Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Combined effect of silica fume and expanded vermiculite on properties

of lightweight mortars at ambient and elevated temperatures
Fuat Koksal a, Osman Gencel b,⇑, Mehmet Kaya c
a
Bozok University, Department of Civil Engineering, 66000 Yozgat, Turkey
b
Bartin University, Department of Civil Engineering, 74100 Bartin, Turkey
c
Sakarya University, Institute of Natural and Applied, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

 We studied effect of vermiculite and silica fume on mortar properties.

 Silica fume increase mechanical properties of mortar.
 Vermiculite increased thermal properties of mortar.
 Silica fume and vermiculite combinations increased durability against elevated temperature.
 Expanded vermiculite turns out to be a good fire resistant material.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, properties of cement based mortars produced with vermiculite and silica fume were inves-
Received 4 March 2015 tigated at ambient and elevated temperatures. Physical, mechanical, thermal and micro structure prop-
Received in revised form 13 April 2015 erties of mortars produced were determined. Mortars were produced at 4, 6 and 8 expanded vermiculite/
Accepted 16 April 2015
cement ratio (V/C) by volume. Silica fume was used at the ratios of 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% under each V/C
Available online 29 April 2015
ratio. In total, 114 mortar specimens with 40  40  160 mm were investigated. Specimens were sub-
jected to 300, 600 and 900 °C for 6 h. It was observed that new formulations with silica fume increased
Keywords:
both strength and durability at elevated temperatures of mortars with vermiculite. Unit weights of mor-
Vermiculite
Silica fume
tars at hardened state range between 1200 and 780 kg/m3. Water absorption values range between 24.2%
Elevated temperature and 40.6%. Strengths of mortars vary between 3.9 MPa and 16.4 MPa at ambient temperature. Thermal
Lightweight mortar conductivity coefficient of mortars indicated a decrease depending on V/C ratio of mortar up to
0.257 W/m K which means 58.2% increment in thermal performance. Mortars produced using expanded
vermiculite aggregate shows a good performance in terms of preservation of mechanical strength to ele-
vated temperature. This means that expanded vermiculite turns out to be a good fire resistant material.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and expanded clay with cellular or porous structure have been
used for producing masonry blocks, wall panels, cladding products
Energy efficient buildings are recently one of the most impor- and lightweight concretes [3]. Production of lightweight concretes
tant issues since both economic and environmental factors nowa- can be achieved in three ways which are using pore maker gassing
days are of great importance in the world. Countries focus on agents, lightweight mineral aggregates and polymer based plastic
increasing energy efficiency of buildings since about one third of granule aggregates [4].
overall energy consumed is used in buildings. The need to have Lightweight concretes present superior properties such as, ther-
more energy efficient buildings leads to develop new materials mal isolation [5–7], fire/high temperature resistance and so protec-
or improve existing construction materials and lightweight sys- tion [8–13], sound insolation [14–19], strength enough for
tems [1,2]. Lightweight aggregates such as such as perlite, pumice structural applications and reducing dead load of structure resulting
in a decreased cross sections of structural elements and a reduction
in risk of earthquake damage [20–22], durability [23–28] etc.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Faculty of Engineering, Bartin University, Turkey. Another mineral lightweight aggregate is vermiculite which is
Tel.: +90 378 223 5360; fax: +90 378 223 5258.
widely used.
E-mail address: osmangencel@gmail.com (O. Gencel).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.04.021
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
176 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

Nomenclature

V/C vermiculite/cement S supersonic wave speed

XRF X-ray florescence s second
XRD X-ray diffraction d distance
TG thermogravimetric t time
SEM scanning electron microscopy m meter
CSH hydrated calcium silicate W/m K watt/meter Kelvin
P porosity ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
Wssd specimen weight in the saturated surface dry condition CEM cement type
Wd specimen dry weight h hour
Ww weight of saturated specimen

