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© Reuters/Romeo Ranoco
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Stratification
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Rich and Famous—or Rags and Famine?


Will you live under the bridge or above it—rags or riches? Whereas hard work can often make a
difference, your future success also depends on your society’s system of stratification and amount
of inequality.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    185

ME (AND MY RAGS OR RICHES)

MICRO LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS


AND COMMUNITY
How I am regarded by my peers.

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ut
rib
MESO

t
is
NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS,
INSTITUTIONS, AND ETHNIC

d
SUBCULTURES

or
Institutions support the privileged; ethnic
subcultures are often disadvantaged.
WHAT YOU’LL
t,
LEARN IN THIS
s
CHAPTER
po
MACRO

This chapter will help you to:

7.1 Describe what social


,

stratification means for


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individuals and groups.


SOCIETY
The privileged control resources, health 7.2 Compare key theoretical
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care, economic markets, and tax rates. perspectives on stratification.

GLOBAL COMMUNITY 7.3 Explain how achieved and


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Rich countries have more access to ascribed characteristics impact


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resources than poor ones. individuals’ life chances.

7.4 Explain what affects your


chances for social mobility.
o

7.5 Compare pluralist and


D

power elite perspectives on


stratification.

7.6 Discuss inequality and


poverty from a sociological
perspective.

7.7 Illustrate how the digital divide


helps stratify people.

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186   Part III: Inequality

  THINK ABOUT IT
Micro: small groups and local
Why are some people in your community wealthier than others?
community
Meso: national institutions,
How do institutions—such as the family, education, religion, health, politics, and
complex organizations, ethnic
the economy—help keep people in the class they were born into?
groups
Macro: national and global Why are some nations affluent and others impoverished? How does the fact that

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systems we live in a global society affect you and your social position?

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P

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omp and circumstance surrounded the April 2, Middleton also live within the confines of their elite status,
2011, royal wedding of William, Prince of Wales with its strict expectations and limitations. They cannot
(heir to the British throne), and Catherine (Kate) show up for a beer at the local pub or associate freely with

t
Middleton. All eyes in Britain and many eyes around the commoners. Their family problems or casual antics are

is
world were glued to their TVs and computer monitors. subject matter for front pages of tabloids, as seen in the
Thousands waited for hours to see the happy couple in per- behavior of Prince Harry during a trip to Las Vegas that

d
son, as they lined the royal route to the palace. The wed- thrilled the paparazzi and dismayed the royal household.
ding for this young couple included flower arrangements Thanks to a cell phone camera, what he did in Vegas did

or
for $800,000, a wedding dress that cost about $400,000, not stay in Vegas. Although there is no official royalty in
and a cake for just under $80,000. The bill for the entire the United States, wealthy entrepreneurs, stock brokers
wedding (security included) came in at $70 million and bankers, and entertainment and sports figures hold
t,
(Mawani 2011). positions that allow for a life of comfort similar to that of
s
Members of royal families such as Prince William and royalty.
po

Prince Harry of Britain grow up in a privileged world, with On the other hand, rags and famine pervade the planet.
wealth, prestige, and access to power. Their lifestyles Hidden from the public eye in Britain and the United
include formal receptions, horse races, polo games, royal States are people with no known names and no swank
hunts, state visits, and other social and state functions. addresses; some have no address at all. Around the globe,
,

The family has several elegant residences at its disposal. wars, natural disasters, famines, economic crises, slavery,
py

However, like most royalty, William, Harry, and now Kate and human trafficking point to the presence of inequality.
Inequality is a social condition in which privileges, oppor-
co

tunities, and substantial rewards are given to people in


Getty/Samir Hussein/Contributor

some positions in society but denied to others.


Inequality leaves many people particularly vulnerable
when natural and human-made disasters strike. For exam-
t
no

ple, the earthquakes in Nepal in 2015 left an already vul-


nerable population due to poverty and political unrest even
more at risk. With human trafficking and sexual violence
rates increasing in makeshift camps for survivors, women
o

have begun taking self-defense classes to prepare to fight


D

off sexual predators (Rauniyar and Burke 2015).


As noted in Chapter 6, climate change and economic
hard times have pushed many low-income people from
their rural homes to cities in hopes of finding jobs.
However, with few jobs for unskilled and semiskilled work-
Prince William and Kate with their royal children (Charlotte and
ers in today’s postindustrial service economies, many of
George), Queen Elizabeth, and Prince Phillip greet crowds on the
Queen’s 90th birthday. Prince William is second in line to inherit the the poor are left homeless. They live in abandoned build-
throne of England, and young George is also now in line to someday ings or sleep in unlocked autos, on park benches, under
be king. bridges, on beaches, or anywhere they can stretch out and

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Chapter 7: Stratification    187

hope not to be attacked or harassed. In the United States,

© Zia Soleil / Iconica/Getty Images


cities such as Houston, Los Angeles, Washington, DC, and
New York try to cope with the homeless by setting up sani-
tary facilities and temporary shelters, especially in bad
weather. Cities also rely on religious and civic organiza-
tions to run soup kitchens and shelters.
In 2013, 6.3 million children under the age of 5 died. In
almost half (45%) of those deaths, malnutrition was an
underlying cause (World Health Organization 2014).

e
Extreme poverty has fallen (almost in half) over the past

ut
couple of decades, but the figures are still staggering.
Nearly 1 billion people still live on less than $1.90 a day

rib
(World Bank 2015a). Children raised in families with such
little income grow up in poverty, with lack of electricity,
clean water, education, sanitation, health care, and adequate

t
food. They die of preventable diseases.

is
In some areas of the world, such as India and sub-Saharan
Africa, the situation is particularly desperate, and many

d
families are starving. At daybreak, a cart traverses the city
of Kolkata (Calcutta), India, picking up bodies of diseased

or
The United States does not have royalty with inherited thrones and
and starved homeless people who have died on the streets titles. However, it does have enormous gaps in wealth, with some
during the night. Mother Teresa, who won the Nobel Peace people living in splendor and luxury beyond the imagination of the
Prize for her work with those in dire poverty, established a average citizen.
t,
home in India where these people could die with dignity.
s
She also founded an orphanage for children who would
© Reuters/Lucas Jackson
po

otherwise wander the streets begging or lie on the sidewalk


dying. The micro- and meso-level efforts of Mother Theresa
and her fellow Missionaries of Charity are noble but only a
small bandage on a massive macro-level social problem.
,

What group of people is lower on the social hierarchy


py

than those living in the street? That would be slaves. It may


surprise you to know that slavery—when an individual or
co

a family is bound in servitude as the property of a person or


household, bought and sold, and forced to work—is alive
and flourishing around the world (Free the Slaves 2015).
An estimated 21 to 36 million people, mostly women and
t
no

children from poor families in poor countries, are slaves,


auctioned off or lured into slavery each year by gangs,
pimps, and cross-border syndicates to work in forced labor
or prostitution, as child soldiers or brides in forced mar-
o

