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Accepted Manuscript

Tectono-sedimentary evolution and hydrocarbon reservoirs in the early cretaceous


Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin, Mongolia

Jiawang Ge, Xiaomin Zhu, Rui Wang, Brian G. Jones, Weichang Chen

PII: S0264-8172(18)30151-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.03.041
Reference: JMPG 3306

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 28 November 2017


Revised Date: 27 March 2018
Accepted Date: 30 March 2018

Please cite this article as: Ge, J., Zhu, X., Wang, R., Jones, B.G., Chen, W., Tectono-sedimentary
evolution and hydrocarbon reservoirs in the early cretaceous Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin,
Mongolia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.03.041.

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Tectono-sedimentary evolution and hydrocarbon reservoirs


in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression,
Tamtsag Basin, Mongolia

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Jiawang Ge a, b, Xiaomin Zhu a, b, Rui Wang c, Brian G. Jones d, Weichang Chen e

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a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, China University of

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Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China

b
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China

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c
College of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
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d
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

e
Research Institute of Exploration and Development, Jidong Oilfield Limited Company,
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Tangshan 063000, China


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*Corresponding Author: xmzhu@cup.edu.cn (Xiaomin Zhu); gjwddn@163.com (Jiawang Ge)


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Abstract

The responses of depositional patterns to extensional faulting during the rift cycle are

discussed in this article, based on an integrated analysis of 3D seismic reflections, wire logs and

cores from the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression in the Tamtsag Basin, Mongolia. The synrift

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succession comprises four third-order sequences (SQ1-4). A four-stage fault evolution is defined,

including early synrift SQ1 (initial isolate faults), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault propagation),

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climax synrift SQ3 (maximum fault relief) and late synrift SQ4 (minor fault activity) stages. The

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initial isolated fault stage is defined by separated and small-sized half-grabens associated with

short-dispersal alluvium. In contrast, the rapid fault propagation stage is characterised by much

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longer dispersal systems of fan-delta deposits. As rifting progressed, a considerable increase in the
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basin subsidence occurred and the maximum fault displacement led to a dustpan basin geometry,

the coalescence of depocentres and extensive deep-water deposits. The observed both sediment
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starvation and balanced-filled patterns in SQ3 indicate that caution must be exercised when

attempting to correlate reservoirs and source rocks since variations in basin-filled patterns would
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be enhanced by the displacement localisation on several major faults during the significant basin
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formation. During the early period of the climax synrift stage, footwall-sourced systems were
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prominent, but drainages in prior relay zone sites were mostly decayed or submerged. In response

to the subsequent degradation of the footwall sources, axial-sourced braided deltaic systems
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became more important during the later period. An abrupt decrease of faulting at the end of the rift
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cycle gave a rise to an increased sediment supply and long-dispersal axially-sourced systems in

the Tanan Depression. Petroleum exploration shows that fan-delta front sandstones in SQ2 are the

most prospective hydrocarbon reservoirs, whereas the nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan

deposits in SQ3 have proved to be secondary potential oil-bearing reservoirs. This study indicates

that sediment dispersal patterns would be significantly re-organised by the differential faulting

displacement patterns and varied sediment potentials during the different synrift stages. The rapid

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fault propagation allowed the fault arrays to reach their nearly maximum length during the early

period of the basin evolution, while the displacement remained almost constant. This fault growth

pattern tends to establish large-scale topographic lows including overlapped transfer zones and

hanging dip-slope. Hence, major drainage catchments and long-dispersal depositional systems of

sand-rich deposits are facilitated during this early fault propagation stage, which may be a key

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aspect for the tectono-sedimentary evolution in rift basins. In addition, the fault and sedimentary

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relationships defined here may be used as a model when studying less data-rich rift basins

elsewhere.

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Keywords: Depositional system; sediment dispersal pattern; fault array evolution;

tectono-sedimentary evolution; hydrocarbon reservoirs; Tanan Depression; Mongolia

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1. Introduction
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Subsurface observations and numerical models indicate that basin evolution and depositional

patterns in both marine and lacustrine rift systems are strongly controlled by fault growth and
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displacement patterns (Rosendahl, 1987; Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1998;
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Gupta et al., 1999; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; Cowie et al., 2000; Dawers and Underhill, 2000;
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Zecchin et al., 2006). Typically, a progressive synrift cycle comprises a rift initiation stage, fault

interaction and linkage stage, through-going fault or climax stage, and waning or fault-death stage
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(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al., 2002;
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Morley, 2002). Over the past decades, numerous tectono-sedimentary models have been proposed

in rift basins, which have been widely applied to depositional, reservoir and petroleum evaluations

(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Strecker et al., 1999; Dawers and Underhill, 2000; Lin et

al., 2001; Martins-Neto and Catuneanu, 2010; Zhou et al., 2014; Henstra et al., 2017).

Nevertheless, the depositional architectures and associated sediment dispersal patterns often

demonstrate a high degree of variability in individual tectonically-controlled basins, deeply

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re-organised by the basin structure, active fault geometries and displacement patterns, source

lithologies and marine or lake level fluctuations (Gawthorpe et al., 1994; Schlische and Anders,

1996; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Strecker et al., 1999; Gupta et al., 1999; Egger, et al., 2002; Noll

and Hall, 2006). The relationship between fault behaviours and sedimentary architecture during

the rift cycle, especially in earlier rifting stages, still remains insufficiently understood (McLeod et

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al., 2002; Lewis et al., 2017). The investigations of temporal and spatial evolution of fault arrays

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and depositional systems distributions are often hampered by: (1) limited surface and subsurface

data, such as isolated or small 3D/2D seismic surveys; and (2) the poorly defined earlier synrift

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deposits, which are infrequently encountered by subsurface boreholes and often poorly exposed in

the field (Davies et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2002; Noll and Hall, 2006; Henstra et al., 2017).

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The Tanan Depression is one of the most hydrocarbon-rich areas in the Tamtsag Basin,

Mongolia, and has generated widespread interest after a great petroleum breakthrough in the past
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decade (Yang et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2011). The overall nature of reservoir quality and petroleum

systems is extensively covered in reports about the Tanan Depression (Liu et al., 2011; Miao et al.,
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2011). It reveals that the oil target interval is mainly located within the Tongbomiao and Nantun
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Formations, linked to the earlier rift successions (Chen et al., 2013; Jia et al., 2014). Four

third-order sequences (SQ1-4) have been recognised within the synrift stratigraphy (Ji et al., 2009;
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Yang et al., 2009; Chen, 2012; Zhou et al., 2014). Zhou et al. (2014) suggested that three distinct
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tectono-stratigraphic stages, including early, climax and late synrift sequences, are developed in
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the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression. In addition, depositional systems, including nearshore and

offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits in the Nantun Formation, have also been investigated based

on an integrated study of seismic geomorphology and well-based observations (Miao et al., 2011;

Jia et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2015). However, two scientific knowledge gaps still exist in the Tanan

Depression: (1) the early synrift succession accessed by newly drilled wells reveals a significant

variability in the stratigraphic and depositional pattern between the SQ1 and SQ2 sequences, while

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could not be explained using the tectono-stratigraphic model proposed by Zhou et al. (2014); and

(2) the effects of fault array evolution on the sediment dispersal patterns during the rift cycle are

still poorly understood. These scientific knowledge gaps hamper further evaluations of

hydrocarbon plays in the Tanan Depression.

Extensive high-quality 3D seismic coverage with abundant logging and core data can shed

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light on the tectono-sedimentary evolution in rift basins. The study aims to further improve our

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understanding of the basin evolution in the Tanan Depression, building on the previous work of Ji

et al. (2009), Chen et al. (2012) and Zhou et al. (2014). The interplay between fault arrays

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evolution and depositional patterns of synrift sediments will be our primary interest in this study.

This study may provide potential implications for fault-sedimentary interactions, as well as

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hydrocarbon reservoir predictions in other rift basins elsewhere.

2. Geological setting
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2.1. Tectonics

The Tamtsag Basin (~35,400 km2), part of the Hailar-Tamtsag Basin, is located in eastern
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Mongolia (Fig. 1a) and consists of a Mesozoic-Cenozoic intra-continental rift system


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superimposed on the Palaeozoic collision orogenic belt of the Inner Mongolia-Greater Hinggan
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Mountains (Traynor and Sladen, 1995; Graham et al., 2001; Meng et al., 2003). Owing to the

collapse of the Mongolia-Okhotsk orogenic belt (Traynor and Sladen, 1995; Meng et al., 2003), a
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group of rift basins in eastern Mongolia and neighbouring areas in China were constrained by
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inherited activity on NE- and NNE-striking basement structures during the Late Jurassic (Johnson,

2004; Wang et al., 2006).

The Tanan Depression, also known as the Tanan Sub-basin, is a sub-unit of the Tamtsag

Basin covering an area of approximately ~3,500 km2 (Fig. 1b). The Tanan Depression underwent

three structural stages during the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous, including pre-rift (before 145 Ma),

synrift (145-130.8 Ma) and post-rift phases (after 130.8 Ma; Figs. 2 and 3; Graham et al., 2001;

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Zhou et al., 2014).

The synrift phase is composed of early, climax and late synrift stages, and correspondently,

the basin subsidence rate increased from low to high and decreased to low again (Fig. 3; Chen, et

al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2014). During the synrift phase, the Tanan Depression could be subdivided

into six structural units, namely the eastern fault scarp (E-FS), the eastern half-graben (E-HG), the

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central uplifted high (C-UH), the central half-graben (C-HG), the western half-graben (W-HG)

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and the western dip-slope (W-DS) from east to west (Figs. 1b and 3; Ji et al., 2009; Shan et al.,

2013). Eleven NE- or NNE-trending rift-related faults (namely F1 to F11) are developed in the

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Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression (Figs. 1b and 3; c.f. Chen et al., 2013). NE-oriented major

faults F1, F2 and F3 define the eastern boundary of the E-HG, while the C-HG is bounded by

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NNE-trending faults F4 and F5 (Figs. 1b and 3). NNE-trending faults F6 to F11 are confined to

the W-HG and W-DS (Figs. 1b and 3).


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The regional stress field direction changed to E-W at the end of the Hauterivian (130.8 Ma),

and the Tanan Depression entered into the post-rift phase (Chen et al., 2013; Wu, 2013). The syn-
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to post-rift boundary was marked by an obvious unconformity T2 (Fig. 2; Ji et al., 2009). The
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basin was no longer influenced by the active faulting as the lithosphere cooled during the post-rift

phase (Johnson, 2004; Chen et al., 2013). As a result, the sedimentary environment changed to
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prominent fluvial depositional systems (Fig. 2; Chen et al., 2012). The prior faults were
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reactivated, forming strike-slip fault systems with transpressional structures (i.e. positive flower,
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V-shaped features; Howard et al., 2003; Wu, 2013; Fig. 3). At the end of the Albian (100.5 Ma),

the Tanan Depression was partly inverted, precluding deposition of the Qingyuangang Formation

and overlying successions in the northern area (Chen et al., 2013).