Vermiculites are naturally occurring minerals composed of shiny regarding their durability like alkali silica reaction, and observed
flakes, resembling mica in appearance. They are primarily formed by that expanded vermiculite did not exhibit any potential alkali silica
alteration of micaceous minerals (variable mixtures of different reaction. Formosa et al. [35] studied behavior of vermiculite and
minerals like vermiculite, hydrobiotite and phlogopite) as a result magnesium by-product as aggregates in the production of fire
of weathering, hydrothermal action, percolating ground water or a proof mortars, and reported that mortar with magnesium by-pro-
combination of these three factors. It has hydrated aluminum and duct and vermiculite had effects. Koksal et al. [36] investigated
magnesium silicate. When heated to elevated temperatures up to properties of cement based bricks containing expanded vermi-
650–1000 °C, flakes of vermiculite expand as much as 8–30 times culite modified with styrene acrylic ester copolymer, and con-
with respect to their original size due to conversion of interlayer cluded that polymer–cement and vermiculite–cement ratios on
and structural water to steam [29]. Expanded vermiculite after cool- properties of brick were are importantly exposed. In these studies,
ing preserves its new volume with very thin streaks of air between compressive strength seems low.
leaves. Particles of expanded vermiculite are viewed as thin plates Sutcu [2] investigated properties of brick mixtures containing
separated by air gaps. Their shape, color, luster and grain composi- vermiculite at different proportions. Vermiculite addition increases
tion are closely related to original raw material. Water absorption porosity resulting in an increased thermal performance. And the
capacity of vermiculite increases drastically when the bulk density brick samples produced with vermiculite addition could be used
varies between 64 and 160 kg/m3 depending on particle size, after as an insulating material in construction applications. Gencel
exfoliation. As a result, the annealed vermiculite possesses several et al. [37] used expanded vermiculite in production of lightweight
valuable properties, such as low thermal conductivity, high fire gypsum composites. While compressive strength of composite
resistance and strong sound absorption. Vermiculite is an effective decreases thermal conductivity values decreases by depending on
high temperature (up to 1100 °C) heat isolation material. Materials vermiculite content in the composites. Abidi et al. [38] studied
and products produced using vermiculite are incombustible, bio- thermo-mechanical performance of plaster composite panels with
stable and neutral to the action of acids and have stable strength perlite and vermiculite for thermal insulator and fire passive pro-
with time and resistance to deformation. These facts make worth- tection in building construction, and observed that thermal perfor-
while the application of vermiculite in construction and simultane- mance and fire resistance increased. Marties et al. [39] investigated
ously heat isolation and sound absorption materials. Using effective mechanical reinforcement and thermal insulator properties of gyp-
high temperature and thermal isolation materials allows reducing sum based composites produced with mineral products such as
material capacity of constructions. Expanded vermiculite has very vermiculite, mica, glass fibers. Plaster is used as a matrix and min-
low specific gravity. It can be used in production cement and poly- eral products (vermiculite, mica, glass fibers) are added as light-
mer based composites [30,31]. Vermiculite ores are mostly found weight additives mechanical reinforcement and thermal
in South Africa (41%), USA (21%) and China (21%). In Turkey, totally insulator, and reported that both particles size distribution and
5.2 Mt reserve of vermiculite is reported by Mineral Research & amounts of additives had an effect on the mechanical properties
Exploration General Directorate [2]. and fire resistance. Melo et al. [40] used vermiculite in gypsum
As mentioned above, there are many studies on lightweight composite for energy efficiency in building, and reported that the
aggregates such as pumice, perlite, expanded clay, expanded poly- usage of vermiculite in gypsum composite and plaster increased
styrene and their usages in lightweight systems. However, studies thermal performance. But, it is well-known that the main disad-
about the use of vermiculite are limited. Schackow et al. [32] inves- vantage of gypsum plaster is its brittleness at room temperature
tigated the effect of air-entraining and superplasticizer admixtures and its poor resistance to crack opening and propagation when it
on mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight concrete pro- is subjected to fire conditions.
duced by replacing sand with expanded polystyrene and vermi- Another aspect in development and improvement of cement
culite. They observed that while addition of air-entraining based composites is usage of mineral admixtures such as fly ash
admixtures decreases unit weight and increase thermal perfor- and silica fume etc. In this respect, there are numerous studies
mance of concrete, strength decreases. Silva et al. [33] studied reported in literature. However, cement based composite products
properties of mortar with water-retaining and air-entraining such as concrete and mortar containing combination of expanded
agents and fillers, vermiculite and perlite. Incorporation of perlite vermiculite and silica fume have not been reported as understood
and vermiculite as filler into mortar decreases mechanical proper- from literature survey above. This work aims to develop mortars
ties of mortar due to lack of cohesion. Also, perlite and vermiculite formulated with both vermiculite and silica fume which is indus-
are responsible for voids and higher capillarity, water demand and trial by-product obtained from silicon or silicon ferrosilicon alloy
shrinkage. Mladenovic et al. [34] studied mortar produced with industries and investigate the effect of elevated temperatures on
expanded vermiculite, expanded clay, expanded glass and perlite physical, mechanical and thermal properties of them.
 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187 177

