Small-signal dynamic model of a micro-grid

including conventional and electronically

interfaced distributed resources
F. Katiraei, M.R. Iravani and P.W. Lehn

Abstract: A systematic approach to small-signal modelling of a micro-grid system that includes

conventional (rotating machine) and electronically interfaced distributed resource (DR) units is
presented here. The proposed approach incorporates fundamental frequency deviations in the
overall system model and provides a methodology for the analysis of autonomous micro-grid,
which inherently is more prone to frequency changes than the conventional utility grid. The
model represents (i) electro-mechanical dynamics of the synchronous machine including the
exciter and the governor systems, (ii) dynamics of the voltage-sourced converter and its real/reac-
tive power controllers and (iii) the network dynamics. The model is intended for the controller
design/optimisation, evaluation of angle/voltage stability, investigation of torsional dynamics, con-
troller interactions of electronically interfaced DR units and low-frequency power quality issues.
Typical results from application of the proposed modelling approach to a study system are pre-
sented. The results are qualitatively verified on the basis of the comparison with those obtained
from time-domain simulation in the PSCAD/EMTDC environment.

1 Introduction reliably predict all micro-grid operational scenarios that

can result in poor power quality or angle/voltage instability.
Recent and ongoing technological, environmental, econ- Therefore a systematic approach to investigate micro-grid
omical and social trends indicate proliferation of distributed dynamics is required.
resource (DR) units in the electric utility systems [1, 2], and In a small-signal model of an interconnected power system,
have brought about the concept of a micro-grid [3 –5]. A a large section of the system, with a good approximation, can
broad range of technical issues associated with the grid- usually be represented by an infinite bus and thus the base fre-
connected and autonomous operational scenarios of a quency is constant. In contrast, the base frequency of an auton-
micro-grid system are presented in Piagi et al. [5] and omous micro-grid is subjected to excursions because of
Katiraei et al. [6]. disturbances. The frequency deviation and its rate of change
Katiraei et al. [6] investigate micro-grid transients, on the depend on the relative sizes and types of the DG units. The
basis of the digital time-domain simulation method, during developed model captures frequency deviations of the micro-
and subsequent to an islanding process. Katiraei et al. [6] grid during autonomous mode of operation.
conclude that presence of electronically interfaced distribu- This paper presents a systematic approach and the math-
ted generation (DG) units can effectively enhance power ematical formulations to develop a small-signal dynamic
quality and maintain angle stability after islanding and model of a micro-grid that includes the synchronous
during autonomous operation of the micro-grid. This is machine and the electronically interfaced DG unit. The
achieved by (i) exploiting the inherent fast and independent system model includes the dynamic models of the lines
real and reactive power controllers of the electronically and thus is a valid representation for the sub-synchronous
interfaced DG units and (ii) coordination of the controllers frequency range. The develop model can be used to
of various DG units.
Selection of controller parameters and control strategies
for the case studies reported in Katiraei et al. [6] are † Design controllers of the micro-grid, for example gover-
based on a trial and error approach incorporating knowledge nor and excitation systems of synchronous machine DG
of the overall system characteristics. Selection of control/ units, and real/reactive power controllers of electronically
operational strategies, coordination of controls and optimis- interfaced DG units.
ation of controller parameters on the basis of trial and error † Optimise controller parameters of electronically inter-
become a formidable task as the depth of DR penetration faced DG units to take advantage of their fast responses
increases. Furthermore, trial and error approaches cannot in (i) enhancing voltage quality, (ii) controlling frequency
and (iii) maintaining stability during and subsequent to a
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2007
transition from one mode of operation to another.
doi:10.1049/iet-gtd:20045207
† Identify operating points of DG units and control strat-
Paper first received 9th October 2004 and in revised form 25th November 2005
egies that provide adequate stability margins to ensure
sound transition between various modes of operation.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Toronto, 10 King’s College Road, Toronto, Ontario, Canada † Assist in developing appropriate operational strategies to
M5S 3G4 accommodate various mixture of DG units and operational
E-mail: f.katiraei@utoronto.ca modes.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2007, 1, (3), pp. 369 –378 369
 This paper also presents a frequency restoration strategy prime source with the power system. DG2 represents a
for the synchronous machine DG, through its governor, to dispatchable source, for example (i) a micro-turbine gener-
return and maintain the system frequency to the original ation unit, (ii) a fuel cell generation unit or (iii) a wind gen-
value during autonomous mode of operation. A phase- eration unit including battery storage. Thus, DG2 can
locked loop (PLL) system is used to dynamically lock the supply real and reactive power to the system, within
frequency of the electronically interfaced DG unit to that limits, on the basis of pre-specified control commands.
of the system. DG2 provides control on its output real and reactive
A study system that includes two DG units, that is a power components independently.
synchronous machine and an electronically interfaced
unit is adopted by Kaitraei et al. [6]. Operational modes 3 Modes of operation and control strategies
and control strategies for the study system are described.
The detail procedures and mathematical formulations to The 13.8-kV system of Fig. 1 has three distinct modes of
develop the small-signal dynamic model of the system operation: (i) the gridconnected mode, (ii) the autonomous
during the autonomous micro-grid mode of operation are micro-grid mode and (iii) the transition mode between the
provided. Typical small-signal case studies are presented grid-connected and the autonomous micro-grid modes and
and various applications of the model are highlighted. The vice versa.
accuracy of the model is validated on the basis of the time-
domain simulation of the system in the PSCAD/EMTDC † In the grid-connected mode
environment. The procedures and mathematical formu-
lations are presented in a general form in order that they (i) The frequency is dictated by the main grid and DG1 and
can be expanded for a micro-grid with multiple DG units DG2 are synchronised with the system frequency.
and loads and an arbitrary configuration. (ii) Real power demand of the total load is met by the main
grid, DG1 and DG2. The levels of contribution of DG1 and
DG2 are usually determined on the basis of the economics
2 Study system of the case. Thus, changes in the load are compensated by
the grid.
Fig. 1 shows a single-line diagram of the system used to (iii) Voltage profile requirements and reactive power
investigate dynamic performance of micro-grid controllers. demands are met by the main grid, DG1, DG2 and other
The system is composed of a 13.8-kV, radial, three-feeder reactive power sources, for example the fixed, shunt capaci-
distribution subsystem, which is connected to the main tor at the 13.8-kV bus (Fig. 1). Reactive power outputs of
grid through a 69-kV radial line. The main grid is rep- DG1 and DG2 are dynamically adjusted on the basis of
resented as a 69-kV, 1000-MVA short-circuit capacity the voltage profile constraints.
bus. The system parameters are given in Katiraei et al. [6].
† In the autonomous micro-grid mode of operation
The system includes two DG units, that is DG1 (5-MVA)
and DG2 (2.5-MVA) on feeders F1 and F3, respectively. (i) Frequency of the 13.8-kV system must be maintained
DG1 is a synchronous machine equipped with excitation by DG1 and DG2. After separation from the main
and governor control systems. It may represent either a grid, frequency variations and the rate of frequency vari-
diesel-generator or a gas – turbine-generator unit. DG2 ation of the autonomous micro-grid depend on the power
includes a voltage-sourced converter (VSC) to interface a balance condition. If the total generation of DG1 þ DG2

