Ge2018 PDF
Ge2018 PDF
Ge2018 PDF
Jiawang Ge, Xiaomin Zhu, Rui Wang, Brian G. Jones, Weichang Chen
PII: S0264-8172(18)30151-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.03.041
Reference: JMPG 3306
Please cite this article as: Ge, J., Zhu, X., Wang, R., Jones, B.G., Chen, W., Tectono-sedimentary
evolution and hydrocarbon reservoirs in the early cretaceous Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin,
Mongolia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.03.041.
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Jiawang Ge a, b, Xiaomin Zhu a, b, Rui Wang c, Brian G. Jones d, Weichang Chen e
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a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, China University of
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Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
b
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
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c
College of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
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d
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
e
Research Institute of Exploration and Development, Jidong Oilfield Limited Company,
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Abstract
The responses of depositional patterns to extensional faulting during the rift cycle are
discussed in this article, based on an integrated analysis of 3D seismic reflections, wire logs and
cores from the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression in the Tamtsag Basin, Mongolia. The synrift
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succession comprises four third-order sequences (SQ1-4). A four-stage fault evolution is defined,
including early synrift SQ1 (initial isolate faults), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault propagation),
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climax synrift SQ3 (maximum fault relief) and late synrift SQ4 (minor fault activity) stages. The
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initial isolated fault stage is defined by separated and small-sized half-grabens associated with
short-dispersal alluvium. In contrast, the rapid fault propagation stage is characterised by much
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longer dispersal systems of fan-delta deposits. As rifting progressed, a considerable increase in the
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basin subsidence occurred and the maximum fault displacement led to a dustpan basin geometry,
the coalescence of depocentres and extensive deep-water deposits. The observed both sediment
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starvation and balanced-filled patterns in SQ3 indicate that caution must be exercised when
attempting to correlate reservoirs and source rocks since variations in basin-filled patterns would
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be enhanced by the displacement localisation on several major faults during the significant basin
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formation. During the early period of the climax synrift stage, footwall-sourced systems were
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prominent, but drainages in prior relay zone sites were mostly decayed or submerged. In response
to the subsequent degradation of the footwall sources, axial-sourced braided deltaic systems
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became more important during the later period. An abrupt decrease of faulting at the end of the rift
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cycle gave a rise to an increased sediment supply and long-dispersal axially-sourced systems in
the Tanan Depression. Petroleum exploration shows that fan-delta front sandstones in SQ2 are the
most prospective hydrocarbon reservoirs, whereas the nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan
deposits in SQ3 have proved to be secondary potential oil-bearing reservoirs. This study indicates
that sediment dispersal patterns would be significantly re-organised by the differential faulting
displacement patterns and varied sediment potentials during the different synrift stages. The rapid
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fault propagation allowed the fault arrays to reach their nearly maximum length during the early
period of the basin evolution, while the displacement remained almost constant. This fault growth
pattern tends to establish large-scale topographic lows including overlapped transfer zones and
hanging dip-slope. Hence, major drainage catchments and long-dispersal depositional systems of
sand-rich deposits are facilitated during this early fault propagation stage, which may be a key
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aspect for the tectono-sedimentary evolution in rift basins. In addition, the fault and sedimentary
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relationships defined here may be used as a model when studying less data-rich rift basins
elsewhere.
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Keywords: Depositional system; sediment dispersal pattern; fault array evolution;
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1. Introduction
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Subsurface observations and numerical models indicate that basin evolution and depositional
patterns in both marine and lacustrine rift systems are strongly controlled by fault growth and
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displacement patterns (Rosendahl, 1987; Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1998;
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Gupta et al., 1999; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; Cowie et al., 2000; Dawers and Underhill, 2000;
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Zecchin et al., 2006). Typically, a progressive synrift cycle comprises a rift initiation stage, fault
interaction and linkage stage, through-going fault or climax stage, and waning or fault-death stage
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(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al., 2002;
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Morley, 2002). Over the past decades, numerous tectono-sedimentary models have been proposed
in rift basins, which have been widely applied to depositional, reservoir and petroleum evaluations
(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Strecker et al., 1999; Dawers and Underhill, 2000; Lin et
al., 2001; Martins-Neto and Catuneanu, 2010; Zhou et al., 2014; Henstra et al., 2017).
Nevertheless, the depositional architectures and associated sediment dispersal patterns often
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re-organised by the basin structure, active fault geometries and displacement patterns, source
lithologies and marine or lake level fluctuations (Gawthorpe et al., 1994; Schlische and Anders,
1996; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Strecker et al., 1999; Gupta et al., 1999; Egger, et al., 2002; Noll
and Hall, 2006). The relationship between fault behaviours and sedimentary architecture during
the rift cycle, especially in earlier rifting stages, still remains insufficiently understood (McLeod et
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al., 2002; Lewis et al., 2017). The investigations of temporal and spatial evolution of fault arrays
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and depositional systems distributions are often hampered by: (1) limited surface and subsurface
data, such as isolated or small 3D/2D seismic surveys; and (2) the poorly defined earlier synrift
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deposits, which are infrequently encountered by subsurface boreholes and often poorly exposed in
the field (Davies et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2002; Noll and Hall, 2006; Henstra et al., 2017).
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The Tanan Depression is one of the most hydrocarbon-rich areas in the Tamtsag Basin,
Mongolia, and has generated widespread interest after a great petroleum breakthrough in the past
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decade (Yang et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2011). The overall nature of reservoir quality and petroleum
systems is extensively covered in reports about the Tanan Depression (Liu et al., 2011; Miao et al.,
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2011). It reveals that the oil target interval is mainly located within the Tongbomiao and Nantun
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Formations, linked to the earlier rift successions (Chen et al., 2013; Jia et al., 2014). Four
third-order sequences (SQ1-4) have been recognised within the synrift stratigraphy (Ji et al., 2009;
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Yang et al., 2009; Chen, 2012; Zhou et al., 2014). Zhou et al. (2014) suggested that three distinct
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tectono-stratigraphic stages, including early, climax and late synrift sequences, are developed in
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the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression. In addition, depositional systems, including nearshore and
offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits in the Nantun Formation, have also been investigated based
on an integrated study of seismic geomorphology and well-based observations (Miao et al., 2011;
Jia et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2015). However, two scientific knowledge gaps still exist in the Tanan
Depression: (1) the early synrift succession accessed by newly drilled wells reveals a significant
variability in the stratigraphic and depositional pattern between the SQ1 and SQ2 sequences, while
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could not be explained using the tectono-stratigraphic model proposed by Zhou et al. (2014); and
(2) the effects of fault array evolution on the sediment dispersal patterns during the rift cycle are
still poorly understood. These scientific knowledge gaps hamper further evaluations of
Extensive high-quality 3D seismic coverage with abundant logging and core data can shed
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light on the tectono-sedimentary evolution in rift basins. The study aims to further improve our
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understanding of the basin evolution in the Tanan Depression, building on the previous work of Ji
et al. (2009), Chen et al. (2012) and Zhou et al. (2014). The interplay between fault arrays
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evolution and depositional patterns of synrift sediments will be our primary interest in this study.
This study may provide potential implications for fault-sedimentary interactions, as well as
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hydrocarbon reservoir predictions in other rift basins elsewhere.
2. Geological setting
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2.1. Tectonics
The Tamtsag Basin (~35,400 km2), part of the Hailar-Tamtsag Basin, is located in eastern
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superimposed on the Palaeozoic collision orogenic belt of the Inner Mongolia-Greater Hinggan
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Mountains (Traynor and Sladen, 1995; Graham et al., 2001; Meng et al., 2003). Owing to the
collapse of the Mongolia-Okhotsk orogenic belt (Traynor and Sladen, 1995; Meng et al., 2003), a
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group of rift basins in eastern Mongolia and neighbouring areas in China were constrained by
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inherited activity on NE- and NNE-striking basement structures during the Late Jurassic (Johnson,
The Tanan Depression, also known as the Tanan Sub-basin, is a sub-unit of the Tamtsag
Basin covering an area of approximately ~3,500 km2 (Fig. 1b). The Tanan Depression underwent
three structural stages during the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous, including pre-rift (before 145 Ma),
synrift (145-130.8 Ma) and post-rift phases (after 130.8 Ma; Figs. 2 and 3; Graham et al., 2001;
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The synrift phase is composed of early, climax and late synrift stages, and correspondently,
the basin subsidence rate increased from low to high and decreased to low again (Fig. 3; Chen, et
al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2014). During the synrift phase, the Tanan Depression could be subdivided
into six structural units, namely the eastern fault scarp (E-FS), the eastern half-graben (E-HG), the
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central uplifted high (C-UH), the central half-graben (C-HG), the western half-graben (W-HG)
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and the western dip-slope (W-DS) from east to west (Figs. 1b and 3; Ji et al., 2009; Shan et al.,
2013). Eleven NE- or NNE-trending rift-related faults (namely F1 to F11) are developed in the
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Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression (Figs. 1b and 3; c.f. Chen et al., 2013). NE-oriented major
faults F1, F2 and F3 define the eastern boundary of the E-HG, while the C-HG is bounded by
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NNE-trending faults F4 and F5 (Figs. 1b and 3). NNE-trending faults F6 to F11 are confined to
The regional stress field direction changed to E-W at the end of the Hauterivian (130.8 Ma),
and the Tanan Depression entered into the post-rift phase (Chen et al., 2013; Wu, 2013). The syn-
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to post-rift boundary was marked by an obvious unconformity T2 (Fig. 2; Ji et al., 2009). The
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basin was no longer influenced by the active faulting as the lithosphere cooled during the post-rift
phase (Johnson, 2004; Chen et al., 2013). As a result, the sedimentary environment changed to
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prominent fluvial depositional systems (Fig. 2; Chen et al., 2012). The prior faults were
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reactivated, forming strike-slip fault systems with transpressional structures (i.e. positive flower,
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V-shaped features; Howard et al., 2003; Wu, 2013; Fig. 3). At the end of the Albian (100.5 Ma),
the Tanan Depression was partly inverted, precluding deposition of the Qingyuangang Formation
2.2. Stratigraphy
The Jurassic basement of the Tanan Depression is formed by pyroclastic rocks and andesite
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et al., 2001; Meng et al., 2003). The Early Cretaceous successions in the Tanan Depression consist
of the Tongbomiao, Nantun, Damoguaihe and Yimin Formations. The Tongbomiao Formation has
been subdivided into lower and upper units (Fig. 2; Yang et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014). The lower
tuffs (Fig. 2). The upper Tongbomiao Formation is characterised by conglomerate, pebbly or
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tuffaceous coarse-grained sandstone and fine- to medium-grained sandstone interbedded with thin
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mudstone (Fig. 2). The overlying Nantun Formation predominantly consists of black mudstone
interbedded with conglomerate, sandstone and siltstone (Jia et al., 2014). The Damoguaihe
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Formation is primarily composed of fine-grained sandstone and siltstone interbedded with
mudstone, while the younger Yimin Formation is dominated by fine-grained sandstone and
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siltstone interbedded with coal and greenish mudstone (Fig. 2).