2. Materials and methods Table 4

Size distribution of expanded vermiculite.
2.1. Materials used
Sieve size (mm) Passing (%)
2.1.1. Cement 4 100
CEM I 42.5R complying with TS EN 197-1 [41] was used as cement. Cement was 2 21.5
obtained from Yozgat Votorantim cement plant, Yozgat, Turkey. Specific gravity of 1.6 16.5
cement was 3.09. Initial and final setting times of the cement were 150 min and 1 14.3
215 min, respectively. Blaine specific surface area was 3114 cm2/g. Chemical com- 0.5 6
position of cement is given in Table 1. 0.25 3.1
0.075 0.7
2.1.2. Expanded vermiculite
The raw vermiculite was procured from the Demircilik vermiculite deposit in
Yıldızeli, Sivas, Turkey. The expanded vermiculite raw material was characterized
by chemical (XRF: X-ray florescence), mineralogical (XRD: X-ray diffraction), ther-
mal (TG: thermogravimetric) and microstructural (SEM: scanning electron micro-
scopy) analysis. Table 2 shows the chemical of expanded vermiculite that was
obtained by annealing raw vermiculite at 600 °C for a period of 10 s. Table 3 shows
physical properties of expanded vermiculite. Table 4 shows particle size distribu-
tion with the percentage for different sieve sizes.
Fig. 1 shows XRD pattern of the expanded vermiculite. The expanded vermi-
culite consists mainly of vermiculite, phlogopite and hydrobiotite phases, likely
an interstratified.
The TG curve of expanded vermiculite is given in the Fig. 2. A total weight loss of
about 9% for 1000 °C is related to the adsorbed and interlayer water. In the first
weight loss, the dehydration of the vermiculite takes place between 20 and
110 °C which corresponds to the loss of free water physically absorbed on the sur-
face. The mass losses in the range of 100–200 °C can be attributed to the removal of

Table 1
Chemical properties of cement used
(wt.%).

MgO 2.75 Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction patterns of expanded vermiculite.

SiO2 19.12
Al2O3 5.63
Fe2O3 2.39 more free water molecules residing in the particle spaces of the vermiculite [2]. The
CaO 63.17 mass losses in the temperature range of approximately 500–800 °C can be attribu-
SO3 2.74 ted to the loss of interlayer water and chemical water molecules, which are in con-
K2O 1.00 tact with the cations in the interlayer region [42]. The region between 800 °C and
Loss on ignition 2.33 1000 °C shows the presence of endothermic peaks, which could be due to the for-
Insoluble material 0.49 mation of new crystalline phases [43].
In Fig. 3, the SEM images of an expanded vermiculite grain are shown at differ-
ent magnifications. The size of expanded vermiculite is smaller than 4 mm and the
vermiculite flakes that expanded in an elongated accordion-like form are shown in
SEM image in Fig. 3. It is observed that has the silicate layers separated from each
Table 2 other as a result of rapidly heating. Fig. 3 also indicates the photograph of expanded
Chemical properties of expanded vermiculite.
vermiculite (wt.%).

