2018 Braxton p83 PDF

©2018 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology, v. 113, pp. 83–131
Geology of the Boyongan and Bayugo Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits:

An Emerging Porphyry District in Northeast Mindanao, Philippines*
David P. Braxton,1,2,†,** David R. Cooke,1,3 Allan M. Ignacio,1,*** and Patrick J. Waters4,****
1 Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits (CODES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, 7001, Tasmania, Australia
2 Anglo American, Group Exploration and Geosciences, 20 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AN, United Kingdom
3 Transforming the Mining Value Chain, an Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Research Hub, University of Tasmania,
Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
4 Anglo American Exploration (Philippines) Inc., 21 Outlook Drive, Baguio City 2600, Philippines
Abstract
The Boyongan and Bayugo porphyry Cu-Au mineral deposits, discovered under postmineralization cover dur-
ing the previous decade, are part of an emerging belt of intrusion-centered Au-rich Cu mineral deposits and
prospects in the Surigao district of northeast Mindanao, Philippines. Since their formation in the early Pleis-
tocene, exhumation and weathering of these deposits have led to the development of a 600-m-thick oxida-
tion profile at Boyongan and a modest (30–70 m) oxidation profile at Bayugo. Debris flows, volcanic material,
and fluviolacustrine sediments accumulating in the actively extending Mainit graben subsequently covered the
weathered deposits, preserving their supergene profiles.
The mineral deposits formed in association with a composite diorite complex containing at least 12 discrete
intrusive stages. Three premineralization diorite porphyry stocks and a silt-sand matrix breccia complex represent
early stages of magmatism and brecciation. Significant Cu and Au introduction followed these events and occurred
in association with small early-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks at Boyongan and Bayugo. Within the diorite
complex, the two mineral deposits are spatially distinct, separated by approximately 1 km of premineralization
diorites. Inter- and late-mineralization intrusions were emplaced as the magmatic-hydrothermal system waned.
A characteristic progression of vein and K silicate alteration styles affected each of the synmineralization intru-
sions. Rare comb quartz unidirectional solidification textures (stage 0) mark the transition from magmatic to
hydrothermal conditions. Quartz-poor wispy magnetite-biotite-K-feldspar veinlets characterize stage 1. Stage 2
veins consist of quartz with selvage and/or disseminated magnetite or biotite and K-feldspar halos. Stage 3 quartz
veins have K-feldspar halos but generally lack magnetite and biotite. Stage 4 veins consist of massive bornite-chal-
copyrite and chalcopyrite-pyrite with K-feldspar halos. Stage 3 quartz veins and stage 4 sulfide veins host Cu-Au
mineralization of the greatest volumetric significance, reflecting the general paucity of sulfide in the earlier vein
stages. Despite the simplicity of this sequence, detailed paragenetic reconstructions reveal that this characteristic
progression of veining and K silicate alteration was repeated with the emplacement of each synmineralization
intrusive event, revealing multiple magmatic-hydrothermal cycles of alteration and mineralization.
At Boyongan and Bayugo, intense and pervasive illite alteration, in association with pyrite, chalcopyrite, and
tetrahedrite-tennantite, developed in narrow structures crosscutting quartz-K-feldspar veins. Debris flows in
the burial sequence above and adjacent to the Boyongan/Bayugo complex also contain abundant clasts with
intense, pervasive illite and alunite-pyrophyllite-dickite-kaolinite alteration assemblages that have overprinted
K silicate-style quartz veins.
In both mineral deposits, Cu and Au are associated with intense quartz-vein stockworks composed primarily of
K silicate stage 3 veins. Despite this association, not all of these quartz-vein stockworks contain Cu and Au to the
same tenor. Quartz-vein stockworks in the eastern high grade of Boyongan have been intersected over a vertical
interval of 800 m, having affected much of the early-mineralization stock. However, hypogene Cu grades exceed
0.5% by weight only in the upper 300 m of the stockwork (in the cupola of the early-mineralization stock). Supe-
rior grade development in high-grade zones at Boyongan, locally exceeding 2% Cu and 3 g/t Au, developed where
fertile vein stages from two or more magmatic-hydrothermal cycles affected the same wall rock.
The documented paragenetic relationships demonstrate multiple discrete cycles of K silicate-stage veining
and alteration associated with each synmineralization intrusive event. All such events predate formation of
feldspar-destructive illite-smectite-chlorite, illite-pyrite, and quartz-alunite-clay assemblages. Existing geochro-
nological constraints on the timing of magmatism and hydrothermal activity demonstrate that these repeated
cycles supporting superior grade development transpired extremely rapidly, in a period of less than 200,000
years (2.3–2.1 Ma). Geologic and geochronological constraints on the life cycle of Boyongan and Bayugo
describe an extremely dynamic history of emplacement, exhumation, weathering, and burial over a period of
2.3 m.y. The study illustrates the spectrum of metallogenic processes operative over a geologically brief period
and highlights some of the key elements responsible for formation of superior grades and for deposit preserva-
tion in an extensional setting.
† Corresponding author: e-mail, dave.braxton@angloamerican.com
*Electronic appendices for this paper can be found at www.economicgeology.org.
**Present address: Anglo American, Group Exploration and Geosciences, 20 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AN, United Kingdom.
***Present address: Aranz Geo (AUS) Pty Ltd. 2F, 25 Cantonment St, Fremantle WA 6160, Australia.
****Present address: Locrian Resources Inc. 400, 255-17 Avenue SW-Calgary, Alberta T2S 2T8, Canada.
doi: 10.5382/econgeo.2018.4545
0361-0128/18/83-49 83
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by Jeff Doyle
84 BRAXTON ET AL.
Introduction intercepted 362 m of K silicate-altered diorite breccia, with

Located in the northeast of the island of Mindanao, Boyon- grades of 0.8% Cu and 1.9 g/t Au (Fig. 2).
gan and Bayugo are two Cu-Au porphyry mineral deposits In parallel with a resource scoping drilling program at
discovered by Anglo American in 2000 and 2003, respectively, Boyongan, exploration for additional porphyry centers in the
beneath postmineralization cover in the historic Surigao Au district continued with a series of low-density (~1-km spac-
district of the southern Philippines (Fig. 1). Recent mineral ing) scout drill holes designed to sample the pre-Quaternary
resource estimates for Boyongan (measured, indicated, and bedrock over a ~40-km2 NW-trending structural corridor cen-
inferred at 0.5% Cu equiv cutoff grade) stand at 299 million tered on Boyongan (Fig. 2D). A key result of this program
tons (Mt) grading 0.51% Cu and 0.70 g/t Au, while similar was recognition that chalcocite in hole TSD29, drilled several
estimates for Bayugo total 132 Mt grading 0.67% Cu and hundred meters to the northwest of the Boyongan system,
0.67 g/t Au (Philex, 2011). likely reflected provenance from a second porphyry system.
Since their formation in the early Pleistocene, the Boyon- In mid-2003 hole JSD15 (drilled ~1,200 m northwest of Boy-
gan and Bayugo mineral deposits were exhumed and subse- ongan) encountered a 600-m interval of hypogene Cu sulfides
quently buried beneath postmineralization cover in the active grading 0.3% Cu and 0.3 g/t Au from 400-m depth. This hole
Mainit graben system. During its geologically brief exposure, confirmed the discovery of a second blind porphyry Cu-Au
a 600-m-thick supergene profile developed at Boyongan, this system, termed Bayugo (Fig. 2).
being the deepest pervasive oxidation profile of any porphyry Regional Tectonic Setting
system described to date (Braxton et al., 2009). This paper
provides a detailed geologic description for these deposits and The Philippine archipelago currently lies at the juncture of
their evolution in this emerging Cu-Au district. two major tectonic plates: the Philippine Sea plate to the
east, and the Eurasia plate to the west. Caught between these
two converging plates is the Philippine mobile belt (Gerva-
Discovery history sio, 1966), an actively deforming tectonic collage of oceanic
With the genetic association of epithermal Au and porphyry crustal blocks surrounded on most sides by destructive plate
Cu-Au systems in mind, Anglo American Exploration (Philip- margins. Four major subduction zones currently consume
pines) Inc. (Anglo American) targeted the Surigao Au district oceanic crust beneath the Philippines (Fig. 1B, inset). To the
(northeast Mindanao) for porphyry Cu-Au potential in 1997. west, collision of the Philippines and Eurasia plates is driv-
In January 1998, Anglo American, operating a joint venture ing E- and NE-directed subduction of South China, Sulu, and
with partner Philex Gold (Philex), began a program of recon- Celebes oceanic crust at the Manila, Negros-Sulu, and Cota-
naissance-scale geologic mapping and stream sediment geo- bato trenches, respectively. Suture (collision) zones in Mind-
chemistry over Philex’s tenements in the Surigao peninsula. oro, Panay, and Mindanao connect these subduction zones in
This work highlighted several low-level stream sediment Au locations where Eurasia plate continental crustal fragments
and Cu anomalies as well as extensive trains of diorite boul- are colliding with the Philippine oceanic basement. East of
ders containing intense quartz vein stockwork in the Bagacay the central and southern Philippines, the Philippine trench is
and Magpayang drainage areas, located northwest and south, consuming the Philippine Sea plate. Farther north, the bathy-
respectively, of the Bayugo and Boyongan deposits (Fig. metric depression of the east Luzon trough may represent an
2). The exploration team then carried out a dipole-dipole incipient and/or inactive subduction zone (Aurelio, 2000b).
induced-polarization (IP) survey over a 10-km2 area around Much of the Philippine archipelago represents a collage of
Bagacay. Drilling results in the vicinity of the altered boulder Mesozoic and Tertiary island arcs built on oceanic crust of the
trains (Fig. 2A) failed to intersect a porphyry system but did Philippine Sea plate. Northeast movement of this plate rela-
reveal intensely veined diorite porphyry cobbles and boulders tive to the Eurasia plate resulted in collision and docking of
in the cover sequence. These results suggested that the min- these arc terranes at the Eurasian continental margin begin-
eralized and altered boulders had been transported by active ning in the late Miocene. Active volcanism throughout much
streams reworking Pleistocene conglomeratic and debris-flow of the Philippines is related to subduction zones beneath the
facies in the postmineralization cover. Continued prospecting eastern, western, and southern margins of the Philippine
for the bedrock source of the mineralized boulders highlighted mobile belt. Oblique convergence between the Eurasia and
sparse diorite porphyry float in the Boyongan area, leading to Philippine Sea plates has contributed to the development of
the decision to conduct a 13-km ridge-and-spur soil sampling the Philippine fault, a strike-slip fault zone with dominantly
program in conjunction with ground magnetic and IP geo- sinistral displacement extending over 1,200 km from Luzon
physical surveys. The geochemical survey results defined dis- to Mindanao. In the vicinity of the Boyongan and Bayugo
crete Au and base-metal anomalies within restricted Pliocene deposits, the Philippine fault passes through (and controls the
or older inliers and also within the actively eroding paleo- overall shape of) the Surigao peninsula (Fig. 1B). The pat-
debris flows in the cover sequence. Diamond drilling at Boy- terns of physiography, sedimentation, and active volcanism in
ongan commenced in mid-2000, with the first hole (TSD01) this region reflect the profound influence of this crustal-scale
targeting a magnetic feature. The hole intersected barren fault zone.
magnetite-bearing basaltic rocks of the Oligocene-Miocene
Bacuag Formation beneath cover. Scout drilling continued, Philippine porphyry deposits
and in August 2000 diamond drill hole TSD06 intercepted Porphyry Cu-(Au) deposits (defined herein as low-grade,
the Boyongan mineral deposit beneath 57 m of volcanic and large-tonnage hydrothermal accumulations of Cu ± Au and/or
sedimentary postmineralization cover. The discovery hole Mo formed in intimate association with high-level, commonly

by Jeff Doyle
GEOLOGY OF AN EMERGING PORPHYRY Cu-Au DISTRICT, NE MINDANAO, PHILIPPINES 85
125 ºE
Manila Trench
( (P (
Surigao
((
( Peninsula
( 15 ºN
FZ
Ph
( ilipp
in e
os
gr
Trenc
( (
Ne ch
(
-
lu n
Su Tre
h
(
((
Cotabato
5 ºN Trench
Mainit
Graben
1 Includes Libas Marl of Mitchell and Leach (1991).

2 Includes San Isidro Fm of L. Santos-Ynigo (unpub. report, 1944).
3 Includes Sohatan Fm of L. Santos-Ynigo (unpub. report, 1944).
Fig. 1. (A) Generalized geology of the Surigao peninsula, compiled from mapping of L. Santos-Ynigo (unpub. report, 1944)
for the Philippine Bureau of Mines and Geosciences (Bureau of Mines and Geosciences, 1983), mapping of United Nations
Development Program (1987), and from unpublished mapping by Anglo American Exploration (Philippines) Inc. (B) Digital
elevation model of the Surigao peninsula emphasizing the region’s principal physiographic elements, modified after unpub-
lished data from Anglo American Exploration (Philippines) Inc. Map Projection: UTM zone 51N, datum: Clark 1864 (Luzon
exclusive of Palawan). Inset in (B) shows the tectonic context of the Surigao peninsula in the Philippine mobile belt. Abbrevia-
tions: PFZ = Philippine fault zone.

by Jeff Doyle
86 BRAXTON ET AL.
A 1999-August, 2000 B
Reconnaissance, and
Bagacay discovery of Boyongan
boulder
train ! exposed
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B o y o n g a n a n d B a y u g o d is c o v e ry h is to ry : K e y in te rc e p ts
Inte rce p t
Cu Au D rilling
DDH C o ve r M ine ra l Re le va nce
(% ) (g /t) D a te
(m ) (m )
B oyongan
TS D 0 2 65 273 0 .3 0 .1 G e o che m ica l ha lo July, 200 0
TS D 0 6 57 362 0 .8 1 .9 D isco ve ry ho le August, 200 0
Magpayang B ayugo
boulder train TS D 2 9 337 90 0 .7 0 .2 E xo tic copper zo ne Sept., 200 1
2 km
JS D 1 5 400 600 0 .3 0 .3 D isco ve ry ho le July, 200 3
C August, 2000-April 2003 D April 2003-January 2009

Scoping Boyongan, PFS Boyongan,
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Maniayao
. Unmineralized
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volcanic complex
(post-mineralization) . Mineralized
!
Fig. 2. Key elements of the discovery history, Boyongan and Bayugo. (A) Reconnaissance mapping and geochemical sampling
leads to recognition of mineralized boulder fields at Bagacay and Magpayang (shown in red). Black outlines delimit areas of
premineralization bedrock outcrop. (B) Scout drilling leads to discovery hole at Boyongan (TSD06). (C) Step-out drilling in
TSD29 intersects chalcocite later recognized as evidence for a second porphyry Cu system (Bayugo), as confirmed by JSD15.
(D) Scoping of Bayugo confirms presence of chalcocite enrichment zone. Modified after Braxton and Waters (2012). Abbre-
viations: PFS = prefeasibility study.

by Jeff Doyle
porphyritic, intrusive stocks) developed in most of the mag- Basement complex

matic arcs within the Philippine archipelago. For clarity, the Basement rocks in the Surigao peninsula are of two distinct
terms “deposit” or “mineral deposit” as employed broadly types: (1) greenschist facies metasediments and greenstones
in this study follow the terminology defined by the Ameri- and (2) ultramafic rocks with ophiolitic affinities. Drilling and
can Geological Institute (1996, p. 347) to refer to “a mineral mapping revealed no substantial basement rocks in the vicin-
occurrence of sufficient size and grade that it might, under ity of the Boyongan and Bayugo deposits. However, xenoliths
favorable circumstances, be considered to have economic of garnet-amphibolite occur in the Maniayao andesite flows,
potential.” More than 50 Philippine porphyry deposits and consistent with the presence of the Surigao ophiolite and/or
prospects have been described in some detail (Sillitoe and the Madanlog Formation at depth.
Gappe, 1984; Hedenquist et al., 1998; Cooke et al., 2005, Concepcion schist: L. Santos-Yñigo (unpub. report, 1944)
2011; Singer et al., 2005a, b, 2008; Braxton, 2007), attest- termed this metasedimentary sequence the Sohatan Forma-
ing to the archipelago’s endowment of intrusion-related Cu. tion, describing it as a package of metaconglomerates, schists,
Some of these systems relate to older arc configurations, sandstones, and marbles. United Nations Development Pro-
including the Cretaceous Atlas district in Cebu (Walther gram (1984) added greenstones to the description of the
et al., 1981; Kerntke et al., 1991), the Eocene Canicanian sequence and renamed the package as the Concepcion schist.
deposit in Polillo (Knittel and Burton, 1985), the early Oli- Their more recent terminology is retained here. The Concep-
gocene Sipalay deposit in southern Negros (Walther et al., cion schist underlies much of the Western Range, west and
1981), the latest Oligocene Dinkidi deposit in the Didipio south of Lake Mainit, and occurs in the eastern Diwata Range
region of northern Luzon (Hollings et al., 2011; Wolfe and (Fig. 1A). Direct age constraints for the metasedimentary/
Cooke, 2011), and the early Miocene Tapian (Marcopper) metavolcanic Concepcion schist in the Surigao peninsula do
deposit in Marinduque (Walther et al., 1981). The majority of not exist. However, Cretaceous- to Paleogene-aged sequences
dated Philippine porphyry deposits are younger than 10 Ma of similar rock types underlie much of the eastern Philippines
(Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985; Arribas et al., 1995; Bellon and (Fernandez, 1981; Mitchell and Leach, 1991), suggesting a
Yumul, 2000; Imai, 2001; Rohrlach, 2002; Chang et al., 2011; Cretaceous age for the Concepcion schist.
Waters et al., 2011; Braxton et al., 2012). Most of these are Surigao ophiolite: Extensive, locally serpentinized bodies of
spatially associated with the Philippine fault zone in Luzon peridotite, dunite, harzburgite (locally hosting podiform chro-
and Mindanao, reflecting a tectonic configuration approach- mite), and gabbro crop out in the Western Range, the Diwata
ing that of today. Range east of the Tubay Valley, and in numerous small islands
Surigao District Geologic Setting (e.g., Nonoc, Dinagat, and Hinituan Islands) to the northeast
of the Surigao peninsula (Fig. 1A). Although the package lacks
The Surigao peninsula lies at the northeast tip of Mindanao a complete ophiolite sequence from basal peridotite through
and defines a NNW-trending salient some 90 km in length capping pillow basalts and sediments, many authors (e.g.,
and 60 km in width. Three elevated landforms dominate the Hawkins et al., 1985) consider this mafic-ultramafic package to
physiography of the Surigao peninsula. From east to west be a detached fragment of oceanic crust. Mitchell and Leach
these are the Diwata Range (or Eastern Cordillera), the (1991) interpreted the garnet amphibolite rocks in southern
Maniayao highlands, and the Western Range (Fig. 1B). An Dinagat Island as a metamorphic sole of the Surigao ophiolite.
elongate depression defined by the Surigao lowlands in the Like the Concepcion schist, direct age determinations for the
north and the Tubay Valley in the south separates the Diwata Surigao ophiolite have not been reported. Age determinations
Range from the Western Range. This depression relates to from pelagic sediments covering mafic-ultramafic sequences
the actively-extending Mainit graben, filled on its southern elsewhere in the Philippines provide the principal age con-
edge by the prominent freshwater Lake Mainit. The volca- straint for Philippine ophiolites (Aurelio, 2000a, and refer-
nic Maniayao highlands occur at the northern edge of Lake ences therein), suggesting minimum ophiolite ages between
Mainit. They are associated with Pleistocene-Recent exten- late Cretaceous and Oligocene. The stratigraphic sequence
sion within the graben and locally reach 660 m above sea level overlying the Surigao ophiolite constrains the minimum age
(a.s.l.). Along the western graben margin, transtension along a to pre-late Eocene.
strand of the Philippine fault (Pubellier et al., 1993) has led to Where contacts are exposed in the Surigao peninsula, map-
uplift of the Western Range to elevations exceeding 1,000 m ping has shown the Surigao ophiolite to have been thrust atop
a.s.l. Uplift in the Diwata Range on the east side of the penin- the Concepcion schist (Fig. 1A), a relationship common to
sula has generated peaks reaching 2,000 m a.s.l. most of the Philippine basement rocks. Based on this relation-
The stratigraphy of the Surigao peninsula reflects the pro- ship, Mitchell and Leach (1991) argued that most large Phil-
tracted history of tectonic assembly that took place in the ippine ophiolites were emplaced as extensive thrust nappes.
southern Philippines. The brief summary presented here
draws largely on the work of L. Santos-Yñigo (unpub. report,
1944), United Nations Development Program (1987), and Madanlog Formation
Mitchell and Leach (1991), supplemented in the vicinity of The Madanlog Formation occurs as isolated outcrops contain-
the Boyongan and Bayugo prospects by our observations ing interstratified conglomerates, black shales, and fossilifer-
from diamond drill core. Figure 3 presents a generalized ous gray limestones. The sequence nonconformably overlies
stratigraphic column for the Surigao peninsula. Thicknesses the basement complex in the Western Range (Fig. 1A) and
presented represent estimates of the maximum stratigraphic in an isolated occurrence east of the Mapawa mine (United
thicknesses reported in the literature or observed in the field. Nations Development Program, 1987). The conglomerates

by Jeff Doyle
88 BRAXTON ET AL.
A B
Generalized stratigraphy
of the Surigao district Principal Rock Types Boyongan and Bayugo
Recent
sediments
Maniayo
Andesite/
Tugunan
Fomation
Timamana
Limestone
Mabuhay
Clastics
Motherlode
Turbidite
Formation
Hbx
Pbx
Bacuag
Formation
FDBx
DBC MDBx
Pleistocene Intrusions and breccias
SBx
BBx
Madanlog
Formation
Basement
Complex
Obf vbx
Surigao Concepcion
Ophiolite Schist
Fig. 3. (A) Generalized stratigraphy of the Surigao district, compiled from L. Santos-Ynigo (unpub. report, 1944), United
Nations Development Program (1987), and Mitchell and Leach (1991). Stratigraphic thicknesses are variable, and those
portrayed are approximations of the maximum thickness. (B) Legend for rock types represented in geologic maps and cross
sections in Figures 5, 6, 11, 12, 20, 21, and 23, and Appendix 1 (Figs. A4–A6, A13–A18, A23, A34, A26–A28).
consist of well-rounded clasts of basement complex, while the rocks and includes the San Isidro Formation, Siana Forma-
limestones reportedly contain an Eocene-aged faunal assem- tion, and Bacuag series of L. Santos-Yñigo (unpub. report,
blage (L. Santos-Yñigo, unpub. report, 1944). 1944). The Bacuag Formation underlies most of the Diwata
Range and occurs as isolated outcrops in the Surigao lowlands
Bacuag Formation and the Western Range (Fig. 1). Drilling by Anglo American
The Bacuag Formation is a heterolithic sequence of inter- revealed that the Bacuag Formation also underlies the region
stratified basaltic volcanics, limestones, and coarse clastic northeast of Lake Mainit, forming the principal stratigraphic