New York, like most cities, has a large homeless population. This
riages, or as children working on plantations or in factories
person seeks shelter and some sleep in a New York subway station.
D

(Free the Slaves 2015). Slavery caught the world’s attention


in April 2014 when the terrorist organization Boko Haram
kidnapped close to 300 Nigerian schoolgirls to sell into Mauritania has the most slaves (1 in every 25 members of
slavery and give to men as wives. The group argues that the population). Next is Haiti with many children in slav-
women are the property of men and instruments of repro- ery, followed by India and Pakistan. Sex trafficking is most
duction; girls, according to Boko Haram, should not common in South Asia and Eastern Europe (especially
receive an education, especially not a Western education. Ukraine), Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Nepal, and the
A global phenomenon, slavery exists in all of the 162 Philippines. It is so profitable that businesspeople invest in
countries studied by Walk Free Foundation (2013). involuntary brothels much as they would in a mining

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188   Part III: Inequality

FIGURE 7.1  Where in the World Slaves Live

Asia

Europe
Europe
North

e
America

ut
Haiti: 2.3%
Mauritania
4.0% Africa
Africa

rib
India: 1.1%
South DRC:
America 1.13%
Australia

t
d is
Percentage of the population that is enslaved (2014)

0.04 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.75 No data

Source: Noack 2014.


or
t,
operation (Bales 2007, 2012; Bales and Trodd 2008). Today, cacao, coffee, or sugarcane plantations. By current dollars,
s
approximately 60,000 people (1 in every 5,000 members of a slave in the southern United States in the mid-1800s
po

the population) are enslaved in the United States (Walk would have cost the equivalent of $40,000 today, but con-
Free Foundation 2013). Figure 7.1 provides a visual image temporary slaves are cheap. They can be procured from
of where most slaves are located, and the next “Sociology poor countries for an average of $90 (Bales 2012).
,

Around the World” examines the issue of slavery in choco- There are ongoing efforts by public sociologists among
py

late and coffee production. others to do away with modern-day slavery. A sociologist
As we write these words, at least 2.5 million people are most at the forefront of the current movement to eradicate
suffering the abuse of human trafficking. A form of slav- slavery is featured in the next “Sociologists in Action.”
co

ery, human trafficking consists of “the recruitment,


transport, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person by
Thinking Sociologically
such means as threat or use of force or other forms of
Why do you think slavery exists today? List micro,
t

coercion, of abduction, of fraud or deception for the pur-


no

meso, and macro forces at work that support modern


pose of exploitation” (United Nations Office on Drugs and slavery. What steps should be taken to combat each
Crime [UNODC] 2014). Most but not all victims of traf- and eradicate slavery?
ficking are women. The vast majority of trafficking (79%)
o

results in the sexual exploitation of victims. Most other As we can see from the previous examples, our social
victims (18%) find themselves forced to work as slaves world is stratified in ways that result in high levels of
D

(UNODC 2014). inequality. The rest of this chapter discusses (a) why stratifi-
In the slavery of the 19th century, slaves were expen- cation is important, (b) different systems of stratification,
sive, and there was at least some economic incentive to (c) the consequences of social rankings for individuals,
care about their health and survival so that they could be (d) whether one can change social class positions (social
productive workers. In the new slavery, humans are cheap mobility), (e) characteristics of major stratification systems,
and replaceable. There is little concern about working (f) poverty and social policies to address it, and (g) the global
them to death, especially if they are located in remote digital divide.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    189

Sociology Around the World:


Chocolate and Coffee—a Moral Dilemma?

Yum! Chocolate and coffee are addictive, and most to work) or slavery (children who have been bought,
of us depend on one or both. The average U.S. citi- kidnapped, or lured into slavery) (International Labor
zen eats more than 11 pounds of chocolate (that’s Rights Forum 2012).

e
the equivalent of 120 bars) a year, and 83% drink
Coffee plantations in Ivory Coast, Colombia, and

ut
coffee (M. G. Perez 2013). However, the ugly side of
Guatemala also often use forced child laborers and
chocolate treats is that over 70% of the production
child slaves. Today, across the world, approximately

rib
is from West Africa (Ivory Coast and Ghana), and
218 million children are slaves (Compassion 2015).
most involves child labor or child slaves. Chocolate
companies are a $60 billion industry, profiting off Why are children used by coffee and chocolate

t
is
this free and cheap labor (Food Empowerment growers? To put it simply, they are cheap or free
Project 2015). labor. Growers receive less than 1% of our con-

d
sumer cost, with most of the profits going to com-
“Boys and girls, usually between the ages of 12 and
panies that sell the coffee products to consumers

or
16 but some as young as 7 and 9, are smuggled from
(Wilhoit 2014). Growers can increase their profits by
neighboring countries such as Mali, Burkina Faso,
using the slave labor of children who are relatively
and sold to cocoa bean plantation owners.” They
t,
cheap to feed—and expendable.
often work for 80 hours a week for no pay (Food
s
Empowerment Project 2015; Nall 2012). Large choc- How can we get our coffee and chocolate fix and
po

olate companies (Hershey’s, Mars, Cadbury, and help solve the problem? Free the Slaves, Mercy
Nestle) use these cocoa beans, but some are chang- Project, Slavery Footprint, Ark of Hope for Children,
ing to Fair Trade Certified chocolate, made without and other organizations work to prevent child
,

forced child labor (children who have no choice but slavery. “Fair Trade Certified” products are free
py

from abuse and exploi-


tive labor practices,
fairtrade.net

FLO International

fair wages are paid,


co

health and safety are


observed, and sus-
tainable methods are
t
no

used. Supporting orga-


nizations that fight for
children’s rights can
o

go a long way toward


making our chocolate
D

and coffee guilt-free.


The two logos on this
page are common indi-
cators that a product is
fair trade.