Fig. 1 Single-line diagram of the study system

370 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007

prior to islanding is less (greater) than the micro-grid load DG1 and DG2, a linearised mathematical model of the
demands, formation of the autonomous micro-grid results micro-grid in the general form of
in reduction (rise) in the frequency. Employing an ade-
quately fast-response, realpower balancing strategy D_x ¼ ADx þ BDu ð1Þ
between the DG units will compensate the load demand is developed. To construct (1), the ordinary differential
and return the system frequency to the specified range of equations (ODEs) representing (i) DG1 and its excitation
57 – 60.5 Hz [7] during transients. Furthermore, frequency and governor, (ii) DG2 and its real/reactive/voltage controls
restoration is applied to adjust the frequency to the standard and (iii) the network including the loads and the fixed
utility operation range of 59.3 – 60.5 Hz, through balancing capacitor banks, are developed in their respective local
the power generation set-points of DG1 and DG2, during dq0 reference frames. Then, the developed equations are
steady-state operation [8]. transformed to the micro-grid global dq0 frame, linearised
(ii) The total real power demand is provided by DG1 and about an operating point and arranged in the state-space
DG2. Since DG2 is coupled to the micro-grid through form of (1). Since a three-phase, balanced system is
power electronics, it can respond to the load dynamics assumed, 0-axis components are zero and are not discussed
faster than DG1, and thus it can effectively maintain fre- any further.
quency and enhance angle stability. Adequate real power In the micro-grid system of Fig. 2, the global reference
margin for DG2 must be available to take advantage of its frame is defined on Bus-1, that is at the terminal of DG1.
fast response during the micro-grid dynamics. The instan- Fig. 3 identifies the global rotating reference frame of the
taneous real power from DG2 can be adjusted by controlling micro-grid by a d- and q-axis rotating at the angular fre-
real power component of its converter current, using a quency of ve . The d-axis is in the direction of the voltage
current-controlled VSC. Implementing the current control- space vector of Bus-1, vG1.
ler in the dq0 frame [9], the output real power of the unit The local reference frame of DG1 is depicted on Fig. 3 by
is determined by the d-axis current of the converter. d1- and q1-axis rotating at dynamic speed vr . This refer-
(iii) Reactive power demand of the total load and voltage ence frame is locked to the rotor of DG1 [10]. Under
profile is provided by DG1, DG2 and reactive power steady-state conditions, q1-axis is in the direction of the
sources, for example shunt capacitors. The capability of machine internal voltage Eg (Fig. 3). Angle d0 , between
DG2 to rapidly respond to its output-power and terminal d-axis and q1-axis of Fig. 3, is the power angle of DG1 and
voltage make it the prime candidate to dynamically
control the micro-grid reactive power. This suggests that p
d0 ¼ þ d1 ð2Þ
an adequate margin in the output reactive power of DG2 2
must be available to meet reactive power demand of the where d1 is the instantaneous rotor angle of DG1 in its local
micro-grid dynamically. The reactive power is controlled reference frame with the initial phase angle difference of d01
through the q-component of the converter current [9]. between global d– q frame and the local d1 –q1 reference
† In the transition mode, depending on the real- and frame.
reactive-power control strategies of the pre- and post- The local rotating reference frame of DG2 is defined by
transition modes, there might be a need either to switch d2-axis and q2-axis (Fig. 3) where d2-axis is in the direction
from one set of controllers to another set or change the con- of the voltage space vector at Bus-3, vG2. The d2 – q2 frame
troller parameters, particularly for DG2 [6]. Thus, controls rotates at dynamic speed vs of vG2. The instantaneous phase
of the grid-connected and autonomous micro-grid modes angle of vG2 is represented by d2 with the initial phase angle
must be coordinated to assure successful transition from difference between the global d – q reference frame and the
one mode to the other. The micro-grid may be equipped d2 –q2 reference frame given by d02 (Fig. 3).
with discrete control/protection strategies to assist the The rotating speed of the global reference frame, that is
system performance during the transition mode. Such strat- ve , is not necessarily a constant speed. Thus, subsequent
egies are dependent on the system configuration, transient to disconnection from the main grid, it may deviate from
characteristics and anticipated transient durations. These
issues are not discussed in this paper.