by Jeff Doyle
host to the intrusions of the Boyongan and Bayugo porphyry Island. These rocks constitute the Mabuhay Clastics Forma-
deposits. tion, the most important host sequence for epithermal veins
Stratigraphic relationships between subunits of the Bacuag recognized to date in the Surigao district. Altered exposures in
Formation are not well understood, since many contacts are and around the workings of the Placer, Motherlode, Mapaso,
unexposed or faulted. Figure 3 presents a tentative strati- and Siana mines (Fig. 4) have provided the basis for many
graphic sequence for the Bacuag Formation, based largely of the lithologic descriptions of this unit (United Nations
on the compilation of United Nations Development Program Development Program, 1987; Mitchell and Leach, 1991).
(1987). The basal section (formerly the San Isidro Formation In the Placer mine, polymictic (hornblende-phyric andesite,
of L. Santos-Yñigo, unpub. report, 1944) contains amygdaloi- andesite porphyry, dacite, limestone, and siltstone) conglom-
dal basalts and andesites, which have undergone widespread erates are interbedded with immature cross-stratified wakes
epidote-prehnite-albite alteration and locally intense brec- and grits. These are interstratified with the massive “Briggs
ciation. Also low in the sequence, massive to amygdaloidal, pyroclastics” (United Nations Development Program, 1987),
locally augite-phyric pillow basalts are interstratified with breccias consisting of medium-grained (generally <5 cm),
gray limestones and calcirudites (Siana beds) and carbona- chaotic, angular, unsorted, dominantly andesitic clasts in a
ceous shales. These rocks are best exposed in the environs of fine-grained clastic matrix. Near the Motherlode mine, a
the Siana mine open pit, 7 km south-southwest of Boyongan coarse-grained polymictic basal conglomerate (Kambilibid
(Fig. 4). Higher in the sequence, aphyric to feldspar-phyric boulder bed) unconformably overlies the Motherlode Turbi-
basalts (App. 1, Fig. A1A) are locally interstratified with gray, dite Formation.
stylolitic, locally coralline limestones (App. 1, Fig. A1B), coal- Evidence for the Mabuhay Clastics Formation is equivocal
bearing sandstones, and limestone- and basalt-clast conglom- in the vicinity of the Boyongan and Bayugo porphyry deposits.
erates (App. 1, Fig. A1C, D). Massive basalt intercalated with Drilling on the north and east margins of Boyongan intersected
basaltic breccias, which contain chaotic, angular clasts in a massive basalt interstratified with basaltic breccias containing
green-brown fine-grained matrix, characterizes the highest chaotically distributed, angular clasts in a green-brown, fine-
stratigraphic intersections of the Bacuag Formation in the grained matrix (App. 1, Fig. A1D). Anglo American geologists
vicinity of the Boyongan and Bayugo porphyry deposits (App. originally interpreted this facies as a pyroclastic component
1, Fig. A1C). of the Mabuhay Clastics Formation (Ignacio, 2005). How-
Bacuag Formation fossiliferous limestones from Masapelid ever, the monomictic character and basaltic composition of
Island and elsewhere in eastern Surigao contain upper Oligo- the breccias, their intimate relationship with massive basalts,
cene to lower Miocene faunal assemblages (United Nations and the absence of underlying Motherlode Formation clastic
Development Program, 1987). Whole-rock K-Ar age determi- rocks suggest that the breccias are a fragmental facies within
nations of 23 ± 1.1 (United Nations Development Program, the upper Bacuag Formation.
1987), 17.16 ± 0.36, and 13.25 ± 0.62 Ma (Sajona et al., 1997) A post-lower to middle Miocene and pre-early upper Plio-
from basaltic rocks support an upper Oligocene-middle Mio- cene depositional age is inferred for the Mabuhay Clastics
cene age for the Bacuag Formation. Formation, because limestone clasts from Mabuhay conglom-
erates near the Placer mine contain lower to middle Miocene
Motherlode Turbidite Formation fauna (United Nations Development Program, 1987). At the
The Motherlode Turbidite Formation, a gently folded Pamenco quarry 2 km west of the Motherlode mine, a horn-
sequence of silty mudstones, wackes, and basalt-dominated blende diorite hypabyssal plug dated at 3.23 ± 0.20 Ma (horn-
turbiditic sequences, underlies much of the northeastern blende, Ar-Ar) has intruded the Mabuhay Clastics Formation
Surigao peninsula (Fig. 4). A basal unconformity separates the (Camacho, 2001; P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report,
Motherlode Turbidite Formation and the underlying Bacuag 2003). Mitchell and Leach (1991) inferred a middle to early
Formation in the Libas River valley, 1 km southwest of the upper Miocene age for the Mabuhay Clastics Formation,
Motherlode mine (United Nations Development Program, based on a correlation with a similar clastic andesitic sequence
1987). In the vicinity of the Boyongan and Bayugo deposits, that underlies an upper Miocene sequence at Tambis in cen-
dark, finely laminated, silty mudstones containing thin cal- tral eastern Mindanao. This inference is consistent with the
cisiltite beds (App. 1, Fig. A2A) dominate the drill intersec- existing age constraints for the Mabuhay Clastics Formation
tions of the Motherlode Turbidite Formation northeast of the in Surigao.
Maniayao Volcanic Complex (Fig. 4).
The Motherlode Turbidite Formation contains a thick Timamana limestone
marl sequence variably termed the Taganaan Marl Member The Timamana limestone is a massive, cream-white, fossil-
(United Nations Development Program, 1987) or the Libas iferous limestone forming prominent cliffs in the northern
marl (Mitchell and Leach, 1991). Foraminifera from this Diwata Range east and northeast of Lake Mainit (Fig. 1). In
marl indicate a lower to middle Miocene age (United Nations this region, limestone exposures unconformably overlie the
Development Program, 1987). These data, in conjunction with Bacuag Formation, capping peaks exceeding 900 m a.s.l. In
K-Ar dating of basalts from the underlying Bacuag Formation, smaller exposures west of the Mapaso mine (Fig. 4), a similar
suggest a post-13.25 Ma age for the formation as a whole. limestone unconformably overlies the Motherlode Formation.
Deposition of the Timamana limestone is inferred to
Mabuhay Clastics Formation have occurred immediately prior to the mineralizing events
Andesitic clastic and volcaniclastic rocks and uncommon ande- in the Surigao district. Due to a lack of exposure, contact
site flows crop out in northeastern Surigao and on Masapelid relationships with the Mabuhay Clastics Formation are not

by Jeff Doyle
90 BRAXTON ET AL.
Fig. 4. Generalized geology of the northeast Surigao peninsula, showing locations of important mines and prospects. Com-
piled from mapping of L. Santos-Ynigo (unpub. report, 1944) for the Philippine Bureau of Mines and Geosciences (Bureau
of Mines and Geosciences, 1983), mapping of United Nations Development Program (1987), and from unpublished mapping
by Anglo American Exploration (Philippines) Inc. Map Projection: UTM zone 51N, datum: Clark 1864 (Luzon exclusive of
Palawan). Abbreviations: DEM = digital elevation model.

by Jeff Doyle
understood, and age constraints for the Timamana limestone (Boyongan, Bayugo, and Maniayao) are consistent with trans-
are commensurately poor. Micropaleontological analysis port and deposition within a fluvial setting.
of a sample of fossiliferous Timamana limestone (Braxton, Wood and leaf fragments commonly occur within the fluvial
2007) revealed an assemblage of large foraminifera contain- facies (App. 1, Fig. A2C), particularly near the pre-Quater-
ing Alveolinella quoyii, Amphistegina sp., Operculina sp., nary unconformity. To constrain the timing of burial at Boy-
and Marginopora sp. The sample lacked Lepidocyclina sp., ongan, Anglo American geologists collected three samples
which became extinct during the late Miocene. Based on this of this material from the unconformity for radioisotopic 14C
assemblage and the lack of Pleistocene to Recent foramin- dating. A sample of leaves collected from an elevation of 4 m
ifera such as Baculogypsina sp. and Calcarina sp., an age of below sea level (b.s.l.) gave a 14C age of 30,080 ± 1,270 before
latest late Miocene-Pliocene was estimated. Consequently, present (BP). Two samples of wood collected from higher
the Timamana limestone is inferred to postdate the middle to elevations on the unconformity (73 and 130 m) returned ages
early upper Miocene Mabuhay Clastics Formation. of 1,640 ± 80 and 1,760 ± 80 BP, respectively (Braxton et al.,
2012). The dating showed that the final stages of burial of the
Tugunan Formation Boyongan and Bayugo deposits occurred in the latest Pleisto-
The Tugunan Formation and Maniayao andesites form an cene to Holocene.
extensive sequence of Quaternary clastic, volcaniclastic, Lacustrine facies: The lacustrine facies contains silty car-
and volcanic debris covering much of the central lowlands bonaceous, locally bioturbated muds characteristic of a
between the Diwata and Western ranges (Figs. 1, 4). These low-energy depositional setting. The muds vary from well
formations were deposited in the actively extending Mainit laminated to massive and commonly contain shells of gastro-
graben (L. Santos-Yñigo, unpub. report, 1944). Anglo Ameri- pods (high and low spire) and bivalves (App. 1, Fig. A2D).
can scout drilling over a 4- × 10-km region around Boyongan The muds thicken southward toward Lake Mainit (App. 1,
and Bayugo enabled definition of four lithofacies (App. 1, Fig. Fig. A3F), but in the vicinity of Bayugo local thick accumula-
A3): illite-altered debris flow facies, fluvial facies, lacustrine tions suggest isolated, structurally controlled basins.
facies, and volcanic facies. Because of the region’s low elevation and proximity to the
Illite-pyrite–altered debris flow facies: Coarse-grained ocean, deposition in an estuarine environment is a possibility
sequences of unstratified, chaotic, generally matrix-supported for some of these fine-grained sediments. However, Braxton’s
debris flows containing subrounded illite + pyrite-altered (2007) examination of four samples of Tugunan Formation
clasts of intrusions and associated pre-Quaternary host rocks silty mud revealed no marine microfauna.
occur close to Boyongan and Bayugo (App. 1, Fig. A3C). Clasts Maniayao andesite: Clastic and coherent andesitic rocks
are generally supported in a white clay-rich (illite ± smectite ± (App. 1, Fig. A2D) of the Maniayao andesite form the promi-
chlorite ± kaolinite ± pyrophyllite), pyritized matrix. Drilling nent volcanic landforms in the Maniayao volcanic complex
intersections locally exceed 100 m in apparent thickness (e.g., north of Lake Mainit (Fig. 4). Although exposures are poor,
diamond drill hole JSD09). The clast types, clay alteration, several positive topographic features within the Maniayao
and spatial distribution are consistent with derivation from an complex (refer to digital terrain model in Fig. 1B) suggest that
incompetent clay-dominated lithocap that is inferred to have there are multiple vent locations or subvolcanic plugs. The
overlain and/or occurred adjacent to the Boyongan/Bayugo most prominent structure is the large (2 km) circular depres-
mineralized complex. The thick sequences of mass-wasting sion near the center of the complex, cored by a rounded hill.
deposits attest to catastrophic slope failures in environments These two features appear to be an eruptive crater and resur-
of high relief. Generation of such relief probably reflects rapid gent dome, respectively, and based on their high degree of
surface displacement along normal faults associated with the preservation, United Nations Development Program (1987)
Mainit graben, although surface inflation related to shallow estimated an age not exceeding 0.1 Ma. A broad apron of
magma movement beneath the Maniayao volcanic complex volcaniclastic material surrounds the volcanic hills, covering
may also have played a role. much of the area between Lake Mainit and the Surigao low-
Fluvial facies: The Tugunan Formation fluvial facies lands (Fig. 1). Extensive drilling by Anglo American on the
includes poorly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, east margin of the Maniayao complex revealed that the vol-
and silts (App. 1, Fig. A3D, E). The gravels commonly occur canic package thickens to over 700 m westward (App. 1, Fig.
as 5- to 10-m-thick lenses within massive sands and silty sands A3B).
and are well rounded, moderately well sorted, and clast sup-
ported with a sandy matrix. Clasts of pre-Quaternary rock Recent fluviolacustrine sediments
units dominate the gravel composition near the base of the Unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt, and mud cover much of the
Tugunan Formation, including mineralized and/or altered low-lying areas of the Surigao peninsula (Figs. 1B, 4). In the
intrusive rocks most likely derived from the Boyongan and Bagacay and Magpayang areas (Figs. 2B, 4), clasts of quartz-
Bayugo deposits. Andesite clasts occur at higher stratigraphic vein-stockworked diorite porphyry are a common compo-
intervals and are the dominant clast type in the uppermost nent of the gravels. Reworking of Tugunan Formation debris
gravels. flows and conglomerates by active streams may explain this
Sands and silts are most abundant east of Boyongan and distribution.
Bayugo, and gravel accumulations are greatest to the north- The recent sediments are similar in composition and dep-
west and the south of the deposits (App. 1, Fig. A3D, E). ositional patterns to the fluvial and lacustrine facies of the
In addition to bedding structures, the clast types, rounding, Tugunan Formation. These similarities reflect the general con-
and distribution relative to inferred principal source areas tinuity of sediment provenance, transport, and depositional

by Jeff Doyle
92 BRAXTON ET AL.
environments operating since the onset of extension in the mineralized structures have pervasive pyrite-illite ± kaolin-
Surigao peninsula. ite alteration envelopes associated with varying degrees of
silicification. Gold mineralization and alteration was focused
Surigao District Metallogeny in the Mabuhay Clastics Formation and in diorite porphyry
Until the discovery of the Boyongan porphyry Cu-Au deposit intrusions. In the vicinity of the Motherlode (Mabuhay) mine,
in 2000, the Surigao district was known primarily for epi- veins extend below the Mabuhay Clastics Formation into the
thermal Au, though workers in the 1980s (e.g., Sillitoe and underlying Motherlode Turbidite Formation.
Gappe, 1984) highlighted the Surigao district as prospective Sediment-hosted Au mineral occurrences are present in
for porphyry Cu deposits. Mechanized mining began in the the Lascogon, Napo, and Danao prospects (Maglambayan et
1930s and, following a hiatus during World War II, has contin- al., 2005) and in the Reno pit of the Placer mine (Mitchell
ued intermittently to the present day. Although all mines were and Leach, 1991; P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report,
initially worked as underground operations, the Siana, Placer, 2003). In these systems, Au occurs in black jasperoids that
and Motherlode mines developed small open pits in the 1980s replaced decalcified marls. The Au is associated with dissemi-
(Mitchell and Leach, 1991). At the time of writing, the Siana nated pyrite and local stibnite vug fill. Base metal sulfides are
and Placer Au mines make up the active production from the rare or absent.
Surigao. Estimates of historic Au production from the district In contrast to the Lascogon, Napo, Danao, and Placer
exceed 2 Moz (Red 5, 2005; Conde, 2014). mineral occurrences, ore at the Siana sediment-hosted Au
Three principal styles of hydrothermal deposits occur in the deposit (Fig. 4) occurs in association with massive sulfide
Surigao district: vein-hosted epithermal Au, sediment-hosted/ bodies hosted by locally brecciated limestone. Pyrite is the
carbonate replacement Au, and porphyry Cu-Au (Table 1). In dominant phase in the massive sulfides, occurring with sub-
most deposits, altered diorite porphyry intrusions are spatially ordinate sphalerite, galena, and minor chalcopyrite. Gold also
associated with metal accumulation. occurs as finely disseminated electrum associated with the
breccia matrix and limestone clasts. Coarse-grained feldspar
Epithermal gold in the Surigao district porphyry dikes intruded the basalt and limestone host rock
Epithermal Au deposits include the Placer, Motherlode, and are exposed on the north side of the open pit. Shallow
Mapawa, and Mapaso deposits, all located in eastern Surigao illite-pyrite alteration affected the feldspar porphyry and the
(Fig. 4). In these systems, Au occurs principally as electrum basalts, while magnetite ± chalcopyrite veinlets occur in the
and Au tellurides associated with comb quartz, pyrite, and basalt at depth. These features suggest that Siana may be
minor base metals in veins and restricted stockworks. The associated with a porphyry Cu-Au system.
Table 1. Important Gold and Copper Mines and Prospects in the Surigao District
Mineral inventory1 Contained metal
Name Size (Mt) Cu (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Cu (Mt) Au (Moz) Ag (Moz) Status Easting2 Northing2 References3
Porphyry copper-gold
Asiga River 26 0.36 0.09 Prospect 788859 1025741 1, 2, 3
Maraat Prospect 792474 1030000 3
Suyoc 5 1 3 0.05 0.5 Inactive mine 782701 1068911 1, 3
Boyongan 299 0.51 0.70 1.52 6.7 Mineral deposit 779796 1062198 4
Bayugo 132 0.67 0.67 0.88 2.8 Mineral deposit 779010 1063049 4
Madya Prospect 784526 1048796 5
Skarn-porphyry copper-gold
Green Tunnel Prospect 783886 1050085 1
Epithermal gold
Mapawa 8.8 1.02 2.85 0.3 0.8 Inactive mine 777723 1075304 1, 3
Mapaso Inactive mine 784545 1067553 1, 3
Motherlode 4 5 0.6 Inactive mine 778148 1072501 1, 3
Placer 11 2.3 0.8 Active mine 784114 1069698 1, 3
Sediment-hosted/carbonate replacement gold

Siana 11.2 5.4 1.9 Active mine 782950 1055712 5, 6, 7, 8
Lascogon Prospect 781363 1070063 9
Napo Prospect 780573 1073114 9
Danao Prospect 780725 1071188 9
1 Prospects: geologic resource; mines: past production as of 2016

2 UTM Zone 51N; datum: Luzon 1911 (exclusive of Palawan)
3 References: (1) P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report, 2003; (2) Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; (3) Mitchell and Leach, 1991; (4) Philex, 2011; (5) Red 5,
2005; (6) Red 5, 2012; (7) Red 5, 2015; (8) Red 5, 2016; (9) Maglambayan et al., 2005

by Jeff Doyle
Copper-gold porphyries in the Surigao district At Boyongan, emplacement of a large silt-sand matrix brec-
Until the discovery of Boyongan and Bayugo, the only por- cia body shattered the earliest-formed diorite intrusions, set-
phyry systems recognized in the Surigao peninsula were the ting the stage for emplacement of a series of early-, inter-,
Asiga River-Maraat prospects (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; and late-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks associated
Mitchell and Leach, 1991), located approximately 35 km with elevated Cu-Au grades. The diatreme breccia complex
southeast of Boyongan (Fig. 1). Since 1999, grassroots explo- is absent at Bayugo, where a sequence of early-, inter-, and
ration and reevaluation of known epithermal districts led to late-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks similar to those at
the recognition of several additional porphyry Cu-Au systems Boyongan intruded the early diorite complex. Quartz-magne-
(Table 1; Fig. 4). tite cemented breccias with associated K-feldspar alteration
The Asiga River and Maraat prospects are associated with a developed in association with the early- and intermineraliza-
large composite diorite complex displaying a prominent north- tion intrusions at Bayugo and Boyongan and are most signifi-
east alignment in the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 1). At least five cant in Boyongan’s eastern high-grade zone.
zones of porphyry-style alteration are present here. Copper Postmineralization volcanism and sedimentation buried
occurs as chalcopyrite, bornite, and covellite associated pri- the intrusions and host rocks of the Boyongan and Bayugo
marily with zones of K silicate alteration and peripheral mag- deposits (Fig. 5A). Drilling beneath this cover has revealed
netite skarn (P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report, 2003). that Boyongan and Bayugo are centered on a complex of com-
At Suyoc (Fig. 4), diamond drilling by Manila Mining Cor- posite diorite stocks and diatreme breccias emplaced into vol-
poration revealed dense magnetite-quartz-vein stockworks canic and sedimentary rocks of the Bacuag and Motherlode
containing late chalcopyrite and pyrite, centered on a small Turbidite Formations (Figs. 3, 5B).
diorite porphyry stock. A pervasive intermediate argillic The intrusions share a common phenocryst assemblage
assemblage overprinted K silicate alteration associated with containing plagioclase and hornblende, locally with minor
the stockwork. A possible late- to postmineralization diatreme (<2 vol %) biotite and/or clinopyroxene. They lack igneous
breccia may have removed a portion of the Suyoc deposit quartz. The diorite complex contains at least 12 discrete dio-
(P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report, 2003). rite phases, distinguished on the basis of texture and timing
Recent drilling at the nearby Placer deposit (Fig. 4) revealed relationships to veining, alteration, and brecciation. Figure 6
deep (>400 m) porphyry-style Cu-Au intercepts beneath the as well as Appendix 1, Figures A4 through A6 present geo-
Ntina pit (Conde, 2014). Here hydrothermal biotite, K-feld- logic cross sections showing the geometry and spatial dis-
spar, and magnetite affect diorite stocks that intruded the tribution of these intrusions. Table 2 lists the texturally and
Mabuhay Clastics Formation. Copper and Au are associated compositionally distinctive features of each intrusive phase
with chalcopyrite-bornite-chalcocite-pyrite–bearing assem- in the complex and provides a centralized reference for the
blages in quartz-anhydrite stockworks that are spatially asso- nomenclature employed in this study. Figure 7 emphasizes
ciated with the diorite intrusions. Similar to Suyoc, there is the changes in quartz vein abundance and Au grade that high-
evidence of postporphyry diatreme formation at Placer in the light intrusive contacts.
form of Cu-bearing clasts of microdiorite porphyry described Mineralizing and brecciation events serve to subdivide dio-
from polymictic breccias in the Ntina pit (Conde, 2014). rite emplacement into temporally distinct episodes. (1) Ini-
At the nearby Mapawa mineral deposit (Fig. 4), P. Waters tial magmatism formed an early diorite complex consisting
and R. Gonzales (unpub. report, 2003) described a similar of at least three intrusive phases: bird’s-eye diorite porphyry,
diorite porphyry stock with magnetite-quartz vein stockworks medium-grained diorite porphyry, and fine-grained diorite
and K silicate alteration overprinted by pervasive intermedi- porphyry. These intrusive events predated Cu-Au mineral-
ate argillic alteration. These authors interpreted the aurif- ization. (2) At Boyongan, a large, premineralization silt-sand
erous quartz-pyrite structures with broad argillized halos matrix breccia complex partially fragmented the early diorite
(United Nations Development Program, 1987) superimposed complex and surrounding wall rock. (3) A series of early-
on the diorite porphyry to represent telescoping of epithermal mineralization diorite porphyry stocks (ECD0-ECD3) then
mineralization onto the porphyry system. intruded the silt-sand matrix breccia complex at Boyon-
South of Suyoc, a NNW-trending belt of porphyry and gan. These intrusions bear a spatial relationship to elevated
porphyry-skarn occurrences contains the most significant por- Cu-Au grades and quartz-vein stockworks. Quartz-magnetite
phyry Cu-Au mineral deposits yet identified in the Surigao cemented breccias formed in spatial and temporal relation to
district (Fig. 4). Copper-gold occurrences along what has the early-mineralization diorite series intrusions. At Bayugo,
become known as the “Boyongan corridor” include the Boy- the early-mineralization diorite porphyry 2 (DIO2), intruded
ongan and Bayugo mineral deposits, the Madya porphyry the medium-grained diorite porphyry and is the intrusive
Cu-Au prospect, and the Green Tunnel Cu skarn/porphyry phase associated with quartz-vein stockworks and elevated
prospect. The Siana sediment-hosted Au deposit, itself dis- Cu-Au grades. However, the absence of crosscutting relation-
playing a possible porphyry association, also lies along the ships with the silt-sand matrix breccia precludes more precise
Boyongan corridor (Fig. 4). age constraints of the Bayugo intrusions relative to breccia
formation. (4) A series of moderately-altered intermineral-
ization and late-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks and
Boyongan and Bayugo Mineral Deposits dikes cuts the early-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks. At
Intrusive History Boyongan, these are the intermineralization diorite porphyry
The Boyongan and Bayugo Cu-Au mineral deposits formed in stock and the late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes.
spatial relationship to a composite diorite porphyry complex. At Bayugo, diorite porphyries 3 and 4 (DIO3 and DIO4)