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190   Part III: Inequality

SOCIOLOGISTS IN ACTION
KEVIN BALES

Stopping Slavery in racism, ethnic and


the 21st Century religious discrimi-
nation, and the nega-

e
Becoming an abolitionist sociologist crept up on me. tive outcomes of global
The first tiny prodding was a leaflet I picked up at

ut
economic growth. We have learned that freedom and
an outdoor event in London. The front of the leaf- empowerment are viral, and that freed slaves will stop

rib
let read “There are Millions of Slaves in the World at nothing to stay free and help others to liberty.
Today.” I was a university professor, and I confess
to an unpleasant mixture of pride and hubris in my Not every part of liberation and reintegration

t
reaction to the bold title of the leaflet. Having been requires sociological training, but it would be very

is
involved in human rights for many years, I thought, hard to be successful without it. Without care-

d
How could this be true if I don’t know about it fully constructed longitudinal surveys of villages
already? in slavery we could never have demonstrated the

or
“freedom dividend,” the powerful and positive eco-
I came to understand why this issue was invisible. nomic change that comes to whole communities
Slavery was hidden under a thick blanket of igno- when slavery is abolished. Without training in the
t,
rance, concealed by the common assumption empathetic understanding of a social researcher
s
that it was extinct. With slavery illegal in every we could never have developed the “slavery lens,”
country, criminal slaveholders kept their activities
po

a way of seeing this hidden crime, that the U.S.


hidden. government now requires of all its foreign aid pro-
gram workers. Without learning about the complex
As I built up a picture of slavery, every new set of
,

interplay of culture, society, economics, politics,


facts generated new questions. I began to realize
py

and social vulnerability, we would never be able


that a large-scale research project was needed,
to build the unique methodologies of liberation
and I went in search of modern slavery, traveling to
co

tailored to specific and culturally rooted forms of


India, Pakistan, Thailand, Mauritania, and Brazil—
slavery. There is nothing like the ugly reality of a
often going undercover as I studied slave-based
crime like slavery to push young sociologists to
businesses in each country. The result was the
t

do their best work—using solid social science to


book Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global
no

change the world.


Economy (Bales 1999, 2004, 2012).

In 2000, I, with three others, helped found Free the


o

Slaves, the American sister organization of Anti- Kevin Bales is a sociologist and professor of contem-
Slavery International, the world’s oldest (1787) and porary slavery at the Wilberforce Institute for the Study
D

original human rights group. Free the Slaves works of Slavery and Emancipation (WISE) at the University
with local partners to liberate slaves around the world of Hull, England, and cofounder of Free the Slaves in
and change the systems that allow slavery to exist. Washington, DC. This excerpt is taken from Korgen,
In addition to addressing the crime of enslavement, White, and White’s Sociologists in Action: Race, Class,
this work often involves confronting gender inequality, Gender, and Intersections (2013).

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Chapter 7: Stratification    191

© Reuters/Andrew Biraj
IMPORTANCE OF
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Consider your own social ranking in society. You were
born into a family that holds a position in society—
upper, middle, or lower class. The position of your family
influences the neighborhood in which you live and where
you shop, go to school, play sports, engage in the arts or

e
other activities, and attend religious services. Most likely,
you and your family carry out the tasks of daily living

ut
in your community with people who share your social
class status.

rib
Your position in the stratification system affects the
opportunities available to you and the choices you make in
life. Note the social world model at the beginning of the

t
Child laborers fill up empty cigarettes manually with locally grown

is
chapter. It provides a visual image of the social world and
tobacco in a small bidi (cigarette) factory at Haragach in Rangpur
socioeconomic stratification. The stratification process
district, Bangladesh, in 2013.

d
affects everything from individuals’ social rankings at the
micro level of analysis to positions of countries in the

or
global system at the macro level.
power, ideologies, and sometimes force. Note that each
Social stratification refers to how individuals and
level of analysis—micro, meso, and macro—adds to our
groups are layered and ranked in society according to
understanding of the stratification process.
t,
their access to and possession of valued resources. The
society’s culture (rules, values, beliefs, and artifacts) deter-
s
mines and legitimizes the society’s system of sorting its Micro-Level Prestige and Influence
po

members. Remember how some of your peers on the playground


Each society also determines what it considers to be were given more respect than others? Their high regard
valued resources. For example, in an agricultural society, may have come from belonging to a prestigious family,
,

members are ranked according to how much land or how having a dynamic or domineering personality, being good
py

many animals they own. In an industrial society, owner- at games, or owning symbols that distinguished them—
ship of the means of production (machinery that can pro- “cool” clothing or shoes, a desirable bicycle, or expensive
duce goods) and occupational skills determine class
co

toys. This is stratification at work.


status. In postindustrial information societies, education, Property, power, and prestige are accorded to those
access to technology, and control of information dissemi- who have cultural capital (knowledge, skills, language
nation are key determinants in the ranking process. mastery, style of dress, and values that provide a person
t

What members of each society value and the criteria


no

with access to a particular status in society) and social


they use to rank other members depends on events in the capital (networks with others who have influence).
society’s history, its geographic location, its level of devel- Individual qualities such as leadership skills, an engag-
opment in the world, its political philosophy, and the deci- ing personality, self-confidence, quick-wittedness, and
o

sions of those in power. The more powerful individuals physical attractiveness, or ascribed characteristics such
tend to get the best positions, the most desirable mates,
D

as the most powerful gender or ethnic group, influence


and the greatest opportunities. They may have power cultural and social capital. Interactions with meso-
because of birth order, personality characteristics, age, level organizations help shape the influence of these
physical attractiveness, education, intelligence, wealth, individual traits.
race, family background, occupation, religion, or ethnic
group—whatever the basis for power is in that particular
society. Those with relatively high amounts of power have Meso-Level Access to Resources
advantages that perpetuate their power, and they try to Many of the resources we use come from institutions at
hold on to those advantages through laws, customs, the meso level: family, education, religion, economic and

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192   Part III: Inequality

undergo in our families influences how we see ourselves,

© iStockPhoto.com/Freezing Rain
how others perceive us, and our access to resources such
as education and jobs. For example, we learn grammar and
manners from our families; that in turn affects how our
teachers and peers view and judge us. Educational organi-
zations treat children differently according to their social
status, revealed through such symbols as language (e.g., if
we speak standard English) and manners (e.g., not inter-
rupting, saying please and thank you when appropriate,

e
addressing adults by their proper titles). Our education

ut
can result in differential access to prestigious jobs and
affect our social status in society—and therefore our posi-

rib
tion in the social stratification hierarchy.

