1

Design of Cross Masonry and Cross Drainage (CM&CD) & Design of Lift Irrigation Scheme
(Dr I SatyanarayanaRaju, MTech, MBA, MPhil, BL, FIE, PhD, Former CE& Presently Member, TAC-WRD, AP)

The Following are Types of CM& CD Works:

1. Falls: Vertical Fall, Sarda type fall and straight glacis fall.
2. Regulators: Head and cross regulators; design principles
3. Cross-drainage works: Aqueduct, Syphon aqueduct, and Super passage.
4. Outlets: Types Viz., proportionality, sensitivity and flexibility

Canal regulation works:

Any structure constructed to regulate the discharge, full supply level or velocity in a canal is known
as regulation works. Works constructed with this aim are categorized as follows.
i) Canal falls ii) Head regulation or head sluice
iii) Cross regulation iv) Canal escape v) Canal outlets

Canal fall:
A canal fall is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal when the ground slope is high
compared to the bed slope of the canal. Thus, at a fall, the bed is lowered by a certain height known
as fall and canal contained with the same slope further downstream due to this fall, the water level
in canal is also lower after the fall. Arrangements for the dissipation of energy due to the fall in
water levels are required to prevent scouring of material from bed and sides due to water level
difference. The following types of falls:
i) Trapezoidal notch fall ii) Vertical drop fall iii) Glacis type fall

Ogee falls: The concrete /masonry bed provided a smooth

transition from U/S bed level to D/S bed level.
Disadvantage: The kinetic energy due to the fall is
preserved by water and strong energy dissipation must
be ensured on the rigid bed type present erosion of
canal bed material
Notch fall: It consists of one or more trapezoidal notches,
fixed in the crest wall across the canal. The crest i.e.
bottom of the notch corresponds to the U/S canal bed
level.

The notches are designed to maintain normal depth of flow at two discharge values in the U/S
channel. There was neither drawdown nor heading up of water before the notch. Their
disadvantage is that they cannot be used as regulators. The purpose of the lip is to disperse
water passing through the notch. It projects a little on the D/S side of foundation wall.

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 2

Vertical drop fall: In this type, the high velocity jet falls into a cistern, which is a deep pool of
water. Thus, the energy is destroyed by turbulent diffusion. Sarda type vertical fall is the most
common in this category; details of this fall will be discussed in the design.

i) Glacis type fall: If utilizes the standing wave (hydraulic jump) phenomena for dissipation
of energy. The glacis may be straight or parabolic in shape;
Straight glacis – Inglis type
Parabolic Glacis – Montague type

Baffles and friction blocks may be provided in the cistern/glacis to increase energy
dissipation.

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 3

Design principles of Sarda type fall:

This type of fall was designed and developed for Sarda canal system of Uttar Pradesh for drops falls
in the range of 0.9-1.8m, after conduct of model studies, its design was developed. The essential
components of this fall are
i) Crest ii) Cistern iii) impervious floor iv) D/S protection v) U/S approach.

Length of crest: It is the same as the bed width of the canal, as no fluming is done. Sometimes
the length of crest is taken as bed width of canal plus water depth to consider anticipated
increase in discharge of canal in future. Fluming: means crest length < bed width

Shape of crest and discharge formula: two types of crest walls are used
a) Rectangular crest

Top width, 𝐵 = 0.55√𝑑

𝐻+𝑑
Base width, 𝐵1 = 𝜌
Where 𝜌 = S.G of material (masonry) for masonry, 𝜌=2
3
𝐻 1
Discharge 𝑄 = 1.835𝐿𝐻 2 [𝐵 ]6
Where Q= Discharge (m3/s)
L=Length of crest (m)
b) Trapezoidal crest

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 4

Top width 𝐵 = 0.55√𝐻 + 𝑑

U/S batter=1:3
D/S batter=1:8
Using the above B, is found
3 𝐻 1
𝑄 = 1.99𝐿𝐻 2 [ ]6
𝐵
Crest level
From discharge equation, H is found
RL of crest = U/S FSL-H
Height of crest above bed= h= D-H
Where D= depth of flow in canal U/S
Brick Pitching: done on a slope of 10 horizontal: 1 vertical for 2-4 length U/S of crest and
drain holes are provided in the crest will to drain out the canal water at closure time and
settled solids.
Stability of crest wall: it is tested as per the principles of stress analysis (i.e. safety against
sliding & overturning)

Principles of design of cistern:

Length of cistern and depression are found by the following formulae
1
𝑙𝑐 = 5(𝐸𝐻𝑙 )2
1 2
𝑥 = (𝐸𝐻𝑙 )3
4
Where E & HL are depths as shown in figure.

