Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal

Engineering Physics laboratory

DO’s
1. Conduct in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.
2. Keep the work area clean, neat and free of any unnecessary objects.
3. Read the description, procedure and precautions of the experiment in the lab manual.
4. Before using the equipment one must read the labels and instructions carefully.
5. Set up and use the equipment as directed by the lab instructor.
6. Circuit connections are to be done only in power off mode.
7. Checkout the circuit connections of the training kits (PN, Zener, Photo Diode etc.)
before switching on the power.
8. Increase the power readings from minimum to maximum in the training kits.
9. All procedures and experimental data should be recorded in the lab observation
notebook (Practical File).
10. Switch of the power in the circuit after completion of the experiment.
11. Any failure / break-down of equipment must be reported to the Lab Assistant/Faculty.
12. Return the material properly after completing the experiment.
13. Replace the materials and lab manuals at proper place after work.
14. Be careful when handling optical items like prisms, gratings etc.

DON’Ts
1. Do not hold any conducting materials or wire in contact with skin when the power is
on.
2. Do not touch any equipment or other materials in the laboratory area until instructed
by Lab Assistant/Faculty.
3. Do not modify or damage the laboratory equipment in any way unless the
modification is directed by the instructor.
4. Do not handle training kits or any other electrical components and connections with
wet hands.
5. Do not try to connect power into the circuit without proper understanding of the
circuit diagram.
6. Do not look directly into laser source.
7. Never switch on the power button of the circuit until it has been approved by
instructor.

SAFETY NORMS
1. The lab must be equipped with fire extinguisher.
2. Never rewire or adjust any element of a closed circuit.
3. Avoid dangling electrical cords as they can cause electrical shocks and injuries.
4. Follow all other safety measures provided on the instrument.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. - 1

Newton’s Ring Experiment

AIM: To determine the radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens by Newton’s ring

experiment.

APPARATUS RECUIRMENT: A plano-convex lens, a glass plate, a wooden box open at

the top and at one side fitted with a glass Plate Inclined at an angle 450 with the horizontal, a
long focus traveling microscope, sodium Lamp, Reading lamp and magnifying lens.

THEORY: If we place a plano-convex lens of a large focal length on a glass plate, a thin
film of air is formed between the curved surface of the lens and the glass plate. The thickness
of the air film is zero at the point of contact O and gradually increases as we move away
from the point of contact. As a result, alternate dark and bright circular rings concentric
around the point of contact are seen.

DIAGRAM:
FORMULA USED: The radius of curvature of lens is given by the formula

R= (D2n+p- D2n)/4Pλ
Where, D2n is diameter of nth ring and D2n+p is diameter of (n+p)th ring with air film.
λ is wavelength of sodium light.

PROCEDURE:
1.Place the convex surface of the lens on the plate after cleaning the two surfaces thoroughly and fix
them in a frame so that the point of contact is at the centre of the lens and all round this centre wedge
shape air film is surrounded.
2. Place the system in the wooden box and illuminate it by parallel rays using sodium light and a
convex lens. A screen with an aperture may be used to cut away straight light.
3. Focus the microscope on the surface of the lens. Looking vertically and by slightly adjusting the
microscope a brilliant set of Newton’s rings is observed with spot dark.
4. Adjust the microscope such that one of the cross wires is perpendicular to the scale of the
microscope and intersection of cross-wire coincides with the centre of dark ring.
5. Slide the microscope towards the left and go on counting till you reach to the 14th ring and note the
position of cross-wire. Now slide the microscope towards right and note down the position of 14th,
12th ...... 4th rings. Go on sliding the microscope and taking reading of positions of rings on right of
centre right from 4th to 14th the difference of reading of position of any number of rings on left and
right will give the value of diameter of that particular ring.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Least count (LC) =

Least count of the microscope = ………………. cm

Wavelength of sodium light = 5893 Å
Microscope reading (cm)
S. No. Left end of scale (X) Right end of scale (Y) Diameter D2
D2n+p- D2n
No of M.S.R V.S.R T.R. M.S.R V.S.R T.R. D =(X-
(cm2)
Ring . . . . Y)
1 16 D162 – D122…..
2 14 D142 - D102…..
3 12 D122 – D82…..
4 10 D102 – D62…..
5 8
6 6

CACULATION:
RESULT: The radius of curvature of a Plano- convex lens is ……….. cm.

COMENTS:
Possible (a) Errors (b) Mistakes (c) Deviations

PRECAUTIONS: – For safety of equipment, personal safety, accuracy of result.

1. The light from the sodium lamp should be rendered approximately parallel by means of a short
focus lens.
2. The lens used for the production of Newton’s ring should have surfaces having large radius of
curvature. This is necessary for two reasons: (i) the angle α enclosing the air film becomes very
small and (ii) the rings observed have than a large diameter and hence the error in the measurement
of their diameter is minimized.
3. It may happen that the rings seen are not circular but possess and elliptical shape. This is mainly
due to unclean surfaces of the lens and the plate. Therefore in such case, clean the lens and the plate
with spirit and then set them to get the rings.
4. The centre of ring should be a dark spot in case of reflected light.
5. The micrometer screw should be always moved in one direction to avoid back-lash error.

OUTCOMES OF EXPERIMENT:
We can calculate –
Diameter of rings,
Refractive index of liquid.

SELF ELEVATOR:

1. In Newton’s ring experiment, circular rings are formed :

(a) by division of amplitude.
(b) by division of wavelength.
(c) by diffraction.
(d) by polarization.
2. When liquid is introduce between lens and the plate, diameter of the ring
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) ring remain same
(d) None of these.

3. In Newton’s rings arrangement, if the distance between the lens and the plate is increased, the
order of the ring at a given point ______.
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains unchanged
(d) None of these.
4. Extended source is needed in
(a) Young’s double slit experiment.
(b) Biprism experiment.
(c) Newton’s ring experiment.
(d) none of them

ASSIGNMENT:

1. What are Newton’s Rings and how they are formed?

2. What is the function of 45° inclined glass plate?
3. What will happen if we replace the lens with plane glass?
4. Why do rings get closer as their order increases?
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. – 2
Frequency of A.C mains

AIM: To determine frequency of A.C mains using an electrical vibrator.

