EXPERIMENT: 01

Aim: Constructional study of D.C. Machine Parts.

Apparatus:
Cut-section model of DC machine

Introduction:
A D.C. machine is a device that converts Mechanical energy into Electrical
energy and vice-versa. When the device acts as a generator, the mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. On the other hand, when the
device acts as a motor, the electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy.

Constructional features:
Generator and motor are very similar to each other in essential parts and
construction. The essential parts of dc machine, as shown in figure 1, can
be grouped into two categories depending upon their placement as follows

Parts in stator Parts in Rotor

Magnetic Frame/ Yoke Armature Core
Main Poles Armature winding
Main field Winding Commutator
Interpoles/Commutating Poles Brushes & Bearings Interpole
winding

STATOR:
Magnetic frame or Yoke:
The outer frame of the DC Machine is called the Yoke and is normally
made of cast Iron for small machine, while for large machines cast steel or
rolled steel is employed. Yoke generally serves two purposes.
 It provides mechanical support to the poles and acts as a
protecting cover for the whole machine.
 It provides a return path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux
produced by the poles.

1
 Field System: The object of the field system is to create a uniform
magnetic field within which the armature rotates. Field system consists of
three parts namely pole cores, pole shoes and magnetizing coils or field
coils. The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. Pole core is
usually of circular section & is used to carry the coils of insulated wires
carrying the exciting current.

Pole shoe acts as a support to the field coils & spread out the flux in the air
gap & also being a larger cross-section reduces the reluctance of the
magnetic path. Both pole cores and pole shoes are laminated and are bolted
to the frame of yoke. The thickness of the lamination varies from 1mm to
0.25mm.

Field coilsor field windings, which consists of copper wire or strip wound
around the pole pieces. When current passes through the coil, the coil
magnetizes the poles, which produce the necessary flux that is cut by
revolving armature conductors.

Interpoles & Interpole Winding: These poles are comparatively smaller in

size than the main poles. They are placed between adjacent main poles.
The flux provided by interpoles gives spark-less commutation & hence
they are also called as commutating poles. The exciting coils around
Interpoles is normally connected in series with the armature circuit &
carries the entire armature current.

Air gap: Radial spacing between main pole & surface of the armature is
called air-gap. The length of air gap may be set between 1mm & 5mm.

ROTOR:
Armature: The purpose of armature is to rotate the armature conductors in
the uniform magnetic field. It is further divided into two parts namely:
Armature core and Armature winding.

Armature core: it is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft as shown in

figure 1. It consists of slots on its periphery & the air ducts to permit the
air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose It is made from
high permeability silicon-steel stampings, each stamping being separated

2
from its neighboring one by thin paper or varnish as insulation. The
function of armature core is:
 To provide house for armature winding
 To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding
Armature winding: It is nothing but the interconnection of the armature
conductors placed in the slots provided on the armature core periphery.
The function of armature winding is:
 To generate e.m.f in the armature winding in case of generator
 To carry the current supplied in case of dc motor

Commutator: The basic nature of e.m.f induced in the armature conductor
is alternating. This needs rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is
possible by device called as commutator. It is cylindrical in shape and is
made up of wedge shape segment of hard drawn, high conductivity copper.
These segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica as
shown in figure 3. It is connected to the armature conductor by means of
copper lug or strip. The function of commutator is:
 To collect current from the armature conductors
 To convert internally developed alternately e.m.f into
unidirectional e.m.f.

Brushes: The function of brushes is to collect current from commutator or

to draw current to commutator. They are usually made of carbon and are in
the shape of rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush holders
usually of the box type as shown in the fig. The brushes are in contact with
the commutator by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by changing the
position of lever in the notches.

Bearings: Bearing is a device, which gives free & smooth rotation of

armature. Ball bearing is frequently employed due to their reliability,
though for heavy duties roller bearings are preferable.

3
FIGURE:1

4
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

Q-1) State the principle of operation on dc generator.

Q-2) Why are electromagnets preferred over permanent magnets for use in large dc machines.

Q-3) Why are field coils provided in a dc machine?

Q-4) Why is armature core of dc machine laminated?

Signature Of Faculty

5
 EXPERIMENT: 02
Aim: To obtain the magnetization characteristic of a separately excited D.C
Generator.

Specific Objective:
After having performed the experiment, we should be able to:
 Know the magnetic characteristic of DC generator
 Define residual magnetism

Machine Specification:

D.C Motor D.C. generator

Apparatus:
Rheostat - 300 Ohm, 1.7 A – 2 No.

Ammeter - 0-3 A (d.c)

Voltmeter - 0-150 / 300 V (d.c)

Rationale:
When the field winding is supplied from external separate d.c. supply i.e.
excitation of field winding is separate then the generator is called separately
excited generator as shown in circuit diagram. Magnetizing characteristics is
obtained by changing the exciting or field current supplied from a separate
source & observing the change in induce e.m.f. Magnetization characteristic of
D.C generator shows relation between no load-generated e.m.f in armature Eo
and field current If at a given constant speed. It is just like as magnetization
curve of electromagnet. In DC generator an expression for the voltage
generated E0 in armature can be written as
E0 = Z N P
60A
6
Where,
= flux per pole in wb.
Z = number of conductor.
N = speed in R.P.M
P = number of pole.
A = number of parallel paths.
E0 = K
E0
Since the air gap flux is proportional to the field winding current If, then
E0  I f
So, the magnetization curve represents a plot of magnetic flux versus
field winding magneto-motive force (mmf). However, in a d.c generator if the
speed is constant, the magnetization curve represents a plot of the open-circuit
induced voltage Eo (in the armature) as a function of field current If. This
curve is also called the open circuit characteristic curve (O.C.C) of the D.C
generator.
For plotting the O.C.C, the generator is separately excited and no any
load is connected across the armature. A voltmeter is used for measuring the
induced voltage Eo across the armature terminals as shown in circuit diagram.
The generator is driven by a motor or any other prime mover at constant
speed.
Graph shows the typical O.C.C of a D.C generator for a constant speed
of armature. Note that at If = 0, the emf E0 is not necessarily zero. It is so
because the machine has been previously used and some residual magnetism is
left. If there is no any emf, the curve would start from the origin. As the field
current If is increased, the flux per pole also increases. Therefore, the induced
emf increases. Increase in If initially increase E0 almost in linear manner. For
higher values of If variation of E0 becomes non-linear & finally it remains
constant when the generator becomes fully saturated as shown in graph.

Critical Field Resistance:

The line OQ in the graph represents the resistances of the field winding R f
Rf = PQ = rated voltage
OP field current
If an external resistance is added to the field circuit, then this slope of the
field resistance line will increase. Let OQ1be the new field resistance line than
the resistance in the field circuit is Rf1. Then the voltage to which the machine
can build up with Rf1 in the field circuit is P1Q1.With an increase in field
resistance the voltage build up by the machine gets reduce. When the process
7
 of increase of the field resistance continue, there will be a value of Rf equal to
Rfc, such that the field resistance line becomes a tangent to the O.C.C. Any
further increase of Rf beyond Rfc will make the field resistance line not to
intersect the O.C.C. This means that the machine will not generate sufficient
e.m.f. Therefore, for appreciable generation of e.m.f across the machine
terminal the field resistance must always be less than
critical resistance Rfc.