2.2. Stratigraphy

The Jurassic basement of the Tanan Depression is formed by pyroclastic rocks and andesite

associated a small proportion of conglomerates and low-grade metamorphic sandstones (Graham

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et al., 2001; Meng et al., 2003). The Early Cretaceous successions in the Tanan Depression consist

of the Tongbomiao, Nantun, Damoguaihe and Yimin Formations. The Tongbomiao Formation has

been subdivided into lower and upper units (Fig. 2; Yang et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014). The lower

Tongbomiao Formation is mainly composed of variegated or reddish breccia, conglomerate and

tuffs (Fig. 2). The upper Tongbomiao Formation is characterised by conglomerate, pebbly or

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tuffaceous coarse-grained sandstone and fine- to medium-grained sandstone interbedded with thin

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mudstone (Fig. 2). The overlying Nantun Formation predominantly consists of black mudstone

interbedded with conglomerate, sandstone and siltstone (Jia et al., 2014). The Damoguaihe

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Formation is primarily composed of fine-grained sandstone and siltstone interbedded with

mudstone, while the younger Yimin Formation is dominated by fine-grained sandstone and

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siltstone interbedded with coal and greenish mudstone (Fig. 2).

2.3. Previous work in the Tanan Depression


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A genetic sequence stratigraphic framework and stratal architecture have been established in

the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression by Ji et al. (2009) and Zhou et al. (2014). The synrift
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succession is related to a second-order sequence with a duration of 14.2 Ma (Chen et al., 2012;
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Zhou et al., 2014). According to an integrated interpretation of seismic reflection terminations,

wireline logs, cores and biostratigraphic data demonstrated by Zhou et al. (2014), four third-order
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sequences, namely SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4, have been recognised in the Tanan Depression (Figs.
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2 and 3). The four sequences are separated by sequence boundaries referred as the T5, T31, T3,
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T22 and T2 seismic reflectors from bottom to top (Fig. 3; Ji et al, 2009; Chen et al., 2012; Zhou et

al., 2014). The third-order sequences SQ1 and SQ2 are correlated with the Tongbomiao Formation,

while SQ3 and SQ4 correspond to the Nantun and Damoguaihe Formations, respectively (Figs. 2

and 3). The biostratigraphic evidence indicates that age durations of the SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4

sequences are 145-143 Ma, 143-139.4 Ma, 139.4-133.9 Ma and 133.9-130.8 Ma, respectively (Fig.

2; Zhou et al., 2014).

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The sequence architectures of the synrift deposits are demonstrated to be controlled by

various basin subsidence rates during the rift cycle (Yang et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). Chen et

al. (2012) and Zhou et al. (2014) proposed three types of synrift lacustrine sequences consisting of

distinctive depositional systems in the Tanan Depression: (1) the early synrift sequences (SQ1-2)

mainly consist of alluvial fan, fan-delta and shallow lake deposits; (2) the climax synrift sequence

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(SQ3) is primarily composed of deep-lake and gravity deposits (Jia et al., 2014), associated with a

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transgressive systems tract (TST) formed in the early period and a high-stand systems tract (HST)

formed in the late period; and (3) the late synrift sequence (SQ4) is mainly characterised by

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large-scale braided-delta deposits.

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3. Data and methodology AN
3.1. Data

The comprehensive data package used in this study comprises 3D post-stack seismic
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reflections, abundant wireline logs and cores. The study area has been penetrated by more than
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200 wells, with more than 100 wells located around the C-HG. Around 80 exploratory wells with

recovered cores were selected for this study (Fig. 1b). Gamma ray (GR) and resistivity (LLD) logs
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are available and provide accurate constraints on the thicknesses of lithological assemblages and
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depositional geometries. The 3D seismic survey has a total area of approximately 3000 km2 at an

inline and crossline (trace) spacing of 25 m (Fig. 1b). The vertical resolution of the seismic
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reflection survey within the study interval ranges from 25 m to 40 m.


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3.2. Methodology

Depositional systems are recognised based on the analysis of cores, wireline logs (GR, LLD)

and 3D seismic reflections. Isopach maps of the four third-order sequences were used to describe

the synrift stratigraphic distribution. Through well-calibrated seismic reflections and associated

wireline logs and cores, the temporal and spatial distribution of the depositional systems can be

understood. Seismic progradational reflections (clinoforms), sandstone/conglomerate percentage

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contours, seismic geomorphologic patterns and heavy mineral assemblages are used to reveal the

sediment dispersal patterns. The seismic stratigraphic technique is employed to constrain the

periods of significant activities on the fault. We identify the active fault by thickening of strata,

whereas continuous deposition across a trace is related to an inactive fault (Davies et al., 2000).

Finally, a tectono-sedimentary model of the fault growth, basin geometry and depositional

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response during the rift cycle is proposed for the Tanan Depression.

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4. Results

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4.1. Depositional systems

Based on cores, well logs and seismic data, six types of depositional systems are identified in

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the Tanan Depression, including alluvial fan, fan-delta, braided delta, deep to shallow lake, and
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nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits. Detailed depositional systems, lithological

assemblages, sedimentary structures and seismic and log characters are outlined in Table 1.
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4.1.1. Alluvial fan deposits


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Alluvial fan deposits are the coarsest component in the Tanan Depression and consist mainly
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of variegated muddy-supported breccias, volcanic detritus and tuffs (Fig. 4A). The breccias are

angular and extremely poorly sorted (up to 30 cm clasts), and sometimes upward coarsening (Fig.
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4A); they are often underlain or overlain by 0.3-2 m thick tuff beds (Fig. 5). The alluvial fan

deposits tend to show irregular bell- or funnel-shaped log geometries, and the tuff is evident from
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low responses on the LLD log (Fig. 5). These deposits appear as variable amplitude, chaotic or
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discontinuous reflections on seismic sections (Figs. 6 and 7), which are similar to reflection

patterns of alluvial fans described by Sangree and Widmier (1977) and Lin et al. (2001). Such

deposits are observed around the basin margins in SQ1 (Figs. 6 and 7).

4.1.2. Fan-delta deposits

Compared to the alluvial fan deposits, fan-delta deposits are finer-grained with a higher

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proportion of siltstone and mudstone, while tuff beds are mostly absent (Figs. 4B-E and 5). The

fan-delta deposits typically present moderately continuous, progradational stacked reflections in

slightly wedge-shaped configurations on seismic sections (Figs. 6 and 7). This type of deposits is

commonly observed in SQ2 and is characterised by grossly coarsening-upward successions

consisting mainly of subaerial (delta plain) and subaqueous (delta front) facies (Figs. 5, 6 and 7;

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McPherson et al., 1987, 1988).

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The fan-delta plain deposits are composed mainly of (1) poorly to moderately sorted

conglomerate and pebbly to coarse-grained sandstone, showing scour surfaces, imbricated bedding

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and cross-bedding in fining-upward intervals (Fig. 4B), and (2) rarely observed mudstone and

siltstone with plant fossils (Fig. 4D). The conglomerate in facies 1 is much smaller and better

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sorted than that in the alluvial fan deposits (Fig. 4A, B). Facies 1 is similar to the subaerial channel

deposits described by McPherson et al. (1987) and Lin et al. (2001), whereas facies 2 could be
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interpreted as inter-channel deposits on the fan-delta plain (cf. Nemec and Steel, 1984; McPherson

et al., 1988; Lin et al., 2001). On GR logs, the subaerial channel deposits are characterised by
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box-shaped geometries with a roughly 10-30 m thick succession, whereas the inter-channel
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deposits display 1-3 m thick serrated configurations of relatively high GR values (around 150 API;

Fig. 7).
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Fan-delta front deposits are composed mainly of (3) well sorted imbricated conglomerate,
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coarse- to fine-grained sandstone, showing scour surfaces, cross-bedding and parallel bedding in
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fining-upwards intervals (Fig. 4C), and (4) well-sorted medium- to fine-grained sandstone with

cross-bedding, ripple laminations and burrows in coarsening-upward intervals (Figs. 4E and 5).

The deposits of facies 3 are finer-grained than the subaerial channel deposits, which could be

comparable to subaqueous channel deposits on the fan-delta front as described by McPherson et al.

(1987) and Wood and Ethridge (1988); while facies 4 is interpreted as mouth bar deposits on the

fan-delta front (McPherson et al., 1988). On GR logs, the subaqueous channel deposits are shown

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as toothed box or bell-shaped geometries (5-10 m), whereas the mouth bar deposits display

funnel-shaped configurations (3-7 m; Fig. 4).

4.1.3. Braided delta deposits

Compared to the alluvial fan and fan-delta deposits, braided delta deposits are significantly

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finer grained and composed mainly of medium- to fine-grained sandstone frequently interbedded

with mudstone (Fig. 4F-G). Sigmoid or oblique progradational stacked reflections (clinoforms) are

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characteristics of braided delta deposits on seismic sections (i.e. Galloway and Hobday, 1983);

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they are mainly developed in SQ4 and upper part of SQ3 (Fig. 6). Core observations of the braided

delta deposits could define two major facies: (1) well sorted coarse- to fine-grained sandstone with

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cross-bedding and parallel bedding in fining-upward cycles (Fig. 4F); and (2) fine-grained
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sandstone interbedded with siltstone and mudstone, showing wave ripple laminations (Fig. 4G).

Facies 1 is related to distributary channels while facies 2 represents mouth bar deposits on the
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braided delta front (cf. Galloway and Hobday, 1983; Orton and Reading, 1993; Olariu and
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Bhattacharya, 2006). On the GR log, the distributary channel deposits show bell-shaped

configurations with a roughly 10-20 m thick interval, whereas the mouth bar deposits are revealed
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by funnel-shaped geometries with coarsening-upward intervals (< 15 m; Fig. 5).


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4.1.4. Shallow-deep lake deposits

Deep-lake deposits form the finest part of the synrift succession and are dominated by
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thick-bedded (tens of metres to 450 m), black and structureless mudstone (Figs. 4H and 5). With a
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high total organic carbon content (1.5-4.85 %, avg. 2.17%), high potential yield (avg. 6.5 mg/g),

organic matter of mostly type I and II and high vitrinite reflectance (0.7-1.2 %; Wang et al., 2011a;

Jia et al., 2014), these dark mudstones appear to have good source rock potential. The deep-lake

deposits are associated with smooth liner-shaped geometries with very high GR values (up to 180

API; Fig. 5), and typically exhibit extremely continuous and parallel seismic reflections on seismic

sections (Fig. 6). Such deposits are mainly observed in SQ3 in the E-HG and C-HG of the Tanan
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Depression (Figs. 5 and 6).

In contrast to the deep-lake deposits, the shallow lake deposits are dominated by grey

mudstone and interbedded siltstone with horizontal laminations and some wavy ripples. The

shallow lake deposits tend to exhibit serrated liner-shaped geometries with moderate to high GR

values (140-170 API) on GR logs (Fig. 5) and moderate to poor continuous, sub-parallel or

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divergent seismic reflections on seismic sections (Fig. 6; Zhou et al., 2014). The mudstones in the

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shallow lake deposits are poor to moderate oil source rocks because of their low total organic

carbon content (< 1 %; Wang et al., 2011a). The shallow lake deposits are relatively thin (10-50 m)

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and widely observed in SQ3 and SQ4 (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).