SiO2 36.9
2.1.3. Silica fume
Al2O3 17.7
In order to obtain a higher compressive strength on mortars containing vermi-
K2O 2.6
culite, silica fume was used. It is amorphous silica with a high specific surface area.
Na2O 0.2
These characteristics are important for substantial pozzolanic activity of silica fume.
CaO 3.5
Pozzolanic activity also is related to the total content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3. So one
MgO 16.4
of the most important factors increasing strength of mortars containing vermiculite
Fe2O3 11.2
is the total content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 of silica fume that is 89.16%. SiO2 in silica
TiO2 2.2
fume can combine with hydrated calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in the presence of
Loss on ignition 9.2
water to form compound like hydrated calcium silicate, CSH, that has cementitious
properties and is the principal responsible for the strength of hydrated cement
pastes. Silica fume was obtained from Antalya Ferrochrome Power Plant, Turkey.
Chemical and physical properties of silica fume used are presents in Table 5.
Table 3 Silica fume is an important component for cement based composites in order to
Some characteristics of expanded vermiculite. manufacture concrete and mortar with high strength. It can be used in two ways as
Color Gold a cement replacement in order to save cement and admixture to modify properties
Shape Accordion shaped granule of concrete or mortar such as chemical attack, sulfate resistance, alkali–silica reac-
Water holding capacity 240% (by weight) tion, freeze–thaw resistance, abrasion resistance [44].
28% (by volume)
Cation exchange capacity 50–150 meg/100 g
Thermal conductivity 0.065–0.062 W/m K 2.2. Mix design
Permeability 95%
pH 8.1 Mixtures were based on absolute volume method. Mortars were prepared with
Sintering temperature 1150–1250 °C Portland cement as binder, vermiculite as aggregate and silica fume as mineral
Combustibility Non-combustible admixture. The expanded vermiculite/cement ratios (V/C) were 4, 6 and 8 by vol-
Specific heat 0.20–0.26 Kcal/kg °C ume. According to Neville [45], the content of silica fume below 5% of the cement
Specific gravity 0.22 content used does not lead to a high strength of cement based composites. Sahin
Bulk density 140 kg/m3 and Koksal [46] reported content of silica fume in the cement based composites
should be at least 10% of cement used to see effect of silica fume on strength. In this
respect, silica fume was used at the ratios of 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% in this study. For
178 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

Table 5
Physical and chemical properties of silica fume.

Compound wt.%
MgO 1.47
SiO2 85.35
Al2O3 1.42
Fe2O3 2.39
CaO 0.80
SO3 1.34
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 89.16
Loss on ignition 3.4
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.23
Surface area (cm2/g) 8900
Retaining on 45 micron sieve (%) 0.58
Bulk density 0.55–0.65 kg/dm3
Moisture (%) 0.19

Fig. 2. TGA curve of expanded vermiculite.

2.4. Test methods

each test temperature, three series of specimens in each silica fume contents under Unit weight of fresh mortar was measured according to TS EN 12350-6 [47].
V/C ratio were produced, and thus, in total, 114 mortar specimens were investi- Flow ability of mortar was measured by flow test according to TS EN 1015-3 [48].
gated. The mix proportions of series are given in Table 6. Diameter of mortar was measured and flow value was expressed as an average of
measurements. Unit weight of hardened specimens, porosity and water absorption
2.3. Production of mortars were determined on the unheated specimens aged 28 days according to
Archimedes principle by the weight measurements of saturated specimens in air
A Hobart mixer was used for preparation of mixtures. The expanded vermiculite and in water and dry weight (oven drying at 105 °C to constant weight). The differ-
aggregates were wetted with half of total water before 1 h from mixing. Water ence in weight between in the water-saturated and oven-dry conditions was used
absorption of expanded vermiculite aggregates in mixture was estimated earlier to evaluate the porosity of mortars and it was expressed as a percentage of the bulk
for correction of total mixture water. Firstly, cement and silica fume were mixed, specimen volume. The porosity was calculated by using following equation:
secondly vermiculite aggregates wetted were added. Finally, the rest of water P ¼ ðW ssd  W d Þ=ðW ssd  W w Þ ð1Þ
added. Mixing time in total was 3 min. After mixing completed, mortar formula-
tions were cast in moulds with 40  40  160 mm size. All the specimens hold in where, P is the porosity (%), Wssd is the specimen weight in the saturated surface dry
moulds for 24 h at room temperature (20 °C) were demoulded and then cured in condition (g), Wd is the specimen dry weight after 24 h in oven (g), Ww is the weight
water at 23 °C for 27 days. Fig. 4 shows production and samples produced. of saturated specimen (g).

Fig. 3. Expanded vermiculite and its SEM images.

 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187 179

Table 6
Mixture proportions.

Mix code V/C (by volume) Cement (kg/m3) Vermiculite (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Silica fume (kg/m3) Silica fume (%)
A1 4 790 153 540 0 0
A2 4 790 153 540 39.5 5
A3 4 790 153 540 79 10
A4 4 790 153 540 118.5 15
B1 6 659 187 557 0 0
B2 6 659 187 557 39.5 5
B3 6 659 187 557 79 10
B4 6 659 187 557 118.5 15
C1 8 473 199 569 0 0
C2 8 473 199 569 39.5 5
C3 8 473 199 569 79 10
C4 8 473 199 569 118.5 15

Fig. 4. Production of samples: (a) mixing, (b) and (c) casting, (d) curing, (e) before testing.