E0 R fc
R f2 R f1
Q2
Q1
OA - Residual Magnetism

O P1 P2
If

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
 Switch ON the main power supply to the motor so as to run the d.c
generator at a constant speed.
 Note the voltage across armature when the field current is zero. It gives the
residual magnetism.
 Now increase If gradually by using the rheostat and note voltage across the
armature terminals E0 for each value of field current, If.
8
  Increase the field current and note the reading of voltmeter up to higher
than rated voltage.
Plot graph, Armature voltage Eo V/s Field current If.

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:

Speed = _________ RPM

Field Current If
(Amp)

Armature Voltage E0
(Volt)

9
Conclusion:

Questions:
Q-1) What is the difference between self-excited and separately excited generators?

Q-2) What is meant by OCC of a dc generator?

Q-3) Why does saturation start from some value higher than zero?

Q-4) What is meant by critical field resistance?

Signature of Faculty

10
 EXPERIMENT: 03

Aim: To Obtain Internal and External characteristic of D.C Shunt Generator.

Specific Objective:
After having performed the experiment, we should be able to:
 Test D.C shunt generator & Obtain performance characteristics.
 Define armature resistance & armature reaction drop.

Machine Specification:

D.C Motor D.C. generator

Apparatus:
Voltmeter 0-300 Volt (D.C) - One
Ammeter 0-3 Amp (D.C) - One
0-15 Amp (D.C) - One
Rheostat 300 Ohm, 1.7 Amp - Two
Tachometer - One

Rationale:
The working behavior of D.C generator under different conditions is
studied, & the graphs or curves exhibiting in inter-relations between
various quantities are called characteristics. When load test is performed
on D.C shunt generator, the terminal voltage of generator falls down as the
load on the generator increases at constant speed of prime mover i.e. speed
of generator.
There are three reasons for the terminal voltage of generator falls down
as the load on D.C shunt generator increases.

11
 Armature Resistance drop – IaRa: As load current increases,therefore
armature current Ia = If +IL is increases and voltage drop IaRa increases due
to the armature resistance. Hence, terminal voltage of generator falls down.
Armature reaction drop: Due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction, flux is weakened and e.m.f. of generator will reduced and hence
terminal voltage reduced.
Reduced terminal voltage due to above two factors in self excited D.C
Shunt generator field current reduces, hence flux reduces and hence
induced emf further reduces.

External Characteristics:
It gives relationship between terminal voltage V and load current ILat
constant speed. This characteristic clearly indicates the terminal voltage
maintained by the generator at a particular load. It is also referred as
Performance characteristics or Voltage regulating curve.
It can be obtained by two ways: By making simultaneous measurement
with a suitable voltmeter and ammeter at load side on D.C shunt generator
and by graphically from O.C.C. provided that the armature resistance and
field resistance and demagnetizing effect are known.
From this characteristic curve,we can see that the terminal voltage
Vt=E- IaRa decreases with increase in load. But as Ra is very small, though
IL changes from no load to full load, the drop in terminal voltage is very
small. Hence, the D.C shunt generator is called as Constant Voltage
Generator.
Internal Characteristics:
It gives relationship between the e.m.f. E actually induced in the
armature and armature current Ia. It is also referred as Total characteristic.
The emf induced & Armature current in the generator is given by the
following equations.
E = V + IaRa + Armature Voltage Drop
Ia = I L + I f

Procedure:

12
  Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
 Switch ON 230 V D.C supply to D.C shunt motor and start motor with
help of starter.
 Adjust D.C shunt motor speed at rated speed with help of field
regulator.
 Keep the load open, adjust terminal voltage of D.C shunt generator at
rated voltage with help of shunt field rheostat.
 Note the reading of terminal voltage V, load current IL, field current If
at no load.
 Increase the load in steps and note the readings of terminal voltage V,
load current IL, field current If.
 Switch OFF the load & than Switch OFF the supply.
 Plot graph: Terminal voltage V v/s Load current IL as External
characteristics.
 Plot graph: Induced e.m.f. E v/s Armature current Ia as Internal
characteristics.

Circuit Diagram:

13
Observation:

Armature resistance Ra = _________ Ohm

Speed of Motor orGenerator N = __________ RPM

Sr. Terminal Load Field Current Armature Armature Induced

No. Voltage Current (IF) Current Resistance e.m.f.
(V) (IL) Ia = I L + I F Drop E = V + IaRa
(Amp.)
(Volt) (Amp.) (Amp.) IaRa (Volt)
(Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Conclusion:

14
Questions:
Q-1)In a dc machine flux per pole decreases with increase in load. Justify the
statement.

Q-2)Why is it not advisable to fully load a dc shunt generator until its voltage builds
up to a rated value?

Q-3) What type of generator can be used for battery charging? Why?

Signature of Faculty

15
 EXPERIMENT: 04

Aim: To obtain Internal and External characteristics of a D.C. Series generator.

Machine Specification:
D.C Motor D.C. Generator

Apparatus: Voltmeter 0-300 V– One.

Voltmeter 0-30 V – One.

Ammeter 0- 10 A – One.
Lamp bank
Tachometer
Rationale:

The D.C. series generator is a self-excited generator with armature field winding &
load all connected in series as shown in the circuit diagram so that the armature
current , field current & load current are the same. When the generator is run at its
rated speed on no load, no current passes through the field and hence small emf is
induced owing to the residual flux. When load is given to the generator, the current
passes through the field. If the series field is properly connected so as to aid the
residual flux, the terminal voltage increases with load current. The increase in the
terminal voltage continues to increase up to the certain value of load current. Any
further increase in the load current reduces the terminal voltage. Induced voltage is
also reduced due to the armature reaction at large value of the load current. The
external characteristic of d.c. Generator expresses the relationship between the
terminal voltage and he load current at a constant speed. The internal characteristic

16
expresses the relationship between the e.m.f. (Ea) actually induced in the armature &
armature current.
It is obvious from the shape of the external characteristics that the series generator is
a variable voltage generator. The series generators are not used in the applications
where constant voltage is required because of their rising external characteristic but
these generators are generally used as boosters of the d.c. distribution systems.
Procedure:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

 Switch ON the supply and adjust the speed of the motor to the rated speed of
the set. Initially the generator will have small voltage due to residual
magnetism. Note down the readings and record them in the observation table.

 Load the generator in steps preferably for loads 10%, 25%,50%, 75%, 100%,
110% approximately by adjusting the resistance of the load speed must
maintained constant at its rated value during the test. Observe various reading
and record them in observation table.