Impervious floor design

The total length of impervious floor is determined by Bligh’s theory (for small works) or by khosla’s
theory for the condition of seepage head, corresponding to “d” as show in figure i.e. U/S side water
level at crest and no flow on the D/S side.
Out of the total length, thus calculated,
Downstream length (ld) = 2(D+1.2) + HL
Remaining is provided on the U/S side.

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 5

Thickness of the floor: Design to resist uplift force

Cut-offs: Depth 1-1.5m
Minimum floor thickness: 0.3-0.4m

U/S approach & D/S protection

Since the crest wall is rectangular in plan, the canal U/S & D/S are to be provided with suitable
transition wirings and pitching as per the standard practices of irrigation department.

Glacis Fall:
A straight glacis is a sloping floor (2Horizontal: 1 vertical) provided after a raised crest, as shown
in figure. It is a type of fall structure.

Hydraulic jump forms on the sloping floor, causing energy dissipation sufficient length of cistern
is provided to achieved this function

Design features of glacis type fall.

The design features of various element of straight glacis type are discussed below:
i) Crest length
Same as the bed width of canal (un-flumed)
In case fluming is done length of crest is less than bed width. The fluming ratio is as follows
Drop is level of water clear length of crest
1.25m 65%
1.25-3m 75%
>3m 85%
When fluming is done, the fall serves as meter fall.
ii) Crest width
If the fall is used as a meter, the crest is made broad. However, a narrow crest has the
disadvantage that its coefficient of discharge is not constant.
For narrow crest, width =2/3*H (adopted)
Broad crest, width = 2.5H (minimum)
Where H = Head over crest
iii) Discharge formula
3
𝑄 = 𝑐(𝐿 − 0.1𝑛𝐻)𝐻 2
Where n= no of end contraction
c = coefficient of friction (1.7 for broad crest, 1.84 for narrow crest)

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 6

iv) Crest level

= U/S TEL-H
Note: if the height of crest is more than 0.4 times the U/S water depth, the fall may be
flumed; if already flumed, the fluming ratio may be increased
v) Hump

vi) U/S bed protection

For un-flumed fall – not required
For flumed fall – U/S protection for a length=U/S water depth provided with brick on edge;
laid on a mild slope of 10 Horizontal: 1vertical in direction of flow.
vii) D/s Glacis: Straight glacis on slope of 2(H) : I(V) with smooth curves at both ends as shown
viii) Length and thickness of floor: Design as per Khurla’s theory; length based on safe exit
gradient.
ix) D/s protection: Bed and sides of canal provides with pitching for length equal to 3 x D/s
water depth.
Defender wall is provided at the end of crest
Toe wall is provided at the end of D/s protection

x) D/s using wall:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 7

- For un-flumed fall, the walls are taken straight to the D/s end of floor and then joined
with return walls
- For flumed falls, hyperbolic expansion is provided for larger falls with
B1 B2 L
Bx = where Bx = width at any section x
LB2 − (B2 − B1 )x
Wings will be embedded into the berms by at least 1m.
B1 = Restricted bed width
B2 = Normal bed width on D/s side
xi) Cistern:
Length = 5 E_f2 where Ef2 = specific energy (D/s)
R.L. Cistern = D/s TEL – 1.25 Ef2

Design limited to:

1. Calculation of crest length
2. RL of crest
3. RL of cistern
4. Length of cistern
5. Floor length required
6. Floor thickness with max. Static head. i.e., water level at crest on u/s and no water on
D/s.
REGULATORS-HEAD AND CROSS REGULATORS- DESIGN PRINCIPLES.
Regulators are structures constructed across the canals to control the flow in the canal.
There are two types of regulators: i. Head regulator or distributing head regulator
ii. Cross regulator
Functions of head and cross regulator:
When a branch canal takers off from the main canal (also called parent canal), the head regulator
is placed across the branch to control the supply of water into the branch canal. The branch canal
is also called as off taking canal.
The cross regulator is also placed across the main canal, D/S of the branch canal, to control the
flow in the main canal.
Positions of head and cross regulator are shown in the figure

Main functions of the head regulator:

i) to regulate or control the supply of water entering into the off take canal
ii) to control the silt entry into the branch canal
iii) to serve as meter for measuring discharge entering into branch canal.