Macro-Level Factors

t
is
Influencing Stratification
© iStockphotos/Thomas Hottner

d
The global economic position of a nation affects the
opportunities available to individuals in that nation, illus-

or
trating that macro-level factors also influence placement
in the stratification system (see Figure 7.2). Haiti provides
a powerful illustration of this fact. Located on the island of
t,
Hispaniola in the Caribbean, Haiti is the poorest country
in the Western Hemisphere and one of the poorest coun-
s
tries in the world, with little technology, few resources,
po

ineffective government, a very weak educational system,


and an occupational structure based largely on subsis-
tence farming. Even its forest resources are essentially
gone due to desperately poor people cutting down the last
,
py

trees for firewood and shelters, leaving the land to erode


(J. Diamond 2005; World Bank 2016).
The 2010 earthquake and floods added to Haitians’ eco-
co

nomic woes and misery. Residents were driven from what


meager shelters they had and then faced a cholera epi-
demic from contaminated water. Haitians now have very
t

few opportunities to get ahead and be successful. This is


no

but one example of macro-level factors (failing economy,


eroded land, lack of infrastructure such as schools and
health facilities, lack of opportunity to participate in the
o

global economy) affecting the opportunities available to


people in the country. A major influx of international
D

money has allowed for some public projects, but progress


is slow as political tensions and instability increase
Even the sports one plays—such as polo or stickball—are greatly (“Haiti” 2015).
influenced by social class and convey different kinds of social and Almost all societies stratify members, and societies
cultural capital. Polo clearly requires a good deal of economic capital in
themselves are stratified in the world system, so that each
order to play, whereas stickball requires only a ball and a straight stick.
individual or nation experiences the world in unique ways
political institutions, and health care. We first learn our related to its position. Stratification is one of the most
social status and the roles associated with it through our powerful forces that we experience, but we are seldom con-
interactions with family members. The socialization we scious of how it works or how pervasive it is in our lives.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    193

This is the driving question sociologists ask when develop-

© iStockPhoto.com/tomazi
ing theories of stratification: How does it work?

Thinking Sociologically
Place yourself in the center of the social world model.
Working outward from micro-level interactions
toward the meso-level institutions and the macro-
level global stratification system, indicate what has
influenced where you fall in the stratification system.

e
ut
THEORETICAL

rib
EXPLANATIONS OF
STRATIFICATION

t
Look at all those forks and knives. Some people know what to do with

is
As we traverse the world we see continuous examples of
rich and poor—those who have more resources than they each of them! Knowing which fork or knife to use for each course of
a meal is a sign of cultural capital that can influence your chances of

d
need and those who do not have enough to survive. Why
acceptance into elite society or success on a job interview.
is the distribution of resources so uneven? Is the unequal

or
distribution inevitable, healthy, or harmful for society?
Sociologists have developed theories to explain
social stratification, based on the lens through which
Micro-Level Theory
t,
they view society. These explanations range from indi-
vidual micro-level to national and global macro-level Our now familiar theories that relate to the micro level
s
theories (e.g., symbolic interaction, rational choice, help us again, this time to understand differences among
po

structural-functional, and conflict theories). individuals in the stratification hierarchy.

FIGURE 7.2  Gross National Income per Capita in 2014


,
py
co

Asia
t

Europe
Europe
no

North
America

Africa
o

Africa
D

South
America
Australia

Thousands
<5.21
5.22–13.39
13.40–28.52
28.53–47.50
>47.51
no data

Source: World Bank 2016.

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194   Part III: Inequality

Symbolic Interaction Theory. Have you ever been to a reading. The higher-class parents tend to stress thinking
party where almost everyone came from a social class that and questioning skills as opposed to primarily obeying
had either much more or much less money than you? authority figures. The result of this learning at home is
Even if you have not, you can probably imagine what it that all children attain cultural capital that helps them
would be like. Awkward! Each social group has norms that interact with others at their social class level. The class dif-
members learn through the socialization process. These ference in the types of cultural capital, though, means that
norms are recognized within that group and can make children from the middle and upper classes or higher
clueless outsiders feel very uncomfortable. castes are more likely to get the best education, setting
People learn what is expected in their groups—family, them up to be future leaders with better life chances.

e
peer group, social class—through interaction with others. Schools place children into courses and academic groups,

ut
For instance, children are rewarded or punished for behav- influenced in part by the labels children receive due to their
iors appropriate or inappropriate to their social position. cultural capital. In this way, children’s home experiences

rib
The socialization process transmits and perpetuates our and education help reproduce the social class systems and
positions in the social stratification system. Learning perpetuate the family’s social class position in society
our position means learning values, speech patterns, (Ballantine and Hammack 2012).

t
consumption habits, appropriate group memberships Like language, other symbols can also represent

is
(including political, economic, and religious affiliations), social positions. Clothing, for example, sets up some peo-
and even our self-concept. This knowledge provides us ple as special and privileged. In the 1960s, wearing blue

d
with the cultural capital necessary to interact effectively jeans was a radical act by college students to reject status
with people who share our social position. differences—showing solidarity with and support for the

or
Cultural knowledge is learned by children at home; working class. Today, many young people wear expensive
they then bring that with them to school. Some home designer jeans that low-income people cannot afford.
environments teach children to obey rules and authority, Drinking wine that most people do not have the means to
t,
and to develop hands-on skills, such as repairing houses buy, driving a Jaguar rather than a less expensive car, and
s
and cars. Other families teach children by expanding living in a home that has six or eight bedrooms and is
po

vocabularies; developing good grammar; experiencing 5,000-plus square feet is an expression of conspicuous
concerts, art, and theater; visiting historical sites; provid- consumption—displaying goods in a way that others will
ing reading materials; and modeling engagement with notice and that will presumably earn the owner respect
(Veblen 1902). Thus, purchased products become sym-
,

bols intended to define the person as someone of high


py
© Elise Roberts

status in the stratification hierarchy.


Privacy can also symbolize affluence. For example, in
co

most of the Global North, one symbol of middle-class


“decency” is the right to bathe and do one’s grooming in
private. Indeed, many young people in the United States
have their own bedrooms and expect no interruptions
t
no

when sprucing up for the day. Homeless people in the


United States do not have this luxury, and in India, bathing
on the streets is not uncommon. Privacy requires money.
A core idea in symbolic interaction theory is that real-
o

ity is constructed, that as we figure out what our circum-


D

stances mean, we construct the reality in which we live.


This idea is explored further in the next “Sociology in Our
Social World.”

Rational Choice Theory. As you know, rational choice


In India, many people must bathe in public in whatever water supply theorists focus on individuals and the way they make deci-
they can find. Even many people with homes do not have their own sions regarding their own self-interest. From this view,
water supply. Privacy for one’s grooming is a symbol of privilege for people make decisions influenced by their perception of
the affluent. costs and benefits. Some people evaluate potential benefits

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Chapter 7: Stratification    195

sociology in our social world


Understanding Urban homeless not only lack all these, but their master

Homeless People status—“homeless person”—is one that elicits


disrespect. “Dignity and worth are not primarily

e
Homeless people may find themselves sleeping individual characteristics, but instead flow from

ut
under bridges or in parks, vacant lots, cars, or the roles we play,” write the authors (Snow and
unused subway tunnels. Although many people Anderson 1993:9). To be homeless, then, is far

rib
look down on the homeless, most have held more than to be without a residence or shelter. It
respectable jobs and had housing in the past. is to be without a place to restore one’s dignity. So
Bad economic times have left these citizens how do the homeless cope?