 Reduce the load gradually to zero and switch OFF the supply

 Measure the armature resistance by multimeter

 Calculate armature drop and induced e.m.f. for each reading

 Plot the graph: Terminal voltage (Vt) v/s load current (IL) (External
Characteristic)

 Induced e.m.f. (Ea) v/s Armature current (Ia) (Internal Characteristic)

Circuit Diagram:

17
 Sr. Terminal Load Voltage Armature Induced e.m.f.
No. Voltage (Vt) Current (IL) across Resistance Ea = Vt + Vse+Va
(Volt) (Amp.) series field Drop
(Vse) (Volt)
IaRa
(Volts) (Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Conclusion:

18
Questions:

Q-1) Why is dc series generator not suitable for general electric supply?

Q-2) Give the applications of D.C. Series generation. Give reason.

Signature Of Faculty

19
 EXPERIMENT: 05

Aim: To obtain External and Internal characteristics of a D.C. compound generator

Specific Objective:
After performing this experiment one should able to know
 The connection of compound generator.
 Test D.C compound generator& Obtain performance characteristics.

Machine Specification:

D.C Motor D.C. generator

Apparatus: Voltmeter 0-300 V– One.

Voltmeter 0-30 V – One.

Ammeter 0- 10 A – One.
Ammeter 0- 3 A – One.
Lamp bank
Tachometer
Rheostat 300 Ω ,1.7 A - One.

Rationale:
Compound generator is provided with two windings, shunt and series.
The shunt winding consists of a large number of turns of thin wire. It has
a high resistance and is connected in parallel with the armature terminals.
The series field winding consists of few turns of thick wire. It has a low
resistance and connected in series with the armature.
Depending upon the connection of the field winding, compound
generators are classified as:

20
 



Long shunt type

 Short shunt type

In short shunt type compound generator, the shunt winding is connected

directly across the armature alone. The current through the series winding
is the load current (IL) which is equal to armature current (Ia) minus shunt
field current (Ish).

In long shunt compound generator, the series field is directly connected

in series with the armature and carries the armature current. The shunt field
winding is connected across the series combination of armature and series
field. The net flux set up in compound generator is combination of flux set
up by shunt field winding on no load & the flux set up by series field
winding during load.

If the flux due to series field winding (Фs) aids the flux due to shunt
field winding (Фsh) connection is said to be a cumulative connection, If
the flux due to series field winding (Фs) opposes the flux due to shunt
field winding (Фsh) ,it is said to be a differential connection.

Based on the combination of the connections and the direction of

current through the field windings, compound generators are further
classified as:-

1. Long shunt cumulative compound generator.

2. Long shunt differential compound generator.

3. Short shunt cumulative compound generator.

4. Short shunt differential compound generator.

21
 In d.c compound generator, the series field winding is generally
arranged to assist the shunt field winding. The manner in which the
terminal voltage varies with the load current depends upon the relative
strengths of the two windings as well as on the initial no-load voltage.

By suitably selecting the number of turns on the series winding, the terminal voltage
can be made practically constant when the load varies from no-load to full load, the
generator is said Flat (Level) compound generator. The characteristics is shown by
curve A.By using relatively strong series field winding, it is possible to off-set the
voltage drop in the armature and the series field winding. The terminal voltage then
rises with an increase in the load current as shown by curve B and the generator is
said to be Over compound .

 If a series field is not strong, the terminal voltage decreases with the
load current as shown by curve C and the generator is said to be under
compound.

 If in a compound generator, the series turns are arranged so as to

oppose the shunt coil polarity, then terminal volt, falls very rapidly as
load current increases as shown by curve D called differential
compound generator.

Application :

 The level compound generators are generally used in dc

distribution network, where constant volt is required at the
consumer end.

 The over compound generators are normally used to off-set the

voltage drop in the feeders.

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Switch ON the supply and start the motor. Adjust the speed of the
motor to the rated speed of the set.
 Excite the shunt field till the e.m.f on open circuit or no load is the
rated voltage. Note down the various readings in the Observation table.

22
  Load the generator in steps preferably 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%
and 110% load approximately by adjusting the resistance of the lamp
bank. Observe the various readings during each step of load and record
them. The speed of the setmust be maintained at its rated value during
the test.
 Decrease the load gradually to zero and switch OFF the supply.
 Measure the armature resistance by multimeter or voltmeter-ammeter
method.
 Plot the graph :- VL v/s IL - External Characteristic
Ea v/s IL - Internal Characteristic

Circuit Diagram:

Calculation:
Armature current , Ra = Va/Ia

Armature voltage Drop Va = Ia.Ra

Induced e.m.f. ( Ea)= VL + Vse + Va

23
Observation:
Speed = -------------- RPM

Armature Resistance Ra = -------------- Ohm.

Voltage
Shunt Armature Induced
Terminal Load across Armature
Field current e.m.f.
Sr. Voltage current series Drop
Current Ia = I L field
VL IL Ea=VL+Vse
No. +Ish Va = Ia.Ra
Ish Vse +Va
( Volts) ( Amp) (Volts)
(Amp) (Amp) (Volts)
( Volts)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Conclusion:

24
Questions:
Q-1) The terminal voltage of a dc generator at full load is more than its open circuit
voltage .What is the mode of excitation of the generator?

Q-2) What kind of generator can be expected to have no load voltage and full load
voltage to be the same?

Q-3) What are the applications of cumulative compound and Differential compound
Generator?

Q-4) Give reason for the their application in that particular area.

Signature Of Faculty
25
 EXPERIMENT: 06

Aim: Study construction and working principle of the d.c. motor Starter.

Specific Objective:
After studied the experiment, one should be able to:
 Know necessity of the starter.
 Know the function of Hold on coil & Overload release coil.

Apparatus:

 Three-point starter

 Four –point starter

Rationale:

Necessity of the starter:

Consider the d.c. Motor, whose armature winding has a resistance R a
and develops a back e.m.f Eb. The current of the armature winding Ia is
given by the equation
V  Eb
Ia 
Ra
At the time of starting, when motor is yet to pick up its speed, the
back e.m.f is zero and therefore equation become
V
Ias 
Ra
Where, Ias is the armature current at the time of starting.

Thus, the absence of back e.m.f causes the armature current at the
time of starting to shoot up about 20 times the normal armature current.
Sudden drawing of this large current from the supply system is highly
unwarranted. Therefore to limit the high starting current, an additional
resistance Rst should be added in the armature circuit. This is known as
starter. Hence, starter is used to limit starting current.
V
Ias 
R a R st

26
 During the acceleration of the motor, this starting resistance has to be
cut down step by step and finally all the resistances have to be removed for
efficient normal operation. Under normal running condition, the value of
the back e.m.f Eb is generally around 95 percent of the supply voltage V.
Therefore the net potential difference in the armature circuit, (V – Eb) is
only around 5 per cent of the supply voltage and this causes the rated
armature current to flow in the armature circuit during normal running
condition.