A genetic sequence stratigraphic framework and stratal architecture have been established in
the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression by Ji et al. (2009) and Zhou et al. (2014). The synrift
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succession is related to a second-order sequence with a duration of 14.2 Ma (Chen et al., 2012;
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wireline logs, cores and biostratigraphic data demonstrated by Zhou et al. (2014), four third-order
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sequences, namely SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4, have been recognised in the Tanan Depression (Figs.
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2 and 3). The four sequences are separated by sequence boundaries referred as the T5, T31, T3,
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T22 and T2 seismic reflectors from bottom to top (Fig. 3; Ji et al, 2009; Chen et al., 2012; Zhou et
al., 2014). The third-order sequences SQ1 and SQ2 are correlated with the Tongbomiao Formation,
while SQ3 and SQ4 correspond to the Nantun and Damoguaihe Formations, respectively (Figs. 2
and 3). The biostratigraphic evidence indicates that age durations of the SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4
sequences are 145-143 Ma, 143-139.4 Ma, 139.4-133.9 Ma and 133.9-130.8 Ma, respectively (Fig.
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various basin subsidence rates during the rift cycle (Yang et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). Chen et
al. (2012) and Zhou et al. (2014) proposed three types of synrift lacustrine sequences consisting of
distinctive depositional systems in the Tanan Depression: (1) the early synrift sequences (SQ1-2)
mainly consist of alluvial fan, fan-delta and shallow lake deposits; (2) the climax synrift sequence
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(SQ3) is primarily composed of deep-lake and gravity deposits (Jia et al., 2014), associated with a
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transgressive systems tract (TST) formed in the early period and a high-stand systems tract (HST)
formed in the late period; and (3) the late synrift sequence (SQ4) is mainly characterised by
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large-scale braided-delta deposits.
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3. Data and methodology AN
3.1. Data
The comprehensive data package used in this study comprises 3D post-stack seismic
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reflections, abundant wireline logs and cores. The study area has been penetrated by more than
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200 wells, with more than 100 wells located around the C-HG. Around 80 exploratory wells with
recovered cores were selected for this study (Fig. 1b). Gamma ray (GR) and resistivity (LLD) logs
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are available and provide accurate constraints on the thicknesses of lithological assemblages and
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depositional geometries. The 3D seismic survey has a total area of approximately 3000 km2 at an
inline and crossline (trace) spacing of 25 m (Fig. 1b). The vertical resolution of the seismic
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3.2. Methodology
Depositional systems are recognised based on the analysis of cores, wireline logs (GR, LLD)
and 3D seismic reflections. Isopach maps of the four third-order sequences were used to describe
the synrift stratigraphic distribution. Through well-calibrated seismic reflections and associated
wireline logs and cores, the temporal and spatial distribution of the depositional systems can be
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contours, seismic geomorphologic patterns and heavy mineral assemblages are used to reveal the
sediment dispersal patterns. The seismic stratigraphic technique is employed to constrain the
periods of significant activities on the fault. We identify the active fault by thickening of strata,
whereas continuous deposition across a trace is related to an inactive fault (Davies et al., 2000).
Finally, a tectono-sedimentary model of the fault growth, basin geometry and depositional
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response during the rift cycle is proposed for the Tanan Depression.
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4. Results
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4.1. Depositional systems
Based on cores, well logs and seismic data, six types of depositional systems are identified in
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the Tanan Depression, including alluvial fan, fan-delta, braided delta, deep to shallow lake, and
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nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits. Detailed depositional systems, lithological
assemblages, sedimentary structures and seismic and log characters are outlined in Table 1.
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Alluvial fan deposits are the coarsest component in the Tanan Depression and consist mainly
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of variegated muddy-supported breccias, volcanic detritus and tuffs (Fig. 4A). The breccias are
angular and extremely poorly sorted (up to 30 cm clasts), and sometimes upward coarsening (Fig.
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4A); they are often underlain or overlain by 0.3-2 m thick tuff beds (Fig. 5). The alluvial fan
deposits tend to show irregular bell- or funnel-shaped log geometries, and the tuff is evident from
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low responses on the LLD log (Fig. 5). These deposits appear as variable amplitude, chaotic or
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discontinuous reflections on seismic sections (Figs. 6 and 7), which are similar to reflection
patterns of alluvial fans described by Sangree and Widmier (1977) and Lin et al. (2001). Such
deposits are observed around the basin margins in SQ1 (Figs. 6 and 7).
Compared to the alluvial fan deposits, fan-delta deposits are finer-grained with a higher
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proportion of siltstone and mudstone, while tuff beds are mostly absent (Figs. 4B-E and 5). The
slightly wedge-shaped configurations on seismic sections (Figs. 6 and 7). This type of deposits is
consisting mainly of subaerial (delta plain) and subaqueous (delta front) facies (Figs. 5, 6 and 7;
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McPherson et al., 1987, 1988).
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The fan-delta plain deposits are composed mainly of (1) poorly to moderately sorted
conglomerate and pebbly to coarse-grained sandstone, showing scour surfaces, imbricated bedding
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and cross-bedding in fining-upward intervals (Fig. 4B), and (2) rarely observed mudstone and
siltstone with plant fossils (Fig. 4D). The conglomerate in facies 1 is much smaller and better
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sorted than that in the alluvial fan deposits (Fig. 4A, B). Facies 1 is similar to the subaerial channel
deposits described by McPherson et al. (1987) and Lin et al. (2001), whereas facies 2 could be
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interpreted as inter-channel deposits on the fan-delta plain (cf. Nemec and Steel, 1984; McPherson
et al., 1988; Lin et al., 2001). On GR logs, the subaerial channel deposits are characterised by
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box-shaped geometries with a roughly 10-30 m thick succession, whereas the inter-channel
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deposits display 1-3 m thick serrated configurations of relatively high GR values (around 150 API;
Fig. 7).
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Fan-delta front deposits are composed mainly of (3) well sorted imbricated conglomerate,
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coarse- to fine-grained sandstone, showing scour surfaces, cross-bedding and parallel bedding in
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fining-upwards intervals (Fig. 4C), and (4) well-sorted medium- to fine-grained sandstone with
cross-bedding, ripple laminations and burrows in coarsening-upward intervals (Figs. 4E and 5).
The deposits of facies 3 are finer-grained than the subaerial channel deposits, which could be
comparable to subaqueous channel deposits on the fan-delta front as described by McPherson et al.
(1987) and Wood and Ethridge (1988); while facies 4 is interpreted as mouth bar deposits on the
fan-delta front (McPherson et al., 1988). On GR logs, the subaqueous channel deposits are shown
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as toothed box or bell-shaped geometries (5-10 m), whereas the mouth bar deposits display
Compared to the alluvial fan and fan-delta deposits, braided delta deposits are significantly
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finer grained and composed mainly of medium- to fine-grained sandstone frequently interbedded
with mudstone (Fig. 4F-G). Sigmoid or oblique progradational stacked reflections (clinoforms) are
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characteristics of braided delta deposits on seismic sections (i.e. Galloway and Hobday, 1983);
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they are mainly developed in SQ4 and upper part of SQ3 (Fig. 6). Core observations of the braided
delta deposits could define two major facies: (1) well sorted coarse- to fine-grained sandstone with
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cross-bedding and parallel bedding in fining-upward cycles (Fig. 4F); and (2) fine-grained
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sandstone interbedded with siltstone and mudstone, showing wave ripple laminations (Fig. 4G).