t
is
without jobs and with few opportunities. On
any given night, there are an estimated 610,042 This research showed a number of coping strate-

d
homeless people in the United States (National gies. Sometimes, the homeless people explained

Alliance to End Homelessness 2014). Housing away their circumstances as temporary “bad

or
and Urban Development (HUD) officials measure luck” or part of a normal cycle in which they

overall homelessness via funding applications just happened to be on the down end for a short
period of time. Others would distance themselves
t,
for housing services and state that even this
number is a large underestimation of the total from the role of homelessness, pointing out that
s
number of people who experience homelessness they were “different” from other homeless peo-
po

(HUD 2008). ple, “did not really belong,” and did not really
deserve to be seen as homeless at all. Some
In trying to make sense of homelessness, research- people coped by fictive storytelling, pointing to
,

ers identified key variables that distinguished differ- pronounced achievements in the past (often fic-
py

ent types of homelessness and uncovered a wide tionalized or embellished) or creating stories of
range of causes, circumstances, and coping meth- phenomenal things they would accomplish when
co

ods. Snow and Anderson have studied the micro they got on their feet. By affirming another iden-
culture of street people, how they lend each other tity in the past or the future, their self-esteem was
support and help each other make sense of their salvaged. However, perhaps the most surprising
t

circumstances. They point to many forces at work strategy to preserve self-worth was to embrace
no

on the homeless, from global economic trends to the role of being homeless with pride—to boast
the way their families relate to them. about how one was the best at being a survivor,
the best at being a friend to the homeless, or the
o

One question is how homeless people affirm a best at rejecting shallow values of materialism in
D

positive sense of self in this humiliating situation. our commercial society. They could thus affirm
After all, to be a person of worth in American soci- themselves for coping skills, for caring qualities,
ety is to (a) own some property, (b) have someone or for deep spirituality. They had defined reality
who cares about you enough to take you in if you in a way that allowed them to see themselves
are really desperate, and (c) occupy a significant in a positive light. They had changed the social
status in society by earning some money and hav- construction of reality, at least among themselves
ing a career or position deserving of respect. The (Snow and Anderson 1993).

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196   Part III: Inequality

with a view to the long term. They are willing to endure organized system into which each individual is born and
short-term expense or “pain” if the long-term gains are raised and contributes to the maintenance of the society.
substantial. In order to take this view, one needs a sense of The basic elements of the structural-functional theory
delayed gratification—delaying rewards or benefits until a of stratification were explained by Kingsley Davis and
later time. People who are willing or in a position to do Wilbert Moore, and their work still provides the main ideas
this—living austerely now in order to experience prosper- of the theory today (Davis and Moore 1945). Focusing on
ity later—may be more likely to have upward mobility and stratification by considering the rewards given to people in
to experience greater affluence at a later time. Whereas various occupations, they argue the following:
your friend from high school may have a job and drive a

e
nicer car than you can afford, you may be building debts 1. Value of positions: Some positions are more impor-

ut
and attending college in hopes of a better future. Thus, tant to society than others. For example, society
rational choice theorists would focus on how personal needs people to fill occupations that require spe-

rib
choices influence one’s place in the social system. The idea cialized training and long hours, such as physicians
is that one’s socioeconomic position is shaped largely by and CEOs. Societies must motivate talented indi-
individual decisions. What, though, influences those indi- viduals to prepare for and occupy the most impor-

t
vidual decisions? tant and difficult positions.

is
In high school, many college prep students make 2. Preparation requires talent, time, and money: To
“rational” decisions to become involved in athletic pro- motivate talented individuals to make the sacrifices

d
grams, student council, the Spanish Club, leadership necessary to prepare for difficult positions such as a
roles in the National Honor Society, or community ser- physician or CEO, differential rewards of income,

or
vice because they want to list those involvements on col- prestige, power, or other valued goods must be
lege applications. They commit effort now—sometimes in offered. Thus, a doctor and a CEO receive high
activities that they care little about—in hopes of having a income, prestige, and power as incentives.
t,
payoff in admission or scholarships to the college of their 3. Unequal distribution of rewards: The differences in
s
choice. Those same students become discouraged with rewards, such as pay for most-valued positions, in
po

classmates who will not help with student council activi- turn lead to the unequal distribution of
ties or with building the junior class float. However, for resources—or inequality—for occupations in soci-
young people whose parents did not go to college and ety. The result is that stratification is inevitable.
whose past experiences do not lead them to believe that
,

they, themselves, could ever attain a college degree, Look at the example of poverty. Some sociologists
py

spending time decorating a float makes no sense. It is not argue that poverty serves certain functions for society,
seen as a “rational” choice. Thus, past experiences and thus making it difficult to eliminate (Gans 1971, 1995).
co

social position can influence the way one evaluates costs Some people may actually benefit from having poor people
and benefits. kept poor. Consider the following points:
These micro-level theories help us to understand how
our daily interactions and decisions can impact our social 1. Poverty provides us with a convenient scapegoat—
t
no

positions (and vice versa) within society’s stratification someone to blame for individual and societal prob-
hierarchy. We now look at theories that examine the larger lems. We can put the blame for poverty on the poor
social structures, processes, and forces that affect stratifi- individuals themselves. That way we can ignore the
cation and inequality: structural-functional theory and meso- and macro-level causes of poverty—like eco-
o

various forms of conflict theory. nomic and political systems—and maintain the
D

present way those institutions operate for the bene-


fit of those now in positions of power.
Meso- and Macro-Level Theories 2. Having poor people creates many jobs for those
St r u c t u r a l - Fu n c t i o n a l T h e o r y. S t r u c t u r a l - who are not poor, especially in the “helping” pro-
functionalists view stratification within societies as an fessions such as social workers and law enforce-
inevitable, and generally necessary, part of the social ment jobs such as police, judges, and prison
world. The stratification system provides individuals a workers.
place or position in the social world and motivates them 3. The poor provide an easily available group of sur-
to carry out their roles. Societies survive by having an plus laborers to do undesirable jobs when needed.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    197

4. The poor reinforce and legitimate our own lives

Al Powers/Invision/AP
and institutions. Their existence allows the rest of
us to feel superior to someone, enhancing our self-
esteem.
5. Their violation of mainstream values helps reaf-
firm the values among the affluent (Gans 1971,
1995).