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4.1.5. Nearshore sub-lacustrine fan
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Nearshore sub-lacustrine fans refer to subaqueous gravity-flow deposits originated in a

sub-lacustrine environment along the fault escarpments (Surlyk, 1989; Nemec, 1990). These
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deposits are commonly coarse-grained, lacking subaerial distributary plain facies (Nemec, 1990;
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Jia et al., 2014). The nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits can be easily recognised in the Tanan

Depression, according to their characteristic thick (up to 750 metres), wedge-shaped


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retrogradational stacked configurations on seismic sections (Fig. 6) as well as their irregular or


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serrated box-shaped geometries on GR and LLD logs (Fig. 5). Such deposits are mainly observed

along F1 and F2 in the TST of SQ3 (Figs. 5 and 6). Major facies are identified in this study,
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including (1) sandy-supported poorly sorted conglomerate containing clasts of, or underlain by,
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dark mudstone (Fig. 4I), and (2) conglomerate to coarse- and medium-grained sandstones

underlain by dark mudstone, associated with scoured bases and parallel bedding structures in

multistorey fining-upward intervals (Fig. 4J). The extremely poorly sorted conglomerates of facies

1 are observed along the fault scarps without any flow direction, indicating the subaqueous talus

fed directly into the lake (Stow, 1985; Prosser, 1993); hence, facies 1 can be comparable to the

inner fan deposits described by Walker (1992). The deposits of facies 2 are observed in front of the

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inner fan deposits away from the fault scraps, which are considered to represent the middle fan

deposits on a nearshore sub-lacustrine fan (Lowe, 1982; Surlyk; 1989). Revealed in the penetrated

wells, the inner fan deposits show frequently serrated bell-shaped GR geometries (several tens to

nearly 300 metres), whereas the middle fan deposits commonly display irregular box-shaped

configurations on the GR log (several tens metres; Fig. 5).

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4.1.6. Offshore sub-lacustrine fan

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Offshore sub-lacustrine fans refer to subaqueous gravity-flow deposits on a sub-lacustrine fan

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mostly fed by deltas far away from basin margins (Postma, 1984; Lin et al., 2001), similar to distal,

deep-water turbidite or slumped deposits (Surlyk, 1989; Ravnås and Steel, 1997). The offshore

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sub-lacustrine fan deposits in this study mainly consist of siltstone and sandstone intercalated with
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black mudstone, with abundant Bouma sequences, distinctive deformed beds and sand-balls (Fig.

4K); most such deposits are developed in SQ3 and appear as finger-shaped GR and LLD log
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geometries on a smooth linear-shaped background (Fig. 5). On seismic sections, the offshore
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sub-lacustrine fan deposits are generally located in the basinal centre and tend to display mounded

or lenticular configurations with a relatively high amplitude, which are in marked contrast to the
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nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits characterised by wedge-shaped seismic geometries along the
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basin margins (Fig. 6).

4.2. Sequence stratigraphy and depositional evolution


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Based on an integrated analysis of cores, well logs and seismic reflections supplemented by
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sandstone (or conglomerate) percentage contours and heavy mineral assemblage studies, main

depocentres, stratigraphic geometries, depositional distribution and sediment dispersal patterns are

described below for each sequence.

4.2.1. Sequence SQ1

Sequence SQ1 is commonly thin and sporadic, locally present in E-HG, C-HG and W-HG; it

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onlaps onto the C-UH, W-DS and local basinal highs in the C-HG (footwall of F8; Figs. 3, 6 and

8a). Three isolated depocentres are observed in association with F1, F2 and F3; the maximum

thickness is about 400 m (Fig. 8a). In addition, three scattered depocentres evaluated as 200 m,

300 m and 200 m deep are developed along F4 (Fig. 8a). The observed very poorly sorted breccias

with their associated volcanic detritus (10-20 %) and tuff reflect a short sediment transportation

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distance (Figs. 5 and 7). Main depositional systems recognised in SQ1 are the alluvial fan and

RI
fan-delta plain deposits; they commonly located near the basin margins and extended for a

distance of less than 4-6 km basinward (Figs. 5 and 7).

SC
4.2.2. Sequence SQ2

U
Sequence SQ2 is present across almost the entire basin except in the E-FS and the northern
AN
part of the C-UH; the SQ2 pronouncedly onlaps into the W-DS (Figs. 3, 6 and 8b). Three main

depocentres in the C-HG are developed in association with F1, F2 and F3, which are larger than
M

those observed in SQ1; the maximum thickness is about 500 m (Fig. 8b). In contrast to SQ1, the
D

three prior isolated depocentres along F4 are linked forming a large-size depocentre in SQ2, and

the maximum thickness of which is 400 m (Fig. 8a, b).


TE

Two main depositional systems are identified in SQ2: (1) widespread fan-delta deposits; and
EP

(2) less developed shallow lake deposits in the central part of E-HG (Fig. 9). The offshore

sub-lacustrine fan deposits are occasionally observed (typically < 5% in cores; Li et al., 2014).
C

Three large-scale fan-delta systems are recognised in the overlapped areas between the boundary
AC

faults: 1) the fan-delta system between F4 and F7 has a long transportation distance of more than

18 km in the northern part of the C-HG, proved by SSE-inclined progradional seismic reflections

and similar heavy mineral assemblages of zircon-pyrrhotite-leucosphenite sampled from the

T19-67, T19-69, T19-342-200 and T19-49 wells (Figs. 7 and 9); 2) the fan-delta system between

F1 and F2 prograded to the SW for nearly 20 km in the southern area of the E-HG, corresponding

to declined conglomerate percentages in wells (from 62% to 31%; Fig. 9); and 3) the fan-delta

14
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system between F2 and F3 extended for about 15 km in SW orientation, located in the northern

area of the E-HG (Fig. 9). Additionally, footwall-derived fan-delta systems in the central parts of

F1, F2 and F6 are typically characterised by an advancement of less than 8 km basinward (Fig. 9).

Furthermore, another three or four large-scale fan-delta complexes are present in the southern part

of the C-HG and along the W-DS, with a range between 10 and 20 km; they are mainly fed by

PT
hanging dip-slope drainages (Figs. 6 and 9).

RI
4.2.3. Sequence SQ3

SC
Sequence SQ3 is present across the entire basin, except in the E-FS area where it bounded by

boundary faults F1 and F2 (Figs. 3 and 8c). Seven main depocentres represented by typical

U
wedge-shaped configurations are observed (Figs. 3 and 8c). Three of these large-scale depocentres
AN
are observed in the E-HG: 1) one is located in the central part of F1 being 5-6 km wide and up to

1600 m thick; 2) the second is associated with F2 formed by three subordinated small-sized
M

depocentres, generally being 2-3 km wide and up to 800 m thick; and 3) the third is about 3 km
D

wide and 600 m thick in association with F3 (Fig. 8c). Another two main depocentres are located

in the C-HG; the northern one is near F5 and is up to 1100 m thick, while the southern one is
TE

thinner (about 700 m) and 2-3 km wide adjacent to the central part of F4 (Fig. 8c). The rest two
EP

1-2 km wide depocentres with a maximum thickness of 600 m are located near F10 and F11 in the

northern W-HG (Fig. 8c).


C

The early period of SQ3 deposition (TST package): The observed depositional systems in
AC

the TST of SQ3 include the deep and shallow lake, nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan and

braided delta deposits (Figs. 5, 6 and 10). Deep-lake deposits are widespread in the E-HG, the

C-HG and the southern area of the W-HG (Figs. 6 and 11). Nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits

are observed near the central parts of F1 and F2, presenting lobe-like geometries in a plane view

(Fig. 11); these nearshore lobes are footwall-derived with a relatively short transport distance of

less than 8 km (Figs. 6 and 11). It is noticed that the nearshore conglomerate-prone lobes in the

15
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overlap area between F1 and F2 are less developed during this period (Fig. 11). A 42 km2 offshore

sub-lacustrine fan system is observed along the central part of F4 (i.e. T19-78), presenting an

elongated lobe on the seismic slice map (Figs. 10b and 11). This offshore lobe shows a close

relationship with the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan lobe in the central part of F2 as they have a

similar heavy mineral association (refer to Zone I in Fig. 11). The sediment dispersal pathway

PT
linking these two lobes is referred as a subaqueous feeder channel of an approximately 3 km

RI
length (Jia et al., 2014), showing a channel-like geometry of a high amplitude on the seismic

section (Fig. 10c). Another lobe of the offshore sub-lacustrine fan is located adjacent to the

SC
hanging wall of F3, likely fed by subaqueous channels around the southern tip of F3 from the

nearshore sub-lacustrine deposits (Fig. 11). A braided deltaic system (clinoforms) with a height of

U
AN
60-100 m prograded for about 12 km SSW in the northern area of the W-HG (Figs. 5 and 11); the

dispersal pathways of these axially-facilitated systems are likely parallel to the synthetic active
M

fault arrays (Fig. 11). A small-sized (8.5 km2) offshore sub-lacustrine fan system (around the well

T19-x70) is observed in the central part of the W-HG, which is considered to be fed by braided
D

delta deposits in SSW direction based on their similar heavy mineral assemblages
TE

(siderite-zircon-ilmenite-anatase; Yan et al., 2015; Fig. 11).

The late period of SQ3 deposition (HST package): The late period of SQ3 deposition has a
EP

much wider distribution of braided delta deposits and a decreased distribution of deep-lake
C

deposits, compared with the early period of SQ3 deposition (Figs. 11 and 12a). These
AC

axially-sourced braided deltaic systems have prograded for a maximum 26 km in the northern part

of the basin (Fig. 12a); such deposits appear as mainly coarsening-upwards cycles on well logs (i.e.

T19-88, T19-67, T19-78; Fig. 5). In contrast to the early period, the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan

deposits are mostly absent during this period, with only one small-scale (30 km2) fan lobe located

adjacent to the central part of F2 (Fig. 12a). Two small-sized (10-18 km2) offshore sub-lacustrine

fan lobes occur adjacent to F3 and F7, respectively; they are believed to have been fed in SSW

16
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direction from the northern braided delta deposits (Fig. 12a).

4.2.4. Sequence SQ4

Sequence SQ4 is present across the entire basin with laterally continuous seismic reflections

in both sigmoid/oblique and sub-paralleled geometries (Figs. 3 and 8d). This sequence is truncated

PT
by the unconformity T2 (the top of SQ4) around the W-DS (Fig. 3). Wedge-shaped seismic

geometries are mostly absent near the boundary faults (Fig. 3), while a number of small-sized

RI
depocentres defined by the thickening deposits are located 5-10 km away from the basin margin

SC
(Fig. 8d). The maximum thickness of SQ4 is only 600 m (Fig. 8d).

Braided delta systems represented by multi-stage sigmoid and oblique clinoforms (300-500 m)

U
are observed in the northern and central parts of the study area (Figs. 3, 6 and 12b); these deposits
AN
show extensive coarsening-upwards cycles on GR logs (Fig. 5). The large-scale SSE-inclined

clinoforms with a total prograding distance of up to 80 km imply a sufficient axial-sourced


M

sediment supply (Fig. 12b). On the contrary, the southern areas of the basin are dominated by
D

shallow lake deposits, which mainly appear aggradational stacking patterns on GR logs (i.e.