APPARATUS: An electric vibrator, solenoid, bulb, slotted weights, meter scale

THEORY: An electric vibrator consists of solenoid carrying a thin iron rod one its axis, which gets
magnetized periodically in opposite direction due to A.C current in solenoid. Near the free end of the
rod there is a permanent horse shoe magnet ( the other end of the rod is clamped) As the rod gets
magnetized alternately in opposite direction, it is attracted in turn towards the north and south pole of
the magnet, so it vibrate in the frequency of alternating current. In this position stationary waves
having clear-cut nodes and antinodes are formed. In resonance condition frequency of vibrating
string is equal to frequency of A.C main if the string vibrates in ‘p’ loops , its frequency is given by

Where, l = length of the string, T = Tension,

M = Mass per unit length of the string and P= Number of loops.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the string in straight horizontal position Add some weights in the pan so that the string
is under
tension Now switch on vibrator and see that the rod vibrate adjust length of the vibrating string
by
 moving vibrate on the table back and forth till clear cut loops (stationary) are formed. Now
slowly
increase or decrease the length till amplitude of vibrating at antinodes is maximum. This is
resonance
length.
2. Count number of loops and switch off the vibrator. Measure length of the string ‘l’ by meter
scale
between the tip of the rod and point of contact of the string on the pulley. Repeat the process for
various loops and weights.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Given: Weight of the pan= 28 gms, Mass per unit length of thread = 0.0035mg/cm

No.of
Weight On the Total wt Tension Length of
S.No loops
Pan W(gm) (M+W) T= (M+W)g thread (l)
(P)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT: Frequency of A.C Main using electrical vibrator is found to be……Hertz.

STANDARD VALUE: 50 hertz

COMMENTS:
On results ( standard value )------------------% error--------

Precautions- (a)For safety of equipment, (b) For personal safety (c) For accuracy of results
1. Resonance should be obtained for maximum amplitude at antinodes.
2. There should be sufficient tension in the string.
3. Rod should vibrate freely.
4. It is convenient to use CGS system in calculation.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No.- 3
He-Ne laser

AIM: - To determine the wavelength of He-Ne laser with the help of diffraction grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: - He-Ne laser source, Plane transmission diffraction grating with
stand, screen with a graph paper and a meter scale.

THEORY:-
Diffraction of light:
Bending of light waves after passing by an obstacle or through an aperture whose size is
approximately the same as the wavelength of the waves.”
Plane transmission grating:
“An arrangement of very large no. of narrow slits of equal width placed side by side and separated
by equal opaque portion is known diffraction grating. When wave front is incident on grating surface
then light is obstructed by opaque portion and is transmitted by slit, such a grating is called plane
transmission grating. In general it is constructed by ruling equidistant parallel line by diamond
point on glass surface.”
Grating element:
The distance between two adjacent slits in diffraction grating is called grating element which can be
found by (e+d), where e= width of the transparent space and d=width of an opaque space.

LASER: - The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a device to produce an intense, highly monochromatic, and directional (collimated)
and highly coherent beam of light based on the principle of stimulated emission.
He-Ne laser is a four- level gas laser which operates is continuous wave mode. The tube
contains a mixture of about 10 parts of He and 1 part of Ne (10:1) at a low pressure.

FORMULA: Measuring the wavelength of laser using diffraction grating, we use the formula
(e + d )sin θ = nλ
Where, n = the order of diffraction (0, 1, 2 ……)
θ = the angular position of the image (measured from the normal to the grating)

DIAGRAM:-

He-Ne Laser Apparatus Diffraction Pattern (laser source)

PROCEDURE:-
(i). The He-Ne laser source is switches on. Put the diffraction grating on the stand at some
distance from the laser source.
(ii). An mm graph paper is fixed on the screen & put the screen at suitable position.
(iii). The position of the grating is moved so that the beam gets diffraction to give the bright spot
on the graph paper fixed at screen.
(iv). The position of the bright spots is marked on the mm graph paper with the help of a soft
pencil.
(v). The mid-point is located from the position of the direct laser (central maxima).
(vi). Measure the distance OO′ of the screen from the grating. Then measure the separation of
diffraction order on either side from the central spot (X1X1′, X2X2′………. etc.).

OBSERVATIONS:-
a) No. of lines on grating (N) = ----------lines per inch , (1 inch= 2.54 cm)
1
b) Grating element= (e+d) = =…………….. cm
N
 c) For angle of diffraction (θ)
S. No of Grating Order of Position of Distance of θ= θ
No. lines element diffraction the diffraction ( XX ' ) (in degree)=
(N) (a) (n) diffraction order of spot 2(OO' ) ( XX ' ) 180 0
order of spot from grating ×
2(OO ' ) π
from grating (XX’)
(OO’)

1 1st
2 2nd
3 1st
4 2nd

Calculations: To calculate wavelength of He-Ne laser using above mentioned observations.

Result: The wavelength of He-Ne Laser is------ Å

Standard value of He-Ne Laser is 6328 Å
% error=
Comment on experimental result (type of error):

Precautions:
1. Care of eyes should be taken with He-Ne source. Do not peep into source. Do not see reflected or
direct rays for more time. Only a fractional side glance should be made.
2. Keep the laser tube axis horizontal.

Self Evaluator:
1. “LASER” stands for:
(e) Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
(f) Linear amplification and stimulation emission of radiation.
(g) Light amplification and stimulated emission of radiation
(h) None of these.

2. Laser light is intense because:

(e) it has very less number of Photons that in phase

(f) it has very less number of Photons that are not in phase
(g) it has very large number of Photons that are in phase
 (h) it has very large number of Photons that are not in phase

3. The life time of atoms in the excited state is normally:

(e) 10-6 s
(f) 10-4 s
(g) 10-5 s
(h) 10-8 s
4. The process of population inversion is to increase the number of atoms in the
(e) excited state
(f) ground state
(g) intermediate state
(h) excited state and ground state

Assignment:

5. What is LASER?
6. What is the meaning of population inversion?
7. What are the types of LASER?
8. How many maxima do you observe with the diffraction grating you use?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No.- 4
λ by Grating

AIM:- To determine wavelength of spectral lines using plane-transmission grating.

APPARATUS :- Plane transmission grating with its holder, spectrometer, Mercury lamp, prism.