In the mid-20th century, structural-functional theory

e
was the dominant theory used to explain stratification.

ut
However, it has been criticized for its inability to explain
why some people in society who do not provide vital ser-

rib
vices for society (e.g., professional basketball players,
hedge fund managers) receive great rewards. It also does
not explain why CEOs now make so much more money

t
compared with the typical worker than they once did. For

Melissa Phillip/Houston Chronicle via AP

is
example, in 1965, CEOs made, on average, 18 times the
average worker’s salary. In 2013, the average pay of CEOs

d
at the top 350 U.S. firms was almost 300 times the pay of
the average nonsupervisory worker in their field (Davis

or
and Mishel 2014). Functionalist explanations of stratifica-
tion have also been critiqued for an inability to fully
explain the conflict that societies experience. This is the
t,
primary focus of conflict theory.
s
po

Conflict Theory. Conflict theorists see stratification as


the outcome of struggles for dominance and scarce
resources, with some individuals in society taking advan-
tage of others. Individuals and groups act in their own self-
,

interest by trying to exploit others, leading inevitably to a


py

struggle between those who have advantages and want to


keep them and those who want a larger share of the pie.
co

Conflict theorist Karl Marx (1818–1883) described four


Who do you think makes more money, Leonardo DiCaprio (here at the
possible ways to distribute wealth, according to (1) what Oscars) or these emergency personnel? What does this imply about
each person needs, (2) what each person wants, (3) what the structural-functionalist argument that societies motivate (through
each person earns, or (4) what each person can take. It was
t

higher salaries) individuals to prepare for and occupy the most


no

this fourth way, Marx believed, that was dominant in com- critically important and challenging positions?
petitive capitalist societies (Cuzzort and King 2002; Marx
and Engels 1955).
Marx viewed the stratification structure as composed [1844] 1964). The haves dominate because the lower-
o

of two major economically based social classes: the haves class have-nots cannot accumulate enough money and
D

and the have-nots. The haves consist of the owners (capi- power to change their positions. The norms and values
talist bourgeoisie), whereas the have-nots are the working of the haves dominate the society because of their power
class (proletariat). Individuals in the same social class have and ability to make the distribution of resources seem
similar lifestyles, share ideologies, and hold common out- “fair” and justified. Laws, religious beliefs, and educa-
looks on social life. The struggle over resources between tional systems spread ideas that support the domination
the haves and have-nots is a cause of conflict (Hurst 2013). of the haves. This keeps the have-nots from understand-
The haves control what Marx called the means of ing their own self-interests and is why working-class
production—property, machinery, and cash owned by people often support politicians whose policies really
capitalists—the valued resources in society (Marx favor the wealthiest 1%. The haves’ control of political

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198   Part III: Inequality

businesses, and other entrepreneurial efforts, motivating

Getty/KHALED DESOUKI/Stringer
many Chinese citizens to work long hours at their private
businesses to “get ahead.” The only classless societies are
a few small hunter-gatherer groups that have no extra
resources that would allow some members to accumulate
wealth.
Some theorists criticize Marx for his focus on only the
economic system, pointing out that noneconomic factors
enter into the stratification struggle as well. Max Weber

e
(1864–1920), another influential theorist, agreed with

ut
Marx that group conflict is inevitable, that economics is
one of the key factors in stratification systems, and that

rib
those in power try to perpetuate their positions. However,
he added two other influential factors that he argued
determine stratification: power and prestige. Sometimes

t
Uber, the online transportation company, employs 160,000 drivers in these are identified as the “three Ps”—property, power,

is
the United States alone. Only 2.5% of them are full-time employees and prestige. Depending on the type of economic and
with secure work hours and benefits. political era, one “P” tends to be more important than the

d
others (prestige in feudal times, property in the industrial
era, and power in the postindustrial time period), but

or
structures, policies, and police and military forces usually, having one “P” gives a person access to the other
ensures their continued dominance in society. two as well.
The unorganized lower-class have-nots cannot over- Recent theorists suggest that using the three Ps, we can
t,
come their exploitation until they develop a class con- identify five classes—capitalists, managers, small-business
s
sciousness—a shared awareness that they, as a class, have owners or the petty bourgeoisie, workers, and the under-
po

interests that differ from those of the haves. They need to class—rather than just the haves and have-nots. Capitalists
understand that what is good for the haves is bad for the own the means of production, and they purchase and con-
have-nots. Marx contended that, with the help of enlight- trol the labor of others. Managers sell their labor to capital-
ened intellectuals (like him), the working class would ists and manage the labor of others for the capitalists. The
,

develop a class consciousness, rise up, and overthrow the petty bourgeoisie, such as small-business owners, own some
py

haves, culminating in a classless society in which wealth means of production but control little of the labor of others;
would be more equally shared (Marx and Engels 1955). they have modest prestige, power, and property (Sernau
co

Unlike the structural-functionalists, then, conflict the- 2010). Workers sell their labor to capitalists and are low in
orists maintain that money and other rewards are not nec- all three Ps. Finally, the underclass has virtually no property,
essarily given to those in the most important positions in power, or prestige.
the society. Can we argue that a rock star or baseball player The distribution of wealth and income in the United
t
no

is more necessary for the survival of society than a teacher States is more uneven today than at any time since before
or police officer? Yet the pay differential is tremendous. It the Great Depression hit in 1929. Income is money
takes most teachers (even those with a master’s degree) an received from work or investments whereas wealth is the
entire career to earn as much as many celebrities earn in a worth of a person based on his or her financial holdings
o

matter of months. (stocks, bank accounts, investment income) and property


D

As you can see, not all of Marx’s predictions have come (homes, cars) minus debt. Today, the richest 1% of U.S.
true. Whereas many nations have labor laws that require households own more wealth than all of the bottom 90%
owners to pay workers a minimum wage and provide safe combined (Saez 2012) and 40% of the nation’s total wealth
working conditions, and that prevent them from discrimi- (Archer 2013). In the world, the richest 1% own more than
nating on the basis of race, gender, or religion, inequality the other 99% of the combined world’s population
still exists throughout the world. Even societies that (Byanyima 2015).
claim to be classless, such as China, have privileged Workers have also become more anxious about
classes and poor peasants. In recent years, the Chinese declining wages and job insecurity. Since the 1990s, com-
government has allowed more private ownership of shops, panies have begun to outsource more and more jobs.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    199

Fewer people now work for one company in a stable posi- Lenski tested his theory by studying societies at dif-
tion, with benefits and some sense of job security, and ferent levels of technological development, ranging from
more now work in temporary positions as consultants simple to complex. He found that the degree of inequality
(without benefits and job security). Some economists increases with technology until it reaches the advanced
refer to this as the “Uberization” of the job market, refer- industrial stage. For instance, in subsistence-level
ring to the fast-growing ride sharing company Uber that hunter-gatherer societies, little surplus is available, and
directly employs only 4,000 of the 160,000 people who everyone’s needs are met to the extent possible. As sur-
work for the company in the United States. Hiring people plus accumulates in agrarian societies, those who acquire
as consultants allows employers greater flexibility. They power also control surpluses, and they use this to benefit

e
can hire and fire at need and do not have to worry much their friends and relations. However, they must share at

ut
about employees organizing together to demand higher least some of the wealth or fear being overthrown.
compensation or better benefits. This is great for employ- When societies finally reach the advanced industrial

rib
ers but not so great for most workers, who must wonder stage, there should be less inequality. Industrialization
for how long they can count on getting a paycheck, how brings surplus wealth, a division of labor, advanced tech-
many hours of work they might get each week, and how nology, and interdependence among members of a society.