T19-83, T19-46; Fig. 5). The few thin-bedded offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits observed in the
TE

southern areas of the basin were re-transported from the progradational braided delta deposits (Fig.
EP

12b).

5. Discussion
C

5.1. Tectono-sedimentary evolution in the Tanan Depression


AC

The preserved stratigraphic successions and sedimentary architectures enable examination of

the sediment dispersal patterns and their relationships with extensional faulting geometries

(Prosser, 1993; Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gupta et al., 1999; Dawers and

Underhill, 2000). According to Leeder and Jackson (1993) and Eliet and Gawthorpe (1995), the

sediment flux into rift basins is characterised by a high dispersion derived from different regions,

e.g. hanging dip-slope, footwall, fault offset and axial drainage basins, which are primarily
17
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controlled by extensional faulting patterns (Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al., 2002;

Henstra, et al., 2017). Based on the basin geometry and fault displacement-distance analysis, the

fault arrays in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression could be defined as a four-stage growth

history including early synrift SQ1 (initial isolated faults), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault

propagation), climax synrift SQ3 (maximum fault relief) and late synrift SQ4 (minor fault activity)

PT
stages. In this section, controls of extensional faulting on basin structure and dispersal patterns of

RI
sediment are discussed (Figs. 15 and 16).

5.1.1. Early synrift stage SQ1-2

SC
The estimated tectonic subsidence rate of the early synrift stage (SQ1-2) is of less than 80

U
m/Ma (Fig. 2; Shan et al., 2013). It is indicated a slow tectonic subsidence during the early basin
AN
formation, similar to the observation of Chen et al. (2013) and Zhou et al. (2014). However, the

observed stratigraphic and sediment dispersal changes between SQ1 and SQ2 in the Tanan
M

Depression, cannot be fairly interpreted using the model proposed by Zhou et al. (2014). Thus a
D

further model that includes early synrift SQ1 and SQ2 sub-stages is proposed to illustrate the

different controlling factors on depositional patterns (Figs. 15 and 16a, b).


TE

(1) Early synrift sub-stage SQ1


EP

The early synrift SQ1 sub-stage is defined by a number of NE-oriented and small-sized

half-grabens, which are bounded by short (< 15 km long), segmented and low-displacement faults
C

(< 500 m; Figs. 8a and 13a). These isolated faults are indicated by the partitioned displacement
AC

curve on individual faults (Fig. 13a). The NE-orientated arrangements of these minor faults at the

onset of the rifting were likely induced by the NW-stress regime (Fig. 5a; Graham et al., 2001; Wu,

2013). Observations of extensive progradational stacked alluvium and fan-delta deposits indicate

that the accommodation generation was significantly outpaced by the sediment supply during the

period of SQ1 deposition (Figs. 5 and 7). As a result, the incipient Tanan Depression was related to

a sediment overfilled pattern (Fig. 15). The characteristic seismic architecture in SQ1 is dominated

18
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by chaotic and completely discontinuous reflections, which is expected to be the consequence of

the changeable and irregularly stacked deposits (Fig. 15).

The depositional systems in SQ1 are mostly characterised by a range of less than 4-6 km (Fig.

7), we therefore suggest the earliest Tanan Depression was mainly filled by relatively

short-dispersal sediment systems possibly fed by both transverse- and axial-sourced drainages (Fig.

PT
16a). The lack of large-scale depositional systems can be explained as follows. Firstly, rift

RI
topographic slopes (i.e. hanging dip-slope) were commonly narrow (10-15 km) due to the initial

isolated and minor faults (Figs. 3 and 8a), which made it unlikely for large-scale drainage basins

SC
establishment (Gupta et al., 1999; Cowie et al., 2000). Secondly, the pre-rift basement of the

Tanan Depression mainly consists of volcanic rocks forming a high-relief landscape, where the

U
AN
major antecedent drainages are likely to be absent (Fig. 16a); similar immature pre-rift drainage

basins have also been suggested in other parts of eastern Mongolia, which is associated with the
M

steep pre-rift physiography (Howard et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2013). As a result,

short-transported and very poorly sorted deposits are generally characteristic in the earliest Tanan
D

Depression (Fig. 16a).


TE

(2) Early synrift sub-stage SQ2

During the early synrift SQ2 sub-stage, the fault arrays are observed to have increased rapidly
EP

in length, as revealed by the interacted or linked fault displacement curve (Fig. 13b). F1 grew to
C

22 km long and F2 became 30 km in length; they overlapped for 5 km and enclosed an area 1 to 5
AC

km wide (Figs. 8b and 13b), which is referred as an overlapped transfer zone (OTZ1; defined by

Morley, 1990) or a relay ramp (Peacock, 2002). Nucleation and linkage of the segmented faults

produced F4 as long as 28 km while F7 increased to a length of 17 km (Fig. 13b). The F4 and F7

overlapped for about approximately 9 km and enclosed a 2.5 to 5 km wide transfer zone (OTZ2;

Fig. 13b). Another transfer zone, OTZ3, is recognised between F2 and F3, with an overlapped

length of 1.5 km and an enclosed width of 3-7 km (Fig. 13b). These three overlapped transfer zone

19
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are generally SSW-inclined with a low gradient (0.8-1.1°). The maximum displacement during this

sub-stage (about 700 m) is similar to or a little higher than that in the earlier SQ1 sub-stage (Fig.

13a, b). The widespread fan-delta deposits that mainly show coarsening-upwards patterns in SQ2

indicate a sediment balanced or overfilled pattern during this sub-stage (Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 15). This

stratal relationship demonstrates that the rate of sediment supply was still high during this

PT
sub-stage, and it could at least balance the rate of accommodation creation.

RI
The observed long-dispersal fan-delta systems of up to 20 km in SQ2 suggest that major

drainage catchments are captured in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 9 and 16b). The newly

SC
established drainage catchments are expected to respond to the re-organised rift topography during

this sub-stage. The resulting rift topographical rearrangement caused by the rapid fault

U
AN
propagation is suggested to include: 1) a broad basin constituted by interconnected half-grabens

(Figs. 14 and 15); 2) three low-gradient transfer zones (referred as OTZ1, OTZ2 and OTZ3; Figs.
M

8b and 13b) resulted from the fault overlaps; and 3) a significantly expanded hanging dip-slope

indicated by the pronounced lateral onlaps of the SQ2 sequence onto the basement (Figs. 2, 8b and
D

15). The slope length of the W-DS was estimated at approximately 32 km in SQ2 (Fig. 8b). The
TE

large captured drainage catchments have promoted extensive sediment progradations in the

low-gradient overlapped transfer zones (Fig. 16b), as observed for the greatly increased dispersal
EP

distance of fan-delta deposits in SQ2 compared to that in SQ1 (Fig. 7). In subaerial settings, the
C

low-angle hanging dip-slopes and transfer zones are more likely to be exploited by stream incision
AC

than the steeper footwall scarps (Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Eliet and Gawthorpe, 1995). Hence,

fan-delta systems sourced from transfer zone and hanging wall dip-slope drainages have relatively

longer sediment dispersal distances (up to 20 km) than the footwall-sourced fan-delta systems,

which only extend 5-8 km (Figs. 9 and 16b). In summary, the re-organised rift topography caused

by rapid fault overlaps and interaction is suggested to exert the primary control on the sediment

dispersal patterns during the early synrift SQ2 sub-stage (Fig. 16b). The proposed sediment

20
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dispersal model in this study (Fig. 16a, b) could explain why better sorted and more mature

deposits occurred in SQ2 than those developed in SQ1 (Figs. 4, 5, 7 and 15). Furthermore, this

distinct variability in sediment dispersal patterns would also lead to marked differences in the

porosity and permeability of the sand-bodies and their subsequent hydrocarbon reservoir potential

(see section 5.3).

PT
5.1.2. Climax synrift stage SQ3

RI
The tectonic subsidence rate considerably increased from 80 m/Ma to 140 m/Ma (Shan et al.

SC
2013) which gave rise to coalescence of depocentres and deep-water deposition of organic-rich

and gravity deposits in SQ3 (Figs. 3, 8 and 13b, c). This reflects a transition from rift initiation (RI)

U
to rift climax (RC) phase of extension (Cowie et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2002). During the
AN
climax synrift stage, boundary faults F1, F2, F3 and F4 reached their maximum displacements of

1800, 1350, 1000 and 950 m, respectively; whereas other faults had lower displacements of less
M

than 500 m (i.e. F6, F7, F8; Figs. 13c and 14). Locations of maximum displacement on F1 and F4
D

were observed to migrate north-eastward in this stage compared to those in the SQ2 sub-stage (Fig.

8b, c). The climax rift stage (SQ3) is characterised by a significantly enlarged, dustpan-shaped
TE

basin geometry due to the pronounced increase in displacement (Fig. 15). Observations of
EP

organic-rich mudstones and prominent retrogradational stacked seismic patterns imply a sediment

starvation in the E-HG and C-HG during this stage (Fig. 15). It is therefore concluded that the
C

sediment input was greatly outpaced by rapid accommodation creation in those half-grabens
AC

bounded by high-displacement faults (e.g. F1, F2, F4; Figs. 13, 14 and 15). In direct contrast, low

displacements on other faults (e.g. F6, F7, F8, F9, F10; Figs. 13 and 14) are associated with a

sediment balance-filled pattern consisting of braided delta and shallow lake deposits in the W-HG

(Fig. 15). Thus the enhanced variability in fault displacement patterns is suggested to be

responsible for the different basin infill patterns during the significant basin formation (Figs. 14

and 15).

21
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The short-dispersal (5-8 km) conglomerate-prone deposits along the border fault scarps in the

TST of SQ3 indicate that footwall-sourced systems were prominent during the early period of the

climax synrift stage (Figs. 11 and 16c). This is considered to respond to the high rate of footwall

uplift, which favours the consequent footwall-derived systems (Prosser, 1993). However, the

dip-slope sourced systems retreated greatly as shown in Fig. 11; this development was probably

PT
caused by a significant lake transgression during the high tectonic subsidence stage (Ravnås and

RI
Steel, 1998). The infrequent nearshore fan lobes in the area between F1 and F2 imply that the

OTZ1 sediment fluxes had almost decayed during the climax synrift stage (Fig. 11). A possible

SC
explanation is attributed to the renewed rift topography caused by the northward migration of the

depocentre along F1 (Figs. 8c and 13c); thus drainages could not respond to the local structural

U
AN
uplift and subsequently re-directed (Fig. 16c; Gupta et al., 1999). Meanwhile, other prior transfer

zones OTZ2 and OTZ3 were submerged and became subaqueous gravity-flow pathways (Figs. 11
M

and 16c). Various sized offshore sub-lacustrine fan sediments are found to be characteristic in the

TST of SQ3 (Fig. 11); they were supposed to be induced by the significantly modified basin
D

physiography (Fig. 16c; Postma; 1984; Surlyk, 1989). Evidence from seismic, logs and heavy
TE

mineral analysis suggests that subaqueous dispersal paths linking the gravity deposits could be in

either transverse or axial directions (Figs. 11 and 16c). Furthermore, the subaqueous channels
EP

linking the nearshore (E-HG) and offshore sub-lacustrine fans (C-HG) imply the ability for
C

transverse sedimentary systems to transport sediments from one half-graben to another (Figs. 10
AC

and 16c).