Facies 1 is related to distributary channels while facies 2 represents mouth bar deposits on the
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braided delta front (cf. Galloway and Hobday, 1983; Orton and Reading, 1993; Olariu and
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Bhattacharya, 2006). On the GR log, the distributary channel deposits show bell-shaped
configurations with a roughly 10-20 m thick interval, whereas the mouth bar deposits are revealed
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Deep-lake deposits form the finest part of the synrift succession and are dominated by
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thick-bedded (tens of metres to 450 m), black and structureless mudstone (Figs. 4H and 5). With a
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high total organic carbon content (1.5-4.85 %, avg. 2.17%), high potential yield (avg. 6.5 mg/g),
organic matter of mostly type I and II and high vitrinite reflectance (0.7-1.2 %; Wang et al., 2011a;
Jia et al., 2014), these dark mudstones appear to have good source rock potential. The deep-lake
deposits are associated with smooth liner-shaped geometries with very high GR values (up to 180
API; Fig. 5), and typically exhibit extremely continuous and parallel seismic reflections on seismic
sections (Fig. 6). Such deposits are mainly observed in SQ3 in the E-HG and C-HG of the Tanan
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In contrast to the deep-lake deposits, the shallow lake deposits are dominated by grey
mudstone and interbedded siltstone with horizontal laminations and some wavy ripples. The
shallow lake deposits tend to exhibit serrated liner-shaped geometries with moderate to high GR
values (140-170 API) on GR logs (Fig. 5) and moderate to poor continuous, sub-parallel or
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divergent seismic reflections on seismic sections (Fig. 6; Zhou et al., 2014). The mudstones in the
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shallow lake deposits are poor to moderate oil source rocks because of their low total organic
carbon content (< 1 %; Wang et al., 2011a). The shallow lake deposits are relatively thin (10-50 m)
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and widely observed in SQ3 and SQ4 (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
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4.1.5. Nearshore sub-lacustrine fan
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Nearshore sub-lacustrine fans refer to subaqueous gravity-flow deposits originated in a
sub-lacustrine environment along the fault escarpments (Surlyk, 1989; Nemec, 1990). These
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deposits are commonly coarse-grained, lacking subaerial distributary plain facies (Nemec, 1990;
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Jia et al., 2014). The nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits can be easily recognised in the Tanan
serrated box-shaped geometries on GR and LLD logs (Fig. 5). Such deposits are mainly observed
along F1 and F2 in the TST of SQ3 (Figs. 5 and 6). Major facies are identified in this study,
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including (1) sandy-supported poorly sorted conglomerate containing clasts of, or underlain by,
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dark mudstone (Fig. 4I), and (2) conglomerate to coarse- and medium-grained sandstones
underlain by dark mudstone, associated with scoured bases and parallel bedding structures in
multistorey fining-upward intervals (Fig. 4J). The extremely poorly sorted conglomerates of facies
1 are observed along the fault scarps without any flow direction, indicating the subaqueous talus
fed directly into the lake (Stow, 1985; Prosser, 1993); hence, facies 1 can be comparable to the
inner fan deposits described by Walker (1992). The deposits of facies 2 are observed in front of the
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inner fan deposits away from the fault scraps, which are considered to represent the middle fan
deposits on a nearshore sub-lacustrine fan (Lowe, 1982; Surlyk; 1989). Revealed in the penetrated
wells, the inner fan deposits show frequently serrated bell-shaped GR geometries (several tens to
nearly 300 metres), whereas the middle fan deposits commonly display irregular box-shaped
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4.1.6. Offshore sub-lacustrine fan
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Offshore sub-lacustrine fans refer to subaqueous gravity-flow deposits on a sub-lacustrine fan
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mostly fed by deltas far away from basin margins (Postma, 1984; Lin et al., 2001), similar to distal,
deep-water turbidite or slumped deposits (Surlyk, 1989; Ravnås and Steel, 1997). The offshore
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sub-lacustrine fan deposits in this study mainly consist of siltstone and sandstone intercalated with
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black mudstone, with abundant Bouma sequences, distinctive deformed beds and sand-balls (Fig.
4K); most such deposits are developed in SQ3 and appear as finger-shaped GR and LLD log
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geometries on a smooth linear-shaped background (Fig. 5). On seismic sections, the offshore
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sub-lacustrine fan deposits are generally located in the basinal centre and tend to display mounded
or lenticular configurations with a relatively high amplitude, which are in marked contrast to the
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nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits characterised by wedge-shaped seismic geometries along the
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Based on an integrated analysis of cores, well logs and seismic reflections supplemented by
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sandstone (or conglomerate) percentage contours and heavy mineral assemblage studies, main
depocentres, stratigraphic geometries, depositional distribution and sediment dispersal patterns are
Sequence SQ1 is commonly thin and sporadic, locally present in E-HG, C-HG and W-HG; it
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onlaps onto the C-UH, W-DS and local basinal highs in the C-HG (footwall of F8; Figs. 3, 6 and
8a). Three isolated depocentres are observed in association with F1, F2 and F3; the maximum
thickness is about 400 m (Fig. 8a). In addition, three scattered depocentres evaluated as 200 m,
300 m and 200 m deep are developed along F4 (Fig. 8a). The observed very poorly sorted breccias
with their associated volcanic detritus (10-20 %) and tuff reflect a short sediment transportation
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distance (Figs. 5 and 7). Main depositional systems recognised in SQ1 are the alluvial fan and
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fan-delta plain deposits; they commonly located near the basin margins and extended for a
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4.2.2. Sequence SQ2
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Sequence SQ2 is present across almost the entire basin except in the E-FS and the northern
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part of the C-UH; the SQ2 pronouncedly onlaps into the W-DS (Figs. 3, 6 and 8b). Three main
depocentres in the C-HG are developed in association with F1, F2 and F3, which are larger than
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those observed in SQ1; the maximum thickness is about 500 m (Fig. 8b). In contrast to SQ1, the
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three prior isolated depocentres along F4 are linked forming a large-size depocentre in SQ2, and
Two main depositional systems are identified in SQ2: (1) widespread fan-delta deposits; and
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(2) less developed shallow lake deposits in the central part of E-HG (Fig. 9). The offshore
sub-lacustrine fan deposits are occasionally observed (typically < 5% in cores; Li et al., 2014).
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Three large-scale fan-delta systems are recognised in the overlapped areas between the boundary
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faults: 1) the fan-delta system between F4 and F7 has a long transportation distance of more than
18 km in the northern part of the C-HG, proved by SSE-inclined progradional seismic reflections
T19-67, T19-69, T19-342-200 and T19-49 wells (Figs. 7 and 9); 2) the fan-delta system between
F1 and F2 prograded to the SW for nearly 20 km in the southern area of the E-HG, corresponding
to declined conglomerate percentages in wells (from 62% to 31%; Fig. 9); and 3) the fan-delta
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system between F2 and F3 extended for about 15 km in SW orientation, located in the northern
area of the E-HG (Fig. 9). Additionally, footwall-derived fan-delta systems in the central parts of
F1, F2 and F6 are typically characterised by an advancement of less than 8 km basinward (Fig. 9).
Furthermore, another three or four large-scale fan-delta complexes are present in the southern part
of the C-HG and along the W-DS, with a range between 10 and 20 km; they are mainly fed by
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hanging dip-slope drainages (Figs. 6 and 9).
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4.2.3. Sequence SQ3
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Sequence SQ3 is present across the entire basin, except in the E-FS area where it bounded by
boundary faults F1 and F2 (Figs. 3 and 8c). Seven main depocentres represented by typical
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wedge-shaped configurations are observed (Figs. 3 and 8c). Three of these large-scale depocentres
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are observed in the E-HG: 1) one is located in the central part of F1 being 5-6 km wide and up to
1600 m thick; 2) the second is associated with F2 formed by three subordinated small-sized
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depocentres, generally being 2-3 km wide and up to 800 m thick; and 3) the third is about 3 km
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wide and 600 m thick in association with F3 (Fig. 8c). Another two main depocentres are located
in the C-HG; the northern one is near F5 and is up to 1100 m thick, while the southern one is
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thinner (about 700 m) and 2-3 km wide adjacent to the central part of F4 (Fig. 8c). The rest two
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1-2 km wide depocentres with a maximum thickness of 600 m are located near F10 and F11 in the
The early period of SQ3 deposition (TST package): The observed depositional systems in
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the TST of SQ3 include the deep and shallow lake, nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan and
braided delta deposits (Figs. 5, 6 and 10). Deep-lake deposits are widespread in the E-HG, the
C-HG and the southern area of the W-HG (Figs. 6 and 11). Nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits
are observed near the central parts of F1 and F2, presenting lobe-like geometries in a plane view
(Fig. 11); these nearshore lobes are footwall-derived with a relatively short transport distance of
less than 8 km (Figs. 6 and 11). It is noticed that the nearshore conglomerate-prone lobes in the
15
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overlap area between F1 and F2 are less developed during this period (Fig. 11). A 42 km2 offshore
sub-lacustrine fan system is observed along the central part of F4 (i.e. T19-78), presenting an
elongated lobe on the seismic slice map (Figs. 10b and 11). This offshore lobe shows a close
relationship with the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan lobe in the central part of F2 as they have a
similar heavy mineral association (refer to Zone I in Fig. 11). The sediment dispersal pathway
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linking these two lobes is referred as a subaqueous feeder channel of an approximately 3 km
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length (Jia et al., 2014), showing a channel-like geometry of a high amplitude on the seismic
section (Fig. 10c). Another lobe of the offshore sub-lacustrine fan is located adjacent to the
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hanging wall of F3, likely fed by subaqueous channels around the southern tip of F3 from the
nearshore sub-lacustrine deposits (Fig. 11). A braided deltaic system (clinoforms) with a height of
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60-100 m prograded for about 12 km SSW in the northern area of the W-HG (Figs. 5 and 11); the
dispersal pathways of these axially-facilitated systems are likely parallel to the synthetic active
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fault arrays (Fig. 11). A small-sized (8.5 km2) offshore sub-lacustrine fan system (around the well
T19-x70) is observed in the central part of the W-HG, which is considered to be fed by braided
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delta deposits in SSW direction based on their similar heavy mineral assemblages
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The late period of SQ3 deposition (HST package): The late period of SQ3 deposition has a
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much wider distribution of braided delta deposits and a decreased distribution of deep-lake
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deposits, compared with the early period of SQ3 deposition (Figs. 11 and 12a). These
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axially-sourced braided deltaic systems have prograded for a maximum 26 km in the northern part
of the basin (Fig. 12a); such deposits appear as mainly coarsening-upwards cycles on well logs (i.e.
T19-88, T19-67, T19-78; Fig. 5). In contrast to the early period, the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan
deposits are mostly absent during this period, with only one small-scale (30 km2) fan lobe located
adjacent to the central part of F2 (Fig. 12a). Two small-sized (10-18 km2) offshore sub-lacustrine
fan lobes occur adjacent to F3 and F7, respectively; they are believed to have been fed in SSW
16
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Sequence SQ4 is present across the entire basin with laterally continuous seismic reflections
in both sigmoid/oblique and sub-paralleled geometries (Figs. 3 and 8d). This sequence is truncated
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by the unconformity T2 (the top of SQ4) around the W-DS (Fig. 3). Wedge-shaped seismic
geometries are mostly absent near the boundary faults (Fig. 3), while a number of small-sized
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depocentres defined by the thickening deposits are located 5-10 km away from the basin margin
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(Fig. 8d). The maximum thickness of SQ4 is only 600 m (Fig. 8d).