t
much their next work “gig” might pay. Approximately No longer can one individual control all the important

is
one out of every four Americans worries about facing knowledge, skills, or capital resources. The surplus can be
reduced pay or work hours (Scheiber 2015). spread to more people without diminishing that received

d
by those who have the most. Therefore, this should elimi-
nate the extreme gaps between haves and have-nots

or
Thinking Sociologically
because resources would normally be more evenly distrib-
How would conflict theorists explain the fact that, on
average, the top 350 CEOs make nearly 300 times the uted. Also, at this point in history, societies tend to have
constitutions and recognize the rights of citizens, making
t,
pay of the average worker and that the richest 1% in
the world own more than the combined wealth of the it harder to exploit them.
s
other 99%? Does their argument make sense? Why Evolutionary theory takes into consideration an idea
po

or why not? shared by the structural-functionalists and rational choice


theorists—that talented individuals need to be motivated
to make sacrifices. This produces motivated, competent,
Evolutionary Theory and well-educated people in the most important social sta-
,

of Stratification: A Synthesis tuses. The theory also recognizes exploitation leading to


py

Evolutionary theory, developed by Gerhard Lenski, bor- inequality, a factor that conflict theorists find in systems of
rows assumptions from both structural-functional and stratification.
co

conflict theories in an attempt to determine how scarce Whereas some inequality may be useful in highly com-
resources are distributed and how that distribution plex societies, as functionalists have argued, evolutionary
results in stratification (Lenski 1966; Nolan and Lenski theorists note that extraordinary amounts of inequality
2014). The basic ideas are that (a) to survive, people must may undermine motivation and productivity. The most
t
no

cooperate; (b) despite this, conflicts of interest occur over talented people will not even try to attain the most
important decisions that benefit one individual or group demanding and important jobs if upward mobility seems
over another; (c) valued items such as money and status impossible. Therefore, high levels of inequality do not
are always in demand and in short supply; (d) there is make sense for a healthy industrial or postindustrial soci-
o

likely to be a struggle over these scarce goods; and ety (Nolan and Lenski 2014).
D

(e) customs or traditions in a society often prevail over Each of the theories already discussed—symbolic
rational criteria in determining distribution of scarce interaction, rational choice, structural-functional, con-
resources. After the minimum survival needs of both indi- flict, and evolutionary theory—provides different expla-
viduals and the society are met, power determines who nations for understanding stratification in modern
gets the surplus: prestige, luxury living, the best health societies. These theories provide the basis for micro- to
care, and so forth. Lenski believes that privileges (includ- macro-level discussions of stratification. Our next topic
ing wealth) flow from having power, and prestige usually looks at some factors that influence an individual’s posi-
results from having access to both power and privilege tion in a stratification system and the ability to change
(Hurst 2006). that position.

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200   Part III: Inequality

Thinking Sociologically For a variety of reasons, ascribed characteristics, such


Why is the income gap between the rich and the as gender, can affect one’s chances for success in life.
poor currently increasing in the United States? Which Gender socialization and embedded gender stratification
theory seems most helpful in explaining this pattern? systems may make it difficult for women to rise in the
What are some possible ramifications of this widen-
occupational hierarchy. Many Japanese women, for exam-
ing income gap?
ple, earn college degrees but leave employment after get-
ting married and having children, because of both gender
socialization and gender discrimination in the workforce
INDIVIDUALS’ SOCIAL (Globe Women 2013). We examine gender stratification in

e
STATUS: THE MICRO LEVEL more depth in Chapter 9, but note that it intersects with

ut
socioeconomic status and must be viewed as part of a
You are among the world’s elite. Less than 7% of the larger pattern resulting in inequality in the social world.

rib
world’s population has a college degree (Erickson and
Vonk 2012). Being able to afford the time and money for
college is a luxury beyond the financial or personal Individual Life Chances

t
resources of almost 93% of people in the world. However, Life chances refer to one’s opportunities, depending on

is
the global number of college students is expanding rapidly both achieved and ascribed statuses in society. That you
as countries such as China provide more higher-education are in college, probably have health insurance and access

d
opportunities to support their growing economies. to health care, and are likely to live into your late 70s or
In fact, enrollment of Chinese students in higher edu- 80s are factors directly related to your life chances. Let us

or
cation surpassed the percentage enrolled in the United consider several examples of how placement in organiza-
States in 2011 (People’s Daily Online 2011). Because the tions at the meso level affects individual experiences and
demand for a college education far exceeds the opportu- has global ramifications.
t,
nity in China, many Chinese college students are studying
s
abroad, adding to their opportunities and enhancing Education. Although education is valued by most indi-
po

China’s knowledge of the world. Chinese students make up viduals, the cost of books, clothing, shoes, transportation,
the largest number of international students studying in child care, and time taken from income-producing work
the United States—accounting for more than one third of may be insurmountable barriers to school attendance for
all international students (Frost 2014). many people. One’s level of education affects many aspects
,

In the United States, access to higher education is of life, including political, religious, and family attitudes
py

greater than in many other countries because there are and behavior. Generally speaking, the higher the educa-
more levels of entry—including technical colleges, com- tion level, the more active individuals are in political life;
co

munity colleges, state universities, and private 4-year col- the more mainstream or conventional their religious affil-
leges. However, with limited government help, most iation; and the more likely they are to marry, remain mar-
students must have enough financial resources to cover ried, and have good health.
tuition and the cost of living.
t
no

The prestige of the college that students choose can Health, Social Conditions, and Life Expectancy. If
also make a difference in their future opportunities. you have a sore throat for an extended period of time, you
Students born into wealth can afford private preparatory will probably go see a doctor. Yet many people in the world
schools and tutors to increase SAT and ACT test scores that will never see a doctor. Access to health care requires doc-
o

increase their chances of gaining acceptance to presti- tors and medical facilities, money for transportation and
D

gious colleges. Such colleges offer social networking and treatment, access to child care, and released time from
other opportunities not available to those attending the other tasks. Often, the poor do not have these luxuries. In
typical state university or nonelite college (Jaschik 2013; contrast, the affluent eat better food; are less exposed to
Persell 2005). For men, attending an elite college makes a polluted water and unhygienic conditions; and are able to
significant difference in future earnings, but for women pay for health insurance, medical care, and drugs when
entering a field that pays well makes more of an impact on they do have ailing health. As a result, they tend to live
future earnings than the college they attended (Ma and much longer than poorer people.
Savas 2014). Women tend to enter fields that pay less than Examining causes of death among different classes
those in which men predominate. illustrates some of the deadly results of the differences in