From the early to the late period of SQ3 deposition, the sediment dispersal changed from

predominant footwall-sourced systems to the proliferation of axially-derived deltaic systems in the

Tanan Depression (Figs. 11 and 12a). This transition is likely due to the degradation of footwall

sources in the E-FS associated the decreased fault displacement during the later period (Fig. 14).

This suggestion is supported by the fining-upwards cycles and absence of HST conglomerate

22
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deposits near the fault escarpment in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 5 and 12a).

5.1.3. Late synrift stage SQ4

The late synrift stage is characterised by very low fault displacements (< 400 m) and a

cessation of fault block rotations (Figs. 13d and 14). As a result, the Tanan Depression adopted a

PT
dish-shaped geometry, and the subsequent basin topography was significantly flattened (Figs. 15

and 16d). An increase in coarseness of the sediment associated with axial-sourced clinoforms

RI
prograding for up to 80 km in SQ4 (Figs. 5, 12b and 16d); it indicates an increase in sediment

SC
supply during this waning rifting stage. This interpretation coincides with the view that the

drainage basins would have greatly expanded with respect to an increase in the sediment input rate

U
since they incised into new source areas when fault movement ceased (Blair, 1988; Prosser, 1993).
AN
As a response, large volumes of axial-sourced sediments would have been introduced into the

Tanan Depression during this waning faulting stage (Figs. 12b and 16d). The lake shoreline
M

gradually prograded towards the basin centre, the subsequent Tanan Depression was overfilled and
D

was possibly hydrologically closed (Fig. 16d).


TE

5.2. Implications for tectono-sedimentary evolution in rift basins

A number of previous studies have shed light on the tectono-sedimentary interactions in


EP

extensional rift basins (Cohen, 1990; Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gupta et al., 1999;

Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al 2002). The rift physiography and source area erosions
C

are strongly influenced by the extensional faulting displacement, stacking and linkage patterns
AC

(Leeder et al., 1991; Leeder and Jackson, 1993), which in turn exert a major control on synrift

drainage basins and sediment dispersal patterns (Jackson and Leeder, 1995; Eliet and Gawthorpe,

1995; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Gupta et al., 1999). The results of this study provide a good

opportunity to understand how the deposition and dispersal patterns of sediment evolved in

lacustrine rift basins, and their interactions with the specific geometries and displacement patterns

of active fault arrays during the rift cycle (Figs. 15 and 16). Furthermore, our example provides
23
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potential implications for fault-sedimentary interactions in rift basins.

The early synrift stage is commonly characterised by a low rate of tectonic subsidence

(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997), as observed from the low-displacement faults in SQ1 and

SQ2 in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 2 and 13; Zhou et al., 2014). Two tectono-sedimentary

sub-stages are defined in this study, including 1) an initial isolate fault sub-stage related to mainly

PT
short-dispersal alluvium accumulating in small half-grabens, and 2) a rapidly propagated fault

RI
sub-stage characterised by large-sized fan-delta systems within interconnected but

low-displacement half-grabens (Figs. 15 and 16a, b). The rapid fault propagation within a duration

SC
of less than 4.6 Ma allowed the fault arrays to reach nearly their full length, while the

displacement remained almost constant before the significant basin formation (Fig. 13a, b). A

U
AN
general fault-sedimentary interaction is indicated from this study, in which the expanded drainage

basins and long dispersal depositional systems of sand-rich sediments are likely facilitated during
M

the rapid fault propagation stage (Fig. 16b). The above suggestion follows the Hack scaling law of

drainage basin area and slope length (Leeder et al., 1991): 1) low-gradient transfer zones resulted
D

from the fault overlaps are facilitated in large-sized drainage catchments, and serve as the major
TE

conduits for sediment transportation (Fig. 16b; Gawthorpe et al., 1994); and 2) the expanded

length of hanging dip-slope (e.g. WDS) caused by the rapidly lateral propagation is also
EP

favourable for capturing new drainage catchments (Figs. 15 and 16b; Leeder and Jackson, 1993;
C

Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000). Coupled with a low rate of tectonic subsidence, the subsequent
AC

major sediment systems transported via the large-scale structural lows are the reasons for the

sand-rich systems almost lacking any evidence of thick mudstones, as observed in SQ2 in this

example (Fig. 15). This sediment infill pattern is comparable to the observation in other rift basins,

which are characterised by a rapid fault linkage during the early period of the basin history

(McLeod et al 2002; Noll and Hall, 2006). In this respect, sand-rich deposits relative to large-sized

transfer zones and well-established dip-slopes may be a key aspect during the early rapid fault

24
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propagation stage in rift basins.

Similar to the fault behaviours demonstrated during the through-going faulting stage by

Davies et al. (2000) and Gawthorpe and Leeder (2000), our example suggests that the high

displacement became localised on several major fault arrays, while other arrays were inactive or

had low displacements during the climax synrift stage (Figs. 15 and 16c). The diversity of

PT
basin-infill patterns is enhanced by fault displacement localisation, as observed for both sediment

RI
starvation and balance-infill patterns in this study (Fig. 15). Thus, caution must be exercised when

attempting to correlate stratigraphic architectures, reservoirs and source rocks, since differential

SC
basin-filled pattern caused by localised displacement localisation on a small number of major

faults is probably a general characteristic during the significant basin formation (Fig. 15).

U
AN
Following the depositional predictions in the climax rift model of Ravnås and Steel (1998),

footwall-derived drainages are dominant as pronounced footwall uplift occurs along


M

high-displacement boundary faults, while parts of the hanging dip-slope drainage basins tend to be

reduced during the high tectonic subsidence stage. The observations of decayed and submerged
D

drainages in prior transfer zones during the climax synrift stage, highlight various responses of
TE

transfer zone drainages would occur depending on the balance between the displacement rate of

boundary faults and the river incision rate (Jackson and Leeder, 1995; Gupta et al., 1999). As
EP

indicated by this example, the different faulting displacement, renewed rift topography and varied
C

sediment potentials would lead to marked variations in sediment dispersal patterns during the fault
AC

array evolution (Fig. 16; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Gupta et al., 1999; McLeod et al., 2002; Henstra

et al., 2017). Special attention also needs to be paid to the prediction of sand-prone systems along

the basin margin after an RI and RC transition (Fig. 16b, c).

The fault activity in extensional rift systems wanned abruptly and the subsequent rift

architecture became dish-like at the end of the rift cycle (Figs. 15 and 16d; Prosser, 1993; Ravnås

and Steel, 1997). Axial-sourced rift systems presumably take time to form and are expected to be

25
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prominent when crossover basement ridges are subdued during the fault inactive period (Jackson

and Leeder, 1995), as observed in the later climax synrift stage and late synrift stage in this

example (Figs. 12 and 16d). The observed large-scale braided deltaic deposits and increased

axial-sourced sediment inputs in this study (Fig. 16d) agree with the view that the source area and

sediment yield potential would become the dominant controlling factor when faulting is no longer

PT
active (Ravnås and Steel, 1997, 1998).

RI
Analysis of synrift stratigraphic distributions and sediment dispersal variations could provide

evidence for determining dynamic fault throw and the temporal evolution of fault arrays (Jackson

SC
and Leeder, 1995; Gupta et al., 1999; Davies et al., 2000; Noll and Hall, 2006). In turn, the fault

array patterns would also provide valuable indications for depositional evaluations, for example,

U
AN
the early rapid fault propagation is likely to facilitate sandstone-prone sediments via the

well-established structural lows during the rift evolution (Figs. 13c, 15 and 16b). The defined
M

tectono-sedimentary relationships in this example may be used as a model when studying less

data-rich rift basins elsewhere. Crucially, caution needs to be exercised when using the proposed
D

models in new rift basins, since the variability of depositional responses would be enhanced by
TE

fault growth patterns. For example, the relationships summarised in this study may be unlike to the

fault-sedimentary interactions in those rift basins characterised by a fault growth following a


EP

systematic increase in both displacement and length over a relatively long period of the basin
C

history (Cartwright et al., 1995; Schlische and Anders, 1996; Morley, 2002).
AC

5.3. Hydrocarbon reservoirs and implications for petroleum exploration

The synrift succussion yields a number of depositional systems, but it is extremely

challenging to locate potential petroleum reservoirs since reservoir facies architectures and

geometries vary considerably in rift basins (Morley, 1990; Cohen, 1990; Shanley and McCabe,

1994; Strecker et al., 1999; Lin et al., 2001; Bache et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2015). Certified as a

petroliferous oil-field, the Tanan Depression shows a relatively high degree of oil exploration and

26
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development (Yan and Lv, 2012; Liu et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2014). Sedimentological studies and

petroleum exploration indicate that only the fan-delta front sand-bodies in SQ2 and the

sub-lacustrine deposits in SQ3 are profitable hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Tanan Depression (Liu

et al., 2012).

The short-transported and poorly sorted breccias in SQ1 are characterised by a very low

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porosity (< 5 %) and permeability (< 10 md; Yan and Lv, 2012), hence, SQ1 is found to be dry. On

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the contrary, the fan-delta front sand-bodies developed in SQ2 are porous and proved to be best

oil-bearing reservoirs in the Tanan Depression. These sand-bodies are: (1) moderately to well

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sorted; (2) characterised by a relatively high porosity (10-15 %) and permeability (10-700 md)

with both primary and secondary dissolution pores (Yan and Lv, 2012; Chen et al., 2012); and (3)

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overlain by thick mature source rocks contributing to a perfect source-reservoir-capping condition

(Liu et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2012). For this reason, these hydrocarbon reservoirs in SQ2 produce
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more than 100 tonnes of oil per day, accounting for almost 70 % of the total petroleum production

(Liu et al., 2012).


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According to the studies by Miao et al. (2011) and Jia et al. (2014), the sand-bodies in both
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nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits have a low permeability (< 10 md) and porosity

(mostly < 15 %). Some oil accumulations within these sub-lacustrine fan reservoirs have been
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identified inside the C-HG and E-HG (Figs. 5 and 10). However, they are generally isolated and
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have small dimensions, and thus only provide a low oil production (27.4-56.29 tonnes per day,
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Wang et al., 2011a; Jia et al., 2014); this makes them a secondary target for hydrocarbon

explorations in the Tanan Depression. Braided delta deposits formed in the HST of SQ3 are

possible potential hydrocarbon reservoirs since they have relatively high porosities (15-20 %;

Wang et al., 2011b). Despite the fact that few drilling results have oil indications in some

structural-lithologic traps (Fig. 10; Wang et al., 2011b), it is less likely that big profitable,

well-connected hydrocarbon accumulations would be discovered in these braided deltaic deposits

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(Liu et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2012). The widespread axially-sourced deltaic sandstones in SQ4

appear to be potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, the vitrinite reflectance results imply

immature (Ro < 0.45 %) mudstones in SQ4 due to their shallow burial depths (Liu et al., 2011)

and the effective caprocks are also absent (Wang et al., 2011b). Therefore, the SQ4 succession in

this part of the Tanan Depression is deemed to have a low petroleum potential. In summary, this

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study indicates that the fan-delta front sand-bodies in SQ2 are the most prospective, while the

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sub-lacustrine fan deposits in SQ3 form the secondary potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in the

Tanan Depression. In addition, the results of this study area may provide implications for

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hydrocarbon reservoir prediction and risk evaluation in other ancient rift basins.