This method was generally used to measure the porosity of the cement-based done according to TS EN 12390-3 and TS EN 12390-5, respectively. The test results
materials. Uniaxial compressive strength and flexural tensile strength were deter- of specimens exposed to high temperatures were compared with those for
mined according to TS EN 12390-3 [49] and TS EN 12390-5 [50] standards. unheated specimens. Fig. 5 shows the tests conducted.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test was done according to ASTM C 597 [51]. Three
specimens were used. Ultrasonic waves traveling insight mortar are measured by
device. The wave speed was calculated as 3. Results and discussion

S ¼ ðd=tÞ  106 ð1Þ

3.1. Flow abilities of mortars
where S is the supersonic wave speed (m/s), d is distance in m from the surface of the
concrete specimen at which the ultrasonic wave is transmitted to the surface at Flow test results for consistency of fresh mortars are presented
which the wave is received, t is time from transmitting to receiving the wave in ls. if Fig. 6. The increment in V/C ratio increases flow ability of mortars
Thermal conductivities of the specimens were performed by the C-Therm TCi
Thermal Conductivity Analyzer with modified transient plane source at ambient
which does not contain silica fume. Silica fume addition results in a
conditions, method, a non-destructive technique allowing us to obtain the thermal trend of reducing flow ability of mortars. This can be attributed to
conductivity and effusivity of the samples tested [37,52,53]. Specimens were oven high specific surface of silica fume. Effect of V/C ration in series
dried to prevent moisture since the thermal conductivity value increases up to 5% containing silica fume is not significant. All mortars were in plastic
by depending on moisture content in the specimen.
form to work. And they were easily cast by hand compaction.
After curing, the specimens produced were subjected to 300, 600 and 900 °C.
Temperatures chosen in this study are the critical temperatures for the dehydration Formosa et al. [54] reported that mortars prepared with magne-
of the hydrates of cement paste. It is known that the exposure to the high temper- sium by-products as aggregates with 100 micron size had flow
ature is only of a few hours in the case of fire. Therefore, 6 h was chosen as enough ability in the range of 180–200 mm. The values in this are about
time to exposure the mortars to the high temperature. Temperature elevation rate 50 mm lower than it. Babu and Babu [55] reported flow ability of
in furnace was 5 °C/min. The specimens of each mix were then held at the desired
test temperature for 6 h in furnace. During heating, moisture in the test specimens
mortars containing silica fume in the range of 47–55 mm. Still,
left freely. Then, the hot mortar specimens were cooled slowly up to laboratory con- the ranges obtained present suitable workability and consistency
dition (20 °C). After cooling period, compressive and flexural strength tests were for sprayable, wall coatings and brick production.
180 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

Fig. 5. Tests conducted: (a) flow table, (b) compressive strength, (c) elevated temperature, (d) flexural strength and (e) ultrasound pulse velocity.

3.2. Unit weights of mortars mortars at hardened state range between 1200 and 780 kg/m3.
The lowest values was obtained in mortar series with V/C = 8
Unit weights at fresh state of mortars are presented in Fig. 7. Silica which has highest vermiculite content. Vermiculite decreases unit
fume addition increases fresh unit weight of mortars at each V/C ratio. weight up to 30%. This was attributed to the fact that specific grav-
When looked at the effect of vermiculite on unit weight of fresh mor- ity or bulk density of vermiculite is much lower than those of other
tars, it is seen that vermiculite content increasing in the mixture ingredients. Effect of silica fume is a trend increasing of unit weight
decreases fresh unit weight. The increment in V/C ratio results in les- up to 14.5%. As reported by Hossain et al. [28], unit weight of mor-
ser cement and higher vermiculite and water contents in the mixture. tar and concrete produced with pumice, expanded clay aggregate
Unit weights of mortars at hardened state are presented in etc. or combination of them is generally over 1800 kg/m3.
Fig. 8. As seen from Fig. 8, hardened unit weight presents the same Uygunoglu et al. [56] reported that lightweight polymer concrete
trend than that of unit weight at fresh state presented in Fig. 7. But, with pumice aggregate has a unit weight of 1346 kg/m3 and com-
unit weight at hardened state is lower. This is due to the water pressive strength of 22.5 MPa. Although these values are great,
removing mortar body. Low unit weight is desirable in point of lightweight polymer concrete has a few disadvantages such as its
decreasing dead load of structures. Also there is a relation between cost which is very high and very low heat and fire resistance. In
unit weight and thermal conductivity. Materials with lower unit this respect, the value, 780 kg/m3, obtained in this study is highly
weight present a high thermal performance. Unit weights of lower compared to others mentioned.
F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187 181

Fig. 6. Flow ability of fresh mortars.