Functions of cross regulator:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 8

i) to effectively control the entire canal system.

ii) in case of low flows in main canal, the cross regulator helps in heading up the water U/S of it,
thereby ensuring full supply of water into the branch canal. Thus land to be irrigated under
the branch canal receives its full supply even after when flow in main canal is less.
iii) it helps in absorbing various fluctuations in various sections of the canal system and to prevent
possibility of breaches in tails race.
iv) Cross regulator is often combined with a road bridge, when a road crosses the canal. It is also
constructed when a fall occurs (in bed level). In such a case it is called a fall regulator.

Design principles of head regulator and cross regulator:

i) crest level
For cross regulator- crest level is same as upstream bed level of anal
For head regulator- crest level is kept 0.3-1m higher than the crest level of the cross
regulator
ii) Waterway: the discharge equation for drowned weir is used to find waterway
Q = 𝑄1 +𝑄2 = 2/3 𝐶𝑑1 √2𝑔. 𝐵(ℎ + ℎ𝑣 )3/2 − (ℎ)3/2 + 𝐶𝑑2 . 𝐵. ℎ1 √2𝑔. (ℎ + ℎ𝑣 )3/2
Where, 𝐶𝑑1 =0.577; 𝐶𝑑2 = 0.80
B= clear water way required
h = difference of water levels U/S & D/S of crest
ℎ1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 D/S water level in the channel above the crest
ℎ𝑣 = head due to velocity of approach, which is small and often ignored

iii) conditions of flow for design

The design is made for the worst of the following two conditions
a) Full supply discharge is passing down both the channels with all gates of cross and
head regulator open
b) The discharge in the parent channel is low but the off take channel is running at full
with fully supply level main maintained in branch channel
Quite often the 1st condition governs the design
iv) D/S floor level or cistern level
Level of D/S floor = D/s FSL- 𝐸𝑓2 , taking ℎ𝑣 =0
Where, 𝐸𝑓2 = specific energy in the D/S of the section
𝐸𝑓2 is formed from the hydraulic jump equation
v) length of D/s floor: generally it is = 5(y2-y1) where y1 and y2 are depths before and after
jump also it is governed by the safe exit gradient allowable for the site conditions
vi) cut-offs
𝑌
Depth of U/S cutoff = 3𝑈 + 0.6 , where 𝑌𝑈 = upstream water depth in canal
𝑌
Depth of D/S cutoff = 3𝐷 + 0.6 , where 𝑌𝐷 = downstream water depth in canal
vii) total floor length: based on exit gradient consideration.
viii) uplift pressures and floor thickness: based on khoslas theory
on U/S side: minimum thickness of 0.3-0.5 m is provided
ix) protection works: based on scour depth,
𝑌 𝑌
D which is 𝑈 + 0.6 on upstream side and 𝐷 + 0.6 on downstream side
3 3
Cement concrete blocks are provided for length of 1.5 D on U/S & D/S side
Quantity of slope =2.25D m3/m length

x) Details of cross Regulators:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 9

B) Design of Head regulator:

Similar calculations are done for Head Regulators for details,
Fig. of Head Regulators designs

Cross-Drainage works:
(Aqueduct, Syphon aqueduct and Super passage)

A cross drainage work is a structure constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural drain
such that there is no interruption to the flow in the canal when the drain receives water, due
to rain fall or otherwise in the catchment. The drainage water (of the drain) can be disposed of
in one of the following ways
i) By passing the canal over the drainage through an aqueduct or siphon aqueduct.
ii) By passing the canal below the drainage through a super passage or a canal siphon
iii) By letting the drain water into the canal and then disposing it off through a level
crossing or inlets & outlets.
Aqueduct: In this structure, the canal bed is above the highest flood level (HFL) of the drain.
Flow in the drain is at atm. Pressure.

