driven vessel, underway, constrained by her draught
Day sign (black vertical cylinder)

Not under command

A vessel not under command shall exhibit:
 two all-round red lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen;
 two spherical shapes in a vertical line where they can best be seen; and
 when making way through the water also normal sidelights and a
sternlight (not shown in the example below).
Vessel not under command, not making way through the water
Day sign (two black spheres)

Sailing boat, no wind, no mechanical propulsion
Restricted in her ability to manoeuvre

A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, except a vessel engaged in mine
clearance operations, shall exhibit:
 three all-round lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen. The
highest and lowest of these lights shall be red and the middle light shall be
white;
 three shapes in a vertical line where they can best be seen. The highest
and lowest of these shapes shall be balls and the middle one a diamond;
 when making way through the water, also a masthead light or lights,
sidelights and a sternlight
Restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, not making way through the water
Day sign: two black spheres and in the middle

a black diamond shape
Restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, making way through the water, longer than 50 m
Dredging or underwater operations

A vessel engaged in dredging or underwater operations, when restricted in her
ability to manoeuvre
Dredging or underwater operations, shorter than 50 m, not making way
Ahead, day signs Ahead Astern
Dredging or underwater operations, shorter than 50 m, making way
Dredging or underwater operations, longer than 50 m, making way

Small diving vessel

Small diving vessel
Day signs
or

Pilot boat
A vessel engaged on pilotage duty shall exhibit:
 at or near the masthead, two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper
being white and the lower red;
 when underway, in addition, sidelights and a sternlight; as shown in the
example below.
Pilot boat, shorter than 50 m
Abeam, starboard side Ahead Astern
Hovercraft
An air-cushion vessel when operating in the non-displacement mode shall,
besides a masthead light forward, (plus a masthead light abaft if longer than 50
m) sidelights and a sternlight, exhibit an all-round flashing yellow light (faster
than 2 flashes per second).
A hydrofoil ferry or high speed catamaran ferry when acting as ferry is often
also allowed under local regulations to exhibit an all-round flashing yellow light.
Hovercraft, longer than 50 m
Minesweeper
A vessel engaged in mine clearance operations shall in addition to the lights
prescribed for a power-driven vessel, or to the lights or shape prescribed for a
vessel at anchor, exhibit three all-round green lights or three balls. One of these
lights or shapes shall be exhibited near the mast head and one at each end of
the fore yard. These lights or shapes indicate that it is dangerous for another
vessel to approach within 1000 metres of the mine clearance vessel.
Minesweeper, shorter than 50 m
Ahead, day signs (3 black spheres) Ahead Astern

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Plotting and

Compass courses True courses

Please, note that:

 More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.

lower . Therefore, in the middle of the channel

In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a

Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to

09:45 Our estimation about our speed and course

10:00 and so on…

S = Speed through water (not over ground)

09:26 No LOPs at all. We

09:34 We obtain a LOP on

 The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR

keep the ship out of harm's way. First, the navigator

When a distance is used instead of a direction, a danger range is plotted

 See figure 1: Compass bearings are 320° on A; 360° on B; 050° on

 See figure 2: At object A: draw a line perpendicular to the construction

Running Fix LOP advanced

Dead Reckoning Set & Drift

Note, that a few countries use an alternative symbol

Learn sailing and navigation via yacht charters with instruction in

 Start with the visible wreck having a bearing of α = 30° , β = 60°

Four point fix

Special angle fix

Distance of the horizon

Mathematics: horizon distances

Vertical sextant angle

 Measured angle is 1° 19', index error is +6': angle = 73'.

The range can be used as a danger bearing.

Enter Elevation (metres):

Enter Eye Height (metres):

Enter Angle (minutes total ):

Enter Elevation (metres):

Mathematics: vertical sextant angles

Estimation with horizon

This picture of the 'Pigeon Rocks' near Beirut harbour was

Furthermore, if we see these rocks over a vertical angle of for example 7° =

Fix by depth soundings

Yacht charters and learning how to sail in Greece with instruction.

Mathematics: Running fixes

“Doubling the angle” yields two equal

Two equal angles render an triangle

d = sqrt[15.146] ; d = 3.89 nm (geometrical)

Next math chapter: Sextant angles

Mathematics: Sextant angles

 From rad. to degrees: α = A * π/180, 'A' being the same angle in

Resulting in (with π = 3.14): Distance (m)= H * 3438/a

 Furthermore, distance in nm. = distance in meters/1852.

Voilà, la very practical equation:

Distance = 1.856 * H/a

It contains just two approximations, both of

HomeNav. courseSailing GreeceTurkish CoastsYacht charterGulets

This animation shows how

So, tidal movements are intrinsically periodical, resulting in a Tidal day of 24

In this example the This example shows In this example the

Some Chart Datums and their abbreviations:

 MHWS : Mean High Water Spring

Tides & tidal

This data only provides us with average Heights above LAT