Basic Electrical Engineering - U2

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UNIT-II
Alternating Quantities
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Principle of AC voltage: Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in
the figure. The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of ω rad/sec
When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of the coil is parallel
to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf induced in the coil is zero. When the coil
moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of change of flux linking the coil and
hence an emf is induced in the coil. When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is
maximum, and hence the emf induced is also maximum. When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise
direction, the emf induced in the coil reduces. Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf
induced becomes zero. After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction.
When the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated. The generation of
sinusoidal AC
Voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations. Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a
uniform magnetic field in the position shown in the figure. The maximum flux linking the coil is in the
downward direction as shown in the figure. This flux can be divided into two components, one component
acting along the plane of the coil Φmaxsinωt and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil
Φmaxcosωt.
ω rad/sec
θ
x
Фmaxsinωt
Фmaxcosωt
Фmax
The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only the
component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie Φmaxcosωt induces an emf in the coil.
Angular Frequency (ω)
Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the angle covered by the
rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
Advantages of AC system over DC system
1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer

2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system
Definition of Alternating Quantity
+Em
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π ωt
-EmT
An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at regular intervals of time.
Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are defined below.
Amplitude
It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum or peak value
Time Period (T)
It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity

Instantaneous Value
It is the value of the quantity at any instant

Frequency (f)
It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or cycles/sec. The
relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second Time taken
to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f
Average Value
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its average value
Average value = Area under one cycle
Base
For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes equal to zero because the
positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the average value is calculated for half
cycle.
Average value = Area under one half cycle
Base
RMS or Effective Value
The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when flowing through a
given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat produced by the alternating current
flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
Form Factor
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor
Peak Factor or Crest Factor

The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as
the peak factor
Phasor Representation
An alternating quantity can be represented using

(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor. A phasor is a line of
definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular velocity
The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as shown. This sinusoidal quantity
can also be represented using phasors.
+Im
π 2π ωt
-Im i I m sin t
Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates in the anticlockwise
direction with a uniform angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory
shown in figure. At any instant, the projection of OP on the y-axis is given by
OM=OPsinθ = Imsinωt. Hence the line OP is the phasor representation of the
sinusoidal current
Phase
Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference
Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4
sec Phase of -Em is 3π/2 rad or
3T/4 sec
Phase Difference
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points,
they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the
angle of phase difference.
In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is
zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor
and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as
shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.
Lagging
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point
of the voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The
waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.
Leading
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of
the voltage waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform,
phasor and equation representation is as shown.
AC circuit with a pure resistance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating
voltage v is
given sint
v V
by m
---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR
which is the same as v.
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations
--------------- (2)
i I m sin t
Vm
Wher I m 
e
R
From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and
current are in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be
drawn as below.
AC circuit with a pure inductance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating
voltage v is
given sint
by
v Vm
---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as VL
which is the same as v.
i I m sin(t  / 2) ------------------- (2)
From equation (1)

and (2) we observe
that in a pure
inductive circuit, the
current lags behind
the voltage by 90⁰.
Hence the voltage
and current
waveforms and
phasors can be
drawn as below.
The inductive reactance XL is given as
L2fL
AC circuit with a pure capacitance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure. The alternating
voltage v is
Vm sin t
given
by
---------- (1)
The current flowing in the
circuit.
i I m sin(t  / 2) -------------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads
the voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be
drawn as below.
Capacitive reactance
The capacitive reactance XC is given as
1
X  1

L
C 2fC
Vm
I m 
XC
It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms (Ω)
R-L Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as

shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v V sin t
m
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across
the inductor is VL.
VR=IR is in phase with I
VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and
the voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in other
words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.
The waveform and equations for an RL series circuit can be drawn as below.
V Vm sin t
I I m sin(t )
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ
can be derived as follows.
V  VR2 VL2
VR IR
VL IX L
V  (IR)2 (IX 2
L)
V I
R 2 X L2
V IZ
Where impedance Z R 2 X L2