by Jeff Doyle
94 BRAXTON ET AL.
A
Fig. 5. (A) Surface geology, topography, and diamond drill locations for Boyongan and Bayugo deposits. The geologic map is
based on the authors’ reinterpretation of unpublished mapping by Anglo American Exploration (Philippines) Inc., incorpo-
rating drilling results for material encountered in the first meter (Anglo American, 2004). Maniayao andesitic volcanic rocks
cover the western side of the prospects and underlie a prominent ridge in the vicinity of Bayugo. Mud, silt, sand, and gravel
of the Tugunan Formation fluviolacustrine facies cover much of the eastern sector and occupy a small basin overlying Bayugo
in the northwest. Southwest of Boyongan are isolated exposures of illite-pyrite–altered debris flows intercalated within the
fluviolacustrine facies. Restricted exposures of Bacuag Formation volcanic breccia facies (Paragayo Hill) and Timamana lime-
stone crop out where the Tugunan Formation thins to the east.
represent intermineralization and late-mineralization intru- complex (Figs. 5B, 6). Definition of the bird’s-eye porphyry
sive events, respectively. stock geometry is poor, as increasing cover thickness to the
west and south has discouraged additional drilling. In the
Early diorite complex vicinity of Bayugo, diamond drill hole JSD15 stopped after
Three texturally distinctive diorite porphyry stocks character- intercepting 129 m of bird’s-eye porphyry (App. 1, Fig. A6).
ize the earliest phases of magmatism in the Boyongan-Bayugo Although contact relationships with other intrusions are not
complex. They all intruded prior to the emplacement of the exposed, clasts of the bird’s-eye porphyry in the silt-sand
silt-sand matrix breccia complex and include the bird’s-eye matrix breccia complex (described below) indicate that the
diorite porphyry, medium-grained diorite porphyry, and fine- bird’s-eye porphyry belongs to the early diorite complex.
grained diorite porphyry. The low quartz vein abundances and Medium-grained diorite porphyry: The medium-grained
absence of vein-quartz xenoliths in these intrusions (Table 2) diorite porphyry is a crowded, plagioclase- and hornblende-
are consistent with their emplacement prior to the main min- phyric diorite intrusion locally containing minor biotite (Table
eralizing events at Boyongan and Bayugo. 2; App. 1, Fig. A7B). This phase forms a large irregular stock
Bird’s-eye diorite porphyry: The bird’s-eye porphyry is a near the approximate center of the Boyongan intrusive com-
coarse-grained, plagioclase- and hornblende-phyric diorite plex (Fig. 5B), where the largest contiguous body measures
stock named for its distinctive feldspar megacrysts resem- 1,200 × 400 m in plan. The medium-grained diorite porphyry
bling bird eyes (Table 2; App. 1, Fig. A7A). Diamond drill texture is seriate and finer grained (MGD-s in Table 2; App.
hole TSD67 intersected approximately 580 vertical meters of 1, Fig. A7C) near its intrusive contacts with the basalt host
the bird’s-eye porphyry on the western edge of the Boyongan rock, such as on the northeast side of the Boyongan complex
B
by Jeff Doyle
A
B
Fig. 5. (Cont.) (B) Pre-Quaternary geology, topography, and diamond drill locations for Boyongan and Bayugo deposits. The
relationships depicted are based on the authors’ interpretation of logging along sections indicated and on reinterpretation
of drilling data in Anglo American (2004). An early diorite complex has intruded the Bacuag and Motherlode Formations,
consisting of bird’s-eye diorite porphyry (BEP), medium-grained diorite porphyry (MGD), and fine-grained diorite porphyry
(FGD) phases. A large silt-sand matrix breccia complex shattered much of the early diorite complex and incorporated clasts
of early diorite intrusions and wall-rock fragments. Breccia zones defined by the dominant clast type subdivide the breccia
complex into wall-rock-dominated (SBx), intrusion-dominated (MDBx and FDBx), and polymict (PBx) facies. At Boyongan,
Au and Cu are associated with small early-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks (ECD1 and ECD2) emplaced within the
silt-sand matrix breccia complex. These intrusive centers are marked by two prominent topographic highs on the paleosur-
face. At Bayugo, early-mineralization diorite porphyry (DIO2) stocks are associated with Cu and Au. An intermineralization
diorite porphyry stock (DIO3) truncated the DIO2 stocks at Bayugo. Late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes at Boyongan
(LDP) and Bayugo (DIO4) are the youngest observed intrusive phases. The elevation of the pre-Quaternary surface drops
away abruptly on the west side of the deposits, inferred to be controlled by normal faulting. Figure 3 provides an explanation
of rock types for all deposit-scale geologic sections and plans in this paper. Cross section locations (1,062,200 N and 779,050
E) for Figures 6, 11, 12, 20, 21, and 23 shown in bold to distinguish them from locations for cross sections 1,063,000 N,
779,700 E, and 779,900 E in Appendix 1 (Figs. A4–A6, A13–A18, A23, A24, A26–A28).
(Fig. 5B). The younger diorite intrusions of Bayugo bound the phenocrysts (possibly hornblende) has obscured their original
medium-grained diorite porphyry stock to the north, while character. The fine-grained diorite porphyry occurs primarily
the Boyongan silt-sand matrix breccia complex forms the as fragments and large blocks within the silt-sand matrix brec-
southern limit (Fig. 5B). Clasts of the medium-grained diorite cia complex (Fig. 5B). Xenoliths of medium-grained diorite
porphyry in the silt-sand matrix breccia complex indicate that porphyry within the fine-grained diorite porphyry in diamond
emplacement of the medium-grained diorite porphyry pre- drill hole TSD52 (188–220 m) demonstrate that the fine-
dated breccia formation. grained diorite porphyry is the younger of these two intrusive
Fine-grained diorite porphyry: The fine-grained diorite phases.
porphyry is a plagioclase-phyric diorite with fine (<1 mm)
plagioclase phenocrysts, which locally display a strong align- Boyongan early-, inter-, and late-mineralization intrusions
ment suggestive of flow banding (App. 1, Fig. A7D). Replace- Boyongan early-mineralization diorite porphyries (ECD0-
ment by hydrothermal biotite and/or chlorite of the fine mafic ECD3): At Boyongan, Cu-Au grades are highest in and

by Jeff Doyle
96 BRAXTON ET AL.
Fig. 6. (A) Interpretive geologic cross section through the eastern and western mineralized centers at Boyongan looking north B
along 1,062,200 N. The relationships depicted are based on logging by the authors and on reinterpretation of geologic data in
Anglo American (2004). Stocks of the early diorite complex (bird’s-eye porphyry [BEP] and medium-grained diorite porphyry
[MGD]) have intruded basalt and volcanic breccia facies of the Bacuag Formation. A large silt-sand matrix breccia complex
shattered much of the early diorite complex and incorporated clasts of early diorite intrusions and wall-rock fragments. Brec-
cia zones defined by the dominant clast type subdivide the breccia complex into wall-rock-dominated (basalt clast-rich breccia
[BBx] and sedimentary clast-rich breccia [SBx]), intrusion-dominated (medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia [MDBx]
and fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia [FDBx]), and polymict (PBx) facies. Gold and Cu are associated with two narrow
cylindrical stocks emplaced into the silt-sand matrix breccia complex. These composite stocks are composed of multiple early-
mineralization diorite porphyry phases (ECD0 and ECD1 in the western high-grade zone, ECD1, ECD2, and ECD3 in the
eastern high-grade zone). A large intermineralization diorite porphyry stock (IMD) truncated the early-mineralization diorite
stocks at depth. Late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes (LDP) are the last observed intrusive phases at Boyongan. Prior
to final burial, erosion left two prominent topographic highs on the paleosurface overlying the mineralized centers. The eleva-
tion of the pre-Quaternary surface drops away abruptly on the west side of the deposit, inferred to be controlled by normal
faulting. Intercalated debris flows and fluviolacustrine sediments cover the pre-Quaternary unconformity and are overlain by
a westward-thickening sequence of andesitic volcanic rocks.
around four phases of plagioclase-hornblende-phyric diorite mineralized zones termed the eastern and western high-grade
intrusions emplaced into the silt-sand matrix breccia complex zones (Fig. 6A; App. 1, Figs. A4, A5).
(Table 2; App. 1, Fig. A8). Owing to compositional similari- Two phases of crowded plagioclase-hornblende-phyric
ties, the authors distinguished individual early-mineralization early-mineralization diorite (ECD0, ECD1) occur in the
diorite phases during logging on the basis of texture, crosscut- western high-grade zone. The ECD0 occurs as restricted bod-
ting relationships, internal chilled contacts, abrupt changes in ies (Fig. 6A; App. 1, Figs. A4–A8A) intersected by diamond
quartz vein density, and Cu or Au grades and by the presence drill holes TSD44 and TSD63. A distinctive ribbon-textured
and type of refractory vein-quartz xenoliths (Fig. 7), follow- quartz-vein stockwork (averaging 23% vein quartz; Table 2)
ing conventions defined by Sillitoe (2000). These intrusions, cut these ECD0 bodies and extended into the adjacent silt-
termed the early-mineralization diorite porphyries (ECD0- sand matrix breccia. A large body of ECD1 (App. 1, Fig. A8B)
ECD3), were emplaced in two roughly cylindrical composite subsequently intruded the western high-grade zone, truncat-
stocks measuring 100 to 200 m in diameter. The two intru- ing the ECD0 intrusion and associated stockwork. Subse-
sive centers and associated Cu-Au grades define two distinct quently, the ECD0 and ECD1 intrusions and surrounding

by Jeff Doyle
Fig. 6. (Cont.) (B) Interpretive geologic cross section through eastern Bayugo looking west along 779,050 E. The relation-
ships depicted are based on logging by the authors and on reinterpretation of geologic data in Anglo American (2004).
Stocks of the early diorite complex (BEP and MGD) intruded the Bacuag Formation. Gold and Cu are associated with an
early-mineralization diorite porphyry (DIO2) that intruded the early diorite complex medium-grained diorite porphyry stock.
Intermineralization and late-mineralization diorite porphyry stocks (DIO3 and DIO4, respectively) intruded the DIO2 stock.
Drilling has shown that the elevation of the pre-Quaternary surface drops away abruptly to the south, inferred to be con-
trolled by normal faulting. Interstratified debris flows and fluviolacustrine sediments cover the pre-Quaternary unconformity
and are overlain by a sequence of intercalated andesitic volcanic rocks and debris flows. Abrupt lateral facies changes (e.g.,
dominantly volcanics in TSD67 and dominantly sediments in adjacent TSD71) emphasize the complex depositional environ-
ment during burial. See Figure 5 for the cross section location and Figure 3 for an explanation of rock types.
host rocks were cut by a lower-intensity quartz-vein stock- early-mineralization diorite porphyry (ECD3) occurs as nar-
work (averaging 15% quartz; Table 2) lacking the distinctive row dikes of diorite porphyry that intruded the ECD2 stock at
ribbon-textured veins (Fig. 7B). The ECD1 stock is the most depth (Fig. 6A; App. 1, Fig. A5). These ECD3 dikes are also
significant intrusion in the western high-grade zone in terms cut by a quartz-vein stockwork (averaging 16% vein quartz;
of volume and spatial relationship to elevated Cu-Au grades. Table 2).
At least three early-mineralization diorite porphyry intru- Boyongan intermineralization diorite porphyry: A larger
sions (ECD1, ECD2, and ECD3; Table 2) occur in the east- (>250-m diam) crowded plagioclase- and hornblende-phyric
ern high-grade zone (Fig. 6A; App. 1, Figs. A5A, A8C-F). diorite stock truncated the early-mineralization diorite series
The earliest recognized phase (ECD1) has a crowded texture at depth. This stock represents the deepest intrusion encoun-
similar to the ECD1 intrusion logged in the western high- tered thus far in the Boyongan intrusive complex (App. 1,
grade zone. In the eastern high-grade zone, the ECD1 phase Fig. A9A). Quartz veining and Cu-Au mineralization also
displays an intense quartz-stockwork and occurs as roof pen- affected this intrusion, albeit with a lower grade and abun-
dants and stope blocks in the cupola and on the margin of the dance of quartz veining (averaging 2% vein quartz; Table 2)
younger ECD2 stock. The ECD2 stock also has a crowded than the series. Therefore, this intrusive phase is termed an
texture and is volumetrically the most significant intrusion intermineralization diorite porphyry stock (Fig. 6A; Table 2;
in the eastern high-grade zone. Both ECD1 and ECD2 host App. 1, Figs. A4, A5). Internal fine-grained contacts are pres-
significant quartz-vein stockworks (averaging 42% and 14% ent locally and may suggest more than one phase of magma
quartz, respectively; Table 2). The latest recognized phase of emplacement. However, textural similarity between discrete

by Jeff Doyle
by Jeff Doyle
98
Table 2. Distinctive Features of Intrusive Phases at Boyongan and Bayugo
Phenocrysts Grain Size
Total Quartz
abundance Mafics Plagioclase Hornblende Groundmass Accessory veining Vein-quartz
Intrusive phase Texture Minerals1 (%) (%) (mm) (mm) (mm) minerals (vol %)2 xenoliths Cu (%) Au (g/t)
Early diorite complex

BEP Bird’s-eye porphyry Porphyritic pg, hb 50–60 10–20 3–7 0.2–1.5 2–20 mt, zir 0.6% Absent 0.1% 0.2
MGD Medium-grained diorite Crowded pg, hb, (bio) 75–80 8–10 1–5 0.5–3 10 mt, ap, zir 0.9% Absent 0.3% 0.3
MGD-s Medium-grained Crowded to pg, hb, (cpx) 85–90 9 0.5–2 0.2–2 40–50 0.9% Absent 0.2% 0.4
diorite-seriate variant seriate
FGD Fine-grained diorite Fine-grained, pg, hb?–>2bio 40–45 5 0.1–0.7 0.05–0.5 2–10 2% Absent 0.7% 1.4
locally flow-
banded
Boyongan: Early-mineralization intrusions

ECD0 Early-mineral coarse- Crowded pg, hb 75–80 10 0.8–1.2 0.4–0.8 10–30 mt 23% Absent 0.5% 0.5
grained diorite: 0
ECD1 Early-mineral coarse- Crowded to pg, hb 70–80 5–10 1.5–2 0.5–1 10–15 mt 42%3 Absent3 3.2%4 12.2 3
grained diorite: 1 seriate 15%4 Present4 0.4%4 0.994
ECD2 Early-mineral coarse- Crowded pg, hb 70–80 5–8 0.5–3 0.5–1.2 10–60 mt 14% Common 0.9% 1.9
grained diorite: 2
ECD3 Early-mineral coarse- Porphyritic pg, hb, (cpx) 60–65 8 1.5–3 0.2–0.5 15–20 mt, ilm 16% Common 0.2% 0.1
grained diorite: 3

BRAXTON ET AL.
Boyongan: Inter- and late-mineralization intrusions

IMD Intermineral diorite Crowded pg, hb, (bio, cpx) 65–70 10–15 1.5–2.5 0.2–0.2 20–25 mt, ilm, ap, zir 2% Common 0.1% 0.2
LDP Late-mineral diorite Porphyritic, pg, hb 45–75 8–10 0.3–3 0.2–1.2 15–30 mt, ilm, ap, zir 0.6% Common 0.4% 0.4
locally flow-
banded
Bayugo: Early-mineralization intrusion

DIO2 Early-mineral diorite: 2 Crowded pg, hb, (bio, cpx) 70–85 10–15 1.6–3.6 1.2–1.6 10–20 mt, zir 8% Common5 0.6% 0.8
Bayugo: Inter- and late-mineralization intrusions

DIO3 Intermineral diorite: 3 Crowded pg, hb, (bio, cpx) 70–80 12 2.5–4 0.5–1.4 15–25 mt, ap, zir 8% Common 0.21% 0.37
DIO4 Late-mineral diorite: 4 Seriate to pg, hb, (cpx) 80–85 8 1–2 0.2–1.6 100–250 mt, ap, zir 4% Common 0.4% 0.31
crowded
Abbreviations: 2bio = secondary (hydrothermal) biotite, ap = apatite, bio = biotite, cpx = clinopyroxene, hb = hornblende, ilm = ilmenite, mt = magnetite, pg = plagioclase, zir = zircon
1 Accounting for 15% or more of the phenocryst population by volume; low-abundance phenocrysts (5–15%) are indicated parenthetically
2 References: Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Mitchell and Leach, 1991; P. Waters and R. Gonzales, unpub. report, 2003; Maglambayan et al., 2005; Red 5, 2005, 2012, 2015, 2016; Philex, 2011
3 Eastern high-grade zone
4 Western high-grade zone
5 Absent from earliest phases of the DIO2, common in later DIO2 phases (indicated by presence of internal fine-grained margins)
A TSD38: Boyongan B TSD63: Boyongan C TSD73: Bayugo

Rock Types
Depth Vein quartz (%) Au (g/t) Depth Vein quartz (%) Au (g/t) Depth Vein quartz (%) Au (g/t)
(m) 0 10 20 30 0 5 10 15
(m) 0 10 20 30 0 1 2 (m) 0 10 20 30 0 1 2 Inter- and late-
50 200 380 mineralization intrusions
Late-mineralization
diorite porphyry
LDP/DIO4
100 Inter-mineralization
250 430 diorite porphyry IMD
Early-mineralization complex
Quartz-magnetite-
150 cemented breccia
300 480
Early mineralization
diorite porphyry
ECD2/DIO2
200
350 530 diorite porphyry ECD1
250 diorite porphyry ECD0
400 580 Pre-mineralization complex