Braided delta systems represented by multi-stage sigmoid and oblique clinoforms (300-500 m)
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are observed in the northern and central parts of the study area (Figs. 3, 6 and 12b); these deposits
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show extensive coarsening-upwards cycles on GR logs (Fig. 5). The large-scale SSE-inclined
sediment supply (Fig. 12b). On the contrary, the southern areas of the basin are dominated by
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shallow lake deposits, which mainly appear aggradational stacking patterns on GR logs (i.e.
T19-83, T19-46; Fig. 5). The few thin-bedded offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits observed in the
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southern areas of the basin were re-transported from the progradational braided delta deposits (Fig.
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12b).
5. Discussion
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the sediment dispersal patterns and their relationships with extensional faulting geometries
(Prosser, 1993; Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gupta et al., 1999; Dawers and
Underhill, 2000). According to Leeder and Jackson (1993) and Eliet and Gawthorpe (1995), the
sediment flux into rift basins is characterised by a high dispersion derived from different regions,
e.g. hanging dip-slope, footwall, fault offset and axial drainage basins, which are primarily
17
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controlled by extensional faulting patterns (Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al., 2002;
Henstra, et al., 2017). Based on the basin geometry and fault displacement-distance analysis, the
fault arrays in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression could be defined as a four-stage growth
history including early synrift SQ1 (initial isolated faults), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault
propagation), climax synrift SQ3 (maximum fault relief) and late synrift SQ4 (minor fault activity)
PT
stages. In this section, controls of extensional faulting on basin structure and dispersal patterns of
RI
sediment are discussed (Figs. 15 and 16).
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The estimated tectonic subsidence rate of the early synrift stage (SQ1-2) is of less than 80
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m/Ma (Fig. 2; Shan et al., 2013). It is indicated a slow tectonic subsidence during the early basin
AN
formation, similar to the observation of Chen et al. (2013) and Zhou et al. (2014). However, the
observed stratigraphic and sediment dispersal changes between SQ1 and SQ2 in the Tanan
M
Depression, cannot be fairly interpreted using the model proposed by Zhou et al. (2014). Thus a
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further model that includes early synrift SQ1 and SQ2 sub-stages is proposed to illustrate the
The early synrift SQ1 sub-stage is defined by a number of NE-oriented and small-sized
half-grabens, which are bounded by short (< 15 km long), segmented and low-displacement faults
C
(< 500 m; Figs. 8a and 13a). These isolated faults are indicated by the partitioned displacement
AC
curve on individual faults (Fig. 13a). The NE-orientated arrangements of these minor faults at the
onset of the rifting were likely induced by the NW-stress regime (Fig. 5a; Graham et al., 2001; Wu,
2013). Observations of extensive progradational stacked alluvium and fan-delta deposits indicate
that the accommodation generation was significantly outpaced by the sediment supply during the
period of SQ1 deposition (Figs. 5 and 7). As a result, the incipient Tanan Depression was related to
a sediment overfilled pattern (Fig. 15). The characteristic seismic architecture in SQ1 is dominated
18
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The depositional systems in SQ1 are mostly characterised by a range of less than 4-6 km (Fig.
7), we therefore suggest the earliest Tanan Depression was mainly filled by relatively
short-dispersal sediment systems possibly fed by both transverse- and axial-sourced drainages (Fig.
PT
16a). The lack of large-scale depositional systems can be explained as follows. Firstly, rift
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topographic slopes (i.e. hanging dip-slope) were commonly narrow (10-15 km) due to the initial
isolated and minor faults (Figs. 3 and 8a), which made it unlikely for large-scale drainage basins
SC
establishment (Gupta et al., 1999; Cowie et al., 2000). Secondly, the pre-rift basement of the
Tanan Depression mainly consists of volcanic rocks forming a high-relief landscape, where the
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major antecedent drainages are likely to be absent (Fig. 16a); similar immature pre-rift drainage
basins have also been suggested in other parts of eastern Mongolia, which is associated with the
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steep pre-rift physiography (Howard et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2013). As a result,
short-transported and very poorly sorted deposits are generally characteristic in the earliest Tanan
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During the early synrift SQ2 sub-stage, the fault arrays are observed to have increased rapidly
EP
in length, as revealed by the interacted or linked fault displacement curve (Fig. 13b). F1 grew to
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22 km long and F2 became 30 km in length; they overlapped for 5 km and enclosed an area 1 to 5
AC
km wide (Figs. 8b and 13b), which is referred as an overlapped transfer zone (OTZ1; defined by
Morley, 1990) or a relay ramp (Peacock, 2002). Nucleation and linkage of the segmented faults
overlapped for about approximately 9 km and enclosed a 2.5 to 5 km wide transfer zone (OTZ2;
Fig. 13b). Another transfer zone, OTZ3, is recognised between F2 and F3, with an overlapped
length of 1.5 km and an enclosed width of 3-7 km (Fig. 13b). These three overlapped transfer zone
19
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are generally SSW-inclined with a low gradient (0.8-1.1°). The maximum displacement during this
sub-stage (about 700 m) is similar to or a little higher than that in the earlier SQ1 sub-stage (Fig.
13a, b). The widespread fan-delta deposits that mainly show coarsening-upwards patterns in SQ2
indicate a sediment balanced or overfilled pattern during this sub-stage (Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 15). This
stratal relationship demonstrates that the rate of sediment supply was still high during this
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sub-stage, and it could at least balance the rate of accommodation creation.
RI
The observed long-dispersal fan-delta systems of up to 20 km in SQ2 suggest that major
drainage catchments are captured in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 9 and 16b). The newly
SC
established drainage catchments are expected to respond to the re-organised rift topography during
this sub-stage. The resulting rift topographical rearrangement caused by the rapid fault
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propagation is suggested to include: 1) a broad basin constituted by interconnected half-grabens
(Figs. 14 and 15); 2) three low-gradient transfer zones (referred as OTZ1, OTZ2 and OTZ3; Figs.
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8b and 13b) resulted from the fault overlaps; and 3) a significantly expanded hanging dip-slope
indicated by the pronounced lateral onlaps of the SQ2 sequence onto the basement (Figs. 2, 8b and
D
15). The slope length of the W-DS was estimated at approximately 32 km in SQ2 (Fig. 8b). The
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large captured drainage catchments have promoted extensive sediment progradations in the
low-gradient overlapped transfer zones (Fig. 16b), as observed for the greatly increased dispersal
EP
distance of fan-delta deposits in SQ2 compared to that in SQ1 (Fig. 7). In subaerial settings, the
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low-angle hanging dip-slopes and transfer zones are more likely to be exploited by stream incision
AC
than the steeper footwall scarps (Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Eliet and Gawthorpe, 1995). Hence,
fan-delta systems sourced from transfer zone and hanging wall dip-slope drainages have relatively
longer sediment dispersal distances (up to 20 km) than the footwall-sourced fan-delta systems,
which only extend 5-8 km (Figs. 9 and 16b). In summary, the re-organised rift topography caused
by rapid fault overlaps and interaction is suggested to exert the primary control on the sediment
dispersal patterns during the early synrift SQ2 sub-stage (Fig. 16b). The proposed sediment
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dispersal model in this study (Fig. 16a, b) could explain why better sorted and more mature
deposits occurred in SQ2 than those developed in SQ1 (Figs. 4, 5, 7 and 15). Furthermore, this
distinct variability in sediment dispersal patterns would also lead to marked differences in the
porosity and permeability of the sand-bodies and their subsequent hydrocarbon reservoir potential
PT
5.1.2. Climax synrift stage SQ3
RI
The tectonic subsidence rate considerably increased from 80 m/Ma to 140 m/Ma (Shan et al.
SC
2013) which gave rise to coalescence of depocentres and deep-water deposition of organic-rich
and gravity deposits in SQ3 (Figs. 3, 8 and 13b, c). This reflects a transition from rift initiation (RI)
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to rift climax (RC) phase of extension (Cowie et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2002). During the
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climax synrift stage, boundary faults F1, F2, F3 and F4 reached their maximum displacements of
1800, 1350, 1000 and 950 m, respectively; whereas other faults had lower displacements of less
M
than 500 m (i.e. F6, F7, F8; Figs. 13c and 14). Locations of maximum displacement on F1 and F4
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were observed to migrate north-eastward in this stage compared to those in the SQ2 sub-stage (Fig.
8b, c). The climax rift stage (SQ3) is characterised by a significantly enlarged, dustpan-shaped
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basin geometry due to the pronounced increase in displacement (Fig. 15). Observations of
EP
organic-rich mudstones and prominent retrogradational stacked seismic patterns imply a sediment
starvation in the E-HG and C-HG during this stage (Fig. 15). It is therefore concluded that the
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sediment input was greatly outpaced by rapid accommodation creation in those half-grabens
AC
bounded by high-displacement faults (e.g. F1, F2, F4; Figs. 13, 14 and 15). In direct contrast, low
displacements on other faults (e.g. F6, F7, F8, F9, F10; Figs. 13 and 14) are associated with a
sediment balance-filled pattern consisting of braided delta and shallow lake deposits in the W-HG
(Fig. 15). Thus the enhanced variability in fault displacement patterns is suggested to be
responsible for the different basin infill patterns during the significant basin formation (Figs. 14
and 15).