4 Mathematical model of micro-grid

Fig. 2 shows a single-line diagram of the 13.8-kV distri-

bution system of Fig. 1 during an autonomous micro-grid
mode of operation. To investigate the dynamic behaviour
of the autonomous micro-grid, including the controller of

Fig. 2 Single-line diagram of the micro-grid used for small- Fig. 3 Global and local rotating reference frames of the study
signal analysis system of Fig. 2

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007 371

the synchronous value. However, the frequency control, The excitation and governor systems of DG1 are
imposed by the governor system of DG1 and the frequency represented by a generic dc excitation system adopted
restoration control of DG2, brings ve back to the synchro- from IEEE WG [14], and the IEEE governor model on
nous speed under steady-state operating conditions. The the basis of the speed-droop characteristic adopted from
frequency controls also synchronise angular frequencies of IEEE WG [15], respectively.
the rotating reference frames of DG1 (vr) and DG2 (vs) A state-space model of DG1, in its rotor reference frame
with the speed of the global reference frame (ve). of d1 – q1, is obtained by combining dynamic models of the
However, impacts of those variations are reflected on the electrical system (5), the mechanical system (6) and the
phase – angle differences between the d1 – q1 axes of DG1 governor/excitation controls. The model is then transformed
and the d – q axes of the global reference frame, also to the micro-grid global d – q frame, and linearised as
between the d2 – q2 axes of DG2 and the d– q axes of the given by
global reference frame [11].
To construct (1), the equations of each subsystem n, that D_xG1 ¼ AG1 DxG1 þ BvG1 DvG1 þ BuG1 DuG1 ð8Þ
is DG1 and DG2 subsystems, are first transformed to the
where
global d – q frame based on [10]
h iT
f g ¼ Tn f n ð3Þ DxG1 ¼ DiG1
q Di G1
d Di k1q1 Di k2q1 Di kd1 Di fd1 Dd_ Dd
1 1

where f g ¼ [ fqg fdg]T is the vector of components of vari- is the vector of state variables of DG1 in which DiG1
q and
able f in the global d – q frame, f n ¼ [ fqn fdn]T is the vector DiG1
d are the current components of the stator windings in
of components of variable f in the nth subsystem dn– qn the global reference frame. In (8)
frame. Transformation matrix Tn is [10]

 h iT
cos dn sin dn DvG1 ¼ DvG1 q Dv G1
d
Tn ¼ ð4Þ

sin dn cos dn
is the voltage vector representing the transformed and line-
dn is the angle between the d-axis of the global reference arised stator voltages in the global d – q frame, and
frame and the d-axis of the nth subsystem reference h iT
frame. Then, the transformed equations are linearised DuG1 ¼ Dvfd1 DTm
about an operating point and combined in the general state-
space form of (1). A systematic procedure to develop (1) is the vector of input control signals Dvfd1 and DTm provided
from the overall system equations is described in Parniani by the excitation system and the governor, respectively. The
[12] and Undrill [13]. state matrix AG1 , voltage coefficient matrix BvG1 and matrix
of gain factors for the input control signals, BuG1 , can also be
4.1 Dynamic model of DG1 found in Krause [10].