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 10

Siphon aqueduct: The drain bed is depressed and provided with a pucca floor. The HFL of drain
is above the bottom level of canal bed and as such flow in the drain is under pressure and not
at atmospheric pressure.
Road: A road is provided by the die of canal for inspection purposes. Further the canal bed width
may be reduced at the structure and the canal is construction in the form of a RCC trough.

Super passage and canal syphon.

Super passage: the canal full supply level (FSL) is much below the bottom level of the drain. Flow
in canal is by gravity and water surface everywhere is exposed to atmosphere.
Canal siphon: The bed of the canal is lowest and flow in canal is under pressure. The FSL of the
canal (on the u/s side) is above the bed level of drain. Thus flow in canal is syphonic in action.

Level crossing: A level crossing is a cross drainage structure constructed when the canal and
drain flows meet at the same level. (see fig.) Cross regulators across drain and canal
(outgoing) are required to control the flows in drain and canal respectively. Sometimes a
regulator across incoming canal is also provided.
These structures become necessary where high discharge is carried by canal and intermittent
floods of high magnitude occur in the drain and when they meet at the same level.

Inlets and outlets:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 11

An inlet is a structure constructed across the drain and the drain water is admitted into the
canal to augment canal discharge. It is done when drain discharge is small and canal water level
is maintained close to FSL or slightly higher. It is also necessary that too much silt does not
enter the canal through the drain discharge. If the drain discharge is high, then an outlet may
also be constr5ucted d/s of function to dispose of the drain flood.

Various types of aqueducts:

i) Type I aqueduct: In this the sides of the canal are earthen banks with earthen slopes.
Drain water passes below it with HFL well below the canal bed in barrel, with adequate
width. Flow in drain is at atm. Pressure. It is economical when drain is very wide.
ii) Type II adequate: The Canal, in this case, continuous in its earthen section over the
drainage, but the outer slopes of canal banks are replaced by returning walls, thereby
reducing the length of culvert.
iii) Type III aqueduct: In the type, canal water is carried in a rectangular masonry or RCC
trough. The canal is flumed to affect economy. Suitable transitions from earthen section
to rectangular trough section on u/s side, and from trough section to earthen section on
d/s side are required. It is most economical across small drains.

General Design considerations for cross drainage works:

i) Max-Flood discharge of drain: Arrived at by empirical/rational formula for small drains;
and by hydrograph analysis for large grains.
ii) Waterway required for aqueducts and siphon aqueducts: Waterway of drain (P) = 4.75
√Q (Laceys’s equations). Effective clear waterway will be less then P due to the thickness
of pipes. It should not be less than 0.8P.
iii) Size of barrel: highest level of drain barrel: In case of aqueduct, the HFL of drain is much
below the bottom level of canal tough. In Siphon aqueduct it depends on the velocity
allowable in barrel, which is of the order of 2-3 m/s.
iv) Afflux and Head loss through siphon barrels: Due to the reduction in the width of the
drain, afflux occurs or the u/s side of drain barrel.
The head loss through siphon barrel is found from Unwin’s formula. It is also known as
afflux.
L v 2 va2
R = [1 + f1 + f2 ] −
R 2g 2g
Where
L = length of barrel
R = Hyd. Mean Radius of barrel
V = Velocity of flow through barrel
Va = Velocity of approach (negligible)
f1 = Coefficient of head loss at entry = 0.505 for unshaped entry
= 0.08 for belt mouth entry
f2 = Coefficient of function such that head loss through barrel due to surface functions
LV2
is given by formula f2 2gR
b
= a (1 + )
R
Value of a & b are based on material of barrel
Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 12

Material a b
Smooth iron pipe 0.00497 0.025
Smooth pipe 0.00996 0.025
Ashlar or brick work 0.00316 0.030
Rubble Masonry/Store Pitching 0.00507 0.250

Taking D/s HFL of drain same

U/s HFL = D/s DFL + h
v) Fluming of canal: Fluming i.e., contraction of canal waterway will reduce the width of
the aqueduct and the cost of construction. It is adopted in Type III aqueducts. The
amount of fluming is based on the velocity adopted, which is limited to a maximum of
3m/s.
vi) Channel transitions: As the approach channel is trapezoidal in section and constructed
in earth and the ___ portion is of masonry/RCC and rectangular in section, u/s and D/s
transitions are required for the change of cross section.