FORMULA :- λ = (e+d) sin (θ)n / n

where λ is wavelength of Mercury spectral lines, (e+d) is grating element and (e+d) = 2.54/no. of
lines per inch, (θ)n = angle of diffraction of nth order, and n is order of spectrum.

FIGURE :-

PROCEDURE:-

The spectrometer is set ready for use by doing the following adjustments:-
The spectrometer is set with its collimator towards the source of light. The telescope is brought in
line with the collimator. The width of the slit is made sufficiently narrow. The spectrometer is
leveled with with the help of spirit level such that the image of slit is at the centre of the field of
view. The eyepiece of the telescope is adjusted so that cross wires are distinctly visible. The
crosswire tube is rotated such that the vertical crosswire coincides with the image of the slit is
obtained. Using a glass prism, the optical l evelling of the prism table is done. The collimator and
telescope are adjusted for parallel rays. The least count of the instrument is determined. It is taken
care that adjustments of the spectrometer are not disturbed subsequently during the experiment.

Setting the grating for normal incidence:-

As the formula is derived for the case where light is incident perpendicular to the face of the grating,
it is essential that the grating is to be set on the prism table with its plane normal to the axis of the
collimator. The setting is achieved through the following steps. The telescope is brought in line with
the collimator to have image of the slit on the vertical cross wire. It is locked in that position. The
lower screw of the spectrometer is unlocked and the table is rotated till the reading on one venire is
exactly 360 degrees. The reading on the second venire is therefore 180 degrees. The screw is locked.
Now the telescope arm is unlocked and rotated through 90 degrees in clockwise or anticlockwise
direction. It is locked in that position.

The grating stand is mounted on the prism table and the grating is placed in it with its ruled surface
towards the telescope. Care is taken that the grating stands at the centre of the prism table. Then the
prism table is rotated slowly so that a reflected image is seen in the field of view of the telescope.
Rotating the prism table very slowly the reflected image to coincide exactly with the vertical
crosswire. In this position, the angle of incidence of light on the grating surface is 45 degrees. The
reading of the position of the prism table is noted down. The prism table is rotated from the above
position through 45 degrees more so that the grating plane becomes normal to the direction of light.
The prism table is locked in this position. This is the normal incidence position.

The telescope is then unlocked and rotated to bring it in line with the collimator to receive the white
image of the slit on the crosswire. The reading of the position of the telescope is noted. The telescope
is slowly rotated to right till the violet image of the slit corresponding to the first order is coincided
with the crosswire. In this position, the reading of the scale is noted. The difference between the two
positions gives the angle of deviation of violet colour belonging to the first order (n = 1). The
telescope is moved slowly and the vertical crosswire is coincided successively with other colours
belonging to the first order and the respective positions are noted down.

The telescope is rotated further right to get the images belonging to the second order. If the second
order spectrums are visible. The above procedure is repeated and the positions of the various spectral
lines are noted down in table. Now the telescope is brought to the left side of the central white line. It
is moved slowly to the left to get the images belonging to the first order and then second order. The
observations are recorded in table. Using the formula, the wavelengths of various spectral lines are
calculated.

OBSERVATIONS:- Least count (LC) = = = one minute.

 Colour Venire Spectrum on left side Spectrum on right side 2 θ=a-b θ deg.

Window MSR VSR*LC TR(a) MSR VSR*LC TR(b)

First Order Spectrum

Yellow V1

V2

First Order Spectrum

Red V1

V2

CALCULATIONS:- λ = (e+d) sin (θ)n / n

For the first order spectrum, n = 1
Given 15000 lines per inch on the grating (e+d) = 1inch = 2.54cm
15000 15000
So λ = (e+d) sin (θ)
So λ = A 0.

RESULT:-

The wavelengths of yellow and red line of sodium light are …………A° and ……….. A° respectively.

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The prism table should be properly leveled.
2. Grating surface is never touched while handling it.
3. Grating should be mounted with its lines parallel to the slit or vertical wire of the cross wires.
4. Prism table should not be disturbed while rotating the telescope to receive images of different orders.
5. Telescope should be rotated slowly, otherwise there is a possibility of missing an order.

Self Evaluator
1) The wave length of green light in mercury spectrum is

546.1nm 235.36nm 400.12nm 625.5nm

2) When the path difference between the two light waves is integral multiples of wavelength, then the waves are
said to be?

Out of phase In phase Unaffected Diffracted

3) Diffraction arises as a result of?

Superposition of primary wave fronts from coherent sources

Superposition of primary wave fronts from incoherent sources
Superposition of secondary wave fronts from the slits
Interference of light
4) What is a diffraction pattern?
 A pattern of intensity variation consisting of equal-width maxima and minima
A pattern of intensity variation consisting of unequal -width maxima and minima
A uniform intensity illumination
A pattern of zigzag variation
5) A point source produces.

Cylindrical wavefront Spherical wavefront Plane wavefront None of these

Assignment:

• Calculate the number of lines per unit length of the given grating.
• Using green light as the standard, calculate the number of lines per unit length of the grating and hence obtain
the wavelength of red line of the spectrum.
• Find the diffraction angle of the red line for the first order spectrum of the mercury spectrum.

• Compare the wavelength of red and violet lines of the mercury spectrum using diffraction grating arrangement.

• Obtain the wavelength of all prominent lines of the mercury spectrum using the diffraction grating arrangement.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. – 5 (a)
PN junction diode

AIM: To plot the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: PN junction diode kit, Power supply and connection wires.