Three Point Starter:

Fig.1 shows the connection diagram of a three-point starter used for
shunt and compound motors. Apart from the essential requirement of
starting resistances the starters are invariably fitted with other protective
devices such as no-voltage protection and over-load protection.
R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 are resistances; the sum of them should give
the required value of Rst to limit the starting current. The five resistances
give rise to six contact studs marked 1 to 6. B is a brass arc, which in one
way behaves a guiding rail for the handle H and also acts as a connecting
link between stud 1 and the NVR (the no-voltage release) coil. The other
end of the NVR coil is connected to terminal F of the starter terminal
board. Contact 6 is connected to terminal A. Connection to the handle
contact comes from terminal L through Overload release coil. The
movement of the handle is against the force offered by spring S.
As the starter ultimately has 3 terminals in its board L, F, and A, It is
called three-point starter. Terminal L stands for the terminal to be
connected to supply positive line. Shunt field circuit connection is made
from terminal F and from terminal A connection is to be made to the
armature circuit of the motor as shown in the fig.1

Working:

To start with, the main switch is first closed. As soon the arm makes the
contact with stud-1. The field circuit is directly connected across line and
at the same time full starting resistance Rst is placed in series with armature
as the arm moved, resistance is step-by-step cutout. The arm moves over
the studs against a strong spring, which tends to restore it to off position.
There is soft iron piece attached to arm, and it is attracted and hold by an
electromagnet energized by field ckt. It is called “Hold On Coil” or No
Voltage release coil.

27
Hold On Coil or No voltage release coil:
The normal function of hold on coil is to hold the arm in running
position. i.e. When the motor is in full normal operation. The starter handle
is retained in the ON position by means of magnetic attraction. An iron
piece fitted in the handle is made to be attracted by an electromagnet fitted
with the No Voltage release (NVR) coil. The exciting current through the
NVR coil in this three-point starter is same as the field current of the
motor. Hence as long as the supply voltage is in healthy condition, the
normal field current of the motor passing through the NVR coil will
produce enough magnetic force of attraction and retain the handle in the
ON position against its spring force. When the supply voltage fails or
becomes lower than a prescribed value, the electromagnet may not have
enough force, and the handle will come back to OFF position due to its
spring force automatically. Thus a no-voltage or under voltage protection
is given to the motor by this coil.

Overload release coil:

To protect the motor during over-load condition, the starter is fitted
with another electromagnet wound with the OLR (Over load release) coil.
As shown in the fig.1, the entire line current is made to flow through this
OLR Coil. Below this electromagnet there is an iron piece and the gap
between the iron piece and the electromagnet is adjustable. This gap is so
set that the magnetic force of attraction developed by the electromagnet
will not able to lift the iron piece upward as long as the exciting line
current is below a certain value, say about 1.25 times the rated current.
Due to any over load in the motor, if the line current increases above the
said value, the excess magnetic force lifts the iron piece. As the iron piece
make an up ward movement, a contactor C fitted along with it causes the
two terminals of the NVR coil to get short-circuited. Hence the
electromagnet fitted with the NVR coil loses its magnetic force and
releases the starter handle from the ON position towards OFF position,
thus protecting the motor against over-load.

Draw Backs:
If the motor speed is increase by inserting the resistance in series with
field winding the field current is decrease. So current flowing from hold on
coil is decrease because of decrease in field current. Now the hold on coil
is not properly magnetized, so that it is unable to hold the arm and motor
stop running. This difficulty is overcome by using four-point starter.

28
Four Point Starter:

Such a starter without internal wiring so connected to a long shunt

compound motor when compared to three-point starter, “Hold On Coil”
may be taken out of shunt field ckt. It has been connected directly across
the line through a protecting resistance when the arm touches stud-1 as
shown in fig.2. This line current divided in to three parts. One part passes
through starting resistance Rst, series field and motor armature. The second
part passes through a shunt field resistance Rsh. The third part passes
through the Hold on Coil and current protecting resistance R it should be
particularly noted that with this arrangement any change of current in the
shunt field ckt does not altered at all the current passing through the hold
on coil because the two ckt are independent of each other. Hold on Coil
will always be sufficient to prevent the spring from restoring the starting
arm to OFF position.

29
Conclusion:

30
Questions:
Q-1) Explain why starter is required for starting dc motors?

Q-2) Why is starting current high in dc motor?

Q-3) What would happen if the external resistance used for starting the dc motor is
left in the armature circuit?

Q-4) Why no volt release is provided in in dc series motor?

Signature of Faculty

31
 EXPERIMENT: 07
Aim: To perform the speed control of D.C shunt Motor by
(i) Field Control Method
(ii) Armature Control Method

Specific Objective:
After having performed the experiment, we should be able to:
 Know the governing parameters for speed control.
 Know the merit & demerit of speed control methods.
Machine Specifications:

D.C Motor

Apparatus:
Voltmeter 0-300 Volt (D.C) - One
Ammeter 0-3 Amp (D.C) - One
Rheostat 300 Ohm, 1.7 Amp - One
Rheostat 50 Ohm, 5 Amp - One
Tachometer.
Theory:
The speed of DC motor is governed by the equation:

E
N  b


Where, E b  Va  I a  R a

32
 On the right hand side of the equation, there are three operating
parameters, namely, Va, the voltage applied to the armature circuit; IaRa,
the voltage drop in the armature circuit and  the useful flux per pole.
Accordingly the different methods of controlling the speed of DC motors
are broadly classified as,

 Field control or Flux control method by changing 

 Armature resistance control by changing IaRa drop
 Armature voltage control by changing Va

Field Control Method:

The magnetic flux set up by the main poles is related to the exciting
current. As per above equation the speed of the DC motor is inversely
proportional to the flux and this inverse relation gives variation of speed
with respect to the field current.
Field control method can be easily adopted to shunt motor by adding a
variable resistance called regulating resistance, Rr, in series with the shunt
field winding as shown in circuit diagram. With rated voltage applied
across the armature and field circuit, initially when Rr = 0, the field current
If will be maximum, a value slightly higher than normal field current. By
increasing the value of Rr, the net resistance of the field circuit is
increased. This causes the field current to decrease and speed to increase
from a value slightly lower than the normal level to a speed higher than the
rated speed.
Thus the range of speed variation in this field control method is from
normal value to about two times more. Higher value is restricted by
mechanical considerations.

Merits:
 The regulating resistance has to carry only a small current and hence
is easily available.
 The regulating resistance can be made up of slide wire type of resistor
and hence a continues variation of speed is possible.
 The power wasted in the regulating resistance is very small and hence
this method is more economical.

Demerits:
 The speed cannot be decreased below the normal speed level. Higher
speed results in poor commutation.

33
Armature Control Method:
In this method, the speed of DC motor can be changed by adding a
variable resistance in the armature circuit. Addition of extra resistance in
the armature circuit reduces the back-e.m.f of the motor which in turn
reduces the speed, as the speed is directly proportional to the back-e.m.f.
The resistance connected in the armature circuit should be capable of
carrying the large armature current for continuous period. If Eb1 is the back
e.m.f under normal operation without any extra resistance and Eb2 is the
back-e.m.f with extra resistance in the armature circuit, the network
equations representing them are given by the following equations.
Eb1 = V - Ia (Ra + Rse)
Eb2 = V - Ia (Ra + Rse)
Then under constant flux condition, the ratio of speed in the above two
occasions is given by the following equation,
N2 / N1 = Eb2/Eb1
Thus in armature resistance control, the range of speed variation is from
normal speed down to even zero speed.