Two methods are used for this purpose.

(a) Mitra’s hyperbolic transitor with constant water depth throughout.

According to the design,

Bn Bf Lf
Bx =
Lf Bn − (Bn − Bf )x
Where Bx = bed width of channel at any section x, measured from the flumed section
Bn = bed width of normal channel section
Bf = bed width of flumed channel section
Lf = Length of transition
For u/s transition Lf = 2(Bn − Bf )
For D/s transition Lf = 3(Bn − Bf )

(b) Chaturvedi’s semi – cubical transition with constant water depth throughout.
3/2
L Bn Bf 3/2
x = 3/2 3/2
[1 − ( ) ]
Bn − Bf Bx
vii) Design of Trough, Floor of Drain, wings & other structures
Their design is based on consideration of water pressure/seepage head and masonry/RC
structures over constructed on that basis. Refer book for details

Problem: Design of Aqueduct with following data:

Canal – Full supply discharge: 32 cumecs.
FSL: 213.5m; Bed level: 212.0m
Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 13

1
Bed width = 20m; side slopes: 1 2 H; 1V
General G.L +212.5 (Canals in cutting)
Solution:
Since the HFL of drain is below the canal bed level, the cross drainage work is an aqueduct. Type
III aqueduct is chosen since the discharge are high. The canal will be flumed, with transitions u/s
& d/s, and will be a trough (rectangular) RCC section.
i) Drain waterway: Lacey’s equation: P = 4.75√Q = 4.75√300 = 82.3m
Adopt 8 bays of 9m width with 15.m thick piers.
Clear waterway = 8 x 9 = 72m
72
Approximately 82.3 = 0.875 or 87.5%
Total width = 8 × 9 + 7 × 1.5 = 82.5m
ii) Bed width of canal = 20m (Trap section)
Let the flume width = 10m (Rectangular section)

iii) Head loss and bed levels at different sections

Section 4-4:
Bed level = 212.0
Water depth = 1.5

A, Area of flow = (20 + 1.5 × 1.5) = 33.75m2

Q 32
Velocity of flow = V4 = = = 0.947 m/s
A 33.75
2
v
= 0.046m
2g
R.L. of bed = 212.0
Water level = 213.5
TEL = 213.5 + 0.046 = 213.546m
Section 3-3:
Bed width 10m; water depth = 1.5m
Section-rectangular ∴ A = 10 × 1.5 = 15m2
Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 14

32 m v32 v42
∴ V3 = = 2.13 ∴ [ − ] = 0.056 m
15 s 2g 2g
∴ RL of TEL at 3 − 3 = RL of TEL at 4 − 4 + loss head
= 213.546 + 0.056 = 213.602m
v23
RL of water surface at 3-3 = 213.602 - = 213 – 370
2g
RL of bed = 213.370 – 1.5 = 211.87m
Section: 2-2
Section same between 2-2 & 3-3
v32 v42
∴ =
2g 2g
Loss of head between 2-2 & 3-3; Found from Manning’s equation
1
V = R2/3 S1/2
n
h
Where S = l → 82.5m
L
n2 v 2 L (0.016)2 × (2.13)2 × 82.5
hL = 4 = 4
R3 (1.16)3
∴ hL = 0.079m
Take n = 0.016
A 10 × 1.5
R= = = 1.16𝑚
P 10 + 2 × 1.5
RL of TEL at 2-2 = RL of TEL at 3 – 3 + 0.079m = 213.602 + 0.079 = 213.681m
v2
RL of water level at 2-2 = 213.681 – 2g
= 213.681 – 0.232 = 213.449
RL of bed at 2-2 = 213.449 – 1.5 = 211.949m
Section 1-1: v2 = 2.13m/s; v1 = v4 = 0.947 m/s
v22 −v21
Loss of head in u/s transition = 0.2 [ ] = 0.037m
2𝑔
RL of TEL at 1-1 = RE of TEL at 2-2 + 0.037 = 213.718m
v21
RL water level at 1-1 = 213.718 - = 213.718 − 0.046 = 213.672m
2g
Bed level at 1-1 = 213.672 – 1.5 = 212.172m
These levels are shown in the above figure.
iv) Design of Transistor:
(a) Contraction Transition – Based on Mitra’s equation
Bn Bf Lf
Bx =
Lf Bn − x(Bn − Bf )
Where Bf = 10m, Bn = 20m, Lf = 0m
2000
Substituting, Bx = 200−10x (Note x is measured from section 2-2)
x 0 2 4 6 8 10
Bx 10 11.11 12.5 14.29 16.67 20