Fig. 7. Fresh unit weight of mortars.

Fig. 8. Unit weight of hardened mortars.

182 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

Fig. 9. Porosity variations of mortars.

Fig. 10. Relation between physical properties.

3.3. Porosities of mortars increases porosity about 15.2% in mortars without silica fume.
This is attributed to the high porosity of vermiculite. Effect of silica
Porosities of mortars are presented in Fig. 9. Porosity changed fume is in the trend of decreasing porosity. Silica fume addition
approximately between 28.9% and 43.2%. As seen from Fig. 9, decreases porosity about 23%. Silica fume fills the micro voids
porosity increases with the increase of V/C ratio. Vermiculite because of having ultra-fine particles. The values in this study
 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187 183

Fig. 11. Water absorption values of mortars.

Fig. 12. Thermal conductivity coefficients of mortars.

Table 7 absorption increases. But, it should be considered that increment

Ultrasound pulse velocity changes of mortars. in porosity results in reduction of mechanical properties of mortar
Mix code V/C Silica fume (%) Ultrasound (m/s)
or concrete.

20 °C 300 °C 600 °C 900 °C

A1 4 0 2182 2752 2635 2524 3.4. Water absorptions of mortars
A2 4 5 2515 2758 2564 2517
A3 4 10 2353 2594 2406 2595
Water absorption values of mortars are presented in Fig. 11.
A4 4 15 2419 2696 2737 2772
B1 6 0 2102 2183 2268 2249
Water absorption values range between 24.2% and 40.6%. As seen
B2 6 5 2304 2305 2293 2537 from Fig. 11, increment in V/C ratio increases water absorption of
B3 6 10 2245 2577 2391 2396 mortars. This means that vermiculite content in the mixture
B4 6 15 2347 2546 2687 2328 increases. As well known, vermiculite has high porosity resulting
C1 8 0 2063 1971 1946 2023
in high water absorption ability. This behavior of composites
C2 8 5 2148 2113 2181 2064
C3 8 10 2104 2267 2194 2227 including vermiculite was reported by other researchers [37].
C4 8 15 2126 2214 2173 2216 Silica fume addition decreases absorption up to 34.6% when silica
fume is used at the ratio of 15%. This can be attributed to filler
effect of silica fume on micro voids in mortar structure. Relation
are agreed with the results of Silva et al. [33] and Bogas et al. [25]. between water absorption and porosity is shown in Fig. 10. There
There is a strong relation between porosity and water absorption is a high correlation with determination coefficient (R2 = 0.9482)
and unit weight as presented in Fig. 10. When the porosity of mor- between absorption and porosity of mortars with vermiculite and
tar or concrete increases, the unit weight decreases and the water silica fume addition.
184 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

Fig. 13. SEM images of mortars showing micro structure.

3.5. Thermal conductivities of mortars the medium in that pulse travels. In this respect, porosity of the
medium is important. The increment in porosity of mortar results
Thermal conductivity values of mortars produced are presented in decreasing ultrasound pulse velocity since propagation velocity
in Fig. 12. The thermal conductivity coefficient of the mortars indi- of ultrasonic pulses is not quicker in a porous medium. Ultrasound
cated a decrease depending on V/C ratio of mortar up to 0.257 W/ pulse velocity is not affected significantly by heating temperature.
m K which means 58.2% increment in thermal performance of mor- Generally, it is 2.35 km/s in average. Ultrasonic pulse velocity is
tar. Thermal conductivity of lightweight composites is strongly also a strong indicator of strength. Studies [61,62] report relation
dependent on the volume of lightweight aggregate [57]. between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength of
Increment in addition of vermiculite improves the insulator behav- concrete. This relation can be seen when pulse velocity and com-
ior of mortar composites since unit weight increases. Thermal con- pressive strength of mortars are considered together. Mortar with
ductivity is related strongly with density of material [58–60]. As low strength presents low ultrasound pulse velocity.
seen from Fig. 10, there is high correlation (R2 = 0.9432) between
thermal conductivity and unit weight. The same effect of vermi-
3.7. Compressive strengths of mortars
culite was reported by other researchers [19,32,34,36,38,40].
When looked at the effect of silica fume on thermal conductivity
Compressive strength and residual compressive strength as per
of mortars, it is seen that effect of silica fume is slightly (4.7%)
cent variations of mortars at ambient and elevated temperatures
which is negligible.
are given in Table 8. Strengths of mortars vary between 3.9 MPa
and 16.4 MPa at ambient temperature. When looked at the effect
3.6. Ultrasound pulse velocities of mortars of V/C ratio on compressive strength at ambient temperature, it
is seen that the increment in V/C ratio decreases it. This is a result
Ultrasound pulse velocities of mortars are presented in Table 7. of reduction of cement content while vermiculite increasing. A
It was observed that ultrasound drops while V/C ratio increases stronger paste is essential for strength when aggregates such as
due to porous structure of vermiculite. Ultrasound is affected by perlite and vermiculite used are not strong enough to carry the
 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187 185