Merits:
 The range of speed variation from normal speed down to even
zero speed.
Demerits:
 It is relatively more costly.
 The speed varies gradually with variation of load due to changes in the
voltage drop across the rheostat.
 The power losses in resistors are large at low speeds resulting in low
efficiency of the motor.
 The speed cannot be increased.

Procedure:
 Connect the machine as shown in the circuit diagram, for field control
method.

 Set rheostat at minimum position and note the reading of field current I f.

 That is maximum current and measure the speed by tachometer.

34
  Now step by step increase the resistance of field winding by rheostat and
take different reading of field current & the corresponding speed at each
step.

 Now connect the circuit for armature control method.

 Keep field current constant and vary the voltage across the armature by
varying the position of rheostat which is connected in series with armature.

 Measure the volt across armature and speed at each position of rheostat.

 Draw the graph N -- If and N -- Va

 Circuit Diagram:

Observation:

Field control method

Field current
(Amp)
Speed(RPM)

35
 Armature control method
Armature
Voltage(Volt)
Speed(RPM)

Conclusion:

Questions:
Q-1) what are the factors that affect the speed of a dc motor?

Q-2) Why is it not possible to obtain speed of a dc shunt motor below normal by
field resistance control method?

Q-3) Why is it not possible to obtain speed of a dc shunt motor above normal by
armature resistance control method?

36
Q-4) Why is the effect of inserting resistance in the field circuit of a dc shunt motor
on its speed and torque?

Signature of Faculty

37
 EXPERIMENT: 08
Aim: Constructional study of 1-Phase Transformer.

Specific Objective:
After studding the experiment we should be able to:
 Know the function & working principle of transformer.
 Classify the transformer according to the construction.

Apparatus:
1-Phase Transformer

Theory:
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means
of electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. It can be raise or lower the voltage in a circuit
but with a corresponding decrease in increase in current. The physical basis
of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits liked by a common
magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which
are electrically separated by magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance as shown in Fig (1).

Electrical energy is generated at places where it is easier to get

water heated, oil or coal for hydro-electric, diesel or thermal power station
respectively. Then energy is to be transmitted at considerable distances for
use in villages, towns and cities located at distance places. As already shown
transmission of electrical energy at high voltages is economical therefore
some means are required for stepping up the voltage at generating stations
and stepping down the same at the places where it is to be used electric
machine is used for purpose is “transformer”. In our country the electric
energy is usually generated at 6.6 or 1.1 or 33 kV, stepped up to 132 or 220
or 400 kV with the help of step up transformers for transmission and then
stepped down to 66 kv or 33 kv at grid-substation for feeding various
substation, which further step down the voltage to 11 kv for feeding

38
 distribution transformer stepping down the voltage further to 400/230 volts
for consumer uses.

Constructional features:
A single-phase Transformer consists of a magnetic core and two
windings. By construction, the two windings are called low-voltage (LV)
winding and High-voltage(HV) winding. The transformer core is made up of
silicon steel laminations. Steel offers low reluctance path for the magnetic
flux to pass through. As the type of flux present is alternating flux, the flux
reversal causes the magnetic losses, hysteresis and eddy current losses in the
core. To reduce Hysteresis and eddy current loss. The LV and HV windings
are wound with copper wires, being good conductor current.

There are two basic types of transformer construction:

 Core type Transformer.

 Shell Transformer.

Core type transformer :

In this type, the core is stacked by ‘U’ section and ‘I’ section
laminations

as shown in Fig.2 (a). Single-phase core type transformer has two limbs,
the vertical columns, around which windings are housed, two yokes, the
horizontal sections and one window, the space enclosed by the core. All
sections of the core carries the same flux as there is a single flux path.
Initially U section laminations are stacked. After placing sufficient
insulations around the limbs, pre wound LV windings are inserted
immediately around the limb. Each LV windings has half the required
number of turns. The two half LV windings are connected in series and the
resultant two terminals are taken out for external connections.

After providing sufficient insulation around the LV windings, each

half HV coils are placed over the LV windings as shown in fig 2(b). the two
39
 half HV coils are then connected in series and resultant two terminals are
taken out for external connection.

Shell type transformer :

E and I section laminations shown in Fig 3(a) are used for stacking the

shell type Transformer core.The shell type Transformer has two outer limbs,
one middle limb, two yokes and two windows. There are two flux paths. Full
flux φ pass through the middle limb and in the remaining parts of the core
that core the flux φ/2. Hence, the middle limb width is twice as that of outer
limbs.Initially E section lamination are stacked immediately around the
middle limb the full LV winding is placed and over HV winding is placed of
course with suitable insulation between limb and LV winding and between
LV and HV windings. Finally, the magnetic circuit is closed with I section
lamination.

Transformer of smaller capacity may be provided with a simple

enclosure with a provision for natural air circulation. Large capacity
transformers are put up inside a leak proof tank and filled up with insulation
oil.(as shown in fig 4)

Working Principle of a transformer:

The principle on which a transformer works is

electromagnetic induction, which states that induced emf is proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux. Essential parts of a transformer (Fig. 1)
are :

 An iron core is either circular or rectangular in shape, and is laminated (to

avoid eddy current loss). The vertical portion of the core is called limb ; which
the top, and bottom portion are the yokes.
 Two windings, one connected to source of the electrical energy (called
primary winding); while the other connected to the load (called secondary
windings). These windings are coils of different number of turns, would
around the limbs of the core. Each winding is properly insulated from each
other as well as the core.

In a step-up Transformer, the primary coil consists of smaller

40
number of turns of thick well-insulated copper-wire; while the secondary coil
has a larger number of turns of thin well-insulated copper-wire. On the other
hand, in a step-down Transformer, the primary coil consists of thin well-
insulated copper-wire of larger number of turns; while the secondary coil has a
smaller number of turns of thick turn of thick well-insulated copper-wire.

when the primary winding is connected to an a.c. supply mains a

current flows through it. Since this winding links with an iron core, so current
flowing through this winding produces an alternating flux Ø in the core. Since
this flux is alternating and links with the secondary winding also, so induced
an e.m.f. in secondary winding is the same as that of the flux or that the
supply voltage. The induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding enables it to
deliver current to an external load connected across it. Thus the energy is
transformed from primary winding to the secondary winding by means of
electro-magnetic induction with out any change in frequency. The flux Ø of
the iron core links not only with the secondary winding but also with the
primary winding so produces self induced e.m.f. in the primary winding. This
induced e.m.f. in the primary winding opposes the applied voltage and
therefore sometimes it is know as back e.m.f. of the primery. In fact the
induced e.m.f. in the primary winding limits the primary current in much the
same way that the back e.m.f. in a D.C. Motor limit the armature current.