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6. Conclusions AN
The incorporation of high-quality 3D seismic reflections associated with well and core data

provides a good opportunity for evaluating the changing response of basin geometries and
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sediment dispersal patterns to the active faulting in a temporal view. The following conclusions

can be drawn from this study.


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(1) Six types of depositional systems are identified in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression,
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including alluvial fan, fan-delta, braided delta, deep to shallow lake, and nearshore and offshore
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sub-lacustrine fan deposits based on integrated analysis of 3D seismic, well-log and core data. The

rift cycle in the Tanan Depression follows a four-stage fault array evolution, including early synrift
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SQ1 (initial isolated fault), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault propagation), rift climax SQ3 (maximum
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fault relief) and late rifting SQ4 (minor fault activity) stages.

(2) The initial isolated fault stage is dominated by short-dispersal alluvium, while the later

rapid fault propagation stage is characterised by long-dispersal fan-delta systems in the

interconnected but low-displacement half-grabens. The rapid fault propagation to nearly full

length facilitates the large-sized overlapped transfer zones and hanging dip-slope. The expanded

drainage catchments relative to the well-established topographic lows and long dispersal systems

28
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of sand-rich sediments may be a key aspect during the early fault propagation stage in rift basins.

(3) Subsequent progressive rifting gave rise to a significant increase in the basin subsidence

rate, coalescence of depocentres and promoted deep-water mudstones and gravity flow deposits in

the Tanan Depression. The observed both sediment starvation and balanced-filled patterns in SQ3

indicate that caution must be exercised when attempting to correlate reservoirs and source rocks,

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since differential basin-filled patterns caused by displacement localisation on a small number of

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major faults are likely general characteristics during the significant basin formation.

Footwall-sourced sediment systems were prominent due to the high rate of footwall uplift during

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the early synrift climax stage, while axial-sourced braided deltaic systems became more important

during the later period in response to the degradation of E-FS sources.

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(4) An abrupt decrease in faulting led to a flattened rift topography, an increase in the

sediment supply and long-dispersal axial-sourced braided delta systems in the Tanan Depression.
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Axial-sourced rift system is expected to have a long response to tectonic topographic readjustment,

which is facilitated in later climax synrift stage and late synrift stage.
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(5) The fan-delta front sandstones in SQ2 are most profitable oil-bearing reservoirs, while the
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nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits in SQ3 have proved to be secondary

prospective hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Tanan Depression.


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This study highlights the close relationship between the fault geometries and sediment
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dispersal patterns during the rift cycle. The tectono-sedimentary model defined here may be used
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as a reference when studying less data-rich rift basins elsewhere.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the National Science and Technology Major Projects (No.

2016ZX05001-002). We would like to express our gratitude to the Daqing Oilfield Ltd Company of

China, for their assistance and the permission to publish the results. Special thanks go to the

Editor-in-Chief, Prof. Massimo Zecchin for his time and work involved in this manuscript. We also

29
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thank Dr Francois Bache and another anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and

insightful suggestions, which have significantly improved the scientific impact of this paper.

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Table1 Depositional systems, seismic and log characters, lithological assemblages and sedimentary structures in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression.

Depositional system Seismic character Lithology assemblage and sedimentary structure Log geometry Depositional environment Distribution

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Alluvial fan deposits Variable amplitude, chaotic or Matrix-supported poorly sorted breccia/ volcanic detritus (maximum Mostly irregular bell- or funnel-shaped Alluvium in the subaerial Only distributed in SQ1
discontinuous reflections diameter up to 30 cm) and tuff; massive structure environment

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Fan-delta deposits Moderately continuous, progradational Poorly to moderately sorted conglomerate and pebbly to coarse-grained Box-shaped (10-30 m) Subaerial channel deposits on the Mostly distributed in
stacked reflections in slightly sandstone; imbricated bedding, scour surfaces and cross-bedding in fan-delta plain SQ2
wedge-shaped configurations fining-upward intervals

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Mudstone and siltstone; plant fossils Serrated-shaped with a relatively high GR Inter-channel deposits on the
value around 150 API (< 3 m) fan-delta plain
Well sorted imbricated conglomerate, coarse- to fine-grained Toothed box or bell-shaped (5-10 m) Subaqueous channel deposits on

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sandstones; scour surfaces, cross-bedding and parallel bedding in the fan-delta front
fining-upwards intervals

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Well sorted medium- to fine-grained sandstone; cross-bedding, ripple Funnel-shaped (3-7 m) Mouth bar deposits on the fan-delta
laminations and burrows in coarsening-upward intervals front
Braided delta deposits Continuous and sigmoid/oblique Well sorted coarse- to fine-grained sandstone; cross-bedding and Bell-shaped (10-20 m) Distributary channel deposits on Mainly developed in the

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progradational stacked reflections parallel bedding in fining-upward intervals the braided delta front HST of SQ3 and SQ4
(clinoforms)

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Well sorted fine-grained sandstone interbedded with siltstone and Funnel-shaped (< 15 m) Mouth bar deposits on the braided
mudstone; wave ripple laminations delta front

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Shallow-deep Moderately to poorly continuous, Grey mudstone interbedded siltstone; horizontal bedding and some Serrated liner-shaped; moderate to high GR Shallow lake deposits Commonly observed in
lake deposits sub-parallel or divergent seismic wavy ripples value (140-170 API) SQ3 and SQ4
reflections
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Extremely continuous and parallel Black mudstones; structureless Smooth liner-shaped; very high GR value Deep lake deposits Mainly found in the
seismic reflections (up to 180 API) E-HG and C-HG in SQ3
Nearshore Wedge-shaped, retrogradational stacked Sandy-supported poorly sorted conglomerate containing clasts of, or Frequently serrated bell-shaped (several Inner fan deposits on the nearshore Mainly developed
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sub-lacustrine fan seismic reflections underlain by, dark mudstone; massive structure without any flow tens to 300 metres in wells) sub-lacustrine fan adjacent to the basin
direction margin in SQ3
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Conglomeratic to fine-grained sandstones; imbricate structure, scoured Commonly irregular box-shaped (several Middle fan deposits on the
bases and parallel bedding in multistorey fining-upward intervals tens metres) nearshore sub-lacustrine fan
Offshore Mounded or lenticular configurations Siltstones and sandstones intercalated with black mudstones; Bouma Finger-shaped on a smooth linear-shaped Offshore sub-lacustrine fan/ distal, Mostly developed in the
sub-lacustrine fan with a relatively high amplitude sequences, deformed beds and sand-balls background deep-water turbidite deposits basinal centre in SQ3
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FIGURES CAPTIONS:

Figure 1. (a) Tectonic location of the Tanan Depression in Mongolia, Tamtsag Basin (after Graham

et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2014; Jia et al., 2014); (b) General structural units and

wells in the Tanan Depression, fault arrays (F1-11) are present according to Chen et al. (2013).

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Figure 2. Tectono-stratigraphy of the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin

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(modified from Yang et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2014). The study interval (red colour

bar) includes the Tongbomiao, Nantun and Damoguaihe Formations, which are associated with

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four third-order sequences SQ1-4. The total and tectonic subsidence rates are from Shan et al.

(2013).

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Figure 3. Major fault geometry and sequence stratigraphy in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin

(the locations of seismic sections AA’ and BB’ are shown in Figure 1b). Five sequence boundaries
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named T5, T31, T3, T22 and T2 are identified based on the seismic truncation, toplap, onlap and

downlap terminations. The synrift succession can be subdivided into four third-order sequences
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including SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4 (Ji et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). Note that the SQ1 sequence
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is characterised by extremely chaotic and discontinuous seismic reflections, while seismic

reflections of the SQ2 sequence are more continuous. The tectonic units (i.e. E-HG, C-HG) are
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present in Figure 1b. MFS surfaces are associated with seismic offlaps and downlaps. MFS:

Maximum flooding surface.


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Figure 4. Lithology and sedimentary structures of cores in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin.
AC

Diameter of the coin is 1.5 cm. (A) Variegated poorly sorted muddy-supported breccias and

volcanic detritus, massive structure (T19-91, 2781.8 m). (B) Moderately sorted conglomerates and

pebbly to coarse-grained sandstones, with directional arranged gravels and grading bedding

(T19-342-t200, 2455.7 m). (C) Moderately to well sorted conglomerate, coarse and fine-grained

sandstone in fining-upwards intervals, with scoured surfaces, cross-bedding and rip-up clasts of

mudstone (T19-69, 2594.7 m). (D) Grey mudstone and siltstone, plant fossils (T19-342-t200,

2421.4 m). (E) Well sorted coarse- to medium-grained sandstone with cross-bedding (T19-23,
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1961.1m). (F) Fine-grained sandstone with parallel bedding (T19-67, 1542.95 m). (G) Siltstone

with wave ripple laminations (T19-34, 1885.9 m). (H) Black mudstones, structureless (T19-65,

2610 m). (I) Poorly sorted sandy-supported breccias and sandstones interbedded with black

mudstones, massive structure (T19-56, 2437.1 m). (J) Multistorey conglomeratic to fine-grained

sandstones, with scoured bases, grading bedding and parallel bedding in fining-upwards intervals

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(T19-65, 2344.2-2345.1 m). (K) Siltstones and sandstones intercalated with black mudstones,

deformed beds and sand-balls (T19-65, 2344.5).

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Figure 5. Log-profile correlation showing the well-log geometries and depositional system

SC
interpretations of the synrift deposits in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. Wells are selected

from different tectonic units throughout the basin, and their locations are shown in Figure 1b. Note

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that the depositional stacking architectures exhibit a great variability in different tectonic units in
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SQ3.
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Figure 6. Seismic configurations (upper) and depositional interpretations (lower) based on seismic

and well logs calibrations (revised from Ji et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). The seismic section CC’
D

is shown in Figure 1b. MFS: Maximum flooding surface.


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Figure 7. Seismic section DD’ and its depositional interpretation based on the three penetrated
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well calibrations. The apparently progradational stacked fan-delta system in SQ2 has a maximum

distance of up to 20 km, much longer than that observed in SQ1 (generally of less than 4-6 km).
C

The location of seismic section DD’ is shown in Figure 1b.


AC

Figure 8. Isopach maps of synrift intervals (in metres transferred from two-way travel time)

superimposed by active fault arrays in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin (a: SQ1; b: SQ2; c:

SQ3; d: SQ4). The thickness data are determined from the detailed mapping of the T5, T31, T3,

T22 and T2 seismic reflectors. See the text for detailed discussions.

Figure 9. Depositional facies map, showing sediment dispersal patterns of the fan-delta systems in

SQ2 in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. The sediment dispersal pattern is reconstructed
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based on cores, well logs, seismic interpretations and heavy mineral assemblages. Five zones of

heavy mineral assemblages can be roughly identified, namely Zone I

(Zircon-Pyrrhotite-Leucosphenite assemblage), Zone II (Pyrrhotite-Leucosphenite-Biotite

assemblage), Zone III (Zircon-Pyrrhotite-Ilmenite assemblage), Zone IV

(Pyrrhotite-Zircon-Biotite-Leucosphenite assemblage) and Zone V

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(Pyrrhotite-Zircon-Leucosphenite-Ilmenite assemblage). Note that the fan-delta systems in the

overlapped areas of F1&F2, F2&F3 and F4&F7 are characterised by long dispersal distances of up

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to 20 km, while the fan-delta systems in the central part of the boundary faults have relative

dispersal distances of less than 10 km.