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The short-dispersal (5-8 km) conglomerate-prone deposits along the border fault scarps in the
TST of SQ3 indicate that footwall-sourced systems were prominent during the early period of the
climax synrift stage (Figs. 11 and 16c). This is considered to respond to the high rate of footwall
uplift, which favours the consequent footwall-derived systems (Prosser, 1993). However, the
dip-slope sourced systems retreated greatly as shown in Fig. 11; this development was probably
PT
caused by a significant lake transgression during the high tectonic subsidence stage (Ravnås and
RI
Steel, 1998). The infrequent nearshore fan lobes in the area between F1 and F2 imply that the
OTZ1 sediment fluxes had almost decayed during the climax synrift stage (Fig. 11). A possible
SC
explanation is attributed to the renewed rift topography caused by the northward migration of the
depocentre along F1 (Figs. 8c and 13c); thus drainages could not respond to the local structural
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uplift and subsequently re-directed (Fig. 16c; Gupta et al., 1999). Meanwhile, other prior transfer
zones OTZ2 and OTZ3 were submerged and became subaqueous gravity-flow pathways (Figs. 11
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and 16c). Various sized offshore sub-lacustrine fan sediments are found to be characteristic in the
TST of SQ3 (Fig. 11); they were supposed to be induced by the significantly modified basin
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physiography (Fig. 16c; Postma; 1984; Surlyk, 1989). Evidence from seismic, logs and heavy
TE
mineral analysis suggests that subaqueous dispersal paths linking the gravity deposits could be in
either transverse or axial directions (Figs. 11 and 16c). Furthermore, the subaqueous channels
EP
linking the nearshore (E-HG) and offshore sub-lacustrine fans (C-HG) imply the ability for
C
transverse sedimentary systems to transport sediments from one half-graben to another (Figs. 10
AC
and 16c).
From the early to the late period of SQ3 deposition, the sediment dispersal changed from
Tanan Depression (Figs. 11 and 12a). This transition is likely due to the degradation of footwall
sources in the E-FS associated the decreased fault displacement during the later period (Fig. 14).
This suggestion is supported by the fining-upwards cycles and absence of HST conglomerate
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deposits near the fault escarpment in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 5 and 12a).
The late synrift stage is characterised by very low fault displacements (< 400 m) and a
cessation of fault block rotations (Figs. 13d and 14). As a result, the Tanan Depression adopted a
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dish-shaped geometry, and the subsequent basin topography was significantly flattened (Figs. 15
and 16d). An increase in coarseness of the sediment associated with axial-sourced clinoforms
RI
prograding for up to 80 km in SQ4 (Figs. 5, 12b and 16d); it indicates an increase in sediment
SC
supply during this waning rifting stage. This interpretation coincides with the view that the
drainage basins would have greatly expanded with respect to an increase in the sediment input rate
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since they incised into new source areas when fault movement ceased (Blair, 1988; Prosser, 1993).
AN
As a response, large volumes of axial-sourced sediments would have been introduced into the
Tanan Depression during this waning faulting stage (Figs. 12b and 16d). The lake shoreline
M
gradually prograded towards the basin centre, the subsequent Tanan Depression was overfilled and
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extensional rift basins (Cohen, 1990; Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997; Gupta et al., 1999;
Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; McLeod et al 2002). The rift physiography and source area erosions
C
are strongly influenced by the extensional faulting displacement, stacking and linkage patterns
AC
(Leeder et al., 1991; Leeder and Jackson, 1993), which in turn exert a major control on synrift
drainage basins and sediment dispersal patterns (Jackson and Leeder, 1995; Eliet and Gawthorpe,
1995; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Gupta et al., 1999). The results of this study provide a good
opportunity to understand how the deposition and dispersal patterns of sediment evolved in
lacustrine rift basins, and their interactions with the specific geometries and displacement patterns
of active fault arrays during the rift cycle (Figs. 15 and 16). Furthermore, our example provides
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The early synrift stage is commonly characterised by a low rate of tectonic subsidence
(Prosser, 1993; Ravnås and Steel, 1997), as observed from the low-displacement faults in SQ1 and
SQ2 in the Tanan Depression (Figs. 2 and 13; Zhou et al., 2014). Two tectono-sedimentary
sub-stages are defined in this study, including 1) an initial isolate fault sub-stage related to mainly
PT
short-dispersal alluvium accumulating in small half-grabens, and 2) a rapidly propagated fault
RI
sub-stage characterised by large-sized fan-delta systems within interconnected but
low-displacement half-grabens (Figs. 15 and 16a, b). The rapid fault propagation within a duration
SC
of less than 4.6 Ma allowed the fault arrays to reach nearly their full length, while the
displacement remained almost constant before the significant basin formation (Fig. 13a, b). A
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AN
general fault-sedimentary interaction is indicated from this study, in which the expanded drainage
basins and long dispersal depositional systems of sand-rich sediments are likely facilitated during
M
the rapid fault propagation stage (Fig. 16b). The above suggestion follows the Hack scaling law of
drainage basin area and slope length (Leeder et al., 1991): 1) low-gradient transfer zones resulted
D
from the fault overlaps are facilitated in large-sized drainage catchments, and serve as the major
TE
conduits for sediment transportation (Fig. 16b; Gawthorpe et al., 1994); and 2) the expanded
length of hanging dip-slope (e.g. WDS) caused by the rapidly lateral propagation is also
EP
favourable for capturing new drainage catchments (Figs. 15 and 16b; Leeder and Jackson, 1993;
C
Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000). Coupled with a low rate of tectonic subsidence, the subsequent
AC
major sediment systems transported via the large-scale structural lows are the reasons for the
sand-rich systems almost lacking any evidence of thick mudstones, as observed in SQ2 in this
example (Fig. 15). This sediment infill pattern is comparable to the observation in other rift basins,
which are characterised by a rapid fault linkage during the early period of the basin history
(McLeod et al 2002; Noll and Hall, 2006). In this respect, sand-rich deposits relative to large-sized
transfer zones and well-established dip-slopes may be a key aspect during the early rapid fault
24
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Similar to the fault behaviours demonstrated during the through-going faulting stage by
Davies et al. (2000) and Gawthorpe and Leeder (2000), our example suggests that the high
displacement became localised on several major fault arrays, while other arrays were inactive or
had low displacements during the climax synrift stage (Figs. 15 and 16c). The diversity of
PT
basin-infill patterns is enhanced by fault displacement localisation, as observed for both sediment
RI
starvation and balance-infill patterns in this study (Fig. 15). Thus, caution must be exercised when
attempting to correlate stratigraphic architectures, reservoirs and source rocks, since differential
SC
basin-filled pattern caused by localised displacement localisation on a small number of major
faults is probably a general characteristic during the significant basin formation (Fig. 15).
U
AN
Following the depositional predictions in the climax rift model of Ravnås and Steel (1998),
high-displacement boundary faults, while parts of the hanging dip-slope drainage basins tend to be
reduced during the high tectonic subsidence stage. The observations of decayed and submerged
D
drainages in prior transfer zones during the climax synrift stage, highlight various responses of
TE
transfer zone drainages would occur depending on the balance between the displacement rate of
boundary faults and the river incision rate (Jackson and Leeder, 1995; Gupta et al., 1999). As
EP
indicated by this example, the different faulting displacement, renewed rift topography and varied
C
sediment potentials would lead to marked variations in sediment dispersal patterns during the fault
AC
array evolution (Fig. 16; Ravnås and Steel, 1998; Gupta et al., 1999; McLeod et al., 2002; Henstra
et al., 2017). Special attention also needs to be paid to the prediction of sand-prone systems along
The fault activity in extensional rift systems wanned abruptly and the subsequent rift
architecture became dish-like at the end of the rift cycle (Figs. 15 and 16d; Prosser, 1993; Ravnås
and Steel, 1997). Axial-sourced rift systems presumably take time to form and are expected to be
25
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prominent when crossover basement ridges are subdued during the fault inactive period (Jackson
and Leeder, 1995), as observed in the later climax synrift stage and late synrift stage in this
example (Figs. 12 and 16d). The observed large-scale braided deltaic deposits and increased
axial-sourced sediment inputs in this study (Fig. 16d) agree with the view that the source area and
sediment yield potential would become the dominant controlling factor when faulting is no longer
PT
active (Ravnås and Steel, 1997, 1998).
RI
Analysis of synrift stratigraphic distributions and sediment dispersal variations could provide
evidence for determining dynamic fault throw and the temporal evolution of fault arrays (Jackson
SC
and Leeder, 1995; Gupta et al., 1999; Davies et al., 2000; Noll and Hall, 2006). In turn, the fault
array patterns would also provide valuable indications for depositional evaluations, for example,
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the early rapid fault propagation is likely to facilitate sandstone-prone sediments via the
well-established structural lows during the rift evolution (Figs. 13c, 15 and 16b). The defined
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tectono-sedimentary relationships in this example may be used as a model when studying less
data-rich rift basins elsewhere. Crucially, caution needs to be exercised when using the proposed
D
models in new rift basins, since the variability of depositional responses would be enhanced by
TE
fault growth patterns. For example, the relationships summarised in this study may be unlike to the
systematic increase in both displacement and length over a relatively long period of the basin
C
history (Cartwright et al., 1995; Schlische and Anders, 1996; Morley, 2002).
AC
challenging to locate potential petroleum reservoirs since reservoir facies architectures and
geometries vary considerably in rift basins (Morley, 1990; Cohen, 1990; Shanley and McCabe,
1994; Strecker et al., 1999; Lin et al., 2001; Bache et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2015). Certified as a
petroliferous oil-field, the Tanan Depression shows a relatively high degree of oil exploration and
26
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development (Yan and Lv, 2012; Liu et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2014). Sedimentological studies and
petroleum exploration indicate that only the fan-delta front sand-bodies in SQ2 and the
sub-lacustrine deposits in SQ3 are profitable hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Tanan Depression (Liu
et al., 2012).