THEORY:
Based on the electrical conducting properties, materials can be classified into three types as
metals, insulators and semiconductors. In case of insulators, there is large value of energy gap
between the valence and the conduction band. Hence they have larger values of resistance R. For
semiconductors, the value of energy gap is comparatively less in comparison with the insulators.
Therefore they possess moderate value of R. In the case of the metals, the valence and the
conduction band overlaps with each other and hence considerable amount of free electrons are
available. Due to this the value of resistance is very small when compared with semiconductors and
insulators.
There are two types of semiconductor namely P- type and N- type. In P- type semiconductors
the majority charge carriers are holes and in N- type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are
electrons. When we join P- type and N- type semiconductors, near the junction the holes from the P-
type - and the electrons from the N- type join together by diffusion. Due to this the holes and the
electrons recombine at the interface. It creates immobile neutral ions at the interface in the form of
the barriers. This barrier prevents further movement of the holes or electrons from P to N and from N
to P. This potential barrier is called as depletion layer.
FORWARD BIAS:
When we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the P- type and
negative terminal to the N- type, then it is called as forward bias. Under this condition the thickness
of the depletion layer will decrease, thus allowing the movement of majority charge carriers across
the diode. Therefore current will start to flow if we increase the value of the voltage. The current
value will also increase.
REVERSE BIAS:
If we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the N - type and negative
terminal to the P – type, then it is called as reverse bias. Under this condition the thickness of the
depletion layer will start to increase. Therefore current cannot flow through the diode. However,
beyond certain values barrier breaks. This is called the breakdown voltage. The breakdown occurs to
the fact that the minority carriers after getting the sufficient energy start to break more and more
covalent bonds. Therefore, it creates more free charge carriers for the conduction of electricity.
CIRCUITE DIAGRAM:

Fig.1 Forward Bias Fig.2 Reverse Bias

Fig.3 V-I Characteristics of P-N junction diode

OBSERVATION TABLE:
FORWARD BIAS:
Least count: Forward Bias- Voltmeter = …...volts Ammeter = …... mA
Reverse Bias- Voltmeter = …...volts Ammeter = …... µA
S.No. Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltage (in Volts) Current (in mA) Voltage (in Volts) Current (in µA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the diode in the forward bias condition and increase the value of voltage in steps.
Note down the corresponding change in the values of current in ammeter.
2. Similarly connect the diode in the reverse bias condition and repeat the same procedure.
3. Plot a graph by taking the value of voltage in X axis and current in the Y axis.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections must be tight.
2. All the instruments used must be under the range.
3. Do not touch any connection with hand during the experiment.
…………………

Viva questions:
1. What is diode?
2. What is doping?
3. What is breakdown?
4. What is a semiconductor?
5. What is meant by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
6. What is meant by forward & reverse bias?
7. Compare V-I characteristics of P-N & zener diode.
8. Explain Depletion layer.
9. Give application of P-N junction diode& explain any one in brief.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. – 5 (b)
Zener diode
AIM : To study the V-I characteristics of Zener diode.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Zener diode kit and connection wires.
THEORY:
A zener diode is a heavily doped (103 or 106 times of ordinary diode) silicon (or germanium)
P-N junction diode which is operated in breakdown region at high electric strengh of about 107 V/m
. Increased doping concentrations in P-N diodes reduce the reverse break-down voltage.
A Zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward
direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage .
Breakdown mechanism: A p-n junction diode will not allow significant current if it is in reverse-
biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subjected to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. In the case of a large
forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its
junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the
semiconductor material and the doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except that the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast
with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and
allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage.
This mechanism of breakdown is known as Zener Breakdown.
CIRCUITE DIAGRAM:

Fig.1 Forward Bias Fig.2 Reverse Bias

 Fig.3 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Least count: Forward bias: Voltmeter = …volts,Ammeter = …... mA
Reverse bias: Voltmeter = …...volts, Ammeter = …... µA
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
S.No. Voltage V (in volts) Current I (in mA) Voltage V (in volts) Current I (in µA)

RESULTS: Characteristic of Zener Diode in forward and reverse bias is shown in the graph.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in figs.
2. Put the voltmeter range switch to (3V in forward & 30V in reverse bias) and ammeter range
switch to (10mA in forward & 100 µA in reverse bias).
3. Vary the in built d.c. supply voltage in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding voltmeter
and ammeter readings.
4. Plot the graphs between voltage V and current I for both forward and reverse conditions.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections should be made properly and tightly.
2. At least five readings should be taken.
3. The free hand graph should be plotted.
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Viva questions:
1. What is zener diode?
2. What is zener voltage?
3. What is doping?
4. What is breakdown?
5. What is a semiconductor?
6. What is meant by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
7. Compare Zener & avalanche breakdown.
8. Explain knee voltage.
9. Explain potential barrier.
10. Give applications of zener diode & explain any one in brief.

…………………
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. – 6
Geiger Mueller counter

Aim - To draw the plateau curve for a Geiger Mueller counter.

Apparatus - A Geiger Mueller counter tube with stand. Scaler unit having arrangement for extra
high voltage D.C supply and fitted with a voltmeter. A stop watch (if no time recording device is
fitted in the scaler unit) and a radio active source.
Theory - A Geiger Mueller counter tube consists of a glass cylinder G with a metal coating M on the
inside and a co-axial wire anode A (usually of tungsten) suspended along its axis. The cylinder is
filled with a gas such as argon mixed with halogen vapour at a reduced pressure of about 10 cm of
mercury.
The tube may have a very thin mica end window W shielded by a protective gauze P. The
metal tube is maintained at a negative potential of about 1000 volt with respect to the wire. The
potential difference between M and A should be greater than certain threshold value but less the
voltage which would cause a continuous discharge of electricity through the gas.

Under this condition a single ionizing particle like a β-particle or a у-ray photon entering the counter
through the end window will produce ionization of the gas molecules. The ions are accelerated by
the electric field and produce more ions by collision causing ionization current in the external to
build up rapidly which gives rise to an avalanche. The avalanche in turn produces a current in the
external resistance R. The resulting drops in potential across R reduce the potential across the tube
below the threshold value and the current decays rapidly as the circuit has a small time constant.
There is, therefore, a momentary surge of current which is referred to as an electric pulse. Each pulse
corresponds to one particle entering the counter. It takes the counter some times to recover and be
ready for the next particle. This period is known as recovery time or death time. If a second particle
enters the counter before it has recovered the next particle will not be counted. Thus the dead time of
the tube sets up an upper limit to the counting rate (CR) of the tube. The successive current pulse
generated in the resistance R corresponding to the number of ionizing particles passing into the tube
are detected and counted by a suitable arrangement.
The wire-cylinder potential difference V plotted against the counting rate (CR) owing to a
ratio active source of fixed intensity placed near the tube is known as a plateau cure. A typical
plateau curve corresponding to voltage at point A pulses begin to appear. This voltage at A
corresponds to Threshold Voltage or Geiger Muller Threshold potential. As the voltage across the
tube is increased the counting rate increases rapidly unto a point B (corresponding to voltage V1) and
then levels off to an almost constant value until voltage V2 corresponding to point C is reached. The
portion BC is known as Geiger Muller region. The voltage from B to C is know as as the length of
the plateau. The slop of the plateau is the average percentage change in the counting rate per unit
increment of applied voltage and is known as relative plateau Slop (R.P.S).