Silt-sand-
300 matrix breccia
Fine-grained
450 630
diorite
350 Medium-grained
diorite porphyry (MGD)
500 680
Vein-quartz xenoliths
400
550 730
Fig. 7. Simplified geologic logs from Boyongan (A, B) and Bayugo (C) showing the relationships between various intrusive
phases, quartz vein intensity, and Au concentration, based on logging by the authors and supplemented by geologic and assay
data in Anglo American (2004). (A) Boyongan: interval through the shallow eastern high-grade zone emphasizing the high
quartz vein abundance and Au association with the ECD-series intrusions and hydrothermally cemented breccia and anti-
thetic relationship with the late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes. (B) Boyongan: interval through the western high-grade
zone. Quartz vein abundance distinguishes ECD0 from ECD1, while variations in texture and low quartz vein abundance dis-
tinguish the intermineralization diorite porphyry and late-mineralization diorite porphyry intrusions. The diminishing abun-
dance of vein quartz affecting the silt-sand matrix breccia with distance from the intrusive contact with early-mineralization
ECD0 is evidence for atypically premineralization paragenetic position for the diatreme breccia complex at Boyongan. (C)
Interval through eastern Bayugo emphasizing the association of high quartz vein abundance and elevated Au concentrations
with the DIO2 intrusion and inverse relationship with the DIO4 intrusion.
intermineralization diorite porphyry intrusions away from Younger magmatic events at Bayugo are distinguished from
these contacts precluded the mapping of individual phases. the bird’s-eye porphyry and the medium-grained diorite por-
Boyongan late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes: The phyry by their texture and their spatial and temporal relation-
latest phase of magmatism in the Boyongan intrusive com- ships to quartz veining (Fig. 7C). Logging by the authors and
plex produced narrow (<1–15 m) late-mineral plagioclase- Anglo American geologists enabled definition of three prin-
and hornblende-phyric diorite dikes (Fig. 6A; Table 2; App. cipal intrusive phases emplaced in the early diorite complex
1, Figs. A4, A5). These dikes are subvertical, and correlation (Figs. 5B, 6B; App. 1, Fig. A6).
between various diamond drill holes suggests that they are Bayugo early-mineralization diorite porphyry 2 (DIO2): A
east trending. The greater abundance of groundmass, lower crowded plagioclase- and hornblende-phyric diorite (DIO2;
intensity of quartz veining (averaging 0.6% vein quartz; Table Table 2; App. 1, Fig. A10A) intruded the medium-grained
2), flow-banded contacts, and clear crosscutting relationships diorite porphyry at Bayugo (Figs. 5B, 6B; App. 1, Fig. A6).
(Fig. 7A) distinguish the late-mineralization diorite porphyry Drilling to date suggests that the DIO2 porphyry formed two
from earlier intrusions at Boyongan (App. 1, Fig. A9B). discrete stocks. The western stock (open to the north) mea-
sures 250 m east to west, and the eastern stock (open to the
Bayugo early-, inter-, and late mineralization intrusions north and east) exceeds 200 m in diameter (Fig. 5B). A locally
The bird’s-eye porphyry and medium-grained diorite por- intense quartz-vein stockwork (averaging 8% vein quartz;
phyry phases of the early diorite complex extend northwest Table 2) associated with elevated Cu-Au grades affected the
from Boyongan to Bayugo, where they host several diorite DIO2 intrusions. Internal chilled margins document multiple
porphyry intrusions associated with elevated Cu-Au grades. intrusive phases within the DIO2 stocks, the younger of which

by Jeff Doyle
100 BRAXTON ET AL.
commonly contain vein-quartz xenoliths (App. 1, Fig. A10B). is poorly defined owing to thickening cover (>400 m) toward
The spatial association with quartz veining and the absence of the west.
vein-quartz xenoliths in the oldest intrusive phases suggests The breccia complex varies between matrix supported and
that the DIO2 stocks are the oldest phases of magmatism clast supported and generally lacks stratification or other
genetically associated with Cu-Au mineralization at Bayugo. internal organization. Fine (<0.5 mm) sand- and silt-sized
Bayugo intermineralization diorite porphyry 3 (DIO3): fragments comprise the breccia matrix, and alteration and
Drilling in the east side of Bayugo intersected a crowded weathering have largely obscured its nature. Petrographic
plagioclase- and hornblende-phyric diorite stock that has observations in this study indicate that the infill is largely
intruded the medium-grained diorite porphyry and DIO2 fragmental in character, consisting of finely comminuted rock
stocks (Fig. 6B; App. 1, Fig. A6). This intrusion (DIO3; Table fragments. The fragmental texture does not preclude a tuffa-
2; App. 1, Fig. A10C) has generally larger plagioclase pheno- ceous igneous component to the matrix, although no clearly
crysts and a more crowded texture than the earlier medium- juvenile material (e.g., fluted or curved glass shards or frag-
grained diorite porphyry and DIO2 stocks and displays a ments suggestive of devitrified glass, igneous cement) was
quartz stockwork broadly similar in intensity (averaging 8% identified in hand specimen or thin section.
vein quartz; Table 2) to that affecting the DIO2 stock. Logging shows that most of the facies within the breccia
Bayugo late-mineralization diorite porphyry 4 (DIO4): complex contain two or more clast types. Anglo American
Texturally distinctive seriate to crowded plagioclase- and geologists defined five breccia facies distinguished on the basis
hornblende-phyric diorite bodies (DIO4; Table 2) intruded of the volumetrically dominant clast type (Figs. 5B, 6A; App.
the medium-grained diorite porphyry and DIO2 stocks at 1, Figs. A4, A5): (1) basalt-dominated breccia (Fig. 8A, B),
Bayugo. This intrusive stage was affected by low-intensity (2) mudstone-dominated breccia (Fig. 8C, D), (3) medium-
quartz veining (averaging 4% vein quartz; Table 2) and con- grained diorite porphyry-dominated breccia (Fig. 9A), (4)
tains abundant vein-quartz xenoliths (App. 1, Fig. A10D). fine-grained diorite porphyry-dominated breccia (Fig. 9B),
Drilling has not exposed contact relationships between DIO4 and (5) polymict breccia (Fig. 9C).
and DIO3 (Fig. 6B; App. 1, Fig. A6). However, lower quartz Transitions between breccia facies are generally grada-
vein density and abundance of vein-quartz xenoliths in DIO4 tional, reflecting changes in the proportion of clast types.
suggest that this phase was emplaced after the intense veining Locally narrow (2–10 cm) breccia dikelets crosscut earlier
that affected DIO3. breccia bodies, documenting a second phase of brecciation
(Fig. 9B-D). Vein-quartz clasts, a common feature in subse-
Boyongan Silt-Sand Matrix Breccia Complex quent intrusions and breccias, are absent from the silt-sand
Brecciation of a large portion of the early diorite complex matrix breccia complex. Their absence is consistent with the
(bird’s-eye porphyry, medium-grained diorite porphyry, and interpretation that brecciation predated mineralization.
fine-grained diorite porphyry) and surrounding host rock
occurred prior to the emplacement of the early-mineraliza- Basalt clast-rich breccia
tion diorite series at Boyongan. Description of breccia char- Basalt clast-rich breccia is abundant at depth, where the breccia
acteristics requires some definition of terminology, and that complex contacts Bacuag Formation basalts (Fig. 6A; App. 1,
employed hereunder follows the general approach presented Figs. A4, A5). This facies is generally clast-supported (70–90%
by Davies (2002). That author proposed a descriptive scheme clasts) and contains angular subrounded clasts of dark aphanitic
for breccias in terms of alteration, internal organization (clast basaltic fragments in a melanocratic fragmental silt-sand–sized
morphology, abundance, distribution, sorting, and stratifica- matrix. Locally the basalt clast-rich breccia facies contains clasts
tion), components (clast, matrix, cement, and composition), of white porous quartz and massive magnetite similar to skarn
grain size, and overall geometry. Infill refers to interclast alteration within the Bacuag Formation (Fig. 8B).
material and is subdivided into cement (igneous or hydro- The textural and compositional complexity locally exhibited
thermal minerals interpreted to have precipitated in situ) and by the basalt clast-rich breccia (e.g., TSD52, 750–936.5 m)
matrix (fragmental material in the sand [63 µm to 2 mm], silt may partially reflect the heterogeneous provenance of brec-
[4–63 µm], and clay [<4 µm] grain sizes). Clasts are defined as cia clasts derived from the Bacuag Formation. Logging of the
fragments exceeding 2 mm in their largest dimension. Bacuag Formation outside the breccia complex revealed dis-
The breccia complex at Boyongan is a polyphase, silt-sand crete sequences of basalt interbedded with limestone, carbo-
matrix breccia pipe of generally cylindrical shape. As exposed naceous/coal-bearing shale, and polylithic conglomerate.
at the pre-Quaternary surface (Fig. 5B), the breccia complex
footprint describes a roughly circular feature with a diameter Sedimentary clast-rich breccia
exceeding 900 m. Stocks of bird’s-eye porphyry and medium- Breccia with abundant mudstone clasts was intersected in
grained diorite porphyry bound the breccia complex on the diamond drill hole TSD54 (148.75–256 m) on the southern
north and northwest margins, respectively, and basalts and portion of the breccia complex (Fig. 5B; App. 1, Fig. A4).
basalt-dominated volcanic breccias of the Bacuag Forma- This breccia facies is clast supported, with approximately 20%
tion form the eastern margin. Detailed drill definition of the matrix material. Over 90% of the clasts in the upper breccia
breccia margins is lacking on the southern margin, although sequence (148.75–219.2 m) consist of fine, green-gray mud-
breccia clast types and projections from drilling farther south stone, together with angular clasts of basalt and diorite por-
suggest that the bounding units are basalts and limestones of phyry. The matrix in this interval is mud sized and gray-green
the Bacuag Formation and siltstones of the overlying Mother- in color. Some fragments within this sequence resemble accre-
lode Formation. The western margin of the breccia complex tionary lapilli: concentrically zoned 0.5- to 2.0-mm spheroids

by Jeff Doyle
A
mtrx
bas
bas bas
BBx
B C pq
chl-act mt
pq pq
mt
pq pq mt
BBx pq 1 cm
D SBx E py
cal
ch
ch
-sm
ch
mtrx ch
-sm
mdst
MGD
5 mm 1 mm
Fig. 8. Wall-rock-dominated facies of the Boyongan diatreme breccia complex. (A) Basalt-dominated breccia facies (BBx)
showing chaotic, unstratified, unsorted, silt-sand matrix breccia containing subrounded clasts of fine-grained dark, locally
feldspar-phyric basalt (bas). Clasts and matrix (mtrx) display intense, pervasive chlorite replacement. Sample: 819463. Dia-
mond drill hole TSD52, 790.8 m. (B) Basalt-dominated breccia facies (BBx) showing silt-sand matrix breccia containing clasts
of basalt (bas), magnetite (mt), and white, porous quartz (pq). Matrix is composed of silt-sized domains of chlorite-actinolite
(chl-act) and illite. Sample: 819464. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 773.18 m. (C) Magnetite (mt) skarn with white, porous quartz
(pq) fragments; possible source of magnetite and quartz in (B). Sample: 819470. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 680.3 m. (D)
Mudstone-dominated breccia facies (SBx) demonstrating two distinct subfacies: The lower portion contains rounded clasts of
medium-grained diorite (MGD) and mudstone (mdst) in a greenish muddy matrix (mtrx). The upper interval (arrows) con-
tains zoned spheroids with slightly darker green aphanitic cores and gray aphanitic rims similar to accretionary lapilli. Sample:
819591. Diamond drill hole TSD54, 208.48 m. (E) Photomicrograph of upper zone in (C), showing concentric zoned lapilli
with coarser-grained cores containing chlorite (ch) and dark clots of smectite (sm), lighter rims of micron-scale chlorite, and
dark chlorite-smectite interstitial material. The breccia contains abundant disseminated and veinlet pyrite (opaque minerals;
py) and is cut by fine calcite (cal) veinlets. Plane-polarized light.

by Jeff Doyle
102 BRAXTON ET AL.
A MDBx B FDBx
MGD
mtrx
mt
mt
C PBx
FGD
MGD
bas
2 cm
D bas E
MGD
1 cm 2 cm
Fig. 9. Intrusive-dominated facies and polymict facies of the Boyongan diatreme breccia complex. (A) Medium-grained
diorite clast-rich breccia (MDBx) facies showing chaotic, unstratified, unsorted, silt-sand matrix (mtrx) breccia, containing
subrounded clasts of medium-grained diorite (MGD) porphyry and occasional clasts of massive magnetite (mt). Diamond
drill hole TSD87A, 537 m. (B) Fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia (FDBx) facies showing chaotic, unstratified, unsorted,
silt-sand matrix (mtrx) breccia containing subrounded clasts of fine-grained diorite porphyry and occasional clasts of massive
magnetite (mt). The breccia was affected by a second phase of fragmentation dominated by silt-sand dikelet (arrow). Sample:
819475. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 468.56 m. (C) Polymict breccia (PBx) facies showing chaotic, unstratified, unsorted, silt-
sand matrix breccia containing subrounded clasts of medium-grained diorite porphyry, fine-grained diorite (FGD) porphyry,
and basalt (bas). The arrow indicates a silt-sand dikelet resembling that shown in (B). Sample: 819370. Diamond drill hole
TSD45, 178.62 m. (D) Silt-sand matrix breccia containing angular clasts of medium-grained diorite porphyry and basalt cut
by monomictic silt-sand matrix breccia (arrow) containing angular clasts of fine-grained diorite porphyry. A quartz vein with
a central seam containing malachite and goethite has cut both breccia events, demonstrating the premineral or early-mineral
timing of the silt-sand matrix breccia. Sample: 814761. Diamond drill hole TSD63, 198.08 m. (E) Biotite reaction rims
(arrows) on angular medium-grained diorite porphyry clasts in silt-sand matrix breccia. Sample: 819373. Diamond drill hole
TSD45, 232.05 m.

by Jeff Doyle
with slightly darker green aphanitic cores and gray aphanitic (Fig. 5B). This facies grades laterally into polymict breccia to
rims (Fig. 8C, D). These lapilli are well sorted and display the east and west and into medium-grained diorite clast-rich
systematic grading over 2- to 3-cm intervals toward the base breccia facies to the northwest. The most abundant clast type
of the upper sequence (205–219.2 m). In the lower sequence within the fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies is fine-
(219.2–256 m) clasts are fragments of fine-grained, bleached, grained diorite (Fig. 9B), with clasts of medium-grained dio-
yellow-white angular garnet-epidote-calcite skarn in a silt- rite porphyry representing a significant clast subpopulation.
sized yellow-white matrix of garnet fragments. In this interval, The breccia matrix is silt-sand sized and leucocratic. The sim-
a cement of pyrite, magnetite, sphalerite, and calcite occupies ilarity in color and texture between the fine-grained diorite
clast interstices, locally reaching 20% of the rock. This interval porphyry and the fragmental breccia matrix made accurate
represents the only convincing example of cement present in estimates of clast-matrix ratios difficult during core logging,
the dominantly fragmental infill of the breccia complex. particularly in intervals of intense weathering and/or strongly
A likely source for the aphanitic green-gray clasts and broken core.
matrix in the upper breccia sequence is the mudstone-rich
Motherlode Formation. This formation overlies the Bacuag Polymict breccia
Formation and was intersected in diamond drill holes TSD30 Although virtually all facies in the breccia complex contain
(Fig. 5B) and TSD34 approximately 0.5 km to the south and two or more clast types (and are therefore polymict in the
southeast of TSD54. The skarn rock fragments in the deeper strict sense), one type is generally volumetrically dominant.
breccia sequence are likely derived from limestone within the The polymict breccia facies defined herein contains clasts of
Bacuag Formation. Their presence as fragments in the brec- basalt and early diorite complex intrusions (Fig. 9C, D) in
cia emphasize that at least some skarn formation occurred roughly equal proportions. Marginal and deeper phases of the
prior to brecciation. polymict breccia facies contain more basalt clasts, while the
The presence of accretionary lapilli provides insight into the clast proportion of medium- and fine-grained diorite increases
conditions of formation of the breccia complex. In subaerial relative to basalt toward the center of the breccia complex.
volcanic environments, accretionary lapilli can form when ash The matrix is sand-silt sized and leucocratic, and clast-matrix
plumes interact with a moisture-rich environment in which proportions in the polymict breccia facies vary between 50%
the fine-grained airborne ash can agglomerate around a in matrix-supported intervals to 90% in clast-supported zones.
nucleus of a water droplet or solid particle (Cas and Wright, This facies forms two distinct zones on the west and east
1987). The accretionary lapilli at Boyongan may reflect flu- sides of the breccia complex. The eastern polymict breccia
idization at the breccia complex margins during fragmenta- zone flares upward to the north and south, overlying the fine-
tion, forming by agglomeration in a subsurface vapor stream grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies on the breccia com-
containing a suspension of very fine grained particles. Several plex margins (App. 1, Fig. A5). The western zone of polymict
researchers (Walker, 1971; Cas and Wright, 1987; McPhie et breccia lies between intrusive rock-dominated breccia facies
al., 1993; Wormald et al., 1993; Carman, 1994) have described to the east (medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia and
similar accretionary textures that evidently formed in subvol- fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia) and the bird’s-eye dio-
canic pipes and breccias. rite porphyry stock to the northwest. Contact relationships are
poorly defined in the western zone of polymict breccia, and
Medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia it is unclear if this breccia body has upward-flaring contacts
Clasts of medium-grained diorite porphyry are the most similar to those present in the eastern zone.
abundant in this facies (Fig. 9A), with clasts of fine-grained
diorite locally forming a significant subpopulation. Clasts of Boyongan silt-sand matrix breccia complex—interpretation
basalt and bird’s-eye diorite porphyry are common but make The Boyongan silt-sand matrix breccia complex displays map-
up generally less than 5% of the clast population. Basalt is also pable breccia facies characterized by the dominant clast type.
present as xenoliths in larger clasts of medium-grained diorite The composition and position of these facies reflects the prox-
porphyry, and it is likely that many of the basalt clasts in the imity of the brecciated units to breccia clast source regions.
medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies were derived Breccia facies dominated by wall-rock clasts (basalt clast-rich
from xenoliths. Clast-matrix proportions in the medium- breccia and sedimentary clast-rich breccia) occupy the mar-
grained diorite clast-rich breccia vary between 50% in matrix- gins of the breccia complex, while breccia facies dominated by
supported intervals to 90% in clast-supported zones. The intrusive clasts (medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia and
matrix is sand-silt sized and leucocratic. The medium-grained fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia) make up the breccia
diorite clast-rich breccia occupies the north-central portion of complex core. The polymict breccia facies displays the great-
the breccia complex and is bounded on the north by its con- est diversity of clast types and represents a transitional facies
tact with the medium-grained diorite porphyry stock (Figs. between wall-rock dominated and intrusive dominated brec-
5B, 6A; App. 1, Figs. A4, A5). Diamond drilling indicates that cia facies. This pattern suggests a prebreccia configuration
the medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia extends into the of medium-grained and fine-grained diorite porphyry stocks
breccia complex approximately 500 m south from this contact, elongate along a north to northwest trend (Fig. 5B).
grading into a fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies. Most characteristics of the Boyongan silt-sand matrix brec-
cia complex are typical of diatremes associated with Philip-
Fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia pine porphyry deposits. Diatreme breccias occur in spatial
Breccia rich in fine-grained diorite clasts occurs in the central, association with at least nine Philippine porphyry deposits
southeastern, and northeastern regions of the breccia complex (Far Southeast, Guinaoang, Santo Niño, Santo Tomas II,

by Jeff Doyle
104 BRAXTON ET AL.
Ampucao, Dizon, Pisumpan, Salatan, and Amacan), and their unpub. report, 1986). Diatreme contacts with wall rock are typ-
presence underscores the shallow subvolcanic environment ically sharp with variable wall-rock fracturing. Distinct facies
of porphyry formation (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Hedenquist defined by clast type, shape, and internal organization and by
et al., 1998). These diatremes contain angular subrounded, infill abundance and composition reflect clast provenance from
heterolithic, sand- to boulder-sized clasts. In some districts various stratigraphic levels and varying degrees of fluidization
the infill consists of a silt-sand matrix (e.g., Santo Niño, Santo during diatreme emplacement. The presence of wood and
Tomas II, Salatan, and Boyongan), while in others the infill the recognition of base surge deposits led Sillitoe and Gappe
contains a mixture of fragmental matrix with a juvenile crys- (1984) to conclude that many diatreme breccia pipes in the
tal-rich tuffaceous component (e.g., Guinaoang, Dizon, and Philippines breached the surface during their formation.
Pisumpan). Wall-rock fragments make up the bulk of clasts,
although locally fragments of carbonized wood (Dizon and Hydrothermally Cemented Breccias
Santo Niño: Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984) and occasionally logs
(Balatoc: Sawkins et al., 1979) are present. Intermineralization hydrothermally cemented breccias
In the Boyongan diatreme breccia complex, the distribu- A second significant phase of brecciation developed in associ-
tion of clast rock types, the dominantly angular clast morphol- ation with the early-mineralization diorite porphyries, follow-
ogy, and the generally clast-supported nature of the breccia ing the formation of the diatreme breccia complex. During
complex all suggest that milling, clast transportation, and gas the emplacement of these Boyongan early-mineralization
streaming were only of local significance (e.g., the apparent diorite series intrusions, volumetrically significant quartz-
accretionary lapilli of the sedimentary clast-rich breccia). The magnetite cemented breccias formed in Boyongan’s eastern
absence of quartz-stockworked clasts and vein-quartz clasts high-grade zone (Figs. 5B, 6A; App. 1, Fig. A5). The presence
demonstrates a premineralization relationship to Cu-Au min- of hydrothermal quartz and/or magnetite cement in the infill
eralization. In this respect, the timing relationship between distinguishes these breccias from the silt-sand matrix breccias
porphyry emplacement and breccia formation at Boyongan of the diatreme breccia complex. These characteristics resem-
differs from all other Philippine porphyry districts. Crosscut- ble those described for magmatic-hydrothermal breccias by
ting relationships and the presence of mineralized diatreme Sillitoe (1985). Figure 10 illustrates the convention employed
clasts show that most Philippine diatremes postdate porphyry in distinguishing clasts, matrix, and hydrothermal cement.
emplacement, and in many cases (i.e., Guinaoang, Santo The largest hydrothermally cemented breccia body devel-
Niño, Dizon, Pisumpan, and Salatan) diatreme emplacement oped in the cupola of the ECD2 stock in the eastern high-
destroyed part of the original orebody (Sillitoe and Gappe, grade zone. This breccia body is roughly cylindrical, measures
1984). With evidence for diatreme formation before porphyry 90 m in diameter, and has a minimum vertical extent of 150 m
mineralization, Boyongan shares paragenetic characteris- (App. 1, Fig. A5). Contacts with the wall rock are subvertical
tics with the Grasberg Cu-Au porphyry in Indonesia and the and sharp, with narrow (1–2 m) crackled margins. The breccia
Galore Creek porphyry in British Columbia, Canada (Sillitoe, is texturally massive, unsorted, clast supported, and contains
2010, and references therein). dominantly subangular fragments derived from quartz veins,
Although the lack of vein-quartz clasts suggests that the for- ECD1, ECD2, and the diatreme breccia complex (App. 1,
mation of the diatreme breccia complex predated the main Fig. A11A, B). Most clasts range in size from 2 to 64 mm,
mineralizing events at Boyongan, there is evidence of local with generally less than 10% of clasts coarser than 64 mm.
hydrothermal alteration prior to and during diatreme forma- However, characterization of breccias exclusively in drill core
tion. Clasts of massive magnetite and/or garnet are present probably precluded identification of boulder-sized clasts. The
locally in the basalt clast-rich breccia, sedimentary clast-rich infill, varying between 20 and 30% of the rock, consists of a
breccia, medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia, and fine- matrix of silt-sized fragments cemented by quartz and subor-
grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies (Fig. 9A, B), suggest- dinate supergene hematite after magnetite (Fig. 10).
ing derivation from previously altered rocks. Some diorite In the eastern high-grade zone below –300 m relative level
clasts in the medium-grained diorite clast-rich breccia and (RL), a quartz-magnetite cemented breccia body is present
fine-grained diorite clast-rich breccia facies display biotite- along the margin of the ECD2 stock (App. 1, Fig. A5). This
altered rims (Fig. 9E), suggesting some synfragmentation breccia contains fragments of vein quartz, ECD2, and basalt
hydrothermal alteration. in varying proportions, and the matrix and clast grain size dis-
Despite their common association with Philippine por- tribution is similar to that of the shallow breccia body. The
phyry deposits, these diatreme rock types in the Philippines deeper breccia is generally clast supported, although narrow
were long considered volcano-sedimentary diamictites (e.g., (0.1–1 m) intervals of infill-supported breccia occur (App. 1,
Bryner, 1970; Mitchell and Balce, 1990), and only familiarity Fig. A11D, E). Clasts are dominantly subangular, although
with diatreme lithofacies coupled with detailed three-dimen- marginal facies commonly show a higher degree of rounding
sional definition by mining and/or drilling led to the recogni- (App. 1, Fig. A11F). In the deeper breccia, broad (>50 m)
tion of these features as discordant intrusive breccia complexes zones of low-density magnetite-quartz cemented crackle
(Malihan, 1982; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Sillitoe and Angeles, breccia occur in the ECD2 stock above the deep breccia body.
1985). This spatial definition revealed that diatremes are typi- TSD14 intersected a quartz-magnetite cemented breccia to
cally steep-sided, commonly upward-flaring bodies exceeding the north of the ECD2 stock (App. 1, Fig. A5). This clast-
1 km in maximum horizontal dimension. Exploratory drilling supported breccia contains moderately rounded fragments
for geothermal power in the Balatoc diatreme (Baguio district) of fine-grained diorite porphyry and basalt with minor open-
defined a vertical extent exceeding 2.5 km (M. de Guzman, space interstices (App. 1, Fig. A11C).