The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for

impedance is ohms (Ω).
Impedance Triangle
We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of
an RL series circuit as shown
The impedance triangle is right angled triangle with R and XL as two sides and
impedance as the hypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Φ.
Power
In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as
1. Real or Active power
2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
Real or active power in an AC circuit is the power that does useful work in the
cicuit. Reactive power flows in an AC circuit but does not do any useful work. Apparent
power is the total power in an AC circuit.
From the phasor diagram of an RL series circuit, the current can be divided into two
components. One component along the voltage IcosΦ, that is called as the active
component of current and another component perpendicular to the voltage IsinΦ that
is called as the reactive component of current.
Real Power
The power due to the active component of current is called as the active power or real
power. It is denoted by P.
2
P = V x ICosΦ = I R
Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by the
resistance. The unit for real power in Watt(W).
Reactive Power
The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive power. It is
denoted by Q.
2
Q = V x ISinΦ = I XL
Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in th L and C
components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).
Apparent Power
The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S.
S = V x I = I2 Z
S 
P 2 Q2

The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).
Power Triangle
From the impedance triangle, another triangle called the power triangle can be derived
as shown.
The power triangle is right angled triangle with P and Q as two sides and S as the
hypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Φ. The power triangle
enables us to calculate the following things.
1. Apparent power S  P 2  Q 2

 P Re alPower
Cos 
2. Power Factor ApparentPower
S
The power Factor in an AC circuit can be calculated by any one of the following
methods
❖ Cosine of angle between V and I

❖ Resistance/Impedance R/Z
❖ Real Power/Apparent Power P/S
Phasor algebra in a RL series circuit
V V j0 V0o
Z R  jX L Z

V V Z Z
I  

S VI * P  jQ
R-C Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as

shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v V sin t
m
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that
across the capacitor is VC.
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and
the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in
the figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or
in otherwords the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
The waveform and equations for an RC series circuit can be drawn as below.
V Vm sin t
I  I m sin(t )
V  VR2 VC2
VR IR
VC IX C
V  (IR)2 (IX 2
C)
V I
R 2 X C2
V IZ
Where impedance Z  2
R X C2
Average power
P VI cos
Hence the power in an RC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The
capacitance does not consume any power.
Impedance Triangle
We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of an
RC series circuit as shown
Phasor algebra for RC series circuit
V V j0 V0o
Z R  jX C Z

 
V V
I 
Z Z
R-L-C Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C

connected in series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v Vm sint
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage
across the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.

VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90
degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I
is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads
the current by 90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases
that can occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there
are two possible phasor diagrams. The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the
resultant voltage V is drawn.
VL>VC VL<VC
From the phasor diagram we observe that when VL>VC , the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in
other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. When VL<VC ,the voltage lags behind the
current by an angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
V 
VR2  (VL VC )2
V 
(IR)2 (IX L  IX C )2
Where impedance Z 
R 2 ( XL X C )2
From the expression for phase angle, we can derive the following three cases
Case (i): When XL>XC

The phase angle Ф is positive and the circuit is inductive. The circuit behaves like a series
RL circuit.
Case (ii): When XL<XC

The phase angle Ф is negative and the circuit is capacitive. The circuit behaves like a
series RC circuit.
Case (iii): When XL=XC

The phase angle Ф = 0 and the circuit is purely resistive. The circuit behaves like a pure
resistive circuit.
The voltage and the current can be represented by the following equations. The angle Φ
is positive or negative depending on the circuit elements.
V Vm sin t
I I m sin(t )

Average power
P VI cos
R
P (IZ ) I 
Z
P I 2 R
Hence the power in an RLC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The
inductance and the capacitance do not consume any power.
Phasor algebra for RLC series circuit
V V j0 V0o

Z R  j  X X Z
L C


V V
I  
Z Z

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Angular Frequency (ω)

Advantages of AC system over DC system

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer

Time Period (T)

It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity

It is the value of the quantity at any instant

RMS or Effective Value

Peak Factor or Crest Factor

An alternating quantity can be represented using

-Im i I m sin t

AC circuit with a pure resistance

AC circuit with a pure inductance

i I m sin(t  / 2) ------------------- (2)

From equation (1)

The inductive reactance XL is given as

AC circuit with a pure capacitance

i I m sin(t  / 2) -------------------(2)

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as

Where impedance Z R 2 X L2

The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for

The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).

❖ Cosine of angle between V and I

Phasor algebra in a RL series circuit

V V j0 V0o

R-C Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as

can be derived as follows.

Phasor algebra for RC series circuit

V V j0 V0o

R-L-C Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C

VR=IR is in phase with I

Case (i): When XL>XC

Case (ii): When XL<XC

Case (iii): When XL=XC

I I m sin(t )

Phasor algebra for RLC series circuit

V V j0 V0o

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