Procedure-
1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections and connect accordingly as in figure.
Here R is a high resistance of 2-5 mega ohm. Note that the scaler unit is not connected to the
power supply. Connect the Geiger tube securely to the scaler unit.

Turn ‘voltage control’ knob of the scaler unit to its lower position (counter - clockwise) and
switch on the ‘voltage switch’ and the ‘count switch’. Now connect the scaler unit mains
supply and switch on ‘power’.
2. Using a forceps, place the radioactive source on the source holder just below the Geiger tube
and increase the high voltage slowly until the scaler unit begins to indicate pulses. Note the
reading of the voltmeter (fitted on the panel of the scaler unit). Pulses generally start
appearing at about 800 volt or less. Determines the counting rate(CR) by noting the number
of counts for one minutes of for smaller time say 10 sec or 20 sec or 30 sec depending upon
the counting upon the counting rate). Repeat three times.
3. From this threshold value increase the voltage in steps of 20-25 volts unto 1000 volt or to a
voltage for switch the counting rate increases to 10% above the plateau value, whichever is
less. Note counting rate corresponding to each step by taking a one minute reading and repeat
each reading thrice.
4. Reduce the applied voltage to zero and switch off the mains supply. Remove the radio-
active source from the source holder. Again switch on the mains supply and note the
background counting rate (without the radioactive ) source corresponding to each voltage
 used in step3. Again reduce the applied voltage to zero and switch off the mains supply. Also
disconnect the Geiger tube from the scaler unit.
5. Plot a graph by taking voltage along the X-axis and the corrected counting rate N[No. of
pulse per minute with the radio-active source N’-No. of pulses per minute without the radio
active source i.e. background only (b)]=N’-b taken along the Y axis.

OBSERVATIONS
Corrected counting
St. No Voltage rate (pulses/minute)
Observed counting rate
N = N’-b
With radioactive source N’ Only
Background (b)

Result-
Precautions-
1. The radioactive material should be handled very carefully by a pair of tongs forceps.
2. The counting switch should always be kept on so counting rate does not exceed 10% above
the plate voltage. Excessive voltage will damage the G.M counter.
3. The radioactive source should be placed in the source holder just below the Geiger tube
before increasing the high voltage slowly.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. - 7

μ of Prism
AIM: To determine the refractive index (μ) of the material of the prism, dispersive power (ω),
dispersive number (У) of the mercury light with the help of a spectrometer.

APPARATUS: Spectrometer, Prism, Mercury lamp, Reading lens.

THEORY:
When a ray of white light passes through a prism, it is separated into rays of constituent colors
or wavelengths. This phenomenon is called as dispersion of light. This is arises due to the fact that
refractive index varies with wavelength. The display of colors is known as spectrum of the source of
light and the medium which produces this dispersion is known as dispersive medium.
As the value of incident angle increases, that of deviation goes diminishing till for a particular
angle of incidence it attains minimum value. This angle of deviation is called the angle of minimum
deviation. With further increase in the angle of incidence, the value of deviation again increases.
FORMULA USED:
Refractive index (µ) of the prism can be calculated as

The ration of angular dispersion between two colors to the deviation of mean ray produced by
this prism is called the dispersive power of material of the prism for those colors.
Dispersive Power (ω) = (μv-μr) / (μy-1)

Dispersive Number (У) = 1/ ω = (μy-1) / (μv- μr)

Where A = Angle of prism and δ =Angle of minimum deviation.

PROCEDURE:
Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation.
[i] Obtain direct image of slit on the cross wire of telescope and take the reading of the dernier.
[ii] Place the prism on the table such that its centre coincides with the centre of the table.
[iii] Allow light from the collimator to fall on phase AB of prism and look for refracted light
minimum deviation rotate the table very slowly, image will also rotate in the same direction, but very
soon a stage will come when on continuous rotation of table instead of the position of minimum
deviation rotate the telescope to bring the cross-wire in the middle of the image. Take the reading at
this stage for different colours. The difference of the direct and this reading will give the value of
minimum deviation for different colours.
DIGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count (LC) =

Angle of prism =…………….Least count of Vernier= …………..

Observation for minimum deviation
S. No. Vernier Telescope reading Color Dispersed image Telescope δ= Mean
for direct image of slit in minimum deviation
MS VSR TR (X) MS VSR TR (Y) X~Y δ
1
V1 Red
V2

2 V1 Yellow
V2

3 V1 Violet
V2

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT: The results are:

μV =----------------μr = ------------- μY = ---------------ω = ……………У = ……………
COMMENTS:
(i) On result: (standard value)- μy =1.52, μr =1.5161, μv = 1.5239, ω = 0.015
(ii) Possible errors
PRECAUTIONS – For the safety of equipment, personal safety and accuracy of result.

(1) The mechanical adjustment of the telescope should be corrected.

(2) The slit and collimator should be in the same straight line.
(3) The slit used should be as narrow as permissible.
(4) The prism should be clean and should be placed properly on the prism table.
(5 While taking reading telescope and prism table should be clamped with the tangential screws.
(6 Read both the verniers; this eliminate any error due to non- coincidence of the centre of the
divided circle with the axis of rotation of the telescopes or the table.
SELF EVALUATOR:
1. If the velocity of incident ray is less than the velocity of transmitted ray through a medium. Then
angle of refraction is ……?
(a) Greater than angle of incidence
(b) Less than angle of incidence
(c) Equal to angle of incidence
(d) There is no angle of refraction

2. A ray of light travels from medium of refractive index N1 to a medium of refractive index N2,
if angle of incidents is ‘i and angle of refraction is ‘r’. Then sin (i)/sin(r) =?
(a) N1
(b) N2
(c) N21
(d) N12

3. Which of the following are coherent source?

(a) A 60 W and A 100 W bulbs
(b) Two bulbs each of 60 W
(c) Two halves of a 60 W bulbs
(d) The virtual sources obtained by a biprism.