Table 8
Compressive strength variations of mortars.

Mix code V/C Silica fume (%) Compressive strength (MPa) Relative residual compressive strength (%)
20 °C 300 °C 600 °C 900 °C 20 °C 300 °C 600 °C 900 °C
A1 4 0 12.5 (100%) 10.9 (100%) 8.4 (100%) 6.7 (100%) 100 87.2 67.2 53.6
A2 4 5 13.5 (108%) 11.5 (105.5) 9.3 (110.7%) 7.5 (111.9%) 100 85.2 68.9 55.6
A3 4 10 14.3 (114.4%) 11.8 (108.3%) 10.1 (120.2%) 8.1 (120.9%) 100 82.5 70.6 56.6
A4 4 15 14.6 (116.4%) 14.3 (131.2%) 10.9 (129.8%) 8.5 (126.9%) 100 97.9 74.7 58.2
B1 6 0 8.8 (100%) 6.8 (100%) 6.9 (100%) 4.1 (100%) 100 77.3 78.4 46.6
B2 6 5 9.1 (103.4%) 7.1 (104.4%) 7.4 (107.2%) 4.4 (107.3%) 100 78.0 81.3 48.4
B3 6 10 9.9 (112.5%) 9 (132.4%) 7.9 (114.5%) 5 (122%) 100 90.9 79.8 50.5
B4 6 15 16.4 (186.5%) 9.9 (145.6%) 10.1 (146.4%) 5.1 (124.4%) 100 60.4 61.6 31.1
C1 8 0 5.8 (100%) 3.9 (100%) 4.2 (100%) 2.9 (100%) 100 67.2 72.4 50.0
C2 8 5 7.3 (125.9%) 5.1 (130.8%) 5.3 (126.2%) 3.3 (113.8%) 100 69.9 72.6 45.2
C3 8 10 7.3 (125.9%) 6.2 (159%) 5 (119.2) 3.5 (120.7%) 100 84.9 68.5 47.9
C4 8 15 8.5 (146.6%) 7.7 (197.4%) 6.1 (145.2%) 3.8 (131%) 100 90.6 71.8 44.7

Table 9
Flexural strength variations of mortars.

Mix code V/C Silica fume (%) Flexural strength (MPa) Relative residual flexural strength (%)
20 °C 300 °C 600 °C 900 °C 20 °C 300 °C 600 °C 900 °C
A1 4 0 4.1 3.5 2.5 1.4 100 85.4 61.0 34.1
A2 4 5 4.5 3.6 2.9 1.3 100 80.0 64.4 28.9
A3 4 10 4.7 3.8 2.8 1.2 100 80.9 59.6 25.5
A4 4 15 4.8 3.9 3.0 1.1 100 81.3 62.5 22.9
B1 6 0 2.8 2.2 2.3 1.3 100 78.6 82.1 46.4
B2 6 5 3.1 2.4 2.3 1.2 100 77.4 74.2 38.7
B3 6 10 3.4 2.8 2.6 1.1 100 82.4 76.5 32.4
B4 6 15 3.7 2.9 2.5 1.0 100 78.4 67.6 27.0
C1 8 0 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.1 100 90.5 76.2 52.4
C2 8 5 2.4 2.3 1.8 1.4 100 95.8 75.0 58.3
C3 8 10 2.4 2.2 2.0 0.9 100 91.7 83.3 37.5
C4 8 15 2.7 2.3 2.1 0.9 100 85.2 77.8 33.3