DG1 is a two-pole, three-phase synchronous machine, 4.2 Dynamic model of DG2

equipped with excitation and governor systems. The rotor
electrical system of DG1 is represented by two windings DG2 is composed of two subsystems (i) the converter power
on each axis. The dynamic of the electrical system of circuit and (ii) the converter controls. Fig. 4 shows a sche-
DG1, in its rotor reference frame [10], which is identified matic diagram of DG2 in which the power circuit and the
by d1 – q1 in Fig. 3, is given by control subsystems are identified.

d 4.2.1 Power circuit: The power circuit of DG2 is shown

v ¼ Ei þ F ðiÞ ð5Þ
dt in Fig. 4 comprising a DC/AC converter and interconnec-
tion impedances. The dc-side of the converter is represented
where
by a constant, unidirectional voltage Vdc . Each phase of the
h iT
v ¼ vq1 vd1 vk1q1 vk2q1 vkd1 vfd1
h iT
i ¼ iq1 id1 ik1q1 ik2q1 ikd1 ifd1

are vectors of voltages and currents of the stator windings

(d1, q1), damper windings (k1q1, k2q1, kd1) and field
winding ( fd1). Matrices E and F are given in Krause [10].
The rotating mechanical system of DG1 is represented by
an equivalent single, rigid mass. The dynamic model of the
rotating mass is given by

d2 d
J ðd1Þ þ D ðd1 Þ ¼ Tm
Te ð6Þ
dt2 dt

where J and D are the inertia and damping constants,

respectively. Angle d1 is defined by (2). Tm and Te are
the mechanical and the air-gap torques, respectively [10] and

3
Te ¼ ðv i þ vd1 id1 Þ ð7Þ Fig. 4 Electronically interfaced DG2 unit
2vr q1 q1
372 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007
ac-side is represented by series connected R and L elements.
R includes the on-state switch resistances, resistance of the
series ac-side filter and the resistance of the interface trans-
former. L represents the inductance of the series filter and
the leakage of the interface transformer. The dynamic
model of the power circuit, in the ac-side abc frame, is
obtained from the ODEs of the three phases as
d G2
vabc ¼
RiG2
abc
L ði Þ þ vG2 ð9Þ
dt abc abc

where vabc , vG2 G2

abc and iabc are vectors of the instantaneous
values of the converter output voltages, bus voltages and
the converter output currents, respectively (Fig. 4). Then
a
(9) is transformed to the local rotating reference frame of
DG2, that is d2 – q2, which is defined at Bus-3 (Fig. 2).
This reference frame is specified by d2 – q2 in Fig. 3 and
rotates at frequency vs corresponding to the speed of the
voltage space vector of Bus-3 [9]. The transformed
equations in the d2– q2 reference frame are
2 3 b