The short-transported and poorly sorted breccias in SQ1 are characterised by a very low
PT
porosity (< 5 %) and permeability (< 10 md; Yan and Lv, 2012), hence, SQ1 is found to be dry. On
RI
the contrary, the fan-delta front sand-bodies developed in SQ2 are porous and proved to be best
oil-bearing reservoirs in the Tanan Depression. These sand-bodies are: (1) moderately to well
SC
sorted; (2) characterised by a relatively high porosity (10-15 %) and permeability (10-700 md)
with both primary and secondary dissolution pores (Yan and Lv, 2012; Chen et al., 2012); and (3)
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overlain by thick mature source rocks contributing to a perfect source-reservoir-capping condition
(Liu et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2012). For this reason, these hydrocarbon reservoirs in SQ2 produce
M
more than 100 tonnes of oil per day, accounting for almost 70 % of the total petroleum production
According to the studies by Miao et al. (2011) and Jia et al. (2014), the sand-bodies in both
TE
nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits have a low permeability (< 10 md) and porosity
(mostly < 15 %). Some oil accumulations within these sub-lacustrine fan reservoirs have been
EP
identified inside the C-HG and E-HG (Figs. 5 and 10). However, they are generally isolated and
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have small dimensions, and thus only provide a low oil production (27.4-56.29 tonnes per day,
AC
Wang et al., 2011a; Jia et al., 2014); this makes them a secondary target for hydrocarbon
explorations in the Tanan Depression. Braided delta deposits formed in the HST of SQ3 are
possible potential hydrocarbon reservoirs since they have relatively high porosities (15-20 %;
Wang et al., 2011b). Despite the fact that few drilling results have oil indications in some
structural-lithologic traps (Fig. 10; Wang et al., 2011b), it is less likely that big profitable,
27
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(Liu et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2012). The widespread axially-sourced deltaic sandstones in SQ4
appear to be potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, the vitrinite reflectance results imply
immature (Ro < 0.45 %) mudstones in SQ4 due to their shallow burial depths (Liu et al., 2011)
and the effective caprocks are also absent (Wang et al., 2011b). Therefore, the SQ4 succession in
this part of the Tanan Depression is deemed to have a low petroleum potential. In summary, this
PT
study indicates that the fan-delta front sand-bodies in SQ2 are the most prospective, while the
RI
sub-lacustrine fan deposits in SQ3 form the secondary potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in the
Tanan Depression. In addition, the results of this study area may provide implications for
SC
hydrocarbon reservoir prediction and risk evaluation in other ancient rift basins.
U
6. Conclusions AN
The incorporation of high-quality 3D seismic reflections associated with well and core data
provides a good opportunity for evaluating the changing response of basin geometries and
M
sediment dispersal patterns to the active faulting in a temporal view. The following conclusions
(1) Six types of depositional systems are identified in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression,
TE
including alluvial fan, fan-delta, braided delta, deep to shallow lake, and nearshore and offshore
EP
sub-lacustrine fan deposits based on integrated analysis of 3D seismic, well-log and core data. The
rift cycle in the Tanan Depression follows a four-stage fault array evolution, including early synrift
C
SQ1 (initial isolated fault), early synrift SQ2 (rapid fault propagation), rift climax SQ3 (maximum
AC
fault relief) and late rifting SQ4 (minor fault activity) stages.
(2) The initial isolated fault stage is dominated by short-dispersal alluvium, while the later
interconnected but low-displacement half-grabens. The rapid fault propagation to nearly full
length facilitates the large-sized overlapped transfer zones and hanging dip-slope. The expanded
drainage catchments relative to the well-established topographic lows and long dispersal systems
28
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of sand-rich sediments may be a key aspect during the early fault propagation stage in rift basins.
(3) Subsequent progressive rifting gave rise to a significant increase in the basin subsidence
rate, coalescence of depocentres and promoted deep-water mudstones and gravity flow deposits in
the Tanan Depression. The observed both sediment starvation and balanced-filled patterns in SQ3
indicate that caution must be exercised when attempting to correlate reservoirs and source rocks,
PT
since differential basin-filled patterns caused by displacement localisation on a small number of
RI
major faults are likely general characteristics during the significant basin formation.
Footwall-sourced sediment systems were prominent due to the high rate of footwall uplift during
SC
the early synrift climax stage, while axial-sourced braided deltaic systems became more important
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(4) An abrupt decrease in faulting led to a flattened rift topography, an increase in the
sediment supply and long-dispersal axial-sourced braided delta systems in the Tanan Depression.
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Axial-sourced rift system is expected to have a long response to tectonic topographic readjustment,
which is facilitated in later climax synrift stage and late synrift stage.
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(5) The fan-delta front sandstones in SQ2 are most profitable oil-bearing reservoirs, while the
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nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits in SQ3 have proved to be secondary
This study highlights the close relationship between the fault geometries and sediment
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dispersal patterns during the rift cycle. The tectono-sedimentary model defined here may be used
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Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the National Science and Technology Major Projects (No.
2016ZX05001-002). We would like to express our gratitude to the Daqing Oilfield Ltd Company of
China, for their assistance and the permission to publish the results. Special thanks go to the
Editor-in-Chief, Prof. Massimo Zecchin for his time and work involved in this manuscript. We also
29
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thank Dr Francois Bache and another anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and
insightful suggestions, which have significantly improved the scientific impact of this paper.
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Table1 Depositional systems, seismic and log characters, lithological assemblages and sedimentary structures in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression.
Depositional system Seismic character Lithology assemblage and sedimentary structure Log geometry Depositional environment Distribution
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Alluvial fan deposits Variable amplitude, chaotic or Matrix-supported poorly sorted breccia/ volcanic detritus (maximum Mostly irregular bell- or funnel-shaped Alluvium in the subaerial Only distributed in SQ1
discontinuous reflections diameter up to 30 cm) and tuff; massive structure environment
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Fan-delta deposits Moderately continuous, progradational Poorly to moderately sorted conglomerate and pebbly to coarse-grained Box-shaped (10-30 m) Subaerial channel deposits on the Mostly distributed in
stacked reflections in slightly sandstone; imbricated bedding, scour surfaces and cross-bedding in fan-delta plain SQ2
wedge-shaped configurations fining-upward intervals
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Mudstone and siltstone; plant fossils Serrated-shaped with a relatively high GR Inter-channel deposits on the
value around 150 API (< 3 m) fan-delta plain
Well sorted imbricated conglomerate, coarse- to fine-grained Toothed box or bell-shaped (5-10 m) Subaqueous channel deposits on
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sandstones; scour surfaces, cross-bedding and parallel bedding in the fan-delta front
fining-upwards intervals
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Well sorted medium- to fine-grained sandstone; cross-bedding, ripple Funnel-shaped (3-7 m) Mouth bar deposits on the fan-delta
laminations and burrows in coarsening-upward intervals front
Braided delta deposits Continuous and sigmoid/oblique Well sorted coarse- to fine-grained sandstone; cross-bedding and Bell-shaped (10-20 m) Distributary channel deposits on Mainly developed in the
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progradational stacked reflections parallel bedding in fining-upward intervals the braided delta front HST of SQ3 and SQ4
(clinoforms)
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Well sorted fine-grained sandstone interbedded with siltstone and Funnel-shaped (< 15 m) Mouth bar deposits on the braided
mudstone; wave ripple laminations delta front
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Shallow-deep Moderately to poorly continuous, Grey mudstone interbedded siltstone; horizontal bedding and some Serrated liner-shaped; moderate to high GR Shallow lake deposits Commonly observed in
lake deposits sub-parallel or divergent seismic wavy ripples value (140-170 API) SQ3 and SQ4
reflections
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Extremely continuous and parallel Black mudstones; structureless Smooth liner-shaped; very high GR value Deep lake deposits Mainly found in the
seismic reflections (up to 180 API) E-HG and C-HG in SQ3
Nearshore Wedge-shaped, retrogradational stacked Sandy-supported poorly sorted conglomerate containing clasts of, or Frequently serrated bell-shaped (several Inner fan deposits on the nearshore Mainly developed
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sub-lacustrine fan seismic reflections underlain by, dark mudstone; massive structure without any flow tens to 300 metres in wells) sub-lacustrine fan adjacent to the basin
direction margin in SQ3
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Conglomeratic to fine-grained sandstones; imbricate structure, scoured Commonly irregular box-shaped (several Middle fan deposits on the
bases and parallel bedding in multistorey fining-upward intervals tens metres) nearshore sub-lacustrine fan
Offshore Mounded or lenticular configurations Siltstones and sandstones intercalated with black mudstones; Bouma Finger-shaped on a smooth linear-shaped Offshore sub-lacustrine fan/ distal, Mostly developed in the
sub-lacustrine fan with a relatively high amplitude sequences, deformed beds and sand-balls background deep-water turbidite deposits basinal centre in SQ3
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FIGURES CAPTIONS:
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic location of the Tanan Depression in Mongolia, Tamtsag Basin (after Graham
et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2014; Jia et al., 2014); (b) General structural units and
wells in the Tanan Depression, fault arrays (F1-11) are present according to Chen et al. (2013).
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Figure 2. Tectono-stratigraphy of the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin
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(modified from Yang et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2014). The study interval (red colour
bar) includes the Tongbomiao, Nantun and Damoguaihe Formations, which are associated with
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four third-order sequences SQ1-4. The total and tectonic subsidence rates are from Shan et al.
(2013).
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Figure 3. Major fault geometry and sequence stratigraphy in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin
(the locations of seismic sections AA’ and BB’ are shown in Figure 1b). Five sequence boundaries
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named T5, T31, T3, T22 and T2 are identified based on the seismic truncation, toplap, onlap and
downlap terminations. The synrift succession can be subdivided into four third-order sequences
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including SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4 (Ji et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). Note that the SQ1 sequence
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reflections of the SQ2 sequence are more continuous. The tectonic units (i.e. E-HG, C-HG) are
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present in Figure 1b. MFS surfaces are associated with seismic offlaps and downlaps. MFS:
Figure 4. Lithology and sedimentary structures of cores in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin.