ASSIGNMENT:

9. Let the angle of the prism is 50º and refractive index of the prism is 1.33. Find the angle of
minimum deviation.
10. Explain the working of Spectrometer?
11. What is meant by dispersive power of Prism?
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. - 8

Resolving power of Telescope

AIM: - To determine the resolving power of a telescope.

APPARATUS: - Telescope, Adjustable Micrometer Slit, Stand for Telescope, Optically illuminated
slits (card board), Vernier Calipers, Meter Scale.

THEORY: -
Resolving power is the capacity of a telescope to identify two closely spaced sources or
objects. Figure-1 shows two closely placed light sources. As one goes further away, the angle of
observation becomes smaller and the source of light appears to come closer. At one point of the
observation, the two sources merge and form a single source. At this point of observation, the human
eye is not able to distinguish between the two sources or in other words the eyes loose its resolving
power. The resolving power of a telescope may be defined as the inverse of the least angle
subtended at the objective by two distant point objects which can be just distinguished as
separate in its focal plane.
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, two objects of equal intensities are said be just resolved
when in their diffraction pattern the principal maxima of one coincides with the minima of other
(Fig. 2).

Fig. Micrometer Slit Fig.1 Two light sources and the angle of observation
 Similarly a telescope after a certain distance from a source or an object is not able to resolve
or identify two closely placed sources. The resolving power of the telescope is a measure of this
identification. Since distance is quite difficult to measure, the angles that the two sources make with
the field of view where the image is formed is measured from which the resolvingpower of a
telescope can be calculated.

Fig.2Diffraction images of two slit sources

The resolving power of a telescope is its ability to show two distant closely-lying objects as
just separate. The reciprocal of resolving power is the limit of resolution of the telescope.
The limit of resolution of a telescope is measured by the angle subtended at its objective by
those two distant objects which are seen just separate through the telescope. Its value is directly
proportional to the wavelength λ of the light used and inversely proportional to the aperture
(diameter) d of the objective of the telescope.

Telescope is used to see distant objects which are generally seen in sunlight. Therefore,we have no
control on λ. Hence, to reduce the limit of resolution of a telescope, we must use objective lens of
large aperture (d). Larger the aperture of the objective lens, smaller the limit of resolution, or greater
the resolving power of the telescope.There is also an additional advantage of large objective. It sends
greater amount of light in the telescope and so intense images are formed. Thus, objects extremely
far away (whose luminosity appears feeble because of distance) can also be seen.
 The resolving power of a microscope is its ability to show two nearly closely-lying objects as
just separate. The reciprocal of resolving power is the ‘limit of resolution’ of the microscope.The
limit of resolution of microscope is measured by the minimum distance between those two point-
objects which are seen just separate through the microscope. Its value is directly proportional to the
wavelength λ of light and inversely proportional to the angle of the cone of lights-rays from any one
object entering the microscope:

PROCEDURE:-

• The cardboard is clamped on a vertical stand such that the strips drawn on it are exactly
vertical.
• The telescope is clamped horizontally on another vertical stand and is placed at a distance 2-3
meter form the cardboard.Note the least count of micrometer screw provided with rectangular
slit, then open the rectangular slit completely and focus the telescope on the strips is seen in the
field of view.
• Now gradually decrease the width of the slit by the micrometer screw till the separate visibility
of the two strip Just disappears (i.e. two strips just appear as a single strip). Note the reading of
the micrometer screw in this position.
• The micrometer screw is rotated in the same direction till there is completed darkness in the
field of view.
• The reading of micrometer screw gives the width of a view.
• The reading of micrometer screw gives the width of the rectangular slit in the position of the
just resolution of the two strips.
• Now the slit is completely closed and opened gradually. As we get light in the field of view the
reading of micrometer screw is noted. Then the micrometer screw is turned in the same
direction till the two strips just appear to be separated from each other (i e. the two strips just
appear separately). Again the reading of micrometer screw gives the width of a rectangular slit
in the position of just resolution of two strips.
The experiment is repeated for the strips of the different separation. The distance ‘b’ between two
consecutive strips on the cardboard is measured with the help of meter scale.
Note the least count of the Vernier calipers and then with its help the diameter ‘d’ of the objective
lens of the telescope after removing the slit from it.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

(a) Determination of the least count of the microscope screw

 Value of one Main Scale Division, x = 0.05 cm.
Total no. of divisions in circular scale, n = 50

(b) For the width ‘a’ of the slit at just resolution.

Reading of micrometer screw while Reading of micrometer screw while Mean

closing the slit (cm) opening the slit (cm) Width of
S. When When field Width of When light When Width of slit
No. resolution of view slit just enter resolution Slit a=
Just ceases becomes a1=x1-x2 y1 just starts a2=y1-y2 (a1+a2)/ 2
x1 dark x2 y2 (cm)

1
2
3
4
5

Formula Used:
The diameter of objective d= 3 cm (given)
The separation between the strip on cardboard b =…………… mm
The distance between the telescope and cardboard D =………….cm
Width of the slit a = …………. cm
Theoretical resolving power = λ/a and practical resolving power = d/D
Where λ = 5000 × 10-7 mm.
Hence λ /a = d/D

RESULT- The resolving power of telescope, R.P =……….radian-1

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The axis of telescope should be horizontal.
2. The rectangular object drawn on the pattern board should bevertical.
3. Backlash error in the micrometer screw should be avoided.
4. The plane of the slit should be parallel to the objects.
5. The minimum width of slit for resolution should be adjusted verycarefully.
6. The distance D should be measured from the slit of the telescope to thepattern board.
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No. 9 (a)
Solar cell
Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of solar cell.
Apparatus:
Solar cell trainer kit, solar panel, variable light source, variable load resistance and multi-meter.
Theory:
Incident sunlight can be converted into electricity by photovoltaic conversion using a solar panel. A
solar panel consists of individual cells that are large-area semiconductor diodes, constructed so that
light can penetrate into the region of p-n junction. The junction formed between the n-type silicon
wafer and the p-type surface layer governs the diode characteristics as well as the photovoltaic effect.
Light is absorbed in the silicon, generating both excess holes and electrons. These excess charges can
flow through an external circuit to produce power.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Switch on the trainer kit.
2. Place the solar cell in front of the light source and connect the output of solar cell to the front
 panel of trainer kit (connect +ive & -ve polarity accordingly).
3. Switch on the light source, keep the intensity high and note the voltage. This is the maximum
voltage ‘Voc’ produced by the solar cell. (vary with intensity)
4. Now short the output terminals of the solar cell through the ammeter and note the current.
This is the short circuit current ‘Isc’. In this case, the current will be maximum and voltage
will be minimum. Record both of them in table.
5. Now connect the variable resistance as per the diagram given below, starting from lower to
higher so that the voltage increases from zero toward open circuit voltage. Measure the
voltage and current for different resistance and tabulate them. (resistance can be measured
using a multimeter keeping one end open)
6. Use the data from table to plot a graph I versus V manually.
7. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 in different intensities tabulate them and plot the graphs.
8. Using the table plot graphs V versus I of the solar cell.