R Fig. 5 Control block diagram for DG2 unit
d G2
v s7 1 G2
6
ði Þ ¼ 4 L G2
5i þ ðv
vÞ ð10Þ a d2 – q2 current control and interface blocks
dt
R L b Signal processing block
vs
L
where to meet the power demand of the system during transients.
h iT h iT h iT Thus as part of the real power control strategy, the limit on
iG2 ¼ iG2 iG2 ; v G2
¼ vG2 vG2 ; v ¼ vq2 vd2 the d-component of the current is increased up to the
q2 d2 q2 d2
maximum permissible converter current to supply the transi-
In this study, the dc-side is assumed as an ideal source and ent real power requirements and support short time scale
represented by a fixed voltage. Thus, it introduces no power balance of the system [11]. The time constant and
dynamic in the converter model. This fixed voltage is a rep- gain of the real power controller are determined on the
resentation of the prime source and/or energy storage. If the basis of the overshoot, for example ,20%, and response
net dc-side is not represented as an ideal source, its dynamic time, for example 20 ms. The controller parameters are
can be represented as part of the converter circuit and optimised according to the range of variations given by sen-
included as part of the overall system model [9]. sitivity analysis of the eigenvalues of the control system.
The voltage controller of Fig. 5a determines iq2(ref) to
4.2.2 Controls: The output real power and terminal achieve bus voltage regulation within the pre-specified
voltage of DG2 are controlled by the instantaneous values limits [7]. The error signal between the measured rms
of the converter output current components iG2 G2 value of bus voltages V G2 rms and the reference Vref is fed to
d2 and iq2 ,
respectively [9]. Fig. 5a shows a block diagram of a PI controller. The output of the PI controller is iq2(ref).
the control system of DG2. The control system includes Between the d2-axis and the q2-axis current controllers,
(i) two internal current loops to control the converter the control priority is given to the d2-axis by limiting
current components iG2 G2 iq2(ref) signal to the difference between the maximum con-
d2 and iq2 and (ii) two external
control loops, which generate the reference values for the verter current and id2(ref), subsequent to an islanding
internal loops on the basis of the desired real power and process. Thus real-power control is the priority for DG2.
voltage at the converter terminal. Input signals for the The model of (10) indicates that current components
d2 – q2 current control block (Fig. 5a) are iG2 G2 [iG2 iG2 T G2 G2
d2 ] are coupled through 2 vsi d2 and vsiq2 terms.
d2 and iq2 of
q2
DG2 currents passed through two low-pass filters (LPF) The coupling is eliminated [9] by introducing new variables
0 0
block of Fig. 5a. The filter time constants are in the range vd2 and vq2 as given by
of 2 –4 ms. In practice, LPF is employed to filter out conver-
ter switching harmonics and noises. v0 ¼ vG2
v þ ðvs LÞ½
iG2
d2 iG2
q2 
T
ð11Þ
The output signals of the d2 – q2 current control block are where v0 ¼ [vq2
0 0 T
v d2 ] . Substituting for v from (11) in (10)
the reference voltages of DG2. Fig. 5b shows the signal pro- yields
cessing block of the control system. This includes a PLL
[16] to estimate phase angle, d2 , of the voltage vector of d G2 R 1
Bus-3 in the space of rotational frame and to identify the ði Þ ¼
iG2 þ v0 ð12Þ
dt L L
reference frame for the instantaneous real/reactive power
calculator. The conventional PLL is composed of a Equation (12) represents decoupled iG2 G2
d2 and iq2 currents.
voltage control oscillator to monitor the input signal Fig. 6 shows decoupled current controllers, which are illus-
and a loop filter to follow variations in the angular trated in the d2 – q2 current control block of Fig. 5a.
frequency of the input signal. The PLL model is explained The state-space model of the converter of DG2 is
in Appendix A [16]. constructed first by transforming (12) to the global d – q
The real power controller of Fig. 5a determines id2(ref) on frame on the basis of (3), and then linearising the trans-
the basis of instantaneous value of real power output of the formed equations about the operating point [11]. The line-
converter Pout(t) and the specified power set-point Pref . It arised state-space model of DG2 is
consists of a proportional integral (PI) controller and a 0

limiter. The design criteria for the real power controller are D x_ G2 ¼ AG2 D xG2 þ BvG2 Dv0 þ BvG2 DvG2 þ BvG2 Dvs ð13Þ

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007 373

 4.3 Dynamic model of the network

Fig. 2 shows a one-line diagram of the network. The lines

and the constant loads are represented by series-connected
RL branches in each phase and, where applicable, are
lumped together. The fixed capacitor bank at the substation
bus is modelled by an equivalent shunt capacitor, Cp , in
each phase.
The nonlinear part of the load at Bus-3 [6] (Fig. 1) is
represented by an equivalent current source at the funda-
mental frequency in Fig. 2. The dynamic model of the
network is represented by the three-phase ODEs of the
RL branches and shunt capacitor branch in the abc reference
frame as
d L1
R1 iL1 þ L1 ði Þ ¼ vG1
vpcc
dt
Fig. 6 DG2 current controllers for d- and q-axis d
R2 iL2 þ L2 ðiL2 Þ ¼ vpcc
vG2 ð15Þ
dt
where d
Cp ðupcc Þ ¼ iL1
iL2
iL3
h iT h iT dt
DxG2 ¼ DiG2
q DiG2
d ; Dv0 ¼ Dv0q Dv0d
where iL1 and iL2 are the branch currents and iL3 is the
and Dvs is the deviation in0 rotational speed of d2 – q2 frame, PCC-connected load current.
(Fig. 3). Matrices AG2 , BvG2 , BvG2 and BvG2 in (13) are defined Voltage vectors of Bus-1 and Bus-3, that is vG1 and
G2
as follow v , can be expressed as functions of the state variables of
0
the lines, DG1 unit and DG2 unit, that is iL1, iL2, iG1
AG2 ¼ T
1
2 Aq2d2 T 2 ; BvG2 ¼ T
1 v
2 Bq2d2 and iG2 , respectively. The ODEs that represent these
v
vectors are
BvG2 ¼ T
1
1
2 Aq2d2 I d2 M qd ; BG2 ¼
T 2 I d2
d G1
where vG1 ¼ R4 ðiG1
iL1 Þ þ L4 ði
iL1 Þ
dt