Figure: 1

41
Figure: 2

42
 Figure 3

Figure: 4

Conclusion:

Questions:

Q-1) Why transformer cannot be operated on dc?

Q-2) What is magnetizing current?

43
Q-3) Why is transformer rating given in kVA?

Q-4) Does transformer draw any current when its secondary is open?

Signature Of Faculty

44
 EXPERIMENT:09
Aim: Constructional study of 3-Phase Induction Motor.

Specific Objective:
After studying the experiment one should be able to:
 Know the function & working principle of 3- Induction Motor.
 Classify the 3- Induction Motor according to the construction.

Apparatus:

3- Induction Motor.

Rationale:

With the almost universal adoption of a.c system of distribution of

electric energy for light and power the field of application of a.c motors has
widened considerably during recent years . Various types of a.c motors are
suitable for all classes of industrial drives and for both single and three
phase a.c supply. While three-phase induction motors have wide application
as electrical machines, single phase induction motors are mostly used for
domestic applications. More than 85 % of the industrial motors is
substantially a constant speed motor, similar to a D.C. Shunt motor. They are
called so,because only the field-producing winding (Stator) is connected to
the voltage source,a rotating magnetic field is produced in it , which induces
emf in rotor winding. The emf in the rotor in turn produces rotor currents .”
Since there is no electrical connection to the rotor from the 3-phase supply,
and the currents in the rotor are set up entirely by the effect of
electromagnetic induction from the stator , hence it is know as Induction
motor”.

Constructional features:

An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts.

 Stator.
 Rotor.
45
STATOR:
It is an outer ‘stationary’, hollow cylindrical structure made of
laminated sheet –steel. The laminations are slotted on their inner periphery.
In these slots, a normal three phase winding is placed , which constitutes the
stator winding. The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is feed from a three
phase supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of
poles being determined by the requirements of speed greater the number of
poles lesser the speed and vice versa .It is observed that the stator windings
when supplied with 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux, which is of
constant magnitude but which revolves at synchronous speed. This
revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f in the rotor by mutual induction.

TYPE OF ROTOR:

 Squirrel–cage rotor:
Almost 90% of the induction motors are squirrel cage type,
because this type of rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction
imaginable and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of a cylindrical
laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors which are
not wires but consists of heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys.

One bar is placed in each slot, rather the bars inserted from the
end when semi-closed slots are used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically
welded or bolted to two end rings, thus giving us what is so picturesquely
called, a squirrel –case construction. It should be noted that the rotor bars
are permanently short circuited on themselves ,hence it is not possible to add
any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting purposes.
The rotor slots are not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a
slight skew .this is useful in two ways, as shown in Figure 1:

 It helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic

hum.
46
  It also helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor ,that is
tendency of the rotor teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to
direct magnetic attraction between the two.

In small motors , another method of construction is used .It consists of

placing the entire rotor core in the mould case and casting all the bars and end
rings in one piece. The metal commonly used is an aluminum alloy. An other
form of the rotor consists of a cylinder of steel with out any conductors or
slots at all. The motor operation depends upon the production of eddy
currents in the steel rotor.

 Phase –wound or wound rotor :

This type of rotor is provided with three phase, double layer distributed
winding consisting of coils as used in alternators .The rotor is wound for, as
many poles as as the number of stator poles and is always wound 3-phase
even when the stator is wound two phase. The three phases are starred
internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out and connected
to the three insulated slip- rings mounted on the shaft with brushing resting
on them (Figure 2).

These three brushes are further externally connected to a three phase

star connected rheostat (Figure3). This makes possible the introduction of
additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for starting
the torque of the motor, for changing its speed torque /current characteristics
as shown in. When running under normal conditions the slip ring is
automatically short-circuited by means of a metal collar, which is pushed
along the shaft and connects all the rings together. Next the brushes are
automatically lifted from the slip rings to reduce the frictional losses and the
wear and tear. Hence, it is seen that under normal running condition, the
wound rotor is short-circuited on itself just like the squirrel-case rotor.

Working Principle of a 3- Induction Motor.

When the three-phase winding of the stator is connected to the three-
phase supply, then the three-phase currents in stator winding produces a
rotating magnetic field (or flux,) which rotates round the stator at
synchronous speed (Ns). This rotating flux asses through the air-gap, and cuts
the rotor conductors (which are yet stationary). Due to relative velocity
between the rotating flux, and stationary rotor, e..m.f induced in the rotor
conductors. The frequency of induced e.m.f is the same as the supply
frequency, when the rotor is stationary. Since the rotor conductor circuit is
47
closed, so induced e.m.f is produces rotor current, which starts flowing in the
rotor conductors. Consequently, a torque producing condition (i.e, current-
carrying conductor placed in a rotating magnetic field) is
established. According to Lenz’s law, under the influence of this torque (a
mechanical force), the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the
rotating magnetic filed.
Since the direction of rotation of rotor as well as the rotating
magnetic filed are the same, so the relative velocity between the two
decreases. A decrease in relative velocity, however, decrease the induced
EMF, rotor current, and consequently, the torque also. But the rotor
continuous to accelerate, and gain speed, till the developed torque equals
losses torque [no-load condition is concerned here.

When motor is loaded, the load torque plus losses torque becomes
greater than the developed torque. Consequently, the motor slows down.
However, a reduction in rotor speed means an increase in relative velocity as
well as rotor current, and hence, the torque developed also. Thus, the speed to
3-phase induction motor varies with the load, but the speed of the rotating
magnetic field remains constant.

Advantage of a three-phase induction motor :

 It is very simple, robust rugged, and capable of withstanding rough

use.
 It is quite cheap in cost, and reliable.
 Its maintenance cost is low.
 Its losses are small, so has sufficiently high efficiency.
 It is a trouble free motor.
 Its power factor is reasonably good.
 It is simple to start, since it has a self-starting torque.
 It is equivalent to a static transformer, whose secondary is capable
of rotating w.r.t the primary. Usually, the stator is primary, while
the rotor is secondary. The induction motor operation equally well,
if the rotor is primary and the stator operation is secondary.

Disadvantage :

 Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing efficiency.

 Its speed decreases with an increase in load.
48
 Its starting torque is inferior to D.C. shunt motor.
 The starting current is, usually, 5 to 7 times of full load (rated)
current.
 It runs at lagging power factor, when lightly-loaded.

Figure :1

49
 Figure :- 2

Figure :3

Conclusion:

50
Questions:

Q-1) Why the slots on the rotor of an induction motor are usually skewed?

Q-2)What is the necessity of short circuited rotor conductors in a squirrel cage

induction motor?

Q-3) What is slip of induction motor?

Q-4) Why does rotor rotate in induction motor?

Signature Of Faculty
51
 EXPERIMENT:10
Aim: To perform load Test on a 3-Φ Induction Motor & Obtain the performance
characteristics.

Specific Objective:
After performing this experiment, one should be able to:
 Discuss the variation in parameters of induction motor with load
 Compute the efficiency of induction motor by load test.