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Figure 10. The relationship between nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan systems in the TST

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of SQ3 within the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. (a) Facies distributions across the E-HG and
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C-HG based on cores, well logs, seismic interpretation (refer the lithology of well T19-83 and

T19-78 in Figure 5), the seismic section EE’ is shown in Figure 1b. (b) A typical seismic slice in
M

the TST of SQ3 (from Jia et al., 2014) showing the offshore sub-lacustrine fan sediments adjacent

to F4 is re-transported via the feeder channel from the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits close
D

to F2. (c) The channel-like seismic reflection indicating the feeder channel deposits (from Jia et al.,
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2014), refer the seismic line FF’ in the Figure 10b.


EP

Figure 11. Depositional facies map, showing the sediment dispersal patterns in the TST of SQ3 in

the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. Depositional facies distributions are reconstructed based on
C

cores, well logs, seismic interpretation, sandstone percentages and heavy mineral assemblages.

The heavy mineral assemblages are from Yan et al. (2015). Four zones of heavy mineral
AC

assemblages can be identified, including Zone I (G and F type), Zone II (C and F type), Zone III

(A and B type) and Zone IV (G and A type). G type:

Zircon-Siderite-Pyrrhotite-Ilmenite-Leucosphenite; F type:

Pyrrhotite-Ilmenite-Pyrite-Leucosphenite; A type: Siderite-Zircon-Ilmenite-Anatase; B type:

Siderite-Zircon-Leucosphenite-Garnet; C type: Zircon-Ilmenite-Pyrrhotite-Leucosphenite. Note

that the large-scale offshore sublacustrine fan deposits (i.e. T19-78) are re-transported from the

nearshore sublacustrine fan deposits, whereas another set of offshore sublacustrine fan deposits
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(assessed by T19-x70) is re-transported from northern braided delta deposits. TST: transgressive

systems tract.

Figure 12. Depositional facies maps, showing the sediment dispersal patterns in the Tanan

Depression, Tamtsag Basin (a: HST of SQ3; b: SQ4). HST: high-stand systems tract.

PT
Figure 13. Displament-distance curves of the rift-related faults (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6 and F7),

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showing fault evolving patterns in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. (a) Initial isolated faults

(early synrift SQ1 sub-stage) of low-displacement. (b) rapid fault propagation (early synrift SQ2

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sub-stage) with a significant increase in length but a slight increase in displacement, forming three

overlapped transfer zones referred as OTZ1, OTZ2 and OTZ3; (c) maximum fault relief (climax

U
synrift stage SQ3) with a considerable increase in displacement but the length remains almost
AN
constant; and finally (d) minor fault activity (late synrift stage SQ4) characterised by very low

displacements.
M

Figure 14. Structural evolution in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression based on the balanced
D

section (the section line is shown in Figure 1b). The synrift stage can be subdivided into the early
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synrift stage (SQ1 and SQ2 sub-stages), climax synrift stage (SQ3) and late synrift stage (SQ4).

During the climax synrift stage, early minor faults became inactive; meanwhile, the main
EP

displacements localised on the boundary faults F1, F2 and F4, but F8 was less active. Note that

basin structures changed a lot during the different synrift stages, see text for detailed discussions.
C

Figure 15. Schematic diagram of basin geometries, seismic sequence structures and basin infill
AC

patterns during the rift cycle in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. The seismic architectures

are summarised from Figures 3, 6 and 7. The basin infill patterns are based on Figures 5, 7 and 10.

Figure 16. Conceptual models for the tectonic-sedimentary evolution in the Tanan Depression,

Tamtsag Basin. (a) Early synrift SQ1 sub-stage; (b) early synrift SQ2 sub-stage; (c) climax synrift

stage SQ3, modified from Zhou et al. (2014); (d) late synrift stage SQ4. Not to scale.
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o o o
117 118 11 9

R USSI A (a) (b) 0 10 20 km


o
50

PT
L abu dali n
0 30 60 km 1 T ra
ce
Basin F1
MON GOLIA
1 9-8 9

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o

L in
49

Ha ila r Basin F10


A F6
CH INA 19 -9 2
1 9-8 8 21 -2 8
Ta mtsag Basin

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0 200 km
19 -3 7
o
48

D
N 19-112 1 9-2 3 F3

S
2 1-1 0

-D
19 -6 7

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F7

W
19 -9 0

G
-H
B 21 -1 5 2 1- 29

W
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1 9-x70
N
19 -69
19- 36 21 -32
21 -1 6
E 2 1- 12
1 9- 21 19 -342 -t2 00 A'
1 9- 68
1 19- 53 19 -9 7 21-16- 1
C F8 19 -48
1 9- 78

H
F ig. 14 1 9- 33

U
1 9- 18

M
19- 43

C-
19 -52 19-8 3 19 -7 3 F2
4 19 -1 6 F4
3 1 9-49 1 9- 1 1 9- 7- 2
19- 40 19 -8 2 1 9- 7- 1
19 -5 4

2 E'

FS
19- 74

D'

HG
B'
19 -8

E-
1 9- 45 19 - 78
19- 58 19 -56 19-38 Wel l

E-
1 9-5 7

TE
19- 25
19 -30
1 9- 28 19 -5 1 1 9- 80
1 9- 86
C' Maj or fa ult
5 19 -8 5

HG
1 9-4 1
1 9- 29 F1
19 -99

C-
F5 1 9-65
EP
19- 46
19- 66 Bou nda ry o f
F9 19 -6 2 stru ctrua l uni ts
1 Western Fault-te rrace Belt
Study a rea (Han-WL Uplift)
Faul t n umber F2
2 Balan-SBL G Uplift
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3 Nanber Uplift W-D S:Western Di p-sl ope Trace or L ine


o f sei smic survey
4 Ber-B YL Uplift
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W-H G:We ste rn H alf-grab en


5 Eastern Fault-terra ce Belt Se imic l ine A A'

S ubbasins E-H G:Ea ste rn H alf-grab en C-HG:Ce ntral Ha lf-grabe n


Uplifts Faults
/Dep ressions 3D seismi c surve y
C -U H:Ce ntral Up lifte d Hig h E -FS:Eastern Fau lt Scarp

Figure 1
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Strata Basin evolution


Seismic Age 3rd-order Spore-pollen
Lithology
reflector / Ma sequences content
System Series Form.
10 0 200 30 0 Rift phase

Qingyuan
gang Fm.
Upper (m / Ma)

T04 100.5

Tota l
subsid ence
Yimin Formation

rate Post-rift

Tecton ic

PT
sub si den ce
rate
T2 130.8 0 10 (%)
Damoguaihe Formation

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SQ4 Late
Cretaceous

synrift

SC
stage

T22 133.9
Lower
Nantun Formation

Syn-rift
SQ3 Climax
synrift
stage
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T3 139.4

SQ1 sub-stage SQ2 sub-stage


Early synrift
Tongbomiao Formation

Early synrift stage


Upper

SQ2
M

stud y inte rval


T31 143 Early synrift
Lower

SQ1
D

T5 145
TE

Jurassic Basement Pre-rift

Tuf aceou s
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Breccia and Tuf aceou s Tufac eous Fine - to medium- Muddy


fine- t o medium- sa ndst one S ilts ton e Mu dst one
conglomerat e co nglomerate coarse sa ndst one silts tone
san dst one

Volca nic Py roclas tic Ande site


C

Tuf f rock Coal Black G re enish Redd is h


detritus rock ro ck

Figure 2
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PT
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M
D
TE
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C
AC

Figure 3
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M
D

Figure 4
TE
EP
C
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T19-88 T19-67 T19-78 1600 T19-52 T19-83 T19-56 T19-46


1500
GR(API) LLD(Ω.m) GR(API) LLD(Ω.m) GR(API)
1600 LLD(Ω.m) GR(API) LLD(Ω.m) GR(API) LLD(Ω.m) GR(API) LLD(Ω.m) GR(API) LLD(Ω.m)

PT
40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200 40 1800
180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200
1300
40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200
1300 1700 1800
1600
T2 1700
T2
B-DC 1900 B-MB
1400
B-MB B-MB
1400 1800 1900
1800
B-MB 1700
B-DC

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B-DC 2000 SL
1500
1500 1900 2000 SL SQ4
SL 1800 MFS
1900 B-DC
(Damouguaihe
B-MB
B-MB 2100
DL Formation)
1600 SL
B-MB 1600 2000 2100
DL 1900 OS F

SC
2000
B-MB
2200
B -DC 1700 B-DC
1700 2100 2200
B-MB 2100
2000
T22
2300
OSF
B -MB 1800 B-MB DL
1800
T22 B-MB 2200
DL
2300
DL 2100

U
2200
DL
2400
1900
OSF? OS F
1900 2300 2400
2200 MFS
FDP 2300

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B-MB
2500
NSF
B-DC 2000
DL OSF NSF SQ3
FDF 2000 2400
(middle fan) 2500
2300
2400 SL (Nantun
B-MB DL Formation)
AF/FDP DL 2600
2100 SL OSF
2100 2500 2600
2400
B-DC 2500
OSF FDF

M
OS F
2700
2200
FDF DL MFS OSF
2600 2700
2500
2600 NSF
OSF (inner-mid dle
OSF 2800
FDP
2300 fan )
2700 2800

D
2600

AF
2700 DL T3 SL

2400
DL
FDF
2900 T3
2800
2700 FDF
T5 2800 FDF

TE
MFS SQ2
2900
2800
AF/ AF/

(Tongbomiao
2900 Coarsening Oil-bearing FDF

Formation)
T5

SQ1+SQ2
FDP FDP upwards /immersion

AF:Alluvial fan T31


MFS:Maximum flooding surface 2900
EP
Fining Oil-trace
upwar ds /fluorescence
FDP :Fan-deltaic plain B-DC:Braided distributary channel
3000 AF
FDF:Fan-deltaic front /FDF SQ1
B-MB:Braided mouth-bar Tufaceous Tufaceous Fine- to m edium Pebbly fine-gr ained
Tuff rock Mudstone Muddy siltstone Siltstone
mudstone siltstone grained sandstone sandstone
NSF:Nearshore sub-lacustrine fan SL:Shallow lake 3100
C

OSF:Offshore sub-lacustrine fan DL:Deep lake


Tufaceous fine- t o
medium g rained
Coar se-grained Tufaceous Pebby coarse- Tufaceous Breccia and Sandy Volcanic T5
sandstone coarse- grained grained sandstone conglomerate conglomer ate conglomer ate detr itus
sandstone sandstone
AC

Southern W-HG W-HG (near F6 and F7) Central C-HG Northern C-HG E - HG Southern C - HG

Figure 5
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19 -1 8 19 -4 3 19 -5 2 19 -0 1 1 9- 82 19 -3 8