load. Silica fume has an important effect on compressive strengths is very close relation between unit weight and compressive
of mortars at ambient temperature. Silica fume increases the strength of mortar as seen from Fig. 10. The lower unit weight,
strengths of mortars in each V/C ratio by depending on silica fume the lower compressive strength.
content in the mixture as seen from the percent values in paren-
thesis in Table 9. Due to high silica content of silica fume, silica 3.8. Flexural strengths of mortars
fume has a capability to react with Ca(OH)2 liberated in the hydra-
tion process to produce CSH which is essentially responsible for Flexural strengths and relative residual flexural strength of
strength. This leads to improve durability of mortar and concrete mortars are presented in Table 9. Behaviors of mortars produced
against elevated temperatures. When specimens are subjected to under flexural tension are similar to their behaviors under com-
elevated temperatures, it is observed that lightweight mortars pro- pressive tension since two type strengths are closely related. The
duced using expanded vermiculite aggregate shows a good perfor- compressive strength increases or decreases, the flexural strength
mance in terms of preservation of mechanical strength up to the increases or decreases. The increment in V/C ratio decreases flexu-
temperature of 900 °C. 600 °C can be regarded as a critical temper- ral strengths of mortars since cement content decreases in the mix-
ature for strength loss of concrete. It can be seen that these ratios ture. But, silica fume addition presents an increasing trend on
are lower for the heating temperature of 300 °C than for the room flexural strengths of mortars. This can be attributed to the poz-
temperature. However, those ratios increase for temperatures of zolanic effect of silica fume as explained above. Silva et al. [33]
600 °C and 900 °C for all V/C ratios. Reduction in cement content reached 0.45 MPa flexural strength for the use of 10% vermiculite
was compensated to a certain degree by addition of high efficiency at ambient temperature. In this study, the lowest value obtained
of silica fume. At temperatures above 300 °C, evaporation of bound in C1 with highest vermiculite content is 1.9 MPa at ambient tem-
water increases deterioration of concrete and causes a decrease in perature. Flexural strengths of specimens containing silica fume in
compressive strength. When temperatures exceed 400 °C, calcium series C and other series is higher. When looked at the effect of ele-
silica hydrates (CSH) undergo degradation, and strength of con- vated temperatures on flexural strengths of mortars, strength
crete decreases rapidly. At 900 °C, the structure of CSH disinte- losses were observed up to 22.6% for 300 °C, 40.4% for 600 °C and
grates. Thus, the critical exposure temperature range is 400– 77.1% for 900 °C heat subjection. 600 °C and over, strength losses
800 °C in terms of compressive strength loss. Most of the original were drastic. The lowest flexural strength was 0.9 MPa after sub-
strength is lost between 600 °C and 800 °C [31]. The lowest com- jecting to 900 °C.
pressive strength value obtained as 2.9 MPa at 900 °C is higher
than that (1.5 MPa) of Veiga et al. [63] at ambient temperature. 3.9. SEM analysis
Also values obtained in this study are higher than those of [36].
Silva et al. [33] reported compressive strength ranging between Fig. 13 shows SEM images from the fracture surfaces of light-
1.01 MPa and 3.56 MPa by depending on vermiculite content. The weight mortars. The expanded vermiculite grains and their flakes
results in this study are high when compared to theirs. Also there in microstructure of samples are observed. Vermiculite grains with
186 F. Koksal et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 175–187

large amounts of porosities in mortar body causes to decrease the to protective or isolative properties of expanded vermiculite in
strength of samples, however, the thermal conductivity and ultra- mortar resulting in lesser decomposition of CSH. This is the one
sound drops due to porous structure of vermiculite. The mortar of the important contributions to the area shown by this study.
structure has also microporosities and crystalline structures. The Expanded vermiculite turns out to be a good fire resistant material
bond between vermiculite aggregates and cement matrix is lost since it shows its effect on residual strengths by keeping the initial
due to porous interfacing zone and porous structure of expanded strengths of cementitious materials up to the temperature of
vermiculite. 900 °C. Strengths of mortars produced with vermiculite were
found to be directly proportional to unit weight of them. The coef-
ficient of determination showing this correlation is observed as
4. Conclusion R2 = 0.7675.

The effects of elevated temperatures and silica fume on proper-

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