(b) Expansion transition:

x is measured by section 3-3
Here Lf = 15m; others same
3000
∴ Bx =
300 − 10x
x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15
Bx 10 10.71 10.54 12.5 13.64 15 16.67 18.75 20.0

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 15

v) Design of Trough: Design as a water retaining structure Road Bridge will be provided once
one HFL of bays of 5m.
Note: Design of trough, wings, transition walls are done as per structural Engg. Principles.

Design of Syphon Aqueduct-Data

Canal: Discharge: 25 m3 /s; Bed width = 20m; side slopes, Depth of water in canal = 1.5m; Bed
level: 160.0m

Drain: High flood discharge - 400m3 /s; HFL = 160.50m; Bed level of drain: 158.0m;
General Ground Level: 760.0m

Solution:
Since discharge of drain is high, type III aqueduct is preferred canal section will be flumed to
rectangular section with 10m width; Depth of water remains constant at 1.5m
i) Drain waterway: P = 475√Q = 4.75√400 = 95m
Provide 13 spans of 6m each with 12 piers of 1.25m thickness
∴ Total waterway = 13 x 6 + 12 x 1.25 = 93m
400
Let velocity,v = 2m/s; ∴ HT of barrel = 78×2 = 2.56m
400
Taking ht as 2.5m, v = 78×2.5 = 2.05 m/s
20−10
ii) Canal water way: u/s transition length = × 2 = 10m
2
20−10
D/s transition level = 2
× 3 = 15𝑚

iii) W/L at different section:

Calculations similar to that of aqueduct
Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 16

Section 4-4:
Area of flow = (20 + 1.5 x 1.5)1.5 = 33.4m2
RL of bed = 160 – 0 (given)
RL of water surface = 160 + 1.5 = 161.5m
RL of TEL = 161.5 + 0.029 = 161.529m
Section 3-3:
Q 25 v2
v3 = = = 1.665m/s ; = 0.141m
10×1.5 15 2g
v23 −v24
Loss of head = 0.3 [ 2𝑔
] = 0.034m
RL of TEL 161.529 + 0.034 = 161.563m
W/s = 161.563 – 0.141 = 161.422m
Bed = 161.422 – 1.5 = 159.922m
Section 2-2:
A 10×1.5
Hydraulic mean depth in trough, R = P = 10+2×1.5 = 1.155L
1 he
V2 = V3 = 1.665 = n R2/3 S1/2 Where S = L−93
Solving, hL = 0.054m Taking n = 0.016
RL of TEL = RL of TEL at 3-3 + 0.054 = 161.617m
v22
Water level = 161.617 − = 161.617 − 0.141 = 161.476m
2g
Bed = 161.476 – 1.5 = 159.976m
Section 1-1:
v1 = v4 = 0.75m/s
v22 −v21
Head loss in contraction,0.2 2𝑔
= 0.022m
RL of TEL = RL of TEL at 2 + 0.022 = 161.639m
Bed = 161.610 – 1.5 = 160.110m
iv) Contraction Transition:
3/2
LDn Bf 3/2 10(20)3/2 10 3/2
x = 3/2 [1 − ( ) ] = [1 − ( ) ]
B −B
3/2 BI 203/2 − 103/2 Bx
n f
Bx 10 11 12 … 20
x 0 2.12 3.73 … 10

v) Expression transition:
In this case L = 15m; 𝐵𝑛 = 20m, Bf = 10m
10 3/2
∴ x = 23.15 [1 − ( ) ]
Bx
Bx 10 11 … 15 … 20
x 0 3.18 … 10.6 … 15

vi) Design of trough: Trough will be made of two components, each 5m wide with 0.3m floor
thickness.
Height of trough = water depth + free board (0.5m) = 2m
To check by principles of structural analysis

vii) Head loss through siphon:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 17