Observation Table:
Least count: Voltmeter = …...volts Ammeter = …... mA

S.No Load resistance (RL) Voltage (V in volts) Current (I in mA)

(Ohms)
1
2
3
……

Graph:
Result:
Solar cell characteristics are verified.

Viva questions:
1. What is the solar cell?
2. What is the photovoltaic cell?
3. What is the difference between photodiode and solar cell?
4. How does the photon proceed in a solar cell?
5. Explain the operation of photovoltaic cell.
6. Explain Photoconductive effect?
7. Explain fill factor.
8. What is efficiency of solar cell?

…………………
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No – 9 (b)
Photodiode
AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of photodiode.

APPARATUS:
1. One DC Regulated Power Supply of 0-3 Volts.
2. Photo Diode is mounted in a small steel cabinet & terminals are provided on the top of the
cabinet. (Red Terminal for Anode & Black Terminal for Cathode)
3. One Voltmeter (0-3 V DC) and Current meter of dual range (50pA/5mA).
4. One Lamp holder and wooden stand is provided with the instrument.

THEORY:
Photodiode is basically a two terminal junction device which is operated by first reverse basing
the junction and then illuminating it. A reverse biased PN-junction has a small Amount of reverse
saturation current due to thermally generated electron hole pairs. In silicon saturation current is in the
range of nano-amperes. The number of these minority carriers depends on the intensity of light
incident on the junction. When the diodes in a glass package, light can reach the junction and thus
change the reverse current. The basic arrangement, construction V-I characteristics and symbol of a
photodiode are shown in figure.
As seen a lens has been used in the cap of the unit to focus maximum light on the reverse
biased junction. For a given reverse voltage current increases with increases in the level of
illumination level, reverse current can be changed. In this way reverse current ON and Off in
nanoseconds. Hence it is one of the fastest photo detectors. It is used where it is required to switch
light ON and Off at maximum rate.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the output of DC power supply (0-3V DC) to the input of the photo diode circuit.
Also connect Voltmeter, current meter and photo diode in the Circuit through patch cords.
2. Place the Lamp holders and photo diode on a graduated wooden stand opposite to each other.
Connect the lamp to AC mains and focus the current meter to 50 A through SPDT switch.
3. Switch ON the instrument (power supply unit) using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the
front panel.
4. Now increase the power supply voltage in small steps and every time note down the voltage
& current in Table No (1).
5. Plot a graph between voltage & current by taking voltage along X-axis & Current long Y-
axis.
Repeat the same procedure for different distances between Photo diode & lamp.
DIAGRAM:
 Fig.: Symbol, basic biasing arrangement & construction of Photo Diode.

Fig.: Circuit diagram & V-I characteristics of Photo Diode.

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count: Voltmeter = …...volts Ammeter = …... µA
S.No. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current( I in µA)
(V in volts)
Distance =….cm Distance =….cm Distance =….cm
1.
2.
RESULT: The V-I characteristics of photodiode is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never touch the photodiode surface and wire bonding.
2. Do not clean the photo diode by any method other than air blow.
Viva questions:
1. What is diode?
2. What is Photo diode?
3. What is Dark current?
4. What is the difference between photodiode and solar cell?
5. On what voltage the photo current becomes zero?
6. Explain mechanism of photo diode.
7. Give applications of photo diode.
8. Which ions are responsible for photo current?
9. At what voltage photo current becomes zero?

…………………
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Experiment No.- 10
Optical Fibre

AIM- To determine Numerical Aperture, acceptance angle and V-number of an optical fibre (SI)
using a LED source at 660nm.

APPARATUS- Led source, two fibre optic chucks, optical fibre, screen, NA JIG with scale

THEORY- Optical fibre is a very thin glass of plastic conduit designed to guide light waves along
the length of the fiber with the fiber with the help of successive total internal reflection from the side
walls of the fibre.
Optical fibre consists of a thin glass core of refractive index n1 (about 5-50µm) in diameter surround
by a glass coating called cladding of refractive index n2 (n1>n2) enclosed in a protective plastic jacket
called the sheath.
The light gathering power of an optic fibre depends upon (i) core size and (ii) Numerical Aperture
(NA) the value of which is given by (a) acceptance angle and (b) relative refractive index difference.
Suppose AB is the optical fibre through which light is being sent. The end at which light enters the
fibre is called launching end.
Refractive Index of core is n1 and that of cladding is n2 (n1> n2) , let the refractive index of the
medium from which light enters the fibre be no. Consider a ray of light incident on the fibre at a
angle of incidence i. this ray gets refracted at an angle φ. if φ is equal to or more than the critical
angle c between the core and the cladding then this ray of light will suffer total internal reflection. If i
increases r increases and φ decreases (as φ =90 - r). Thus as i increases, φ may fall bellow the
critical value. Maximum value i occurs when φ = c.
DIAGRAM-

PROCEDURE-

1. Mount both ends of the optical fiber on fiber optic chucks.

2. Couple the light from the Led Light source to one end of the optical fibre through a 20X
microscope objective. This is the ‘input end’
 3. Place a given white screen which has concentric circles has been pasted at some distance
from the end other than the one which has been coupled to the light source. This end is
known as ‘output end’
4. Adjust the position of the screen such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fibre. Move
the screen towards or away from the output end of the optical fibre such that a circular spot is
formed on the screen. Measure the distance between the output end of the optical fibre and
the screen. Let it be L.
5. Measure number of circular spot and the distance from the source in mm scale.
6. Repeat the procedure for different value L and corresponding value of D.