by Jeff Doyle
A B
clast
matrix
q clast
clast
q-hm
cement
groundmass C
q matrix
clast
1 cm hm
cement
D
q cement
clast matrix
groundmass
E
q cement
clast
matrix
mt
cement
1 cm
Fig. 10. Character of clastic and chemical components of infill in hydrothermally cemented breccias. (A) Chaotic, angular,
clast-supported, unsorted, ECD1 and vein-quartz clast-bearing, quartz-magnetite (now supergene hematite) cemented brec-
cia. (B-C) Photomicrographs of (A) showing infill of fragmental material (matrix) and hydrothermal cement (quartz and
magnetite). (A-C) from sample 819360. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 84.2 m. (D) Chaotic, angular, clast-supported, unsorted,
ECD2 and vein-quartz clast-bearing, quartz-magnetite cemented breccia. (E) Photomicrograph of (D) showing infill of silt-
sized fragmental material (matrix) and hydrothermal cement (quartz and magnetite). (D-E) from sample 819321. Diamond
drill hole TSD18, 541.35 m. Abbreviations: hm = hematite, mt = magnetite, q = quartz.

by Jeff Doyle
106 BRAXTON ET AL.
Outside the eastern high-grade zone, drilling intersected relationships to the various vein types. Staining of slabs up to
narrow (0.1–15 m) intervals of similar quartz-magnetite and 20 cm in length revealed larger-scale textural relationships and
magnetite cemented breccias within the medium-grained provided a more representative estimate of K-feldspar abun-
diorite porphyry and the diatreme breccia complex in the dance than by relying on thin sections alone. After first etching
western high-grade zone as well as within diorites DIO2 and with hydrofluoric acid, the authors stained 280 samples with
DIO3 at Bayugo (Fig. 6B). Na3Co(NO2)6, including 102 polished thin-section offcuts and
Hydrothermal K-feldspar occurs in association with the 261 sawn slabs, following the methodology described by Nor-
quartz-magnetite and magnetite cemented breccias. K-feld- man (1974). The staining was conducted on samples collected
spar occurs as halos on the breccia margins and on the edges from four principal cross sections through Boyongan and
of larger clasts. K-feldspar also replaced the smaller clasts and Bayugo and enabled estimation of K-feldspar vol % in photo-
sand- and silt-sized matrix material (other than vein-quartz graphs of each sample, using the image analysis software eCog-
fragments) in the quartz-magnetite and magnetite cemented nition© (App. 1, Fig. A12). Appendix 2 presents the process of
breccias (App. 1, Fig. A11A, C), locally giving the impression image analysis and quantification of K-feldspar abundance.
of K-feldspar cement. Clay mineral studies: Clay minerals are important com-
In a review of breccia characteristics from 48 Philippine ponents of many alteration assemblages in porphyry depos-
porphyry deposits, Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) described inter- its (Meyer and Hemley, 1967). Logging at Boyongan has
mineralization breccias as a common but volumetrically small revealed abundant and widespread clay minerals, but deep
component of most Philippine porphyry deposits. Such brec- oxidation and weathering have partially masked the nature
cias occur as irregular to steep-sided pipes, similar to those of hypogene clay alteration assemblages (Ignacio, 2005). The
defined in the eastern high-grade zone of Boyongan. The authors conducted a systematic study of clay minerals to help
breccias described by Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) display an distinguish hypogene and supergene assemblages, allow-
extreme range of clast size, from grit to boulder, and contain ing the definition of hypogene clay mineral alteration zona-
angular to rounded, locally polylithic clasts. The silt-sand– tion. This study employed a combination of X-ray diffraction
sized matrix of these breccias varies between a few percent to (XRD), short-wavelength infrared spectroscopy (SWIR),
more than 50% by volume. Breccia cement consists of chlo- electron microprobe analyses, and petrography to identify the
rite ± quartz ± calcite, with pyrite + chalcopyrite ± bornite clay species present, determine the relative abundance of dif-
± molybdenite occurring as interstitial sulfides. The gangue ferent clay components, and ultimately distinguish hypogene
alteration assemblage described by Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) from supergene clay mineral assemblages.
differs from the magnetite-quartz-K-feldspar association at For XRD analyses, the authors prepared clay mineral-sized
Boyongan and Bayugo, suggesting that breccias associated separates (App. 3) from 178 samples along three principal
with K silicate alteration are relatively uncommon in Philip- cross sections through the Boyongan deposit. XRD scans,
pine porphyry Cu-Au deposits. conducted at the University of Utah’s Department of Geol-
ogy and Geophysics (in collaboration with Professor Erich
Copper-Gold Mineralization and Petersen), enabled identification of the clay mineral species
Hydrothermal Alteration present in each separate. The authors then employed the
This section focuses on documenting the characteristics and software program Newmod™ (Reynolds and Reynolds, 1996)
paragenesis of Cu-Au mineralization and hydrothermal alter- to quantify the relative abundance of each clay mineral spe-
ation assemblages and on interpreting their relationships to cies in each separate (App. 3, Table A2). To broaden the sam-
the discrete intrusive events outlined above. pling distribution, the study also incorporated the results of
XRD analyses of 42 sample separates conducted by P. White
Methods employed (unpub. reports, 2000, 2001).
Petrography: Graphic logging along four principal cross sec-
tions through Boyongan and Bayugo provided the samples and Copper-gold distribution
context for subsequent studies of alteration and mineraliza- Elevated Cu and Au grades at Boyongan and Bayugo primarily
tion assemblages. Petrographic observations on 209 polished coincide with quartz-vein stockworks in and around the early-
thin sections and 27 polished blocks focused on character- and intermineralization (Boyongan early-mineralization dio-
izing the primary, alteration, and vein mineral assemblages. rite, DIO2, intermineralization diorite porphyry, and DIO3)
As a compliment to observations made during logging and diorite intrusions. Drilling has been most comprehensive at
petrographic observations, 65 polished slabs were prepared Boyongan, where mineralization formed two steep-sided
to determine the macroscopic relationships between veins ellipsoidal bodies respectively termed the eastern and western
and alteration assemblages. Petrographic descriptions of 25 high-grade zones (Fig. 11; App. 1, Figs. A13, A14). Geochem-
additional samples by P. White (unpub. report, 2000) supple- ical assays for Au >1 g/t in the western high-grade zone define
mented the work by the authors. a body with a pronounced north-south elongation measuring
K-feldspar staining: Hydrothermal K-feldspar is an impor- approximately 300 m vertically, 400 m north to south, and
tant component of the K silicate alteration assemblage at Boy- 150 m east to west. In the eastern high-grade zone Au assays
ongan and Bayugo. However, hypogene variations in color and >1 g/t define a more pipe-like body measuring approximately
the subsequent modification by supergene processes rendered 300 m vertically, 150 m north to south, and 180 m east to west.
consistent recognition of K-feldspar difficult during core log- Grades in the eastern high-grade zone reach exceptionally
ging. Systematic staining of rock slabs was therefore under- high levels: a 105-m intercept in TSD38 averaged 3.3% Cu
taken to identify K-feldspar and to characterize its textural and 9.5 g/t Au (Fig. 7). At Bayugo, preliminary drilling results

by Jeff Doyle
Fig. 11. Interpretive cross section along 1,062,200 N through Boyongan eastern and western high-grade zones showing rela-
tionships between quartz vein abundance and grade distribution for Au and Cu. (A) Generalized geology. Refer to Figure 3
for an explanation of rock types, Figure 5B for section location, and Figure 6A for detailed geologic information. (B) Contours
of quartz vein abundance based on logging by Anglo American geologists. (C) Contours of Au assays. (D) Contours of Cu
assays. Vein quartz abundance, Cu grades, and Au grades are highest in and around the cupolas of the early-mineralization
diorite stocks in the eastern and western high-grade zones. The base of Cu oxides provides a reference for the lower limit of
significant supergene modification of the hypogene system. Quartz vein abundance and assay data are from Anglo American
(2004). Abbreviations: WHGZ = western high-grade zone; EHGZ = eastern high-grade zone.
have defined two Cu-Au mineralized zones spatially associ- total sulfur from diamond drilling provide a means of quanti-
ated with the DIO2 and DIO3 stocks (Fig. 12; App. 1, Fig. fying the sulfide distribution. Hypogene Cu-bearing sulfides
A15). Within these zones, Au assays >0.5 g/t define two min- are concentrated in and around the early- and intermineral-
eralized bodies with minimum dimensions exceeding 150 m ization diorite stocks (early-mineralization diorite series and
in width and 200 m in vertical extent. intermineralization diorite porphyry at Boyongan; DIO2 and
DIO3 at Bayugo), and a distinct pyrite halo rings these intru-
Sulfide zonation sions at Boyongan near the edge of the diatreme breccia com-
Distinct hypogene sulfide zonation patterns characterize Boy- plex (Fig. 13; App. 1, Figs. A16, A17).
ongan and Bayugo. Because sulfate minerals are rare to absent Hypogene copper-sulfide zonation: At Boyongan, born-
in the explored regions of Boyongan and Bayugo, assays of ite and chalcopyrite are the principal hypogene Cu-bearing

by Jeff Doyle
108 BRAXTON ET AL.
Fig. 12. Interpretive cross section along 779,050 E through Bayugo showing relationships between quartz vein abundance
and grade distribution for Au and Cu. (A) Generalized geology. Refer to Figure 3 for an explanation of rock types, Figure 5B
for section location, and to Figure 6A for detailed geologic information. (B) Contours of quartz vein abundance based on log-
ging by Anglo American geologists. (C) Contours of Au assays. (D) Contours of Cu assays. Vein quartz abundance, Cu grades,
and Au grades are highest in and around the cupola of the DIO2 stock. Lower-grade quartz vein stockworks have affected the
DIO3 stock, while the DIO4 intrusion has truncated older quartz vein stockworks. The base of Cu oxides provides a reference
for the lower limit of significant supergene modification of the hypogene system. Quartz vein abundance and assay data are
from Anglo American (2004).
sulfides and are present in and around the early-mineralization (App. 1, Fig. A16). At Bayugo, chalcopyrite is the dominant
diorite stock in the eastern high-grade zone. Bornite is largely hypogene Cu-bearing sulfide, with virtually no bornite identi-
absent in the later intermineralization diorite porphyry stock fied to date. Overall sulfide contents are low at Bayugo, with
and late-mineralization diorite porphyry dikes, where chalco- chalcopyrite generally <2% in the DIO2 stock (Fig. 13C, D).
pyrite is the only significant hypogene Cu-sulfide phase (Fig. Pyrite halo: At Boyongan a peripheral zone of elevated
13A; App. 1, Fig. A17). In Boyongan’s western high-grade pyrite content (pyrite halo) lies between 250 and 500 m from
zone, near-complete sulfide oxidation in the high-grade zone the edges of the early- and intermineralization diorite stocks
precludes a detailed analysis of hypogene sulfide mineralogy and is at least 250 m wide. Sulfide abundance in this zone

by Jeff Doyle
Boyongan: cross-section 1062200 N

A B
Bayugo: cross-section 779050 E

C D
Fig. 13. Interpretive cross sections showing hypogene sulfide zonation from Boyongan (A and B, along 1,062,200 N) and
Bayugo (C and D, along 779,050 E). Refer to Figure 5B for section location and to Figure 6 for detailed geologic informa-
tion. (A, C) Distribution of hypogene Cu sulfides based on petrography and logging. Oxidation and leaching have removed
much of the sulfur above the base of Cu oxides. At Boyongan (A), bornite and chalcopyrite are present in and around the
early-mineralization diorite intrusions, while only chalcopyrite is present in the deeper intermineralization diorite porphyry
intrusion and wall rocks. Near-total sulfide oxidation in the shallow portions of the western high-grade zone precludes a more
complete analysis of the hypogene Cu sulfide distribution in that area. At Bayugo (C) chalcopyrite distribution is greatest in
and around the DIO2 and DIO3 stocks, while bornite is virtually absent from Bayugo, enabling calculation of chalcopyrite
abundance based on assay data (Anglo American, 2004). (B, D) At Boyongan (B) pyrite distribution in the intrusive/brec-
cia complex is dominantly below 1%. Pyrite contents in the pyritic halo generally exceed 1% and reach 10% in the Bacuag
Formation volcanic breccia facies on the eastern margin. At Bayugo (D) pyrite above 1% is concentrated irregularly around
the DIO2 and DIO3 stocks. The pyrite content from Boyongan was estimated from logging (Anglo American, 2004) in the
bornite/chalcopyrite zone and/or above the base of Cu oxides or where total sulfur assays were not available (i.e., TSD13
and TSD18). Elsewhere, the pyrite content was calculated from total sulfur and Cu assays (Anglo American, 2004) after
subtracting total sulfur to account for Cu as chalcopyrite. (C, D) Interpretive sections from Bayugo showing hypogene sulfide
zonation along 779,050 E.

by Jeff Doyle
110 BRAXTON ET AL.
varies with host lithology. Pyrite concentrations in the basaltic The association of actinolite + magnetite ± albite in some
facies of the Bacuag Formation range between 1 and 3% and Boyongan skarns reflects similarities to early formed Ca-Na
generally exceed 3% in the volcanic breccia facies (Fig. 13D; silicate alteration assemblages recently identified in a number
App. 1, Fig. A16B, D). At Bayugo the paucity of detailed drill- of porphyry deposits (e.g., Arancibia and Clark, 1996; Cannell
ing at the time of the study limited the definition of sulfide et al., 2005). These authors described Ca-Na silicate alteration
zonation in this area. However, the zone exceeding 1% pyrite as an assemblage of Ca- and/or Ca-Na amphibole (actinolite/
in the medium-grained diorite porphyry and DIO3 stocks to hornblende) with Na feldspar (albite-oligoclase) ± magnetite.
the south of the DIO2 stock (Fig. 13D) may be part of a pyrite Those studies showed that amphibole and magnetite typically
halo. occur as irregular veinlets (locally together), with Na feldspar
occurring in halos to these veins as a selectively pervasive (Tit-
Hydrothermal alteration and vein assemblages ley, 1982) replacement of feldspar. Sillitoe (2000) noted that
Four distinct alteration and vein assemblages are present in the Ca-Na silicate assemblage generally lacks sulfide phases
and around the Boyongan and Bayugo deposits. These are and often occurs in the deep portions of porphyry stocks and
termed the calc-silicate, K silicate, illite-smectite-chlorite, adjacent wall rocks, where it may transition into early K sili-
and illite-pyrite assemblages. A fifth type, the quartz-alunite- cate alteration assemblages. Despite the presence of actino-
clay assemblage, is locally preserved in altered diorite clasts lite + magnetite ± albite zones at Boyongan, the replacement
in the Tugunan Formation debris flows and conglomerates. textures and mineralogy are typical of many skarn deposits,
Calc-silicate (skarn) assemblage: Assemblages of calc-sili- suggesting that the Boyongan calc-silicate alteration involved
cate minerals ± magnetite occur as small (<1–20 m thick) zones contact metasomatism and subsequent retrograde hydrother-
within or adjacent to the Bacuag and Motherlode Formations mal alteration.
(App. 1, Figs. A4, A5). Two distinct alteration assemblages
are present (App. 1, Fig. A18). Skarns on the southern mar- K silicate assemblage and associated copper-gold
gin of the Boyongan complex contain an assemblage of fine- mineralization
grained, massive garnet + clinopyroxene ± epidote that has Hydrothermal biotite and K-feldspar ± magnetite ± quartz
locally been brecciated and cemented by magnetite, calcite, define the K silicate alteration assemblage at Boyongan and
sphalerite, and chalcopyrite (App. 1, Fig. A19A-C). The gar- Bayugo. Biotite occurs as a selectively pervasive replacement
net is fine grained, pale yellow-green, and Ca, Al, and Fe rich, of preexisting ferromagnesian silicates (App. 1, Fig. A20) as
with average compositions of Ca3.1Mg0.1(Al1.1Fe0.9Mn0.1Ti0.1) well as in veinlets and selvages to quartz veins. Hydrothermal
(SiO4)3 (App. 4, Table A1). Minor bismuth tellurides such K-feldspar occurs as a texturally destructive pervasive replace-
as tetradymite (Bi2Te2S0.8Se0.4) locally occur with magnetite ment of silicates (other than quartz), commonly occurring
(App. 4, Table A2). as halos to quartz veins or quartz-cemented breccias (App.
Deep skarns on the northeast margin of the Boyongan intru- 1, Fig. A21). Hydrothermal magnetite occurs as irregular
sive complex lack garnet and consist of magnetite + actinolite blebs, disseminations, veinlets, as breccia cement, and with
+ epidote + calcite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite ± chlorite (App. quartz veins. Bornite and chalcopyrite (with minor pyrite and
1, Fig. A19D-O). Massive magnetite ± pyrite occurs in inter- molybdenite) are the principal sulfides associated with the K
vals up to 3 m thick, bounded by zones of intense actinolite- silicate assemblage and account for most hypogene Cu (and
chlorite alteration. The magnetite occurs primarily as bladed Au) introduced at Boyongan. At Bayugo, chalcopyrite is the
mushketovite, a pseudomorph of specular hematite. Textur- dominant hypogene Cu-bearing sulfide and bornite is rare to
ally distinctive, white, porous quartz (App. 1, Fig. A19F) absent.
commonly occurs intergrown with magnetite. In the basalt Crosscutting relationships reveal a characteristic progres-
adjacent the massive skarns, albite flooding and replacement sion of veining related to K silicate alteration at Boyongan and
of calcic plagioclase occurs locally. Bayugo. On the basis of vein composition and texture, the
Calc-silicate–altered zones are not a significant host to Cu authors define five discrete stages of K silicate-related veining
or Au at Boyongan. Despite the presence of chalcopyrite, Cu and alteration (App. 1, Table A1).
grades rarely exceed 0.25%, and Au concentrations are gen- Stage 0: unidirectional solidification textures: The earliest-
erally much less than 0.5 g/t (Fig. 11; App. 1, Fig. A13). The formed hydrothermal features are comb-textured quartz
massive character of these zones suggests pervasive replace- bands interlayered with igneous material (Fig. 14A). Bands
ment of reactive sequences such as limestone, calcareous con- consist of domains of optically continuous quartz and are
glomerate, and basalt within the host stratigraphy. 3 mm to 5 cm wide. Within these bands, euhedral quartz
Clasts containing massive magnetite, actinolite, albite, and terminations generally point in the same direction. Logging
porous quartz in the diatreme breccia complex (Figs. 8B, 9B) at Boyongan identified these features in the ECD1 and late-
suggest that some calc-silicate alteration predated this breccia mineralization diorite porphyry diorite phases. Numerous
event, although selective alteration of calcareous clasts within workers have described similar comb quartz or unidirectional
the breccia complex is an alternative explanation. The proxim- solidification textures from intrusive carapaces of various por-
ity of the medium-grained diorite porphyry stock to the deep phyry Cu and porphyry molybdenum deposits (Shannon et
magnetite-actinolite skarns in the Bacuag Formation (App. 1, al., 1982; Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988; Atkinson and Ware,
Fig. A18) is consistent with the former assertion. However, 2002; Harris et al., 2005), where the euhedral quartz gener-
drilling also intersected a small skarn body in contact with the ally points inward from the intrusive contact. The orientation
intermineralization diorite porphyry intrusion (App. 1, Fig. of euhedral quartz is consistent with growth into open space
A14), suggesting multiple calc-silicate alteration events. within the margin of a crystallizing intrusion. The rhythmic