Sigmoid p rogradati onal


C s tac ked r efl ections Moderately c ontinuous ,
C’
di vergent r eflec ti ons

Moderatl y continuous
10 00
Obl ique progradational sub-parallel led r eflec ti ons T2
stack ed reflec tions

Wedge-shaped
Two-way travel time/ ms

r etrogradati onal
1 50 0 s tac ked
T22 r eflec ti ons

Progradational stack ed r eflec ti ons , Mounded geometry,


rel ativ ely high a mplitude
sli ghtly w edge-s haped c onfiguration T5
2 00 0 T31 T3
Ex tremely c ontinuous
and parall el refl ec tions
Variable a mplitude, chaotic
and d is conti nuous r eflec tions

PT
25 00

MFS Fault

19-18 19-43 19-52 19-01 19-82 19-38 SE

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C C’
Allu via l fan/ B raide d B ra ide d Offsho re
Fa n- delta fro nt Inn er fan M iddle fa n Shallow lake Deep la ke Fa ult s
Fan-delt a plain de lta plain de lta fro nt Sublacu str ine fa n
1000
Nearsho re sublacustrine fa n

T2

SC
1500

T22
Dep th/m

20 00

F8
T3

U
25 00 T5 F1
T31
0 2km
F2
F4
3000
AN
W-DS and W-HG C-HG C-UH E-HG E-FS

Figure 6
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D
TE
C EP
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M
D
TE
EP
C

Figure 7
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0
T20
L19
(a)

0
00

T 40
50

0
T60
10
0

0
T 80
0
L 17
1

00
F1
00
50

T10
F6
N

00
T 12
10 0

00
T1 4
L1
5 00
F1 0

00
T1 6
L1
50
30 0 L 19
00

1 00
F7 F3

50
0

L 11
00 L1 70
0

PT
0

20 0
50
00
1 0
15 0
0
2

L9 0
0 L 15

0
40
00
0
30
0
0
20
0
15
50
10

F8
30 0
L7 20 0

0
00 L1 3
F2
40

RI
100

00
F4
50

0
300

20 0
15 0
0
0
0

10
L5
20
15

00 L1 1
00

1 50 0
50
0

SC
10
L3
20 0
00 L 90
0
F9 F5
30 0
2
00
15
0
40 0

10
0 F1 L7 0
0
50

U
L 500
AN L3 0
0

0 5 10km
0

(b)
T20

L19
M
0

00
T 40

0
T60

0
T 80

L 17
1
00

F1
00
0
T10
50

N
00

50
10
0 F6
T 12

00
D
T1 4

L1
0
F1 0 15
5 00
00
T1 6

0
40 0
0
TE

L1
20

30 0 L 19
15 0

30 0 0 00
20
F7 15
0 F3100
0
50 0
100 20
50
0 0
L 11 15 10
00 L1 70
0

0
50
100
15 0

L9 0
EP
400

0 L 15
0
50

00
0
0
30

40

500
0

00
0

20

4
30
50
1 00

0
15
200
0
50
100

F2
15 0

10 0
2 00

L7
3 00

00 L1 3
F8 00
F4
30 0

L5
C

00 L1 1
00

0
10
50

50
1
0
15

L3
0
20

00 L 90
AC

0
F9 F5
50

0
10

20 0
30 0
15

0
0
40

0
50

F1 L7 0
0

L 500

L3 0
0

0 5 10km
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
(Continued)

0
(c)

T20
L 19

0
00

T 40

0
T60

0
T 80
1
F1
L 17

00
00
200

T10
N

00
T 12
6 00 2 00

400
40
6 0

20

00
00
F1 0

T1 4
L 15
00

00
T1 6
F6
400 F3

600
40
0
L1 30 60
0 0 L 19
00

20
20

0
0

PT
F7
L 11
00 L1 70
0

4
00
600

40 0
F4
L9 0
0 L 15
8 00 00

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F8 00
6

L 70
0 20
0 2 00 F2 L1 3
00
00
8

20
0
40

0
0

L5 00
40

L1 1
00

SC
60 0 60
0
80

0
80
0

L 30 L 90
0 0
00
12 0
20 0 60
1
1000

F9 F5
L7 0
F1 0

U
L 500
AN
L3 0
0

0 5 10km
M
0

(d)
T20

L 19
0

00
T 40

0
T60

20
0
0
T 80

L 17
00

00
D T10

N
00
60

T 12
0

00
T1 4

L 15
00
00
T1 6
TE 20

20
0

60
0

L1 30 0
0 L 19
0
00
40

L 11
00 L1 70
0
EP
0
20
40
0

L9 0
200

0 L 15
00

40
0

40
L 70 0
0 L1 3
00
C
60

20 0
0
400

L5 00 L1 1
00
4 00
AC

L 30 L 90
0 0
Fault

0
20
L7 0
0 Sedimen tary
boundary
20 0

L 500 F2 Fault Number

L7 0
0 Trace o r line
L3 0 of seismic survey
0

0 5 10km
Contour
50

of thic knes s

Figure 8
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PT
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U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP

Figure 9
C
AC
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PT
RI
U SC
Figure 10
AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC
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PT
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U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC

Figure 11
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AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC

Figure 12
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0 0

0.5

D Is placement
0.5
D Is placement

F7 F6 F3
F5 F4
1.0 1.0 F1 F2

1.5 1.5

2.0 Km
2.0 Km Early s ynrift SQ1 sub-stage
a
0 0

0.5 0.5
DIs pl acement

DIs pl acement
F5 F7 F6
F4 F3
1.0 1.0 F1 F2

PT
OTZ2
1.5 OTZ3 1.5 OTZ1
2.0 Km 2.0 Km
Early s ynrift SQ2 sub-stage
b

RI
0 0

0.5 0.5
DI s pl acement

DI s pl acement
1.0 1.0 F3
F5
F4 F2
1.5 1.5

SC
Km Km
F1
2.0 2.0

Climax synri ft stage ( SQ3) c


0 0

F3

U
0.5 0.5
D Is placement

D Is placement

F5 F1
F4 F2
1.0 1.0
AN
1.5 1.5
0 10 km
2.0 Km 2.0 Km Late synri ft stage (SQ4) d

Figure13
M
D
TE
C EP
AC
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M
D
TE
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C

Figure 14
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Synrift Se ismi c sequ ence archite ctu re Basin in fill p atte rn
e vol utio n
U nconf ormity Sigm oid clin ofo rm s Ob lique clinof orms
Southern Tanan D epres sion

Northern Tanan D epress ion


La te synrift stage

Large, sh aollow a nd dish -shaped bas in MFS


(SQ4)

d
Mult i-sta ge

l le

ti o -
braide d delta ic

ro

da gr a
Bb ra id ed delt aic

nt

n
sand st one

o
o

n
mo uth an d bar

t io

Pr
es - c
cl e
Sh allow

da
cy i ma t
Sediment

Re dat i o
ra
la ke

gra
og
Shallo w lake

l
S ediment

tr o
Tu rb idite

PT
Pr
overf illed mud st one s

-
de posits
s tarv ation

R e ada ti
gr

n
t r o on

ra-
Dee p lake

n
da t i o
-

Ag g
mud st one s
Braided de ltaic
sand st one

( ii i) W-HG ( ii ) C -HG (i ) E - HG

RI
U nconf ormity

SC
Cli ma x syn rift stage

Enlarged and dee p basin of dis tinc t half-grben s


(SQ3)

(iii) S ediment Bala nce-f illed (ii) Sediment starv ation (i) Sediment starv ation

U
N earsho re

t io -
Bra ided delt aic

d a o gr a
su blacust rine

n
ti o -
Mou th and b ar san dston e
da og r a

f an

Pr
n
n

sand stone
io

Sha llow lake S lu mp


Pr
at
ad

mu dston e / Sl id e ?
AN

Re
Re
gr

De ep lake

tro
o

t ro
Pr

Shallo w lake D eep mud st one s

gr a
g ra

mud stone lake


Re

da
da
tro

ti o
Off shore
t io
g ra

n
Nea rsh ore
n

Braided su blacustrine
d a tio -
da

Agg ra
n

sublacust rin e

a-
distribu tary f an

d ati o n
ti o

A gg r
chan nel sandst one fan
n

M
E arly s ynrift SQ2 sub -s tag e

Broad and shallow basin of


interc onnec ted half-grbens
D

Fa n deltaic
io n

depo sits
Ea rl y syn ri ft stage

F an-delt a
at
ad

de posits
n
t io

gr

Sediment Se dimen t
da
(SQ1+SQ2)

o
TE

Pr
ra

ove rf illed balanc e-filled Shallow


Re
og

Shallow la ke
Pr

lake
t ro

mudst one Redd ish


R e da t io

g ra
g ra

Fa n-delt a mud ston e


t ro

da

Fa n deltaic
-

tio

dep osits depo sits


n
n
Early s ynrif t SQ 1 s ub-st age

Iso lat e, small-s ca le and very shallow half-grabe ns


EP

Alluvial fan Chaotic and di sc ontinuous reflections


i on
at

dep osits
r ad
og
Pr

Exten sive
A g i on
da

tu ff and
gr a
t

breccia Ir regul ar ly stack ed deposi ts


-
C

Sediment overf illed


AC

Figure 15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
Initial short, segmented and low-displacement faults; The faults arrays nearly reach their full length after an early rapid fault
A number of isolated and small-scale half-grabens; propagation, while the displacements remain almost constant;
Large-scale drainages basins are unlikely, but relatively short-dispersal sediment The basin is broad, composed of interconnected, low-displacement half-grabens;

SC
systems are characteristic, deeply influenced by pre-rift steep topography; low-gradient overlapped transfer zones and dip-slope are well-established;
Overfilled by alluvial and fan delta deposits. Large-scale drainage catchments in transfer zone (②) and hanging dip-slope (③)
associated with facilitations of long-dispersal sand-rich deposits;
Footwall-(①) and axial-sourced (④) systems are of relative short distances.

U
AN
M
D
TE

The fault movement is waned associated with a cessation of differential tectonic Displacement localisation leads to the maximum relief on several major faults and
subsidence; gives rise to the variability in basin-infill patterns during the climax synrift stage;
The basin is dish-like and significantly flattened. Basin becomes dustpan-like associated with abundant deep-water deposits;
EP

An increase in the sediment supply makes it facilitated for the long-dispersal and Prominent footwall-sourced (①) systems but decayed or submerged drainages in
large-scaled axial-sourced systems deposition; prior transfer zones, greatly retreated dip-slope (③) sourced systems, some axial
The basin becomes overfilled associated with the prograding lake shoreline drainages (④) and extensive subaqueous channels (⑤);
towards the basin centre. Subaqueous channels linking the gravity deposits could be in either
footwall-derived or axial-sourced direction.
C
AC

Figure 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Deposition and sediment dispersal patterns of synrift deposits are described in the
Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression.

Fault array growth patterns and the basin architecture during the rift cycle are

PT
documented.

RI
A tectono-sedimentary model of an ancient lacustrine rift basin is proposed.

SC
Fan-delta front sandstones developed during the rapid fault propagation stage are the
most perspective reservoirs in the Tanan Depression.

U
AN
M
D
TE
C EP
AC

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