Apparatus:
Voltmeter (M.I.)600 V 01
Ammeter (M.I.)10 V 01
Wattmeter 600 V/10 A 02
3-phase variac,20 A 01

Rationale:
During the conduction of load test, the load is applied to the motor
either by means of a brake and pulley arrangement or by coupling it to
generator of known efficiency. The complete performance parameters of
induction motor, means the various quantities like torque, slip, power
factor, efficiency etc are to be calculated at different loading. The detail
circuit of conducting load test on induction motor is as shown in circuit
diagram. Conduct the load test as per the procedure given and note the
readings of current, voltage, power, torque and speed of motor. The effect
of applying load on the performance parameters are discussed as follows:

Effect on speed :
When the induction motor is on no-load, the speed is slightly
below the synchronous speed. The current is due to induced emf in the
rotor winding is responsible for production of torque required at no-load.
As the load is increased, the rotor speed is slightly reduced.

Effect on Slip :
Slip is expressed as the difference in the speed of the rotor
relative to that of the rotating magnetic field which rotates at synchronous
speed. Slip expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed thus:

52
 = 100
Synchronous speed Ns depends upon frequency of stator supply voltage
and the number of poles for which the motor winding is made :
Ns = 120 f
P
Therefore, if f and P are constant, then Ns is constant for a particular
motor. Thus with increase in load on the motor if Nr decreases, S will
increase.
Effect on Stator Current :
Current drawn by the stator is determined by two factors,. Its one
component is the magnetizing current required to maintain the rotating
field. The second component produces a filed which is equal and opposite
to that formed by the rotor currents. The rotor current increases with load.
The stator current will therefore, increase with load.

Effect on Power Factor :

Power factor of an induction motor on no-load is very low because
of the high value of magnetizing current. With load the power factor
increases because the power component of the current is increased. An
induction motor draws a heavy amount of magnetizing current due to
presence of air-gap between the stator and the rotor. To reduce the
magnetizing current in an induction motor, the air gap is kept as small as
possible.

Effect of Efficiency :
To study the effect of load on efficiency, we should study the effect
of load on the various losses taking place in an induction motor.
The losses occurring in a motor are of three kinds, viz (i) losses in
the stator and rotor windings, (ii) iron-losses in stator and rotor core, and
(iii) friction and windage losses.
Iron-losses in the stator is proportional to stator flux density and
frequency of supply. The strength of the stator filed is constant at all loads
and hence the stator-iron loss will not change with load.
The Iron-losses in the rotor is very small as the frequency of the
rotor current is small and therefore, iron losses in the rotor may be
neglected as compared to the stator iron-losses.
Thus, the iron-loss is independent of load on the motor. As the speed
of the motor does not vary very much with load, friction and windage
losses also can be assumed as constant.

53
 But I2R-loss in both stator and rotor winding increase as square of
the load. Therefore, with load, efficiency will increase but the curve
would be dropping at very high load.

Effect on Torque :
Output = Torque X Speed

As the speed of the motor does not vary appreciably with load,
torque will increase with increase in load, i.e. with increase in output.

Procedure :

 Measure the cold resistance of stator winding.

 Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
 The three phase variac is set for minimum voltage and brake pulley
arrangement is set for no load.
 Apply 3-Ф supply to the motor by slowly varying the three phase
variac. Note the direction of deflection in wattmeters. At this stage one
of the wattmeters may read negative. If it is so, switch OFF, the supply
and change the connection of one of the coils of this wattmeters. The
readings of this wattmeter hould be recorded as negative.

 Now increase the voltage applied to the motor to its rated value.
 Note down the readings of different meters. This is no-load reading.
 Increase the mechanical load on the motor & note the readings. Repeat
this for various load setting.
 At some stage one of the wattmeters may again start negative readings,
then change the connections of any one of the coils of the wattmeters.
 Switch OFF the supply & measure the hot resistance of stator winding.

 Calculate the performance parameters of the Induction motor.

 Plot the graph.
 Torque V/S output power.
 Efficiency V/S output power.
 Line current V/S output power.
54
  Power factor V/S output power.
 Slip V/S output power.
 Speed V/S output power.

Calculation :
Let, the reading be
I = line current
V = line voltage
W = W1 + W2
= Total input power to the motor = ____________
Power factor to be calculated as follows :

If angle Ф is known then cos Ф = power factor is to be calculated

Ø = ____________ CosØ = ___________

Output torque, T= (S1-S2) x r x 9.81 N.m = ___________

where,
r = radius of the brake drum in meter.

Output power, Po = T x ω

2
= =
60

where,
N=speed of motor in r.p.m.

Efficiency, η = Output power x 100

Input power

= Po x 100 = ___________ %
W

Operating Slip, S = Ns – Nr = ___________

Ns

55
Circuit Diagram

Observation :

Cold resistance= _________ at ____________ C .

Hot resistance = __________

Line Input Output

LineVoltage Speed
Sr. current
V W1 W2 Balance Balance N
No. I
(volts) (watts) (watts) S1 (kg) S2 (kg) (R.P.M)
(Amps)

56
 Result :

Output
Input Power Torque Slip Power
Sr. Power Efficiency
W = W 1 + W2 T = 9.81r (S1 - S2) S = N s – Nr Factor
P0 = 2ΠNT
No. η%
(Watt) (N.m) 60 Ns Cos Ø
Watt

Conclusion:

Questions:

Q-1) Why are the iron losses in the rotor of an induction motor normally neglected?

57
Q-2) Why the power factor of a squirrel cage induction motor is low at light loads?

Q-3) Why no-load current of an induction motor is much higher than that of an
equivalent transformer?

Q-4) Why the efficiency of a three phase induction motor is less than that of
transformer?

Signature of Faculty

58
 EXPERIMENT: 11
Aim: To study the working principle & construction of an Alternator.

Specific Objective:
After studying this experiment, one should be able to:

 Know the working principle of Alternator.

 Know the constructional features of an Alternator.

Rationale:
An alternator (or AC generator) is an electrical machine which
converts the mechanical energy (supplied by a steam turbine, or water
turbine, or a diesel engine) in to electrical energy in the form 3-phase
alternating current and alternating voltage. Since the frequency of output
of an alternator not to vary, so its speed must remain constant.
Consequently, alternator is also known as synchronous generator (or
synchronous alternator).
A synchronous machine is an AC machine in which the rotor moves at
a speed, which bears a constant relationship to the frequency of the current
in the armature winding. A synchronous machine may be a synchronous
generator or a synchronous motor. Asynchronous motor converts 3-phase
AC into mechanical energy. The speed of the synchronous motor is
constant.

Working Principle :
An alternator like a DC machine operates on the fundamental
principle of electromagnetic induction which states that:” When a rotating
coil cuts the magnetic lines of force, an EMF is induced in it.” The
direction of which at any instant is given by Fleming`s right-hand rule.
The magnitude of the induced EMF at any instant is given by: BLVsinθ
volts.