L v2
h = [1 + f1 + f2 ]
R 2g
Wherev = 2.05 m/s; L = 11.1m
f1 = 0.505
f2 = a(1 + b/R) where a = 0.00316, b = 0.030 for cement plaster surface
A 6 × 2.5
R= = = 0.765m
P 2(6 + 2.5)
∴ ℎ = 0.333𝑚
HFL (of grain) = 160.50 (given)
∴ U/s HFL = 160.50 + 0.333 = 160.833m

viii) Uplift per. On roof of barrel

ix) Uplift per. On floor of barrel
x) Cut off & protection works for drain age flow

Canal outlet:
A canal outlet is a small structure, which admits water to a field channel (water course) from a
distributing (branch) canal. It is used to deliver the required water into the field channel, which is
turn, is used to irrigate the land under its command. Field channel is maintained by the farmer.

Outlets are classified under three hands:

i) Non-modular outlet: A non modular outlet is the one in which the discharge (let out into the
field channel) is based on the difference in water levels in the distributary and the field
channel. E.g. submerged pipe outlet, masonry sluices and orifices, wooden shoots.
ii) Semi-module or flexible outlet:
In this type, the discharge is affected by the water level in the distributary only. Fluctuations
in the water level of the field channel do not affect the discharge.
E.g.: Kennedy’s gauge outlet crump’s open flume outlet, pipe – cum-open flume outlet.
iii) Rigid module: In this type, constant discharge is admitted to field channel even when there
are fluctuations in water levels of both distributary and field channel. E.g. Gibbs Module

Parameters for judging the function of outlet are:

i) Flexibility ii) Proportionality iii) setting iv) sensitivity v) Hyper proportional outlet vi) sub
proportional outlet vii) Efficiency viii) Drawing ratio ix) Minimum modular head x) Modular limits
and modular range.

Flexibility of outlet: Flexibility (F) is the ratio of rate of change of discharge of outlet to the rate
of change of discharge (Q) of distributary channel.
dq/q
∴F=
dQ/θ
Generally, for field channel, q = kH m
Where k & m are constants
H = head on outlets
Similarly for distributary channel, Q = CDn
Where C & N are constants
P = water depth in channel
dq km H m−1 dH dH
∴ = m
=m
q kH H

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 18

dQ dD
=n
Q D
m D dH
∴F= . . but dH = dD
n H dD
m D
∴F= .
n H
Note: m is also known as outlet index
N is also known as canal index
Proportionality & setting outlets
dq dQ
A proportionality outlet is one in which q
= Q
Thus F = 1
mD m H
∴F=1= ∴ =
n H n D
This ratio H/D is known as setting of outlet
5
For trapezoidal channels, Q ∝ D5/3 ∴n=3
1
For orifice type outlets, q ∝ H1/2 ∴m=2
H m 0.5
∴ Setting = D = n
= 5/3 = 0.3
∴ Outlet is set as OBD below the water surface in the distributory.

Sensitivity of outlet
Sensitivity (S) is defined as the rate of change of discharge of outlet to rate of change in the level of
the distributor surface, referred to the normal depth (D) of channel.
dq/q
∴S=
dG/D
Where G = Gauge reading so set that G = 0 where q = 0
∴ qG = dD
dq/q
S= − − − (1)
dQ/D
dq/q dQ dD
But F = dQ/Q where Q = n D
dq/q
∴F= = S = Fn
dD/D
Efficiency of module:
Efficiency is a measure of the conservational of head by an outlet
Head recovered
η=
Head req. for flow

Lift Irrigation Schemes

Water is renewable natural resource, a basic human need and major input for irrigated
agriculture either by surface irrigation of through lift irrigation. But due to geographical
terrain certain villages and cultural lands are located at higher altitude. The only means of
supplying water from streams to these high level lands is possible by lifting water through
power driven pumps and motors continuously in a sustainable manner for crop productivity
and higher yields. But additional input cost of power charges are involved when compared
to surface irrigation of natural gravity flow from water bodies and streams. But water losses
will be minimal in Lift schemes when compared to surface irrigation.