OBSERVATION-Given; Refractive Index of core is n1=1.492, Refractive Index of cladding is

n2=1.411
S. No. Diameter(D) of Distance (L) between screen and output end of
the spot optical fibre

RESULT: Mean Numerical Aperture (NA) = =…………….. , Acceptance

angle = ……….and V-number=-----------
Standard value of NA =0.5, Acceptance angle =55°-60°, diameter of core =960µm
Comment on experimental result (type of error):

PRECAUTIONS-

1. Observe all precaution for use a Led Light source.

2. The optical fibre must be connected through optic fibre chucks to avoid any leakage.
3. The light from the LED source must be coupled to optical fibre through a 20X microscopic
objective.

Self Evaluator:
1. What is the working principle behind optical Fibre:
(i) Reflection.
(j) Refraction.
(k) Total internal reflection.
(l) Diffraction

2. Total internal reflection occurs only when the angle of incidence:

(a) Independent of critical angle.
(b) Equal to critical angle.
(c) Lower than critical angle.
(d) Greater than critical angle.
3. Numerical aperture is:
(a) Sine of critical angle.
(b) Cosine of acceptance angle
(c) Sine of acceptance angle.
(d) acceptance cone

4. In refraction, when ray goes from air to glass at an angle of incidence, which one of these
happens?
(a) The ray is absorbed.
(b) The angle of incidence is greater than angle of refraction.
(c) The angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction
(d) All the ray is reflected off the surface

Assignment:
12. What do you understand by LED source?
13. What are the advantages of optical fibre?
14. What is the basic principle of propagation of light in an optical fibre?
 Lakshmi Narain college of Technology, Bhopal
Department of Physics
Experiment No. 11
Hall Effect
Aim: To study the Hall Effect in semiconductors, to determine Hall coefficient, to determine
concentration of majority carriers and the mobility of the majority carries in the material.

Apparatus: Digital Hall Effect setup, electromagnet, constant current source, gauss meter, Hall
probes (A semiconductor Crystal slab of rectangular shape,Wooden stand for Hall probes.

Theory: A current carrying conductor (semiconductor/metal) is placed in the magnetic field

perpendicular to the direction of current; a voltage is developed across the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field. The effect is known is as Hall Effect. This
effect is very useful in determining-
• The nature of charge carriers e.g., whether semiconductor is an n-type or p-type
• Carrier concentration or the no. density of charge carriers
• Mobility of charge carriers

Fig.1 Basic arrangement of Hall Effect

 Fig.The Idea of Hall Effect

The basic arrangement and circuit diagram for measuring Hall voltage in fig 1. Consider a
rectangular slab of semiconductor with thickness d kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in
x-direction so that a current I flows through the sample. If w is width of the sample and d is the
thickness, the current density is given by Jx=I/wd.

Now a magnetic field B is applied along positive z axis. If the charge carriers are positive (negative)
and are moving with velocity v along positive (negative) x-axis then the direction of force
experienced by the charge carriers in presence of magnetic field is along negative y direction. This
results in accumulation of charge carriers towards bottom edge. This sets up a transverse electric
field in the sample which is called Hall Field EH. The potential, thus developed along y-axis is
known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect. Assuming Ey to be uniform the Hall
field is given by

and the hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall coefficient
RHwhich is given by

Hall Electric field EH is expressed in terms of Hall voltage VH and

So,
The majority carrier density n is related to the Hall coefficient by the relation

Where n is the charge of the n type germanium.

From Equation (3), it is clear that the sign of charge carrier and density can be estimated from the
sign and value of Hall coefficient RH. RH can be obtained by studying variation of VH as a function
of I for given B.
Procedure:
1. The Hall probe is connected into the circuit. The widthwise contacts of the Hall probe are
connected to the voltage terminals of the Hall Effect set up. Without connecting current
terminals the setup is switched ON and zero adjustment is made. The unit is then switched
OFF.
2. The length wise contacts of the probe are connected to the current terminals of the setup.
3. The probe is held in position in the air gap of the electromagnet. The power supply is switched
on and magnetic field is adjusted to a suitable value. Hall voltage is generated to maximum.
4. The current through the semiconductor is adjusted to a suitable value for example 1000 Gauss.
The Hall voltage and its polarity are noted down.
5. The current is varied and at different settings of current, the corresponding Hall voltage is
noted down.
6. Using the above observation, graph is plotted. The Hall voltage is plotted as a function of
current at a constant magnetic field,straight line plotis obtained.
7. Using the values of slopes into equation the value of RH in each case is calculated.
8. Substituting the value of RH the concentration of charge carriers is determined.
Plot VH as a function of I using the averaged data and find the value of Hall coefficient from
the slope of the graph. Hence determine charge carrier density and type of majority carrier in the
given material.

Observations:
Thickness of the semiconductor wafer t = 5×10-2 cm
Conductivity σ =0.1mho/ m
Magnetic field, B = …………. K gauss or Gauss = ………..× 10-4 Tesla or …….Wb/m (1 Wb/m =
10 gauss)

Observation table shows the variation of Hall voltage with current

 S.No. Current I (mA) Hall Voltage VH (mV) Hall Coefficient [RH]

1
2
3
4
5

Calculations: Using slope

Hall Coefficient

Mean RH = ---------------

Carrier Concentration

Mobility µ = σRH
Result: Hall Coefficient RH = ______________ meter3/C
Mobility µ = _____________ meter2/V-s
Carrier Concentration n = __________ m3

Source of Error:
1. Care is taken to limit the current through the probe to a value less than that mentioned by the
manufacturer.
2. The probe is properly centered and oriented in the magnetic field such that maximum Hall
voltage is generated.
3. Magnetic field is varied gradually in steps to avoid damage to the electromagnet coils.
4. The electromagnet power supply is kept at its minimum position while switching on or off the
power supply.

Assignment Questions:
1 Write importance of Hall Effect in semiconductor physics.
2 How the type of semiconductor can be identified by the Hall Effect experiment.
3 Describe the following applications of Hall Effect:
(a) Magnetic field meter.
 (b) Hall Effect multiplier.
4 The resistivity of a doped silicon sample is 8.9 ×10-3Ωm. The Hall coefficient was measured
to be 3.6×10-4 m3/C. Assuming single carrier conduction, find the mobility and density of
charge carriers.
5 Give definition and significance of Hall coefficient with unit.