59
Constructional Features:
Synchronous machines can be constructed with either system of
conductors, in the form of 3-phase winding called armature, in the stator
and field system in rotor or field system in stator and armature in rotor.
Machines of less KVA and voltage rating can be constructed in both ways.
Machines of large KVA and voltage ratings are invariably constructed
with stationary armature.

The advantages of stationary armature are:

 It is easier to insulate armature coils for high voltages, usually
generated(6.6KV or 11KV)
 It is easier to collect large current from the stationary armature by a
direct solid connection.
 Only two slip-rings are required to supply DC current to the field
system in the rotor.
An alternator essentially consists of the following parts :

 Statoris a “stationary part” built up of sheet-steel laminations, having

‘slot’ on its inner periphery 3-phase star or delta winding is placed in
these slots and the whole assembly is held in a ‘cast iron frame’. In
order the minimize the eddy-current losses, the stator core is laminated.
The stator core acts as return path for the magnetic flux.

 Rotor is flywheel –like structure having a large number of alternator N

and S-poles, fixed to its outer rim. These magnetic poles are excited by
providing DC supply (at 123V or 250 V) from a small DC generator,
which is mounted on the shaft of the alternator itself known as exciter.
Since the field magnets rotate, so DC supply is provided through two
slip-rings and brushes. Rotor construction is either of the following two
type:

- Smooth Cylindrical type Rotor: To suit high speed operation,

this type of rotor has smooth external surface and for he same
KVA rating it is designed with less diameter and more axial
length. Fig 1 shows the end view of a 2-pole rotor construction.

The rotor body is made from solid forging of alloy steel. In

about 2/3 of the rotor periphery, slots are milled out at regular
intervals and parallel to the shaft, for accommodating field coils.
Remaining 1/3 portion is left unspotted to form two( or four) pole
faces. Pre-wound field coils are placed inside the slots so that the
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 two sides of the same coil are placed 180o apart. All the field coils
are connected in series and the resultant two leads are connected to
two slip-rings mounted on the shaft.

- Salient –pole Rotor : This type rotor is suitable for medium

and slow speed operations and is constructed with 4,6 or more
number of poles.

Poles of identical dimensions are assembled outside by

stacking thick laminated steel sheet to the required length and then
riveted together. After placing the field coil around each pole
body, they are fitted to a steel spider of good magnetic quality by
dovetail joint. The pole faces are so shaped that the radial air-gap
length increases from the pole center to the pole tips so that the
flux distribution in the air-gap is sinusoidal in shape, which will
help the machine to generate sinusoidal emf. Closed slots are
provided on the pole faces to accommodate damper winding to
reduce hunting of the machine. All the field coils are connected in
series and the resultant two leads are connected to two slip-rings
mounted on the shaft. as shown fig. 3.
Operation :
When the rotor is rotated by the prime-mover , the stator
windings (being stationary) are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles.
Consequently, an EMF is induced in the stator conductors. Since the
magnetic poles in the rotor are alternatively N and S, so they induce an
alternating EMF (and hence alternating current) in the stator
conductors, the frequency of which depends upon the number of N and
S poles moving fast a stator conductor per second. The frequency (f) of
generated AC EMF is given By
f =PN / 120
Where P = total number of magnetic poles;
N = speed of rotor (in rpm); and
f=frequency of generated EMF (in Hz).
The generated EMF in the stator conductors is taken out for
supply by connecting three leads to the stator windings.

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Conclusion:

Questions:

Q-1) What is an exciter?

Q-2) Why are distributed windings preffered over concentrated windings?

Signature of Faculty
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 EXPERIMENT:12

AIM: To Verify the Truth Table of Various Types of Logic Gates.

NUMBER OF ICs:-
IC No. Gate
7400 NAND
7402 NOR
7404 NOT
7408 AND
7432 OR
7486 XOR
APPARATUS:-
NV6551 Logic Gates Trainer
Patch Cords

THEORY:-
Logic Gate is a digital circuit with one or more input but only one output. AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, NOT, EX-OR, EX- NOR Gates are some examples of Logic Gates.
Each Gate has one or two binary input variable designated by X & Y and one binary
output variable Z. The logic diagram and Truth Table of Logic Gates is shown
below.

OR Gate: The OR gate has two or more than two inputs and one output. This
operation is represented by a plus sign. Z = X+Y is read X or Y is equal to Z
meaning that Z=1 if X=1 or if Y=1 or if both X=1 & Y=l. If both X=0 & Y=0 then
Z=0.The output voltage of OR Gate is high if any or all of the input voltages are high
that is +5 V or 1 (TTL level is used). Logic equation is Z = X + Y (X & Y are inputs
& Z is output.)

AND Gate: The AND gate has two or more than two inputs and one output. This
operation is represented by a dot. Z = X•Y is read X AND Y is equal to Z. The
logical operation AND is interpreted to mean that Z = l if and only if both X = l and
Y = l otherwise Z = 0.

NOT Gate: The NOT gate has one input and one output. This operation is
represented by prime (bar). For example Z = X is read X not equal to Z or X is
complementary of Z. In other words if X = l, then Z = 0 but if X = 0 then Z = l.
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NAND Gate: The NAND gate has two or more than two inputs & one output.
NAND functions are compliment of AND function. The bubble on output represents
inversion after AND operation. The logic equation is Z = X∙Y . The output is high if
any of the input is low

NOR Gate: The NOR gate has two or more than two inputs and one output. The
NOR function is complement of OR function .The output is low if any input is high.
The logic equation is Z = X+Y.

EX-OR Gate: Exclusive OR gate has two inputs and one output. The output is high
if and only if the two inputs ie. X & Y are different ie. if X=l & Y=0 or X=0 & Y=l
otherwise output will be low. The logic equation is Z=A ⊕B=A∙B + A ∙B

EX-NOR Gate: Exclusive NOR gate has two inputs and one output. The output is
high if and only if the two inputs ie. X & Y are same ie. if X=l & Y=1 or X=0 &
Y=0 otherwise output will be low. The logic equation is Z=X ⊙Y= X ∙Y + X∙Y

PROCEDURE:-
 Connect terminals of input section to appropriate input terminals of gates & output
terminal of gate to appropriate terminals of output section of trainer.
 Plug in the +5V DC adaptor into the trainer and switch on the power supply.
 Now set switch position of input section to OFF, this will show logic 00 and
observe the output Z at output section of trainer.
 Record observation into the observation table.
 Now set switch position of input section to ON, this will show logic 11 and
observe the output Z at output section of trainer.
 Similarly set different combinations of input and record the corresponding outputs
into the observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
AND Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
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OR Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

NOT Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Z
0
1

NAND Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

NOR Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

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EX-OR Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

EX-NOR Gate:-
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

CONCLUSION:-

QUIZ:-
1. Define logic gates, logic circuit & logic design.
2. What are a positive & a negative logic system?
3. What is a truth table?
4. How can an EX-OR gate be used as an inverter?
5. How can an EX-NOR gate be used as an inverter?

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