by Jeff Doyle
interlayering with porphyritic diorite suggests that each unidi- hairline veinlets (Fig. 14B). These features clearly postdate
rectional solidification texture band was underplated by suc- stage 3 vein formation and may represent a transition into
cessive aliquots of magma as the intrusion crystallized. stage 4 sulfide-dominated veins.
Stage 1: magnetite and biotite veins: Thin, discontinuous Stage 4: copper sulfide veins: Stage 4 sulfide veins with mod-
veinlets of magnetite or biotite with K-feldspar alteration erate to intense K-feldspar alteration halos make up the final
halos and little or no quartz define the earliest demonstra- stage in the K silicate alteration cycle and are distinguished
bly subsolidus stage of veining. The stage 1 magnetite veins from earlier stages by the paucity of associated quartz and
resemble the “M” veinlets described by Clark and Arancibia from all previous stages by the predominance of Cu-bearing
(1995), although the former lack actinolite and have K-feld- sulfides. In the shallow portion of the eastern high-grade zone
spar alteration halos (Fig. 14B). Stage 1 biotite occurs as thin at Boyongan, stage 4 consists of irregular bornite-chalcopyrite
discontinuous wispy veinlets with K-feldspar alteration halos veinlets and breccia cement, which contribute significantly to
and are similar to the streaky biotite veinlets of Sillitoe (2000). Cu and Au grades (Figs. 14G, H, 15A). In the deeper, lower-
Stage 2: quartz veins with magnetite or biotite: Quartz grade portions of the eastern high-grade zone, stage 4 con-
reappears as an important component in stage 2, where it sists of thin chalcopyrite-pyrite veinlets with minor bornite.
occurs with subsidiary magnetite or biotite. Stage 2 quartz has In stage 4, native Au occurs exclusively as 5- to 100-µm blebs
a sugary texture, reflecting the presence of anhedral quartz within bornite (Fig. 15C, D). Microprobe analyses indicate
grains varying in size between 50 µm and 1 mm. There are that native Au from stage 4 at Boyongan is of high fineness,
three styles of stage 2 infill: breccia cement, miarolitic cavi- with an average stoichiometry of Au0.94Ag0.03Cu0.03 (App. 4,
ties, and veins (App. 1, Table A1). As breccias, the dominant Table A2). At Bayugo, stage 4 veins consist primarily of chal-
cement is quartz, with disseminated magnetite and intense copyrite with minor pyrite, but native Au has not been identi-
K-feldspar alteration of clast margins. The quartz-magnetite fied therein.
cemented breccias in the eastern high-grade zone of Boyon-
gan (see intermineralization hydrothermally cemented brec- Cyclicity of magmatism, K silicate alteration, and
cias described above) are an expression of stage 2 (Fig. 10; copper-gold mineralization
App. 1, Fig. A11). Miarolitic cavities filled by euhedral quartz
The K silicate alteration progression outlined above is simi-
and biotite with K-feldspar alteration halos (Fig. 14D) rep-
lar to that described from other porphyry deposits (e.g., El
resent another expression of stage 2. At Boyongan, miarolitic
Salvador: Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). Observation of vein
features were identified only in the upper portions of the
crosscutting relationships within a given intrusion reveals that
intermineralization diorite porphyry stock. As veins, stage 2
a similar progression of veining and alteration affects each of
quartz contains disseminated and/or selvage biotite or mag-
the early-, inter-, and late-mineralization intrusions (Figs. 16,
netite. These veins generally lack internal texture, although
17, 18; App. 1, Table A1, Fig. A22). One might conclude from
occasionally display concordant magnetite banding. Veins are
these relationships that all intrusive events occurred before
variable in width (1–90 mm), irregular in form (Fig. 14C), and
any veining events and that the observed paragenesis of five
commonly display intense K-feldspar alteration halos.
stages represents the overall evolution of conditions within
Stage 3: quartz veins lacking magnetite and biotite: A lack
the magmatic-hydrothermal system.
of biotite and magnetite distinguishes stage 3 quartz veins
The challenges to this simple hypothesis are fourfold:
from earlier vein stages. Stage 3 consists of irregular quartz
veins that are otherwise similar in form and internal sug- 1. The presence of vein-quartz xenoliths from vein stages 2
ary texture to the quartz in stage 2 (Fig. 14B, C). Stage 3 and/or 3 in the ECD2, ECD3, intermineralization dio-
quartz veins commonly contain a concordant central seam, rite porphyry, late-mineralization diorite porphyry, DIO2,
expressed by distinctive cavities lined by coarser-grained DIO3, and DIO4 intrusions (Table 2; Figs. 16B, F, 17A,
euhedral quartz (Fig. 14F). This texture is similar to that 18A, D; App. 1, Fig. A10B, D) is evidence that stage 2 and
observed for “B” quartz veins from the El Salvador deposit, 3 quartz veins existed prior to the emplacement of each of
described by Gustafson and Hunt (1975). In some stage 3 these intrusions.
veins, regular fluctuations in quartz grain size have created 2. Each of the Boyongan early-mineralization diorite, inter-
texturally distinctive concordant banding (e.g., ribbon veins; mineralization diorite porphyry, late-mineralization diorite
Figs. 14E, G, 15A, B). K-feldspar alteration halos are com- porphyry, and diorite porphyry intrusions was cut by vein
monly weaker and more diffusely developed in stage 3 than stages that predate the quartz vein stages (stage 1 veins).
around earlier vein stages. In all intrusions, stage 1 veins were subsequently cut by
Stage 3 represents the volumetrically most significant vein quartz vein stages 2 and 3 and (in some cases) Cu-bearing
stage, making up most of the quartz stockworks depicted in sulfide vein stage 4.
Figures 11 and 12 and in Appendix 1, Figures A13 through 3. An abrupt change in quartz vein abundance and/or grade
A15. Much of the Cu and Au at Boyongan and Bayugo is characterizes the intrusive contacts between many discrete
spatially associated with stage 3 stockworks. Bornite (at Boy- intrusions (Fig. 7).
ongan) and/or chalcopyrite are common in stage 3 veins, 4. Certain recognizable vein stages (e.g., the distinctive rib-
occurring as disseminations, in the central seam, or concen- bon stage 2 and 3 quartz veins; Fig. 14E) are absent from
trated along the banding (Fig. 15A, B). In stage 3, native Au the demonstrably younger intermineralization diorite por-
occurs as <10-µm blebs within chalcopyrite and bornite and phyry and late-mineralization diorite porphyry intrusions.
uncommonly as very fine free grains in quartz. Copper-bear- These same distinctive vein types are recognizable as vein-
ing sulfides also commonly occur in stage 3 veins as discordant quartz xenoliths in younger intrusions (e.g., Fig. 17A).

by Jeff Doyle
112 BRAXTON ET AL.
A 1 cm
B
Stage 2
q-bio
Stage 0
Stage 2
q UST
q-bio
Igneous Stage 3
groundmass 1 cm q-cpy-cc
C discordant D F
cpy
kfs kfs
halo halo
bio
Stage 3 q
Stage 1 mt
q Stage 2
miarolitic
5 mm cavity
E
kfs
halo
Stage 3
Stage 3 open-space
‘ribbon’ q q-cpy-mo
1 cm 2 cm 1 cm
G H alteration. (A) Interval of late-mineralization diorite porphyry dike

Fig. 14. Examples of vein styles associated with K silicate
mal
containing stage 0 comb quartz (unidirectional solidificationStage
texture)4interlayered with porphyritic diorite. Sample: 819336.
cpy-bn interval cut by stage 2 quartz veinlets with biotite
Diamond drill hole TSD18, 203.85 m. (B) Intensely K-feldspar-altered
selvages and by stage 3 quartz veins with concordant chalcopyrite stringers (now partially replaced by chalcocite). Sample:
819439. Diamond drill hole TSD44, 285.85 m. (C) Interval of intensely K-feldspar altered ECD2 cut by stage 1 magnetite
veinlets. Magnetite veinlets have been cut by stage 3 quartz veins that contain discordant chalcopyrite veinlets. Sample:
819312. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 769.5 m. (D) Interval of intermineralization diorite kfs porphyry containing stage 2 miaro-
litic cavity filled with quartz and biotite and flanked by an intense K-feldspar alteration halo (yellow staining). Sample: 819431.
Stage 4 halo
Diamond drill hole TSD44, 520.1 m. (E) Finely banded stage 3 ribbon quartz with banding defined by variations in quartz
bn-cpy-cc
grain size. Ribbon veins commonly contain fine concordant Cu sulfides and represent a significant stage of Cu-Au introduc-
tion. Sample: 819362. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 59.65 m. (F) Interval of medium-grained diorite porphyry cut by stage 3
open-space quartz vein lined by euhedral quartz. az Molybdenite and chalcopyrite have intergrown with and filled interstices
of euhedral quartz. This mineral assemblage and open-space texture define one of the latest stages of porphyry-style quartz
Stage 3 recognized at Boyongan. Sample: 819474. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 548.1 m. (G) Brecciated interval with clasts
veining
‘ribbon’ q 3 ribbon vein quartz (containing2concordant
of stage cm bornite-chalcopyrite) cemented by stage 4 bornite-chalcopyrite (now
partially chalcocite). Sample contains abundant fracture-hosted supergene Cu carbonates (malachite and azurite). Sample:
819358. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 104.76 m. (H) Interval of medium-grained diorite porphyry cut by stage 4 chalcopyrite-
bornite vein with intense K-feldspar alteration halo. Sample: 819477. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 440.35 m. Abbreviations: az
= azurite, bio = biotite, bn = bornite, cc = chalcocite, cpy = chalcopyrite, kfs = K-feldspar, mal = malachite, mo = molybdenite,
mt = magnetite, q = quartz, UST = unidirectional solidification texture.

by Jeff Doyle
Stage 3
open-space Stage 3
q-cpy-mo ‘ribbon’ q
1 cm 2 cm 1 cm
G H
mal Stage 4
cpy-bn
kfs
Stage 4 halo
bn-cpy-cc
az
Stage 3
‘ribbon’ q 2 cm
Fig. 14. (Cont.)
The five apparent stages of K silicate-related veining and the intensity of this style of alteration. Petrographic studies
alteration described for Boyongan are considered to be a were used to categorize each sample as having weak (<25%),
deceptively simple paragenesis. The above observations show moderate (25–75%), or intense (>75%) biotite replacement
that a similar progression of K silicate alteration and miner- of primary mafic phenocrysts. Subsequent chloritization of
alization has been repeated with successive intrusions, mak- mafic phases can mask the original nature and extent of biotite
ing for numerous discrete but mineralogically and texturally alteration. At Boyongan and Bayugo, chloritization of mafic
similar vein and breccia events. Figure 19 summarizes the silicates is commonly incomplete, leaving remnants of pri-
observed paragenesis of veining and alteration in the context mary igneous mafic minerals or hydrothermal biotite in most
of the intrusive events at Boyongan. The spatial coincidence chloritized sites. During the petrographic analysis, mafic phe-
of multiple overprinting fertile magmatic-hydrothermal cycles nocryst sites completely altered to mixtures of hydrothermal
may help to explain the development of spectacular Cu (>3%) biotite and chlorite were assumed to have been purely hydro-
and Au (>9 g/t) grades in the eastern high-grade zone. thermal biotite prior to chloritization. At Boyongan, selec-
Boyongan and Bayugo are not unique in their cyclical relatively pervasive biotitization is most intense in and around the
tionships between intrusive and vein-forming events. Inves- early-mineralization diorite series intrusions and is consider-
tigations at Bingham Canyon, USA (Redmond et al., 2001, ably diminished in the intermineralization diorite porphyry
2004; Redmond and Einaudi, 2001, 2010), Bajo de la Alum- and late-mineralization diorite porphyry intrusions (Fig. 20C;
brera, Argentina (Proffett, 2003), and Ridgeway, Australia App. 1, Figs. A23C, A24C). At Bayugo, selectively pervasive
(Wilson et al., 2003) have also documented similar intimate biotite replacement was intense, exceeding 75% in all of the
relationships between multiple intrusive events and veining porphyry intrusions (bird’s-eye porphyry, medium-grained
cycles. diorite porphyry, and DIO series) investigated (Fig. 21B).
Another useful index of biotite alteration has been the
K silicate alteration zonation observed distribution of hydrothermal biotite occurring in
Because of the paragenetic association of Cu and Au with K veins (i.e., stages 1 and 2) as identified by the authors during
silicate alteration, this study sought to develop various indices drill core logging. At Boyongan, vein-related biotite defines
of K silicate alteration intensity to refine patterns of alteration a narrow zone around the early-mineralization diorite, inter-
zonation around the Boyongan and Bayugo deposits. These mineralization diorite porphyry, and late-mineralization
indices include (1) the percent of primary mafic phenocrysts diorite porphyry intrusions (Fig. 20D; App. 1, Figs. A23D,
selectively replaced by hydrothermal biotite, (2) the distri- A24D), reflecting the spatial distribution of vein assemblages
bution of hydrothermal biotite occurring in veins or as vein described above. Vein-related biotite at Bayugo is uncommon
selvages (vein stages 1 and 2), (3) the distribution of hydro- (App. 1, Table A1), as stage 1 and 2 veins are dominated by
thermal magnetite occurring in veins or as vein selvages (vein magnetite.
stages 1 and 2), and (4) the intensity of K-feldspar replace- Hydrothermal magnetite: Hydrothermal magnetite related
ment of silicates other than quartz. to K silicate alteration occurs in stage 1 and stage 2 veins and
Hydrothermal biotite: Hydrothermal biotite occurs as a breccias. In the shallow weathered zones, magnetite is par-
selectively pervasive replacement of primary mafic pheno- tially to completely replaced by earthy hematite (App. 1, Fig.
crysts as well as in K silicate vein stages 1 and 2. Hydrother- A11), although its association with stages 1 and 2 makes recog-
mal biotite is Mg and F rich, and limited electron microprobe nition of its hypogene character during logging relatively easy.
analyses (App. 4, Table A1) suggest an average stoichiometry At Boyongan, magnetite from stages 1 and 2 occurs within an
of K0.8Mg2.2Fe0.6AlSi2.9Ti0.1O10(OH)0.5F0.5. envelope around the late-mineralization diorite porphyry and
In thin section, primary mafic phenocrysts replaced by bio- early-mineralization diorite series intrusions (Fig. 20C; App.
tite are recognizable by their primary subhedral morphology 1, Figs. A23C, A24C). Vein-related magnetite in the intermin-
(App. 1, Fig. A20). The percentage of primary mafic pheno- eralization diorite porphyry stock is uncommon. At Bayugo,
crysts replaced by biotite provides a means of quantifying magnetite-bearing stage 1 and 2 veins are associated with the

by Jeff Doyle
114 BRAXTON ET AL.
A B
fine banding
Stage 3
Stage 4
ribbon quartz vein
bn-cpy-cc cement
bn-cc
concordan
t bn-cc ba
nds
1 cm coarse banding 1 mm
C bn D cpy
cpy cpy
bn
Au
dg Au
Au
cc-dg
bn dg
cc
cc
cpy cpy
cc-dg
bn 100 µm 30 µm
E F wall rock
Stage 3
open-space cpy
quartz
cpy
mo
mo
1 cm quartz vein 1 mm
Fig. 15. Character of hypogene Cu sulfide, Au, and molybdenite mineralization at Boyongan. Supergene digenite and chal-
cocite have replaced the hypogene Cu sulfides along fractures in some samples. (A) Finely banded stage 3 ribbon quartz
vein containing concordant bornite (now partially chalcocite) brecciated and cemented by stage 4 bornite and chalcopyrite.
Sample: 819357. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 105.16 m. (B) Stage 3 ribbon vein in transmitted light photomicrograph showing
banding defined by variations in size of quartz domains. Bornite (now partially replaced by supergene chalcocite) occupies
quartz interstices in coarser-grained domains highlighting concordant banding. Sample: 819358. Diamond drill hole TSD38,
104.76 m. (C, D) Bornite and chalcopyrite in stage 4 breccia cement containing blebs of high-fineness Au. Sample in (C):
819358. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 104.76 m. Sample in (D): 819349. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 290.23 m. (E) Stage 3
open-space quartz vein with disseminated molybdenite and chalcopyrite occurring near the quartz vein margins. Sample:
819474. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 548.1 m. (F) Reflected-light photomicrograph of (E) showing relationships of sulfide
minerals to quartz vein. Abbreviations: Au = native gold, bn = bornite, cc = chalcocite, cpy = chalcopyrite, dg = digenite, mo
= molybdenite.

by Jeff Doyle
ECD2
Stage 3
q
ECD1
Stage 3 ECD1
q Stage 2
q-hm
ECD1
Stage 2
1 cm q-hm
B Stage 4
cpy
Stage 2 Stage 1
q-bio bio
Stage 3 q
C Stage 2
Stage 3 q D
q-bio
Stage 1 Stage 3 q-cpy
bio
Stage 2 q-mt
1 cm 2 cm
E F
Stage 4 cpy-bn
Stage 3 q-py
Stage 1 mt
1 cm Stage 2 q-mt
Fig. 16. K silicate vein stages that have cut the early mineralization diorite porphyries ECD1, ECD2, and ECD3 from the
eastern high-grade zone at Boyongan. (A) Quartz-magnetite (now supergene hematite) cemented breccia containing veined
clasts of ECD1. Prebreccia veins represent vein stages 2 and 3 associated with the ECD1 cycle. The breccia cement repre-
sents stage 2 associated with the ECD2 cycle. Quartz veins with central seams cut the breccia and represent ECD2 stage 3.
Sample: 819360. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 84.2 m. (B) ECD2 containing stage 3 vein-quartz xenoliths (arrows) associated
with ECD1 and cut by vein stages 1, 2, 3, and 4. Sample: 819315. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 681.65 m. (C) ECD2 cut by
vein stages 1, 2, and 3. Sample: 819312. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 769.5 m. (D) ECD2 cut by stages 2 (quartz-magnetite
breccia cement) and 3. Sample: 819326. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 413.58 m. (E) Brecciated and K-feldspar-altered ECD1
cut by chalcopyrite-bornite veins thought to be associated with stage 4 of ECD2. Sample: 819492. Diamond drill hole TSD20,
306.6 m. (F) ECD3 containing vein-quartz xenoliths (arrows) associated with ECD2 (stage 2) and cut by vein stages 1, 2, and
3. Sample: 819314. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 691.5 m. Slabs in (A) and (B) stained to reveal K-feldspar (yellow). Abbrevia-
tions: bio = biotite, bn = bornite, cpy = chalcopyrite, hm = hematite, mt = magnetite, py = pyrite, q = quartz.

by Jeff Doyle
116 BRAXTON ET AL.
A B Stage 2
miarolitic
q-bio
Stage 1 bio
1 cm
C D Stage 2
q-bio
Stage 3 q
Stage 3
q-cpy-py-mo
Stage 2
1 cm q-bio 1 cm
E F Stage 3
Stage 1 q-cpy-mo
bio Stage 3 cpy
q-cpy-py
Stage 1 bio
mo
1 cm
Stage 3 q
Stage 2
q-bio Stage 4
breccia
cpy-py-mo 1 cm
Fig. 17. K silicate vein stages that have cut the intermineralization diorite porphyry stock. (A) Interval of intermineralization
diorite porphyry (IMD) containing a xenolith of distinctive ribbon quartz-magnetite vein similar to ECD0 vein stage 2 (App.
1, Fig. A22) Sample: 815176. Diamond drill hole TSD23, 561.58 m. (B) Interval of intermineralization diorite porphyry cut
by stage 1 (biotite veinlets) and stage 2 (euhedral quartz and biotite filling miarolitic cavities) Sample: 819431. Diamond drill
hole TSD44, 520.1 m. (C) Intermineralization diorite porphyry cut by stage 2 (quartz-biotite veins) and stage 3 (quartz veins).
Sample: 819420. Diamond drill hole TSD13, 617.88 m. (D) Intermineralization diorite porphyry cut by stage 2 (quartz-
biotite veins) and stage 3 (quartz veins with central sulfide seam). Slab stained to reveal K-feldspar (yellow). Sample: 819301.
Diamond drill hole TSD18, 907.11 m. (E) Interval of intermineralization diorite porphyry cut by stage 1 (biotite veinlets)
and stage 3 (quartz veins with disseminated or central-seam chalcopyrite and pyrite). Sample: 819433. Diamond drill hole
TSD44, 452.52 m. (F) Stage 3 vein from intermineralization diorite porphyry stock consisting of euhedral quartz, with inter-
stitial chalcopyrite and molybdenite occurring in open spaces. Sample: 819306. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 848.12 m. (G)
Interval of intermineralization diorite porphyry cut by stage 2 (quartz-biotite veinlets) and stage 3 (quartz veins). Brecciation
(stage 4) has followed stage 3: K-feldspar alteration has bleached the clasts, and chalcopyrite, pyrite, and molybdenite have
occupied the interstitial void space. Sample: 814752. Diamond drill hole TSD63, 527.98 m. Abbreviations: bio = biotite, cpy
= chalcopyrite, mo = molybdenite, py = pyrite, q = quartz.

by Jeff Doyle
A B
Stage 0 q UST
Stage 0 q UST
1 cm
C D
Stage 2
q-mt
Stage 1 mt Stage 2
q-mt
5 mm
Fig. 18. K silicate vein stages that occur within the late mineralization diorite porphyry (LDP) dikes at Boyongan. (A) Interval
of late-mineralization diorite porphyry containing various xenoliths including vein-quartz fragments (arrows) derived from
earlier veining events. Sample: 819345. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 373.75 m. (B) Comb quartz unidirectional solidification
textures (stage 0 UST) interlayered with late-mineralization diorite porphyry diorite porphyry. Fractures cutting the USTs
contain native Cu, reflecting the sample’s origin in the weathered zone. Sample: 819336. Diamond drill hole TSD18, 203.85
m. (C) Interval of late-mineralization diorite porphyry cut by stage 1 (magnetite veinlets) and stage 2 (quartz-magnetite)
veinlet. Sample: 815147. Diamond drill hole TSD52, 911.85 m. (D) Interval of late-mineralization diorite porphyry contain-
ing various xenoliths including vein-quartz clasts (arrows) derived from earlier veining events. Sample cut by stage 2 (quartz-
magnetite) veinlet. Sample stained to reveal weak K-feldspar halo (yellow). Sample: 819345. Diamond drill hole TSD38,
373.75 m. Abbreviations: mt = magnetite, q = quartz, UST = unidirectional solidification texture.
DIO2 and DIO3 stocks and sporadically within the bird’s-eye phenocrysts and groundmass. Petrographic studies of the
porphyry stock to the south (Fig. 21C). basaltic host rocks and dioritic intrusions revealed no pri-
Hydrothermal K-feldspar: Hydrothermal K-feldspar occurs mary orthoclase, so all K-feldspar identified by staining can
in association with vein stages 1 to 4 as variably white or pale- be attributed to hydrothermal alteration. The image analysis
pink alteration halos. Where K-feldspar halos are wide and/or software eCognition© (Definiens, 2005) was used to discrimi-
veining is intense, K-feldspar alteration halos have coalesced, nate K-feldspar, quartz, plagioclase, groundmass, and opaque
leading to a flooding or pervasive replacement of the alumino- phases in digital photographs of the stained slabs and to quan-
silicate phases in the rock (App. 1, Fig. A21). tify the proportional surface area of each of these components.
In the weathered portions of the deposits, white K-feldspar This procedure enabled quantification of the proportion of
alteration halos are easily mistaken for sericite where the rock aluminosilicates in the sample that had been converted to
hardness had been reduced due to incipient replacement by K-feldspar, a measure independent of the amount of quartz
supergene clay. The systematic staining of sawn slabs with or other inert phases in the slab (App. 1, Fig. A12).
Na3Co(NO2)6 (App. 2) has therefore assisted in the discrimi- The intensity of hydrothermal K-feldspar alteration as
nation between albite, illite, and K-feldspar (App. 1, Figs. defined by this technique is greatest in and around the early-
A12, A21). mineralization diorite and intermineralization diorite por-
K-feldspar alteration only affected aluminosilicates, not phyry stocks at Boyongan (Fig. 20D; App. 1, Figs. A23D,
quartz or opaque minerals. In quantifying the intensity of A24D) and the DIO2 stock at Bayugo (Fig. 21D). In zones
K-feldspar alteration it was necessary to consider only the of intense stockwork veining, K-feldspar alteration inten-
reactive aluminosilicate component of the rock, which at sity exceeds 25% by volume and drops below 10% in zones
Boyongan and Bayugo proved to be principally plagioclase peripheral to the stockwork.

by Jeff Doyle
118 BRAXTON ET AL.
Temporally and Spatially Associated Intrusions

Vein Early Late
Stage
ECD0 ECD1 ECD2 ECD3 IMD LDP
0 UST
1
2a
2b
2c
3a
3b
4
Porphyry stock emplacement Vein-quartz Volumetrically significant

and solidification xenoliths Vein stage observed Cu-Au introduction
Fig. 19. Schematic summary of repeated cycles of K silicate-stage veining, alteration, and mineralization, punctuated by
successive intrusive events. The diagram summarizes the vein stages observed to cut a given intrusion and emphasizes that
mineralogically and texturally similar veining and alteration cycles are repeated with new intrusive events. Figures 16–18
document these crosscutting relationships in detail. The presence of vein-quartz xenoliths and abrupt changes in quartz
vein abundance and grade at intrusive contacts support the model for magmatic-hydrothermal cycles. Abbreviations: UST =
unidirectional solidification texture.
Clay mineralogy Illite-smectite-chlorite alteration assemblage