R R 1 1 d
Aq2d2 ¼ diag

; Bvq2d2 ¼ diag vG2 ¼ R5 ðiL2
iG2
iL6 Þ þ L5 ðiL2
iG2
iL6 Þ ð16Þ
L L L L dt
h iT where iL6 identifies the nonlinear part of the load connected
I d2 ¼ ioG2
d
ioG2
q ; to Bus-3 (Fig. 1).
" #T Then, the network model in the micro-grid global d – q
voG2
voG2
q reference frame of Fig. 3 is developed on the basis of the
M qd ¼ oG22 d oG22 2 2 procedures outlined in Parniani [12] and given by
vd þ vq voG2
d þ voG2
q
D x_ N ¼ AN D xN þ Bv1
N Dv
G1
þ Bv2
N Dv
G2
ð17Þ
transformation matrix T2 is given by (4).
The dynamic model of the control system of DG2, and
Figs. 5 and 6, is developed in the d2 – q2 reference using
the linearised procedure and model development procedure DvG1 ¼ EN11 D xN þ EN12 D x_ n þ DN11 D xG1 þ DN12 D x_ G1 ð18Þ
discussed in Appendix A and also further discussed in
Katiraci [11]. The state-space representation of the control DvG2 ¼ EN21 D xN þ EN22 D x_ N þ DN21 D xG2 þ DN22 D x_ G2
system of DG2 is
þ BN DuN ð19Þ
D_xc ¼ Ac Dxc þ C G2 DxG2 þ C vG2 DvG2 v
þ C Dv
u where
þ C G2 DuG2 ð14Þ
h iT
pcc
where D xN ¼ DiL1
q Di L1
d Di L2
q Di L2
d Di L3
q Di L3
d Dv pcc
q Dv d
h h iT
Dxc ¼ DvG2
q20 DvG2
d20 Dvq20 Dvd20 Diiq2 Diid2 DiG2
q20 DuN ¼ DiL6 L6
q Did :
iT
DiG2
d20 Dviq2 Dvid2 Dvs The matrixes in (17 –19) are defined in Katiraei [11].
h iT
DvG2 ¼ DvG2
q2 DvG2
d2 ; Dv ¼ ½Dvq2 Dvd2 T 4.4 Overall system model

DuG2 ¼ ½DP ref DVrms T Block diagram of Fig. 7 illustrates the input – output
relations among the subsystems of the micro-grid, that is
The detailed definition of coefficient matrices in (14) is DG units and the network. on the basis of Fig. 7, the line-
given in Katiraei [11]. arised models of DG1 and DG2, given by (8) and (13),
The method for selecting an independent set of state vari- respectively, are combined with the model of the network
ables to fully represent the control system of DG2 is given by (17). The output current components of the DG
described in Appendix A. units, represented by the vectors DiG1 and DiG2, are inputs
374 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007
 Table 1: Eigenvalues of the micro-grid system

Eigen Grid-connected mode Autonomous mode

values Real (1/s) Im (rad/s) Real (1/s) Im (rad/s)

1,2 — — 2119.28 +2044.26

3,4 — — 2147.06 +1293.26
5,6 2113.90 +486.80 286.54 +675.74
7,8 2100.85 +436.19 290.75 +430.86
9,10 2576.74 +376.93 2757.54 +376.41
11,12 234.83 +372.13 2517.50 +371.09
13,14 2420.19 +376.98 2314.46 +364.13
15,16 21.14 +23.17 21.06 +10.41
17,18 2139.2, 2 138.4 0.0 2127.9 +8.42
Fig. 7 Block diagram of the system for developing state-space 19,20,21 2333.33 0.0 2333.33 0.0
equations
22 2327.11 0.0 2326.18 0.0
23 2305.48 0.0 2137.46 0.0
to the network system. Vectors of the bus voltages are con-
24 293.27 0.0 293.04 0.0
sidered as the output signals of the network model and
inputs to DG1 and DG2. 25 220.99 0.0 224.39 0.0
The overall system state-space model is formulated in the 26 23.06 0.0 217.26 0.0
form of (1), where 27 22.57 0.0 22.57 0.0
28 21.28 0.0 20.672 0.0
Dx ¼ ½DxG1 DxG2 DxN Dxc T 29 20.429 0.0 20.277 0.0
Du ¼ ½DuG1 DuG2 DuN T :