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Diameter of the coin is 1.5 cm. (A) Variegated poorly sorted muddy-supported breccias and
volcanic detritus, massive structure (T19-91, 2781.8 m). (B) Moderately sorted conglomerates and
pebbly to coarse-grained sandstones, with directional arranged gravels and grading bedding
(T19-342-t200, 2455.7 m). (C) Moderately to well sorted conglomerate, coarse and fine-grained
sandstone in fining-upwards intervals, with scoured surfaces, cross-bedding and rip-up clasts of
mudstone (T19-69, 2594.7 m). (D) Grey mudstone and siltstone, plant fossils (T19-342-t200,
2421.4 m). (E) Well sorted coarse- to medium-grained sandstone with cross-bedding (T19-23,
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1961.1m). (F) Fine-grained sandstone with parallel bedding (T19-67, 1542.95 m). (G) Siltstone
with wave ripple laminations (T19-34, 1885.9 m). (H) Black mudstones, structureless (T19-65,
2610 m). (I) Poorly sorted sandy-supported breccias and sandstones interbedded with black
mudstones, massive structure (T19-56, 2437.1 m). (J) Multistorey conglomeratic to fine-grained
sandstones, with scoured bases, grading bedding and parallel bedding in fining-upwards intervals
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(T19-65, 2344.2-2345.1 m). (K) Siltstones and sandstones intercalated with black mudstones,
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Figure 5. Log-profile correlation showing the well-log geometries and depositional system
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interpretations of the synrift deposits in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. Wells are selected
from different tectonic units throughout the basin, and their locations are shown in Figure 1b. Note
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that the depositional stacking architectures exhibit a great variability in different tectonic units in
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SQ3.
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Figure 6. Seismic configurations (upper) and depositional interpretations (lower) based on seismic
and well logs calibrations (revised from Ji et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2014). The seismic section CC’
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Figure 7. Seismic section DD’ and its depositional interpretation based on the three penetrated
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well calibrations. The apparently progradational stacked fan-delta system in SQ2 has a maximum
distance of up to 20 km, much longer than that observed in SQ1 (generally of less than 4-6 km).
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Figure 8. Isopach maps of synrift intervals (in metres transferred from two-way travel time)
superimposed by active fault arrays in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin (a: SQ1; b: SQ2; c:
SQ3; d: SQ4). The thickness data are determined from the detailed mapping of the T5, T31, T3,
T22 and T2 seismic reflectors. See the text for detailed discussions.
Figure 9. Depositional facies map, showing sediment dispersal patterns of the fan-delta systems in
SQ2 in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. The sediment dispersal pattern is reconstructed
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based on cores, well logs, seismic interpretations and heavy mineral assemblages. Five zones of
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(Pyrrhotite-Zircon-Leucosphenite-Ilmenite assemblage). Note that the fan-delta systems in the
overlapped areas of F1&F2, F2&F3 and F4&F7 are characterised by long dispersal distances of up
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to 20 km, while the fan-delta systems in the central part of the boundary faults have relative
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Figure 10. The relationship between nearshore and offshore sub-lacustrine fan systems in the TST
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of SQ3 within the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. (a) Facies distributions across the E-HG and
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C-HG based on cores, well logs, seismic interpretation (refer the lithology of well T19-83 and
T19-78 in Figure 5), the seismic section EE’ is shown in Figure 1b. (b) A typical seismic slice in
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the TST of SQ3 (from Jia et al., 2014) showing the offshore sub-lacustrine fan sediments adjacent
to F4 is re-transported via the feeder channel from the nearshore sub-lacustrine fan deposits close
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to F2. (c) The channel-like seismic reflection indicating the feeder channel deposits (from Jia et al.,
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Figure 11. Depositional facies map, showing the sediment dispersal patterns in the TST of SQ3 in
the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. Depositional facies distributions are reconstructed based on
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cores, well logs, seismic interpretation, sandstone percentages and heavy mineral assemblages.
The heavy mineral assemblages are from Yan et al. (2015). Four zones of heavy mineral
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assemblages can be identified, including Zone I (G and F type), Zone II (C and F type), Zone III
Zircon-Siderite-Pyrrhotite-Ilmenite-Leucosphenite; F type:
that the large-scale offshore sublacustrine fan deposits (i.e. T19-78) are re-transported from the
nearshore sublacustrine fan deposits, whereas another set of offshore sublacustrine fan deposits
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(assessed by T19-x70) is re-transported from northern braided delta deposits. TST: transgressive
systems tract.
Figure 12. Depositional facies maps, showing the sediment dispersal patterns in the Tanan
Depression, Tamtsag Basin (a: HST of SQ3; b: SQ4). HST: high-stand systems tract.
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Figure 13. Displament-distance curves of the rift-related faults (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6 and F7),
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showing fault evolving patterns in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. (a) Initial isolated faults
(early synrift SQ1 sub-stage) of low-displacement. (b) rapid fault propagation (early synrift SQ2
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sub-stage) with a significant increase in length but a slight increase in displacement, forming three
overlapped transfer zones referred as OTZ1, OTZ2 and OTZ3; (c) maximum fault relief (climax
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synrift stage SQ3) with a considerable increase in displacement but the length remains almost
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constant; and finally (d) minor fault activity (late synrift stage SQ4) characterised by very low
displacements.
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Figure 14. Structural evolution in the Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression based on the balanced
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section (the section line is shown in Figure 1b). The synrift stage can be subdivided into the early
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synrift stage (SQ1 and SQ2 sub-stages), climax synrift stage (SQ3) and late synrift stage (SQ4).
During the climax synrift stage, early minor faults became inactive; meanwhile, the main
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displacements localised on the boundary faults F1, F2 and F4, but F8 was less active. Note that
basin structures changed a lot during the different synrift stages, see text for detailed discussions.
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Figure 15. Schematic diagram of basin geometries, seismic sequence structures and basin infill
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patterns during the rift cycle in the Tanan Depression, Tamtsag Basin. The seismic architectures
are summarised from Figures 3, 6 and 7. The basin infill patterns are based on Figures 5, 7 and 10.
Figure 16. Conceptual models for the tectonic-sedimentary evolution in the Tanan Depression,
Tamtsag Basin. (a) Early synrift SQ1 sub-stage; (b) early synrift SQ2 sub-stage; (c) climax synrift
stage SQ3, modified from Zhou et al. (2014); (d) late synrift stage SQ4. Not to scale.
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o o o
117 118 11 9
PT
L abu dali n
0 30 60 km 1 T ra
ce
Basin F1
MON GOLIA
1 9-8 9
RI
o
L in
49
SC
0 200 km
19 -3 7
o
48
D
N 19-112 1 9-2 3 F3
S
2 1-1 0
-D
19 -6 7
U
F7
W
19 -9 0
G
-H
B 21 -1 5 2 1- 29
W
AN
1 9-x70
N
19 -69
19- 36 21 -32
21 -1 6
E 2 1- 12
1 9- 21 19 -342 -t2 00 A'
1 9- 68
1 19- 53 19 -9 7 21-16- 1
C F8 19 -48
1 9- 78
H
F ig. 14 1 9- 33
U
1 9- 18
M
19- 43
C-
19 -52 19-8 3 19 -7 3 F2
4 19 -1 6 F4
3 1 9-49 1 9- 1 1 9- 7- 2
19- 40 19 -8 2 1 9- 7- 1
19 -5 4
2 E'
FS
19- 74
D'
HG
B'
19 -8
E-
1 9- 45 19 - 78
19- 58 19 -56 19-38 Wel l
E-
1 9-5 7
TE
19- 25
19 -30
1 9- 28 19 -5 1 1 9- 80
1 9- 86
C' Maj or fa ult
5 19 -8 5
HG
1 9-4 1
1 9- 29 F1
19 -99
C-
F5 1 9-65
EP
19- 46
19- 66 Bou nda ry o f
F9 19 -6 2 stru ctrua l uni ts
1 Western Fault-te rrace Belt
Study a rea (Han-WL Uplift)
Faul t n umber F2
2 Balan-SBL G Uplift
C
Figure 1
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Qingyuan
gang Fm.