Issues in planning of Lift irrigation schemes:

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 19

1. Selection of suitable site at source of water for locating the intake channel, sump well, pump
house and delivery cistern.
2. Selection of type of pumps and Motors including Motor and Pump capacities to be installed.
3. Design of Civil structure such as intake channel, sump well, pump house and delivery
cistern.
4. Selection of type and design of suction and delivery pipes and pressure main of material and
Diameter, relief valves, air vessels and surge protection equipment.
5. Electrical panel boards, power transmission lines, Transformers, and SCADA equipment.
6. The size of pump house structure to accommodate, no. of pumps designed (plus one stand
by) including clearance around pumps for movement and Gantry crane with rails for
erection and maintenance of Pumps and Motors.

Components of lift irrigation Scheme:

 Intake well consists of sump well of suitable size to accommodate the required number of
pumps and pump house.
 The interface of Intake channel and intake well /Jack well with provision of Trash racks for
each compartment to prevent entry of timber logs and bulky undesirable material in the well
for safety of pumping equipment.
 Sump well vents with stop log gates equipment.
 Gantry crane over rails for erection and maintenance of Pumps and Motors.
 Pump house to shelter pump motors over sump well, Gantry crane, Electrical control panel
boards, and other accessory equipment connected to pumping Machinery.
 Office for crew and supervisory staff of Lift Irrigation Scheme.
 Suction Pipes from intake channel, delivery pipes to cistern and pressure main etc.

Advantages of Lift Schemes:

 Only means to supply water to High level lands for irrigation for social equity and justice of
one irrigation crop to farmers on par with command areas without minding capital cost.
 Less land acquisition compared to surface storage head works requirement and no R&R
issues.
 Negligible transmission losses compared channel irrigation.
 Low manpower due optimal automation implementing SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition).

Limitations of Lift Irrigation Schemes (LIS):

 High capital cost.
 O&M cost of LIS will be comparatively high against surface Irrigation.
 Availability of 24X7 mode Power supply at high commercial cost at Govt. Exchequer.
 Life of Pumps and Motors is order of 30 years needing replacement after life time unlike
surface irrigation.
 Power charges adding to high input cost of crop productivity.

Pump selection and Types:

Pumps act as heart of LIS and play very important role in preference as well as efficiency to LIS.
The types of pumps are:
1. Horizontal Centrifugal Pump; Suitable for up to 6M head.
2. Vertical turbine Pumps........: Over 6M head and upto 4MW Pump capacity.
Dr I SNRaju,Former CE
 20

3. Concrete or Metallic Volute Pump: High heads and huge discharges and Pump capacity
from 4-15MW.
4. Francis turbine pumps...........: Very high head and very huge discharge and pump
capacity 15-25MW.

SCADA: (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) is necessary for LIS with multiple pumping
stations for proper monitoring and vigilance for better synchronization and made the same
mandatory. SCADA collects and detects data such as non-functioning of pumps in any of
the pumping station and also non performance of any surge protection devices like Air
vessels/ one-way surge tanks etc.

Pump Testing and pipe thickness:

Radiography test, UV test, hydrostatic tests are to be conducted to determine water tightness
of pipe joints. The hydro-static test may be conducted as per IS1916-1989. Generally the
pipes shall have epoxy internal lining and 25mm thick Cement Mortar guniting (external)
as per Annexure B1.2 of IS 3589-2001.

Maintenance of LIS:
Regular Operation and maintenance of the system shall be followed with care at intended
frequency. Operation schedule/manual is to be prepared duly keeping in view of the time
required for maintenance of valves etc. Proper vigilance shall be ensured before restarting
of the pumps whenever power failure occurs. Regular maintenance protection devices
(particularly valves) shall be ensured for efficient functioning of surge system.

Canal network system: after letting water from delivery cistern to gravity canal, the water is to be
distributed to the fields through network (lined) with minimum losses since pumped water is more
costly than surface water. Hence suggest only Dry crops under LIS.

Dr I SNRaju,Former CE