The authors conducted detailed XRD and SWIR studies A widespread, low-intensity assemblage of phyllosilicates
of the clay mineralogy at Boyongan in an effort to distin- consisting of illite, smectite (± interstratified illite/smectite),
guish hypogene from supergene components in the weath- and chlorite (Fig. 22A) overprinted the Ca-Na silicate and K
ering profile. This work revealed six principal clay species silicate alteration assemblages at Boyongan. In this assem-
at Boyongan: kaolinite (118 samples), illite (197 samples), blage, illite occurs as a weak dusting of plagioclase (Fig. 22E),
pyrophyllite (4 samples), smectite (112 samples), interstrati- resulting in indistinct or blurred feldspar phenocrysts in hand
fied illite/smectite (11 samples), and chlorite (174 samples). sample. Smectite occurs as a selectively pervasive replace-
These clay minerals form the principal components of the ment of mafic minerals (Fig. 22C), plagioclase phenocrysts,
illite-smectite-chlorite, illite-pyrite, and kaolinite assem- and groundmass. Where abundant, smectite alteration is
blages defined at Boyongan. recognizable by characteristic arcuate shrinkage cracks (Fig.
22A) resulting from desiccation in the core tray. Chlorite
Clay distribution in the weathered zone occurs in two styles, depending on the character of the pro-
The XRD and SWIR analyses revealed that kaolinite, illite, tolith. In the fine-grained basalt and sedimentary wall rocks,
smectite, and chlorite are the most common and widespread chlorite alteration is pervasive, imparting a dark-green tone to
clay minerals at Boyongan. Kaolinite abundance is high in the the chloritized groundmass. In porphyritic rocks, chlorite has
weathered zone and diminishes rapidly below the zone of Cu selectively replaced primary and hydrothermal mafic minerals
oxides (a proxy for the base of oxidative weathering). Illite, (Fig. 22F-H).
smectite, and chlorite extend well below the base of oxida- The petrographic and XRD studies have shown that the
tion, but of these three only illite persists into the uppermost illite-smectite-chlorite assemblage is widespread throughout
portions of the supergene profile where weathering is most the Boyongan and Bayugo complex. Modeling with New-
intense. mod™ provides quantitative measures of the relative abun-
Ignacio (2005) also described kaolinite from the weath- dance of each clay mineral species in <2-µm separates (Moore
ered zone at Boyongan based on SWIR investigations. He and Reynolds, 1989; Reynolds and Reynolds, 1996). Although
theorized that acid produced by supergene sulfide oxida- this modeling does not necessarily reflect changes in the abso-
tion had reacted with feldspar to produce kaolinite. In the lute abundance of clay minerals, it provides a measure of the
current study, the close spatial coincidence of the kaolin- relative alteration intensity for each clay mineral component
ite zone and the Cu oxide zone is consistent with Ignacio’s in a given assemblage. The relative intensity of illite-smectite-
(2005) model of supergene kaolinite. The absence of smec- chlorite alteration can be described by three alteration indi-
tite and chlorite and the persistence of illite in the strongly ces, incorporating the results of the petrographic studies and
weathered zones probably reflect the differential stability clay mineral modeling.
of these minerals under low-pH (supergene) weathering Illite alteration intensity: Modeling of the relative abun-
conditions. dance of clay minerals with Newmod™ provides a means

by Jeff Doyle
Fig. 20. Interpretive sections from Boyongan showing K silicate alteration zonation along 1,062,200 N. (A) Generalized geol-
ogy and Cu-Au distribution. Refer to Figure 3 for an explanation of rock types, Figure 5B for section location, and Figure
6A for detailed geologic information. (B) Distribution of hydrothermal biotite. Solid colors denote the degree of selectively
pervasive replacement of primary mafic phenocrysts by hydrothermal biotite. Broad ranges (i.e., <1%, 1–25%, 25–75%, and
>75%) reflect general estimates based on visual inspection of biotite replacement in thin sections. Biotite replacement is most
intense in ECD-series intrusions. Diagonal lines denote the distribution of hydrothermal biotite as veinlets and selvages to
quartz veins, based on logging and petrographic descriptions by the authors. The spatial distribution of vein-associated biotite
reflects proximity to intermineralization diorite porphyry and ECD-series intrusions. (C) Distribution of hydrothermal mag-
netite as veinlets and as selvages to quartz veins, based on logging and petrographic descriptions by the authors. Vein-related
magnetite is primarily associated with the ECD-series intrusions, with only rare vein magnetite in the intermineralization
diorite porphyry stock. (D) Replacement of aluminosilicate rock component by hydrothermal K-feldspar as revealed by
systematic staining of sawn slabs for K-feldspar with Na3Co(NO2)6 and supplemented by logging by the authors. K-feldspar
alteration intensity is greatest in and around the intermineralization diorite porphyry and ECD-series intrusions.
to quantify the intensity of illite alteration at Boyongan. The the illite index, as its presence seems to reflect weathering,
metric employed uses the illite index, here defined as the not hydrothermal processes. The illite index is lowest in the
mass percentage of illite among all hydrothermal clay min- deeper parts of the intrusive/breccia complex at Boyongan
erals (100*illite/[illite + smectite + illite/smectite + chlorite]) and commonly exceeds 75% in the shallow weathered zone
determined by XRD. Kaolinite is therefore excluded from (Fig. 23B). This increase of the illite index in the weathered

by Jeff Doyle
120 BRAXTON ET AL.
Fig. 21. Interpretive sections from Bayugo showing K silicate alteration zonation along 779,050 E. (A) Generalized geology
and Cu-Au distribution. Refer to Figure 3 for an explanation of rock types, Figure 5B for section location, and Figure 6B
for detailed geologic information. (B) Degree of selectively pervasive replacement of primary mafic phenocrysts by hydro-
thermal biotite, based on visual estimate in polished thin sections. Biotite replacement is intense in most porphyry intrusions
evaluated. (C) Distribution of hydrothermal magnetite as veinlets and as selvages to quartz veins, based on logging and
petrographic descriptions by the authors. Vein-related magnetite is primarily associated with the DIO2 and DIO3 stocks and
to a lesser extent in the bird’s-eye porphyry stock. (D) Replacement of reactive minerals (i.e., silicates other than quartz) by
hydrothermal K-feldspar as revealed by systematic staining of sawn slabs for K-feldspar with Na3Co(NO2)6. K-feldspar altera-
tion intensity is greatest in and around the DIO2 stock.
zone may reflect greater stability of illite relative to chlorite hydrothermal clays (100*smectite/[illite + smectite + illite/
and smectite in the low-pH weathering environment. Illite smectite + chlorite]) as determined by XRD and quanti-
indices exceeding 95% are related to illite-pyrite alteration fied using Newmod™. Smectite is absent from the intensely
along structures that have cut the intrusive complex (Fig. 23B; weathered portions of Boyongan. As with the illite index,
App. 1, Figs. A26B, A27B). kaolinite is excluded in this analysis, because its presence is
Smectite alteration intensity: The smectite index is inferred to be related to weathering. Figure 23C and Appen-
defined here as the mass percentage of smectite among all dix 1, Figures A26C and A27C summarize the intensity of

by Jeff Doyle
A B arcuate
chl 002
chl 004
shrinkage
Maximum intensity 8,800 cps
il 003
cracks
sm 001
chl 003
sm 005
il 001
chl 001
il 002
chl 005
sm 003
sm 002
sm 004
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 1 cm
Degrees 2θ
C D gt E
il
act
chl + sm 150 µm pg
gt
sm
act
100 µm chl+sm 100 µm il 200 µm
F G H
chl
q
chl
bio
bio chl
bio
200 µm 200 µm 200 µm
Fig. 22. Styles of illite-smectite-chlorite alteration at Boyongan. (A) XRD pattern of ethylene-glycol-solvated oriented clay
separate showing typical illite-smectite-chlorite assemblage. Peak positions (e.g., 001) mark the diagnostic spectra for each
clay mineral. Sample: 814781. Diamond drill hole TSD70, 261.83 m. (B) Smectite-rich interval of basalt with arcuate frac-
tures reflecting shrinkage of expanding clays during core desiccation. Diamond drill hole TSD85, 601 m. (C) Plane-polarized
photomicrograph showing smectite replacement of hydrothermal actinolite. Sample: 819407. Diamond drill hole TSD13,
523.8 m. (D) Plane-polarized photomicrographs showing selective smectite and chlorite replacement of garnet along growth
zones. Sample: 819589. Diamond drill hole TSD54, 235.02 m. (E) Cross-polarized photomicrograph showing illite dusting
in core of plagioclase phenocryst. Sample: 819420. Diamond drill hole TSD13, 617.88 m. (F) Cross-polarized photomicro-
graph depicting weak selective replacement of hydrothermal biotite by chlorite. Sample: 819486. Diamond drill hole TSD20,
485.62 m. (G) Plane-polarized photomicrograph showing intense selective replacement of hydrothermal biotite by chlorite.
Sample: 819358. Diamond drill hole TSD38, 104.76 m. (H) Primary mafic phenocryst replaced by hydrothermal biotite and
subsequently by chlorite (plane-polarized photomicrograph). Sample: 815090. Diamond drill hole TSD60, 948.6 m. Abbre-
viations: act = actinolite, bio = biotite, chl = chlorite, gt = garnet, il = illite, pg = plagioclase, q = quartz, sm = smectite.

by Jeff Doyle
122 BRAXTON ET AL.
Fig. 23. Interpretive sections from Boyongan showing hydrothermal clay mineral alteration zonation along 1,062,200 N. (A)
Generalized geology and Cu-Au distribution. Refer to Figure 3 for an explanation of rock types, Figure 5B for section loca-
tion, and Figure 6A for detailed geologic information. (B) Illite index (100*illite/[illite + smectite + illite/smectite + chlorite])
as determined by XRD and modeled using Newmod™. The high proportion of illite in the upper part of the intrusive/breccia
complex may in part reflect destruction of chlorite and smectite during weathering. Illite indices above 95% primarily occur
in narrow subvertical structures displaying pervasive illite-pyrite alteration. The illite index in the basaltic wall rock generally
exceeds that of the breccia complex, and exceptionally high relative abundances (>75%) occur in the volcanic breccia facies
of the Bacuag Formation. (C) Smectite index (100*smectite/[illite + smectite + illite/smectite + chlorite]) as determined by
XRD and modeled using Newmod™. Smectite and illite/smectite are most abundant in the western high-grade zone. (D)
Occurrence of chlorite. In porphyritic intrusions, chlorite has replaced mafic phenocrysts and hydrothermal biotite as a selec-
tive pervasive alteration. The degree of selective replacement by chlorite is based on visual estimate in polished thin sections.
In the fine-grained basaltic wall rock, chlorite occurs as a pervasive replacement of groundmass. Epidote and calcite occur
with chlorite in the pyritic halo on the eastern margin. Chlorite is absent from the intensely weathered portions of the deposit
and from the deepest intersections of the intermineralization diorite porphyry.
smectite alteration through the Boyongan complex. The smec- veinlets of stellerite (a Ca-rich zeolite) were identified in an
tite index exceeds 75% in the western high-grade zone, where area of intense smectite alteration within the intermineraliza-
it occurs in association with interstratified illite/smectite. High tion diorite porphyry stock (TSD27, 660 m).
smectite indices also characterize the northern and southern Chlorite alteration intensity: In the intrusive complex,
margins of the diatreme breccia complex. In one such zone, the proportion of all mafic minerals selectively replaced by

by Jeff Doyle
chlorite (based on thin-section description) provides a mea- low-pH environments, although no such alteration has been
sure of the intensity of this style of alteration. At Boyongan, identified in situ. Petrographic, XRD, and SWIR studies have
selectively pervasive chloritization exceeds 25% in and around identified assemblages including pyrophyllite ± illite ± dick-
the upper portions of the early-mineralization diorite stocks ite ± alunite that replaced the aluminosilicate component of
and diminishes laterally and at depth (Fig. 23D; App. 1, Figs. diorite porphyry cobbles discovered in these areas (I. Bogie,
A26D, A27D). At Bayugo, selectively pervasive chloritization unpub. report, 2000; P. White, unpub. report, 2002; Braxton,
exceeds 25% in the bird’s-eye porphyry, medium-grained dio- 2007). Many of these altered cobbles display stockworks of
rite porphyry, DIO3, and DIO4 intrusions and is weakest in sucrosic quartz veins containing finely disseminated bornite
the DIO2 stock (App. 1, Fig. A28D). and chalcopyrite, which are similar in texture and morphol-
The presence of illite and smectite in association with chlo- ogy to K silicate vein stages 2 and 3 described from Boyongan
rite and the general absence of epidote and calcite distinguish and Bayugo (Fig. 25A). At least one cobble has quartz-vein-
illite-smectite-chlorite alteration from the propylitic assem- stockworked breccia clasts in a fragmental matrix, in which
blage commonly described for porphyry systems (e.g., Sillitoe, the aluminosilicates in both the clasts and matrix were per-
2000). Outside the skarn zones, the assemblage of chlorite + vasively replaced by alunite (Fig. 25B, E). This relationship
calcite + epidote ± illite has only been encountered within demonstrates that quartz-alunite-clay alteration postdated the
and outboard of the pyritic fringe on the eastern side of Boy- K silicate-style quartz veining in these samples.
ongan, where chlorite occurs as a pervasive alteration of the Rocks displaying a skeletal or vuggy quartz texture (Fig.
Bacuag Formation basalts (Fig. 23D). 25A, B; e.g.,White and Hedenquist, 1990) were identified in
float overlying the Bayugo deposit and as subcrop at Paragayo
Illite-pyrite alteration assemblage Hill east of Boyongan (Figs. 5A, 2A). Fine-grained quartz has
The illite-pyrite assemblage overprinted the K silicate altera- replaced the groundmass of these rocks, while leaching of
tion assemblage, occurring as a pervasive replacement of all phenocryst and/or clasts has produced vuggy cavities reflect-
aluminosilicates by mixtures of fine-grained illite + pyrite ing vestigial textures of the protolith (Fig. 25C). Masses of
± quartz. The assemblage varies from thin sulfide veinlets subhedral-euhedral quartz have filled many of these vugs
with discrete illite alteration halos (Fig. 24A, B) to zones of (Fig. 25D, F), locally displaying realgar overgrowths (Fig.
intense, texturally destructive illite-altered rock with up to 25H). Fine disseminated rutile crystals occur throughout the
30% disseminated pyrite. The latter typically occur in nar- quartz-flooded groundmass and have locally replaced pheno-
row (0.2–10 m), structurally controlled or brecciated zones crysts (Fig. 25G-I).
and commonly contain clasts of K silicate-stage vein quartz Despite occurring as float, the textural preservation of
in a fragmental matrix replaced by illite and pyrite (Fig. 24C- vuggy quartz alteration can enable recognition of the original
E). Accessory minerals in the illite-pyrite assemblage include rock type in cases where the primary textures are distinctive.
chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, sphalerite, galena, and Figure 25C depicts a coarse-grained feldspar-phyric rock that
locally siderite (Fig. 24F-J). These phases contribute to the is texturally similar to the bird’s-eye diorite porphyry encoun-
anomalous levels of Cu, arsenic, antimony, silver, lead, and tered during drilling (cf. App. 1, Fig. A7A).
zinc common in illite-pyrite zones. Assays also indicate anom-
alous tellurium and Au in some illite-pyrite intervals, but the Supergene Profiles
mineralogical residence of these elements remains unclear.
Illite-pyrite alteration occurred along narrow structures Paragenesis and spatial zonation of supergene copper phases
throughout Boyongan and Bayugo but has affected relatively Braxton et al. (2009), drawing on Ignacio (2005) and Brax-
discrete volumes of rock (Fig. 23B; App. 1, Figs. A26B, A27B, ton (2007), documented the nature of the supergene profiles
A28B, D). The volumetrically most significant illite-pyrite affecting the Boyongan and Bayugo deposits following exhu-
domain is present in the shallow portion of the eastern high- mation. A synopsis of that work is presented here.
grade zone at Boyongan, where a diffuse envelope of illite Supergene Cu phases at Boyongan and Bayugo fall into
occurs around a narrow (10 cm) sulfide-rich vein (App. 1, Fig. three distinct groups: sulfide phases, native Cu, and oxide
A27B). In intensely weathered zones, illite-dominated inter- phases. Supergene Cu sulfides developed at the base of the
vals lacking kaolinite, chlorite, and smectite are inferred to supergene zone, where they consist primarily of sooty chal-
represent vestigial illite-pyrite alteration. cocite and subordinate covellite and digenite. These sulfides
Extensive illite (and minor kaolinite)-pyrite alteration replaced hypogene pyrite, chalcopyrite, and bornite, com-
affected clasts in debris flows interbedded with fluviolacus- monly as a corrosive patina on the surface or along fractures
trine sediments in the Tugunan Formation overlying Boyon- within hypogene sulfides (Fig. 15C, D).
gan and Bayugo (Fig. 6A; App. 1, Figs. A4–A6). These debris Native Cu occurs near the base of the supergene Cu zone
flows contain intensely illite-pyrite–altered clasts supported in and is widespread at Boyongan but only locally present at
a matrix of pyritic white clay. Accumulations of these debris Bayugo. Where native Cu occurs with chalcocite, it is as a
flows are thickest on the south and west margins of Boyongan replacement of the supergene Cu sulfide.
(App. 1, Fig. A3D), suggesting local derivation. The most important Cu oxide phases at Boyongan and
Bayugo are cuprite (commonly as chalcotrichite), malachite,
Quartz-alunite-clay alteration assemblage and azurite. Subordinate Cu oxide phases at Boyongan com-
Regional sampling in the Bagacay and Magpayang areas prise chrysocolla, pseudomalachite (Cu5[(OH)2(PO4)]2), and
adjacent to Boyongan and Bayugo (Fig. 4) identified numer- pseudoneotocite ([Mn,Cu]2[CO3]2). All oxide Cu phases occur
ous float blocks with alteration assemblages characteristic of as near in situ oxidation products in hydrothermal quartz ±

by Jeff Doyle
124 BRAXTON ET AL.
py-cpy il
q
B il q C
q
py-cpy il
q
q
il
D E F cpy
il
il
py
q-py-
cpy-sid sid
il-py
tn
q
q
5 cm q 200 µm
G H I J py
py cpy
il
il
py
py
tn
il
tn
q-py-
cpy-gn- cpy
il
5 mm sp-tn 1 mm 50 µm 500 µm
Fig. 24. Character and mineralogy of illite-pyrite alteration. (A) Intensely quartz-stockworked interval of DIO3 porphyry
with associated K-feldspar alteration (yellow staining). A narrow pyrite-chalcopyrite veinlet with an intense white illite altera-
tion halo has cut the older quartz vein stages. Sample: 815082. Diamond drill hole TSD75, 714.52 m. (B) Detail of unstained
face of (A) showing the sulfide veinlet cutting and displacing the older K silicate-stage quartz veins. The intense illite altera-
tion halo has not affected the quartz veins. (C) Narrow brecciated zone in DIO2 with fragments of K silicate stage vein
quartz in intensely illite-pyrite–altered fragmental matrix. Sample: 815064. Diamond drill hole TSD73, 573.25 m. (D) Typical
expression of narrow illite-pyrite-altered structure cutting the medium-grained diorite porphyry. Diamond drill hole TSD51,
600 m. (E) Quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite-siderite structure with intense illite-pyrite alteration halo cutting DIO2. Sample:
815072. Diamond drill hole TSD73, 731.95 m. (F) Photomicrographs of the vein in (E) showing sulfide clast containing
pyrite, chalcopyrite, and tennantite cemented by siderite. (G) Quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite-galena-sphalerite-tennantite vein
with an intense halo of illite and disseminated pyrite cutting the medium-grained diorite porphyry. Sample: 819557. Diamond
drill hole TSD69, 405.72 m. (H) Cross-polarized photomicrograph of (G) showing intense illite and pyrite replacement of
plagioclase phenocrysts. (I) Reflected-light photomicrograph of (G) showing tennantite bleb in chalcopyrite. (J) Reflected-
light photomicrograph showing pyrite brecciated and cemented by chalcopyrite with tennantite lining vugs in chalcopyrite.
Sample: 814794. Diamond drill hole TSD15, 427.48 m. Abbreviations: cpy = chalcopyrite, gn = galena, il = illite, py = pyrite,
q = quartz, sid = siderite, sp = sphalerite, tn = tennantite.

by Jeff Doyle
A q B
al q
q
q
al
al
il-k 5 mm
C D
q q
ph
5 mm
E F G
rt
q
q
500 µm 2 mm 100 µm
rt rt
H I
rlg rlg
rt
q
q q rt
q q
vug vug
rt gm 200 µm gm 20 µm
Fig. 25. Character and mineralogy of quartz-alunite-clay alteration. (A) Medium-grained porphyritic rock cut by irregular
quartz-vein stockwork containing fine disseminated bornite and chalcopyrite. An intense, pervasive assemblage of illite and
kandite has replaced all primary phenocrysts. Void spaces at former phenocryst sites formed by flushing of clay during sample
sawing. Sample: 815116. Float from Bagacay boulder field. (B) Breccia with quartz-vein-stockworked clasts (arrows) contain-
ing fine disseminated chalcopyrite. Alunite has pervasively replaced lithic clasts and fragmental matrix. Sample: 815178. Float
from Pista creek, Bagacay boulder field. (C) Bird’s-eye diorite porphyry displaying vuggy quartz texture. Phenocrysts have
been leached and locally filled by skeletal quartz (D, F), while the groundmass has been replaced by fine quartz. Sample:
819906. Float from upper Bayugo creek. (D) Detail of skeletal quartz in (C) filling former phenocryst sites. (E) Cross-polar-
ized photomicrograph of (B) showing alunite replacement of fragmental breccia matrix. (F) Cross-polarized photomicrograph
of (C) showing skeletal quartz in (C) filling former phenocryst site. (G) Reflected-light photomicrograph of sample in (C)
showing rutile replacement of phenocryst. (H) Plane-polarized and reflected-light photomicrograph of vuggy quartz rock
similar to (C) showing vug lined with euhedral quartz overgrown by realgar. The groundmass is a mixture of fine quartz with
disseminated rutile and pyrite. Sample: 819905. Grab sample from exploration trench at Paragayo Hill. (I) Cross-polarized
photomicrograph of sample in (H) showing replacement of groundmass by rutilated quartz. Abbreviations: al = alunite, gm =
groundmass, il = illite, k= kandite, ph = phenocryst site, q = quartz, rlg = realgar, rt = rutile.