Upper (m / Ma)
T04 100.5
Tota l
subsid ence
Yimin Formation
rate Post-rift
Tecton ic
PT
sub si den ce
rate
T2 130.8 0 10 (%)
Damoguaihe Formation
RI
SQ4 Late
Cretaceous
synrift
SC
stage
T22 133.9
Lower
Nantun Formation
Syn-rift
SQ3 Climax
synrift
stage
AN
T3 139.4
SQ2
M
SQ1
D
T5 145
TE
Tuf aceou s
EP
Figure 2
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U SC
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M
D
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EP
C
AC
Figure 3
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D
Figure 4
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EP
C
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
PT
40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200 40 1800
180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200
1300
40 180 0.2 200 40 180 0.2 200
1300 1700 1800
1600
T2 1700
T2
B-DC 1900 B-MB
1400
B-MB B-MB
1400 1800 1900
1800
B-MB 1700
B-DC
RI
B-DC 2000 SL
1500
1500 1900 2000 SL SQ4
SL 1800 MFS
1900 B-DC
(Damouguaihe
B-MB
B-MB 2100
DL Formation)
1600 SL
B-MB 1600 2000 2100
DL 1900 OS F
SC
2000
B-MB
2200
B -DC 1700 B-DC
1700 2100 2200
B-MB 2100
2000
T22
2300
OSF
B -MB 1800 B-MB DL
1800
T22 B-MB 2200
DL
2300
DL 2100
U
2200
DL
2400
1900
OSF? OS F
1900 2300 2400
2200 MFS
FDP 2300
AN
B-MB
2500
NSF
B-DC 2000
DL OSF NSF SQ3
FDF 2000 2400
(middle fan) 2500
2300
2400 SL (Nantun
B-MB DL Formation)
AF/FDP DL 2600
2100 SL OSF
2100 2500 2600
2400
B-DC 2500
OSF FDF
M
OS F
2700
2200
FDF DL MFS OSF
2600 2700
2500
2600 NSF
OSF (inner-mid dle
OSF 2800
FDP
2300 fan )
2700 2800
D
2600
AF
2700 DL T3 SL
2400
DL
FDF
2900 T3
2800
2700 FDF
T5 2800 FDF
TE
MFS SQ2
2900
2800
AF/ AF/
(Tongbomiao
2900 Coarsening Oil-bearing FDF
Formation)
T5
SQ1+SQ2
FDP FDP upwards /immersion
Southern W-HG W-HG (near F6 and F7) Central C-HG Northern C-HG E - HG Southern C - HG
Figure 5
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
19 -1 8 19 -4 3 19 -5 2 19 -0 1 1 9- 82 19 -3 8
Moderatl y continuous
10 00
Obl ique progradational sub-parallel led r eflec ti ons T2
stack ed reflec tions
Wedge-shaped
Two-way travel time/ ms
r etrogradati onal
1 50 0 s tac ked
T22 r eflec ti ons
PT
25 00
MFS Fault
RI
C C’
Allu via l fan/ B raide d B ra ide d Offsho re
Fa n- delta fro nt Inn er fan M iddle fa n Shallow lake Deep la ke Fa ult s
Fan-delt a plain de lta plain de lta fro nt Sublacu str ine fa n
1000
Nearsho re sublacustrine fa n
T2
SC
1500
T22
Dep th/m
20 00
F8
T3
U
25 00 T5 F1
T31
0 2km
F2
F4
3000
AN
W-DS and W-HG C-HG C-UH E-HG E-FS
Figure 6
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D
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C EP
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AN
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EP
C
Figure 7
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
0
T20
L19
(a)
0
00
T 40
50
0
T60
10
0
0
T 80
0
L 17
1
00
F1
00
50
T10
F6
N
00
T 12
10 0
00
T1 4
L1
5 00
F1 0
00
T1 6
L1
50
30 0 L 19
00
1 00
F7 F3
50
0
L 11
00 L1 70
0
PT
0
20 0
50
00
1 0
15 0
0
2
L9 0
0 L 15
0
40
00
0
30
0
0
20
0
15
50
10
F8
30 0
L7 20 0
0
00 L1 3
F2
40
RI
100
00
F4
50
0
300
20 0
15 0
0
0
0
10
L5
20
15
00 L1 1
00
1 50 0
50
0
SC
10
L3
20 0
00 L 90
0
F9 F5
30 0
2
00
15
0
40 0
10
0 F1 L7 0
0
50
U
L 500
AN L3 0
0
0 5 10km
0
(b)
T20
L19
M
0
00
T 40
0
T60
0
T 80
L 17
1
00
F1
00
0
T10
50
N
00
50
10
0 F6
T 12
00
D
T1 4
L1
0
F1 0 15
5 00
00
T1 6
0
40 0
0
TE
L1
20
30 0 L 19
15 0
30 0 0 00
20
F7 15
0 F3100
0
50 0
100 20
50
0 0
L 11 15 10
00 L1 70
0
0
50
100
15 0
L9 0
EP
400
0 L 15
0
50
00
0
0
30
40
500
0
00
0
20
4
30
50
1 00
0
15
200
0
50
100
F2
15 0
10 0
2 00
L7
3 00
00 L1 3
F8 00
F4
30 0
L5
C
00 L1 1
00
0
10
50
50
1
0
15
L3
0
20
00 L 90
AC
0
F9 F5
50
0
10
20 0
30 0
15
0
0
40
0
50
F1 L7 0
0
L 500
L3 0
0
0 5 10km
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
(Continued)
0
(c)
T20
L 19
0
00
T 40
0
T60
0
T 80
1
F1
L 17
00
00
200
T10
N
00
T 12
6 00 2 00
400
40
6 0
20
00
00
F1 0
T1 4
L 15
00
00
T1 6
F6
400 F3
600
40
0
L1 30 60
0 0 L 19
00
20
20
0
0
PT
F7
L 11
00 L1 70
0
4
00
600
40 0
F4
L9 0
0 L 15
8 00 00
RI
F8 00
6
L 70
0 20
0 2 00 F2 L1 3
00
00
8
20
0
40
0
0
L5 00
40
L1 1
00
SC
60 0 60
0
80
0
80
0
L 30 L 90
0 0
00
12 0
20 0 60
1
1000
F9 F5
L7 0
F1 0
U
L 500
AN
L3 0
0
0 5 10km
M
0
(d)
T20
L 19
0
00
T 40
0
T60
20
0
0
T 80
L 17
00
00
D T10
N
00
60
T 12
0
00
T1 4
L 15
00
00
T1 6
TE 20
20
0
60
0
L1 30 0
0 L 19
0
00
40
L 11
00 L1 70
0
EP
0
20
40
0
L9 0
200
0 L 15
00
40
0
40
L 70 0
0 L1 3
00
C
60
20 0
0
400
L5 00 L1 1
00
4 00
AC
L 30 L 90
0 0
Fault
0
20
L7 0
0 Sedimen tary
boundary
20 0
L7 0
0 Trace o r line
L3 0 of seismic survey
0
0 5 10km
Contour
50
of thic knes s
Figure 8
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PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP
Figure 9
C
AC
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PT
RI
U SC
Figure 10
AN
M
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EP
C
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C
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Figure 11
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C
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Figure 12
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0 0
0.5
D Is placement
0.5
D Is placement
F7 F6 F3
F5 F4
1.0 1.0 F1 F2
1.5 1.5
2.0 Km
2.0 Km Early s ynrift SQ1 sub-stage
a
0 0
0.5 0.5
DIs pl acement
DIs pl acement
F5 F7 F6
F4 F3
1.0 1.0 F1 F2
PT
OTZ2
1.5 OTZ3 1.5 OTZ1
2.0 Km 2.0 Km
Early s ynrift SQ2 sub-stage
b
RI
0 0
0.5 0.5
DI s pl acement
DI s pl acement
1.0 1.0 F3
F5
F4 F2
1.5 1.5
SC
Km Km
F1
2.0 2.0
F3
U
0.5 0.5
D Is placement
D Is placement
F5 F1
F4 F2
1.0 1.0
AN
1.5 1.5
0 10 km
2.0 Km 2.0 Km Late synri ft stage (SQ4) d
Figure13
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C EP
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PT
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AN
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C
Figure 14
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Synrift Se ismi c sequ ence archite ctu re Basin in fill p atte rn
e vol utio n
U nconf ormity Sigm oid clin ofo rm s Ob lique clinof orms
Southern Tanan D epres sion
d
Mult i-sta ge
l le
ti o -
braide d delta ic
ro
da gr a
Bb ra id ed delt aic
nt
n
sand st one
o
o
n
mo uth an d bar
t io
Pr
es - c
cl e
Sh allow
da
cy i ma t
Sediment
Re dat i o
ra
la ke
gra
og
Shallo w lake
l
S ediment
tr o
Tu rb idite
PT
Pr
overf illed mud st one s
-
de posits
s tarv ation
R e ada ti
gr
n
t r o on
ra-
Dee p lake
n
da t i o
-
Ag g
mud st one s
Braided de ltaic
sand st one
( ii i) W-HG ( ii ) C -HG (i ) E - HG
RI
U nconf ormity
SC
Cli ma x syn rift stage
(iii) S ediment Bala nce-f illed (ii) Sediment starv ation (i) Sediment starv ation
U
N earsho re
t io -
Bra ided delt aic
d a o gr a
su blacust rine
n
ti o -
Mou th and b ar san dston e
da og r a
f an
Pr
n
n
sand stone
io
mu dston e / Sl id e ?
AN
Re
Re
gr
De ep lake
tro
o
t ro
Pr
gr a
g ra
da
da
tro
ti o
Off shore
t io
g ra
n
Nea rsh ore
n
Braided su blacustrine
d a tio -
da
Agg ra
n
sublacust rin e
a-
distribu tary f an
d ati o n
ti o
A gg r
chan nel sandst one fan
n
M
E arly s ynrift SQ2 sub -s tag e
Fa n deltaic
io n
depo sits
Ea rl y syn ri ft stage
F an-delt a
at
ad
de posits
n
t io
gr
Sediment Se dimen t
da
(SQ1+SQ2)
o
TE
Pr
ra
Shallow la ke
Pr
lake
t ro
g ra
g ra
da
Fa n deltaic
-
tio
dep osits
r ad
og
Pr
Exten sive
A g i on
da
tu ff and
gr a
t
Figure 15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
PT
RI
Initial short, segmented and low-displacement faults; The faults arrays nearly reach their full length after an early rapid fault
A number of isolated and small-scale half-grabens; propagation, while the displacements remain almost constant;
Large-scale drainages basins are unlikely, but relatively short-dispersal sediment The basin is broad, composed of interconnected, low-displacement half-grabens;
SC
systems are characteristic, deeply influenced by pre-rift steep topography; low-gradient overlapped transfer zones and dip-slope are well-established;
Overfilled by alluvial and fan delta deposits. Large-scale drainage catchments in transfer zone (②) and hanging dip-slope (③)
associated with facilitations of long-dispersal sand-rich deposits;
Footwall-(①) and axial-sourced (④) systems are of relative short distances.
U
AN
M
D
TE
The fault movement is waned associated with a cessation of differential tectonic Displacement localisation leads to the maximum relief on several major faults and
subsidence; gives rise to the variability in basin-infill patterns during the climax synrift stage;
The basin is dish-like and significantly flattened. Basin becomes dustpan-like associated with abundant deep-water deposits;
EP
An increase in the sediment supply makes it facilitated for the long-dispersal and Prominent footwall-sourced (①) systems but decayed or submerged drainages in
large-scaled axial-sourced systems deposition; prior transfer zones, greatly retreated dip-slope (③) sourced systems, some axial
The basin becomes overfilled associated with the prograding lake shoreline drainages (④) and extensive subaqueous channels (⑤);
towards the basin centre. Subaqueous channels linking the gravity deposits could be in either
footwall-derived or axial-sourced direction.
C
AC
Figure 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Deposition and sediment dispersal patterns of synrift deposits are described in the
Early Cretaceous Tanan Depression.
Fault array growth patterns and the basin architecture during the rift cycle are
PT
documented.
RI
A tectono-sedimentary model of an ancient lacustrine rift basin is proposed.
SC
Fan-delta front sandstones developed during the rapid fault propagation stage are the
most perspective reservoirs in the Tanan Depression.
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AN
M
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C EP
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