The system state matrix A and the coefficient matrix B of grid-connected mode. Subsequent to an islanding process,
input signals are constructed from the coefficient matrices this mode dominates the system dynamics.
of the state-space models of the subsystems [11, 12]. Table 1 also shows that in the autonomous micro-grid
mode, the system exhibits another oscillatory mode,
which is represented by eigenvalues 17 and 18. The
5 Small-signal dynamic analysis source of this oscillatory mode is the PLL of DG2 and is
in response to the changes in the system frequency owing
The linearised model of the system, that is (1), is used to to the mechanical mode of DG1. Proper selection of the
investigate small-signal dynamic behaviour of the micro-grid PLL parameters ensures that this mode is highly damped
system and design control parameters for the optimum per- [17]. In the grid-connected mode, the eigenvalues associ-
formance. The linearised model is used for (i) eigenvalue ated with the PLL appear as two real eigenvalues, Table 1.
analysis, (ii) frequency analysis through determination of Fig. 8 shows loci of the eigenvalues of the mechanical
the system transfer functions and (iii) step response analysis mode of DG1 when the output power of DG2 is changed
of the control systems. The small-signal model is also vali- from 2.1 to 0.3 MW in steps of 0.6 MW, and for each
dated using a time-domain model of the system developed amount of real power the ratio k ¼ QDG2/QL3 is changed
in the PSCAD/EMTDC environment. from 1.1 to 0.1. When k ¼ 0.1, the reactive power of
Load-3 is mostly supplied by the system, and when
k ¼ 1.1, DG2 supplies the reactive power of Load-3 and
5.1 Eigen analysis
also dispatches reactive power to the network. Fig. 8 indi-
Table 1 shows the eigenvalues of the system corresponding cates that reducing real power decreases the damping of
to an autonomous microgrid mode and a grid-connected the mechanical mode.
mode of operation. The total steady-state power gener- Fig. 8 also shows that for a specified output real power of
ation/consumption of the system, in the autonomous micro- DG2, reducing the output reactive power of DG2 increases
grid mode, is given in Table 2. DG2 operates under voltage the damping of the mechanical mode of DG1. Fig. 8 reveals
control mode and its terminal voltage is adjusted to 1.0 per that the mechanical mode is highly damped when DG2 pri-
unit. Terminal voltage of DG1 is also regulated at 1.0 per marily injects real power in the system. This concludes that
unit by its excitation system. subsequent to disturbances, for example islanding, DG2 can
In the autonomous micro-grid mode, the system has
nine pairs of complex – conjugate eigenvalues, Table 1. Table 2: Steady-state power generation/consumption
Eigenvalues 1 – 14 represent seven oscillatory modes, in the autonomous micro-grid mode of operation (Fig. 2)
which correspond to the electrical interactions between (i)
the DG units and (ii) the DG units and the network. Generation Consumption
For the given operating condition and the system par-
DG1 3.23 MW/0.28 MV —
ameters, these modes are highly damped. Eigenvalues 15
and 16 represent mechanical oscillatory mode of the rotor DG2 1.5 MVA/1.84 MVAr —
of DG1 with respect to the system. The frequency of this Load 1 — 2.31 MW/1.49 MVAr
mode varies between 1 and 3 Hz depending on the operating Load 2 — 0.6 MW/0.3 MVAr
point of the system. This oscillatory mode has a low Load 3 — 1.8 MW/1.82 MVAr
damping, and Table 1 indicates that the damping is less in Capacitor Cp 1.5 MVAr —
the autonomous micro-grid mode as compared with the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007 375
 15 1500
0.001

1.1 1.1 1.1 0.09 0.07

1.1 0.1 0.1 0.09
10 0.1 1000
0.1 P=0.9 P=0.3 0.001
P=1.5
P=2.1

5 500
0.09

Imag. (rad/sec)
0.001
Im (rad/s)

0 0

−500
−5

−1000
−10

−1500
−15 −300 −250 −200 −150 −100 −50 0 50
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 Real (1/sec)
Real (1/s)

Fig. 10 Loci of eigenvalues (3,4), (5,6) and (7,8) when Kp is

Fig. 8 Loci of the eigenvalues of the mechanical mode of DG1 changed from 0.001 to 0.09
when real power of DG2 and k ¼ QDG2/QL3 are changed