by Jeff Doyle
126 BRAXTON ET AL.
sulfide veins and in open fractures of posthydrothermal ori- within and beyond the pyrite halo remains unclear. How-
gin. In addition, malachite, azurite, and chrysocolla com- ever, within the intrusive complex widespread chloritization
monly occur as finely disseminated grains within supergene of mafic minerals and weak illite-smectite alteration clearly
kaolinite. followed the K silicate alteration stages as the hydrothermal
system cooled.
Contrasting supergene profiles The illite-smectite-chlorite assemblage described herein
Significant differences in the character and extent of super- is similar in mineralogy and relative timing to the sericite-
gene profile development exist between Boyongan and Bayugo clay-chlorite assemblage of Sillitoe and Gappe (1984). These
(Figs. 11–13; App. 1, Figs. A13–A17, A29, A30). Oxide Cu authors described an assemblage of sericite (fine-grained
phases at Boyongan are present throughout a vertical interval white mica), clay (kaolinite and smectite), and chlorite that
locally exceeding 600 m below the paleosurface, whereas at overprinted earlier K silicate alteration in more than half of
Bayugo, the oxide zones are generally less than 70 m thick. the 48 Philippine porphyry systems that they studied. Veinlets
Boyongan lacks broad enrichment domains or blankets domi- of pyrite ± chalcopyrite are common in sericite-clay-chlorite–
nated by supergene Cu sulfides, whereas at Bayugo, super- altered rocks, but in many deposits it is difficult to assess the
gene sulfides are more widely distributed, with a tabular zone importance of the sericite-clay-chlorite alteration in modify-
exceeding 100 m in thickness. ing the earlier Cu-Au mineralization introduced during K
silicate alteration (Sillitoe, 2000). At Boyongan, there is no
Discussion evidence to suggest that fluids responsible for illite-smectite-
The spatial and temporal relationships between intrusive chlorite alteration had any measurable impact on the concen-
activity, veining, and alteration presented in this study demon- tration or distribution of Cu or Au.
strate the intimacy of magmatism and Cu-Au mineralization The structural control of illite-pyrite alteration at Boyon-
at Boyongan and Bayugo. Figure 26 summarizes the lateral gan and Bayugo is typical for sericitic or phyllic alteration
and temporal distribution of veining and alteration events described from many Philippine porphyry deposits. In con-
that characterized the evolution of fluid conditions within the trast to many of the Cu porphyries of the American southwest
intrusive complex. and the Andes, broad (>250 m) annular zones of intense ser-
icitic alteration around a K silicate core are present in only
Magmatic-hydrothermal cycles and superior a small proportion of the Philippine deposits (Sillitoe and
grade development Gappe, 1984). Instead, sericitic alteration occurs more com-
Although the early diorite stocks (bird’s-eye porphyry, monly in narrow, structurally controlled zones as alteration
medium-grained diorite porphyry, and fine-grained diorite halos to late pyrite-quartz ± chalcopyrite ± molybdenite veins
porphyry) may have formed in association with some early (“D” veins of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) or to quartz-calcite-
formed calc-silicate alteration, these intrusions appear to pyrite-sphalerite-galena veins. Sericitic alteration zones are
have acted primarily as passive hosts to mineralizing fluids typically pyrite-rich. Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) documented
introduced during the emplacement of the synmineralization sulfide contents of >5% for the sericitic alteration zones in
intrusions (early-mineralization diorite series, intermineral- their Philippines study, with pyrite/chalcopyrite ratios varying
ization diorite porphyry, and late-mineralization diorite por- from 3:1 to 10:1. These characteristics are similar in mineral-
phyry at Boyongan, DIO series at Bayugo). ogy and timing but greater in intensity than the illite-pyrite
Truncated veins, vein-quartz xenoliths, and abrupt changes alteration assemblage developed at Boyongan.
in vein abundance and grade at intrusive contacts all support Some cobbles derived from debris flows at Bagacay and
a model for multiple discrete magmatic events during the evo- Magpayang have quartz-alunite-clay assemblages that have
lution of the hydrothermal system (Fig. 19). A similar progres- overprinted K silicate-style veining and alteration. This raises
sion of K silicate-related alteration and veining followed the intriguing questions as to their potential relationships to
emplacement of each synmineralization intrusion. At Bayugo Boyongan and/or Bayugo. The overprinting alteration rela-
the fertile hydrothermal cycle was associated with the DIO2 tionships document the influx of low-pH hydrothermal flu-
stocks, while at Boyongan most of the Cu and Au was intro- ids into a porphyry system. Despite the inherent uncertainty
duced during the magmatic-hydrothermal cycles associated of provenance, the proximity of these boulder fields to the
with the ECD1 and ECD2 stocks. Superposition of these two Boyongan and Bayugo deposits and the similarity of veining
magmatic-hydrothermal cycles in the shallow eastern high- and related K silicate alteration styles to those observed in
grade zone at Boyongan is considered to account for the supe- situ suggest that these boulders were derived from Boyongan
rior hypogene grades (locally exceeding 2% Cu and 3 g/t Au) and/or Bayugo as they were exposed by exhumation and ero-
in this area (Figs. 7, 11; App. 1, Figs. A13, A14). Vein quartz sion. Vuggy quartz alteration in float resembling recognizable
abundance and Cu-Au introduction attenuated progressively intrusions such as the bird’s-eye porphyry (Fig. 25C) also sup-
with successive magmatic-hydrothermal cycles associated ports the case for a quartz-alunite-clay overprint in the Boy-
with intermineralization (intermineralization diorite porphyry ongan/Bayugo complex, even though no such assemblage has
and DIO3) and late-mineralization (late-mineralization dio- been recognized in situ.
rite porphyry and DIO4) intrusions. Domains of quartz-alunite-clay alteration are spatially asso-
ciated with many Philippine porphyry deposits, including Far
Post-K silicate alteration Southeast, Guinaoang, Batao Tabio, Pisumpan, San Antonio
The timing of magmatism and K silicate alteration relative (Marcopper), Tapian, Balak-5, Hinobaan, Labangan, Salatan,
to the peripheral illite-chlorite-epidote-calcite assemblage Batong Buhay, and Tampakan (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984;

by Jeff Doyle
VEINING AND ALTERATION

Boyongan Complex Bayugo Complex
Youngest
Illite-pyrite alteration Illite-pyrite alteration ?

Illite-smectite alteration
Chlorite alteration of mafic minerals Chloritization of mafic minerals
Biotite replacing mafics* Biotite replacing mafics*

mineralization
porphyries
Stage 3 veins Stage 4 veins

diorite
Stage 2 veins
Late-
Stage 3 veins
Stage 0 USTs Stage 1 veins
LDP DIO4
Biotite replacing mafics* Biotite replacing mafics*

mineralization
porphyries

diorite
Inter-

IMD DIO3
Biotite replacing mafics*
Stage 3 veins
Stage 2 veins
Early-mineralization diorite porphyries
Stage 1 veins
ECD3
Stage 4 veins
Stage 4 veins
Stage 3 veins
Stage 2 veins
Stage 3 veins ?
Stage 2 veins
Stage 2 breccias
Stage 1 veins
Stage 1 veins
ECD2 DIO2
Stage 3 veins
Stage 2 veins
Stage 1 veins
ECD1 Stage 0 USTs
Stage 2 veins
Stage 1 veins
ECD0
complex
Diatreme
breccia
Biotite replacement
of breccia clast rims

diorite complex
Ca-silicate
?
Early
(skarn) alteration
FGD
Oldest
MGD
BEP
Distance (m) outward from intrusive contact: 0 200 0 200
*The relative timing of biotite replacement of primary mafic minerals relative to specific K silicate vein stages is uncertain
but is thought to be generally contemporaneous with K silicate alteration.
Fig. 26. Schematic summary of veining and alteration paragenesis observed for Boyongan and Bayugo. Vein stages 0–4 are
associated with K silicate alteration and are described in the text. Line thickness is drawn proportional to the abundance of
veining or intensity of alteration. Lines for veins in red indicate principal stages are associated with Cu-Au introduction. Pat-
terns emphasize the difference in wall-rock types between Boyongan (breccia complex) and Bayugo (early diorite complex).
Vein stages are depicted beyond intrusion margins only when texturally and/or compositionally distinctive characteristics
permit association with a specific intrusive stage. Clay mineral studies were not carried out at Bayugo, so the distribution of
illite-smectite alteration is not depicted for this area. Drilling at Bayugo has not yet defined the extent of veining and altera-
tion, and the distribution depicted should be considered a minimum.

by Jeff Doyle
128 BRAXTON ET AL.
Arribas et al., 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1998; Rohrlach, 2002). formation from a single evolving magmatic-hydrothermal
In most of these cases, the quartz-alunite-clay alteration zone system at Boyongan and Bayugo.
occurs above and is laterally displaced from the porphyry sys-
tems (e.g., Far Southeast-Lepanto: Arribas et al., 1995). In Exhumation, deep oxidation, and preservation by burial
other cases (e.g., Tampakan: Rohrlach, 2002) relict porphyry- Braxton et al. (2012) presented thermochronological data
style quartz veins occur in pervasively quartz-alunite-clay– from apatite (U-Th)/He dating that constrain the timing and
altered rock, providing evidence for overprinting of earlier K rate of exhumation of Boyongan and Bayugo. That study pre-
silicate assemblages. Where evidence of both K silicate and sented evidence for exhumation rates exceeding 2.5 km/m.y.,
quartz-alunite-clay alteration is preserved in the same rock, with weathering of the currently preserved paleosurface
the quartz-alunite-clay assemblage formed later (Sillitoe, beginning by approximately 1.6 Ma. Physiographic recon-
2000), consistent with observations in the float samples from structions based on the topography of the paleosurface and
Bagacay and Magpayang. on stable isotope paleoaltimetric constraints (Braxton et al.,
2009) suggest that the weathering profiles of the two deposits
Timing and duration of the magmatic-hydrothermal systems formed in an environment of high topographic relief immedi-
Braxton et al. (2012) presented the results of a high-resolu- ately east of a prominent (>550 m) escarpment at elevations
tion geochronological study on magmatism and hydrothermal between 750 and 1,050 m a.s.l.
activity at Boyongan and Bayugo. Through absolute dating of Pronounced differences in the bedrock permeability and
igneous zircon from the earliest premineralization stocks and hypogene pyrite/Cu sulfide ratios are implicated in the con-
late-mineralization dikes these authors bracketed the timing trasting supergene profiles of the adjacent Boyongan and
and duration of magmatism and K silicate-stage alteration at Bayugo deposits. In the immediate vicinity of Boyongan, a
Boyongan and Bayugo to between 2.3 ± 0.1 and 2.1 ± 0.2 Ma high permeability contrast between the diatreme breccia
(at 2s uncertainty). Coupled with mean Re-Os age determina- complex and the surrounding wall rocks, coupled with the
tions for K silicate-stage quartz-molybdenite veining (2.120 ± proximity of the breccia complex to the escarpment to the
0.007 and 2.115 ± 0.008 Ma), mean K-Ar dates of illite (2.12 ± west, is inferred to have led to a depressed groundwater
0.06 and 2.09 ± 0.06 Ma), and of alunite (2.1 ± 0.1 Ma) altera- table and a vertically extensive unsaturated zone. Positioned
tion, Braxton et al. (2012) presented a coherent, internally farther from the escarpment and outside the diatreme brec-
consistent history of multiphase magmatism and related cia complex, Bayugo’s vadose zone was commensurately
hydrothermal alteration at Boyongan and Bayugo, probably restricted.
occurring over approximately 200,000 years, although ana- Low hypogene pyrite/Cu sulfide ratios (0.6) at Boyongan
lytic uncertainties on age determinations allow a maximum contrast with more elevated ratios (2.3) at Bayugo (Braxton
lifespan of 500,000 years. These results are consistent with et al., 2009). These characteristics suggest that limited acid-
numerical models describing the convective cooling rates of generating capacity at Boyongan, essential for supergene Cu
porphyry stocks of comparable size and emplacement depth remobilization (e.g., Emmons, 1917; Locke, 1926; Blanchard,
(e.g., Norton, 1982; Cathles et al., 1997), which demonstrate 1968; Sillitoe, 2005), promoted largely in situ oxidation of Cu-
cooling to <200°C over intervals of less than 100,000 years. bearing sulfides and modest supergene remobilization of Cu.
Other geochronological studies focusing on the duration of Thus the superior grades encountered in Boyongan’s eastern
porphyry formation have presented findings consistent with and western high-grade zones are attributed almost exclusively
those in the current study (e.g., Chiaradia et al., 2014; Mercer to hypogene processes. Higher hypogene pyrite/chalcopyrite
et al., 2015, and references therein). ratios at Bayugo likely led to greater acid production during
Many Philippine districts display a spatial relationship weathering and more complete leaching of Cu above the base
between porphyry systems and illite- and/or alunite-altered of oxidation. These conditions enabled local supergene Cu
lithocaps (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Arribas et al., 1995; enrichment to develop at Bayugo (Braxton and Mathur, 2011)
Chang et al., 2011). Detailed radioisotopic dating from and also promoted significant (600 m) lateral dispersion of Cu
these systems reveals that some alteration systems were to form the exotic Cu deposit between Bayugo and the dia-
contemporaneous or nearly so, suggesting a common ori- treme breccia complex (App. 1, Figs. A29, A30).
gin. In a seminal study in the Pleistocene Mankayan district As early as the late Pleistocene, transtensional movement
of northern Luzon, Arribas et al. (1995) demonstrated that along strands of the Philippine fault zone (Fig. 1) contributed
age determinations for alunite associated with the Lepanto to local extension in northeast Mindanao. Braxton et al. (2012)
high-sulfidation deposit (1.6–1.2 Ma) were indistinguishable presented geochronological evidence for subsidence rates
from those for hydrothermal biotite (1.5–1.3 Ma) and illite exceeding 0.34 km/m.y. within the Mainit graben. These pro-
(1.4–1.2 Ma) associated with the subjacent Far Southeast cesses culminated in final burial of the Boyongan and Bayugo
porphyry Cu-Au deposit. On the basis of these close spa- deposits beneath fluviolacustrine and volcanic facies of the
tial and temporal relationships, these authors interpreted Tugunan Formation by 1.6 ka (App. 1, Fig. A31).
a genetic link between the two alteration styles, suggesting
that porphyry and quartz-alunite-clay alteration styles rep- Conclusions
resented distinct products of a single hydrothermal system. Exploration following the emerging genetic link between
The age determinations for illite and alunite in the current epithermal Au and porphyry Cu deposits led to the discov-
study show that this alteration immediately followed the final ery of two porphyry Cu-Au mineral deposits (Boyongan and
intrusive event. These findings are consistent with porphyry Bayugo) concealed beneath postmineralization cover in the
emplacement, illite-pyrite alteration, and quartz-alunite-clay Surigao Au district.

by Jeff Doyle
Emplacement of a polyphase, silt-sand matrix breccia com- copper-gold-molybdenum deposit, British Columbia: Economic Geology,
plex preceded Cu and Au introduction at Boyongan. The v. 91, p. 402–438.
Arribas, A., Hedenquist, J.W., Itaya, T., Okada, T., Concepcion, R.A., and
emplacement of this diatreme may have provided conduits for Garcia, J.S., 1995, Contemporaneous formation of adjacent porphyry and
subsequent ascent of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids. In both epithermal Cu-Au deposits over 300 Ka in Northern Luzon, Philippines:
deposits, auriferous bornite and chalcopyrite were concen- Geology, v. 23, p. 337–340.
trated in quartz-vein stockworks mantling the upper portions Atkinson, W.W., and Ware, H., 2002, Comb quartz layers in the porphyry
copper deposit at Yerington, Nevada: Geological Society of America (GSA)
of small (200–300 m diam), high aspect-ratio, pencil-shaped annual meeting: Geological Society of America, Corvallis, Oregon, May
diorite porphyry stocks. These mineralized stocks are part of 13–15, 2002, Abstracts with Programs, 15 p.
a multiphase diorite intrusive complex that includes a prem- Aurelio, M.A., 2000a, Shear partitioning in the Philippines: Constraints
ineralization early-diorite complex, the aforementioned dia- from Philippine fault and global positioning system data: Island Arc, v. 9,
treme, and a series of early-, inter-, and late-mineralization p. 584–597.
——2000b, Tectonics of the Philippines revisited: Journal of the Geological
porphyry intrusions. Society of the Philippines, v. 55, p. 119–183.
A characteristic progression of K silicate alteration and Bellon, H., and Yumul, G.P., Jr., 2000, Mio-Pliocene magmatism in the
veining followed the emplacement of each synmineralization Baguio mining district (Luzon, Philippines); age clues to its geodynamic
intrusion. Copper-gold introduction occurred principally dur- setting: Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences, Serie II., Sciences
ing the K silicate veining and alteration cycles of the early- de la Terre et des Planetes, v. 331, p. 295–302.
Bignall, G., Tsuchiya, N., Browne, P.R.L., Garg, S.K., and Hiriart, G., 2001,
mineralization and the DIO2 stocks (at Bayugo) and the Use of illite crystallinity as a temperature indicator in the Orakei Korako
ECD1 and ECD2 stocks (at Boyongan). At Boyongan, Cu-Au geothermal system, New Zealand: Transactions—Geothermal Resources
introduction accompanying overprinting K silicate-stage Council, v. 25, p. 339–344.
events contributed to (spatially restricted) superior grade Blanchard, R., 1968, Interpretation of leached outcrops: Nevada Bureau of
Mines, Bulletin 66, 196 p.
development, locally exceeding 2% Cu and 3 g/t Au. Bragg, W.L., 1912, The specular reflection of X-rays: Nature, v. 90, p. 410.
The history at Boyongan and Bayugo of porphyry emplace- Braxton, D.P., 2007, Boyongan and Bayugo porphyry Cu-Au deposits, NE
ment (from 2.3–2.1 Ma), exhumation (by 1.6 Ma), supergene Mindanao, Philippines: Geology, geochemistry, and tectonic evolution:
oxidation (approaching 600-m depth at Boyongan), and final Ph.D. thesis, Hobart, Australia, University of Tasmania, 277 p.
burial (by 1.6 ka) attests to the geologically short time scales Braxton, D.P., and Mathur, R., 2011, Exploration applications of copper iso-
topes in the supergene environment: A case study of the Bayugo porphyry
and transient geodynamic environments that can govern por- copper-gold deposit, southern Philippines: Economic Geology, v. 106,
phyry formation and preservation. With the industry turn- p. 1447–1463.
ing ever more toward exploration under cover, the nuanced Braxton, D.P., and Waters, P.J., 2012, Discovery of the Boyongan and Bayugo
understanding of the anatomy, processes, pathways, and envi- porphyry copper-gold deposits, Mindanao, Philippines, in Austen, S., Sil-
litoe, D., Naicker, T., and Brown, G., eds., Anglo American Exploration:
ronments of porphyry formation and preservation derived Decade of Discovery: London, Anglo American, p. 96–102.
from such studies will contribute to the concepts guiding Braxton, D.P., Cooke, D.R., Ignacio, A.M., Rye, R.O., and Waters, P.J., 2009,
future discovery. Ultra-deep oxidation and exotic copper formation at the late Pliocene Boy-
ongan and Bayugo porphyry copper-gold deposits, Surigao, Philippines;
Acknowledgments geology, mineralogy, paleoaltimetry, and their implications for geologic,
physiographic, and tectonic controls: Economic Geology, v. 104, p. 333–349.
The geologic framework presented was developed as part of Braxton, D.P., Cooke, D.R., Dunlap, J., Norman, M., Reiners, P., Stein,
the first author’s doctoral research at the Centre of Excellence H., and Waters, P.J., 2012, From crucible to graben in 2.3 Ma: A high-
in Ore Deposits (University of Tasmania). This framework resolution geochronological study of porphyry life cycles, Boyongan/Bayugo
emerged in collaboration with the Anglo American (Philip- copper-gold deposits, Philippines: Geology, v. 40, p. 471–474.
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the understanding of alteration in the district. The authors and Anao-aon quadrangles: Philippine Bureau of Mines and Geosciences,
also wish to thank Anglo American for the generous finan- two maps, scale 1:50,000.
Camacho, A., 2001, Ar-Ar age determinations of hornblende samples from
cial support of this project and in particular acknowledge that Mindanao: Report prepared for Anglo American Philippines Inc., Decem-
company’s Philippine exploration staff for the indispensable ber 19, 2001, Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National Uni-
logistical support provided. Likewise, the authors are grate- versity, Canberra, Australia, 26 p.
ful to Philex for enabling the study’s publication. Constructive Cannell, J., Cooke, D.R., Walshe, J.L., and Stein, H., 2005, Geology, miner-
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per deposit; a high-grade alkalic porphyry deposit in the Lachlan fold belt, ing discovery success with leading teams, working in more than 30 countries
New South Wales, Australia: Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 1637–1666. on some of Earth’s most significant mineral deposits.

by Jeff Doyle
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©2018 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 113, pp. 83–131

Geology of the Boyongan and Bayugo Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits:

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Introduction intercepted 362 m of K silicate-altered diorite breccia, with

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1 Includes Libas Marl of Mitchell and Leach (1991).

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C August, 2000-April 2003 D April 2003-January 2009

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porphyritic, intrusive stocks) developed in most of the mag- Basement complex

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Mineral inventory1 Contained metal

Sediment-hosted/carbonate replacement gold

1 Prospects: geologic resource; mines: past production as of 2016

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Table 2. Distinctive Features of Intrusive Phases at Boyongan and Bayugo

Phenocrysts Grain Size

Early diorite complex

Boyongan: Early-mineralization intrusions

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Boyongan: Inter- and late-mineralization intrusions

Bayugo: Early-mineralization intrusion

Bayugo: Inter- and late-mineralization intrusions

A TSD38: Boyongan B TSD63: Boyongan C TSD73: Bayugo

400 580 Pre-mineralization complex

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Boyongan: cross-section 1062200 N

Bayugo: cross-section 779050 E

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G H alteration. (A) Interval of late-mineralization diorite porphyry dike

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Fig. 14. (Cont.)

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Temporally and Spatially Associated Intrusions

Porphyry stock emplacement Vein-quartz Volumetrically significant