effectively mitigate the mechanical oscillations of DG1 to the new set-point by injecting more reactive power into
through its real power control loop (Fig. 5a). the system by an increase in the q2-axis current component
The eigen analysis approach is also used to perform sen- of DG2 (Fig. 11b). Variations in the d2-axis current
sitivity analysis and determine the ranges and/or optimum (Fig. 11c), is because of the coupling between the two con-
values of the control parameters for the micro-grid auton- trollers and also the changes in the reactive-power flow of
omous operation. Fig. 9 shows loci of conjugate pairs of the system as a result of an increase in Bus-3 voltage.
eigenvalues (3,4) and (5,6) (Table 1) when the controller Fig. 11 clearly shows the impact of the mechanical oscil-
gain Kpd , that is the proportional gain of the real power con- latory mode of DG1 on the system response.
troller of DG2 in Fig. 5a, assumes different values. Fig. 9
shows that the increasing Kpd from 0.001 to 0.2 results in
departure of the pair of eigenvalue (3,4) from the left-hand 5.3 Validation of linear model
plane to the right-hand plane (RHP). Thus, the correspond-
The PSCAD/EMTDC software package is used to develop
ing oscillatory mode which is associated with the fixed-
the detail model of the system (Fig. 1) for time-domain
capacitor (Fig. 2) becomes unstable. In contrast, these
simulation studies. Then, the results from the time-domain
changes of Kpd enhance the damping of the mode associated
simulation studies have been compared with the corre-
with the pair of eigenvalues (5,6).
sponding results obtained from the linear model, for
Fig. 10 illustrates loci of eigenvalue pairs (3,4), (5,6) and
example Fig. 11, to establish the validity of the linear
(7,8) when the proportional gain Kp of the voltage control of
model. The operating point of the system is the same as
DG2 in Fig. 5a is changed from 0.001 to 0.09. Fig. 10 indicates
given in Table 2.
that the variations of Kp results in departure of eigenvalues (5,6)
Fig. 12 shows the system response, on the basis of the
to the RHP. The other two modes remain stable, whereas
PSCAD/EMTDC model, to 1% increase in the voltage set-
changes in Kp reduce the damping of the mode associated
point of Bus-3. The voltage increase requires that DG2
with (7,8). On the basis of the results presented in Figs. 9 and
needs to inject more reactive power by increasing the
10, Kpd and Kp are selected at 0.1 and 0.01, respectively.
−3
x 10
15

5.2 Step responses

∆ vG2 (p.u)

10

Fig. 11 shows impact of 1% change of the voltage reference 0

point v G2
rms on Bus-3 voltage. The Bus-3 voltage is regulated −5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
a
0
1500
∆ iG2 (p.u)

0.001 0.15 0.2 −0.1

0.2
q

−0.2
1000

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

500
x 10
−3 b
Imag. (rad/sec)

0.001 15

10
(p.u)

0
5
G2
∆ id

0
−500
−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)
−1000 c

−1500 Fig. 11 System response to 1% step change in rms value of Bus-3

−400 −350 −300 −250 −200 −150 −100 −50 0 50 100
Real (1/sec) voltage DvG2
rms , in the autonomous mode (linearised model)
a Bus-3 voltage
Fig. 9 Loci of eigenvalues (3,4) and (5,6) when Kpd is changed b q2-axis current
from 0.001 to 0.2 c d2-axis current

376 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007

 5
x 10
−4
method of implementation and the time delays applied by
measurement/calculation blocks. The system responses
∆ ω r (pu)
0 from the nonlinear model are highly dependent on the
point-on-wave disturbance and dynamics of measurement
−5
and actuator devices that cannot be accommodated in the
−10
small-signal model.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

x 10
−3 a
12
10 6 Conclusions
8
∆ vG2 (pu)

6
This paper presents a small-signal dynamic model of a
4
2
micro-grid system in a rotating dq0 frame. The DG units
0 of the micro-grid comprise a synchronous generator and
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 an electronically interfaced DG unit. The paper also
b
0
describes and formulates the controllers of the DG units.
The control strategies for various modes of operation of
−0.05
the micro-grid are also presented. The mathematical
∆ iG2 (pu)

−0.1 process and structure for the development of micro-grid

q

−0.15 model are presented in a general form and can be expanded

−0.2
to include additional DG units, loads and controllers as
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
c
desired. The developed model captures frequency deviation
0.02 of the autonomous micro-grid and includes the PLL model
to dynamically synchronise the electronically interfaced DG
∆ id (pu)

0.01
unit with the network frequency. Frequency restoration is
carried out by the governor of the synchronous machine.
G2

0
Applications of the model to (i) investigate dynamics of
−0.01
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
the micro-grid and (ii) design/optimise controllers of the
Time (s) electronically interfaced DG unit during grid-connected
d and islanded modes of operation are presented. These
studies show that the fast control action of the electronically
Fig. 12 System responses to 1% step change in the voltage of interfaced DG unit can be exploited to meet changes in
Bus-3 vG2
rms (PSCAD/EMTDC results) power demand, maintain angle/voltage stability and
a DG1 speed enhance voltage quality during the grid-connected and the
b Bus-3 voltage
c q2-axis current autonomous micro-grid modes of operation. The study
d d2-axis current results of the linearised model have been qualitatively vali-
dated on the basis of the comparison with the results from
time-domain simulation of the micro-grid in the PSCAD/
EMTDC software environment.

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378 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 3, May 2007