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Chapter 7: Stratification    201

access to health care among people at different places in Sickness and in Wealth: Health in America (2008) reveals,
the stratification hierarchy. For example, in the poor there is “a health-wealth gradient” in the United States, in
Global South, shorter life expectancies and deaths, espe- “which every descending rung of the socioeconomic lad-
cially among children, are due to controllable infectious der corresponds to worse health.” The result is that 41
diseases such as cholera, malaria, AIDS, typhoid, tubercu- other nations have higher life expectancy rates than the
losis, and other respiratory ailments. In contrast, in afflu- United States (E. Meyer 2012; World Factbook 2014c).
ent countries, heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer are Most other postindustrial countries also have universal
the most common causes of death, and most deaths are of health care.
people above the age of 65. With improvements in immu- Individual life chances are determined in part by the

e
nizations, mosquito nets to prevent malaria, better sanita- per capita income of individuals. If people are poor, they

ut
tion and water quality, access to medicines, better have little disposable income. This means a life of pov-
nutrition, and female literacy, life expectancy rises. Yet the erty and less access to education, health, and other

rib
chance to live a long and healthy life is a privilege available social conditions that determine life chances and life-
primarily to those living in wealthy countries. Indeed, style, discussed next.
despite medical advances, the gap in life spans between the

t
wealthy and those with low incomes has been widening
Individual Lifestyles

is
since 1970 (Tavernise 2016).
By studying Table 7.1 in the next “Engaging Sociology” Your individual lifestyle includes your attitudes, values,

d
feature (page 202), you can compare life expectancy with beliefs, behavior patterns, and other aspects of your place
two other measures of life quality for the poorest and rich- in the world, as shaped by socialization. As individuals

or
est countries: the gross national product (GNP) per capita grow up, the behaviors and attitudes consistent with their
income—the average amount of money each person has culture and their family’s status in society become inter-
per year—and the infant mortality rates (death rates for nalized through the process of socialization. Lifestyle is
t,
babies). Note that life expectancy in poor countries is as not simply a matter of having money. Acquiring money—
s
low as 49 years in Chad and 50 in Guinea-Bissau, Africa say, by winning a lottery—cannot buy a completely new
po

(many of the people in these countries are subsistence lifestyle (Bourdieu and Passeron 1977). This is because
farmers), as high as 89.6 years in the wealthy country of values and behaviors are ingrained in our self-concept
Monaco, and 85 in Japan and Singapore. In the United from childhood. A person may gain material possessions,
States, life expectancy is 79.7 (World Factbook 2016c). but that does not mean she has the lifestyle of the upper-
,

Average annual income is as low as $400 in Somalia and as class rich and famous. Remember the awkward party when
py

high as $102,900 in Liechtenstein and $145,000 in Qatar. you were around people of a different social class? Even if
The average U.S. income is $56,300 a year (World you suddenly made the same amount of money as those at
co

Factbook 2016a). Infant mortality is as high as 115.1 an elegant party, you would not know the norms associ-
deaths per 1,000 births in Afghanistan (more than 1 in 10) ated with that social class. Some examples of factors
and as low as 2.1 in Iceland and 1.81 in Monaco. In the related to your individual lifestyle that tend to differ
United States, the estimated 2015 rate is 5.9 deaths per among social classes include attitudes toward achieve-
t
no

1,000 births (World Factbook 2015). ment, family life and child-rearing patterns, religious
membership, and political involvement.
Thinking Sociologically
Explain how some specific factors at the micro, meso, Attitudes Toward Achievement. Attitudes toward
o

and macro levels affect your life expectancy and that achievement differ by social status and are generally
D

of your family members. closely correlated with life chances. As noted previously,
motivation to get ahead and beliefs about what we can
One does not have to look beyond the borders of the achieve are in part products of our upbringing and the
United States, though, to see the relationship between opportunities we see as available to us. These attitudes dif-
health and wealth. The United States has much larger gaps fer greatly depending on the opportunity structure around
between rich and poor people than most other wealthy us, including what our families and friends see as possible
nations, and that has led to a corresponding gap in health and desirable. For example, the primary concern of poor
and life expectancy among social classes, much wider than families in poor nations may be to put food on the family’s
that in other highly developed nations. As the video In table. They may view education as a luxury not appropriate

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202   Part III: Inequality

ENGAGING SOCIOLOGY
Life Expectancy, Per Capita Income, and Infant Mortality
Analyzing the meaning of data can provide an 1. What questions do the data in Table 7.1 raise
regarding differences in mortality and life expec-
understanding of the health and well-being of citi-
tancy rates around the world?
zens around the world. A country’s basic statistics,

e
2. Considering what you know from this and previ-
including life expectancy, per capita gross national
ous chapters and from Table 7.1, what do you

ut
product, and infant mortality, tell researchers a great think are some differences in the lives of citizens
deal about its economic health and vitality. in the richest and poorest countries?

rib
Life Expectancy, Infant Mortality, and
Table 7.1 
Per Capita Income for Select Poor and Rich Countries

t
is
Life Infant Per Life Infant Per
Expectancy Mortality Capita Expectancy Mortality Capita

d
Poor (in Years) (Deaths per GDP Rich (in Years) (Deaths per GDP
Countries (2015 est.) 1,000 Births) ($) Countries (2015 est.) 1,000 Births) ($)

or
Chad 49.8 88.7 2,800 Iceland 83.0 2.1 46,100

Guinea 50.2 89.2 1,500 Japan 84.7 2.1 38,200


t,
Bissau
s
Afghanistan 50.9 115.1 2,000 Singapore 84.7 2.5 85,700
po

Somalia 52.0 98.4 400 Hong Kong 82.9 2.7 57,000

Zambia 52.2 64.7 4,300 Switzerland 82.5 3.7 59,300

Central 51.8 90.6 600 Sweden 82.0 2.6 48,000


,

African
py

Republic

Nigeria 53.0 72.7 6,400 Canada* 81.8 4.7 45,900


co

Uganda 55.0 59.2 2,100 France 81.8 3.3 41,400

Niger 55.0 84.6 1,100 Australia 81.4 4.4 65,400

Mali 55.3 102.2 1,800 United 79.7 5.9 56,300


t
no

States**

Source: World Factbook 2016b and 2016c for infant mortality and life expectancy; World Factbook 2016a for per capita income.

Note: Infant mortality is per 1,000 live births.


o

*Canada is 18th in life expectancy and 46th in infant mortality rates.


D

**The United States is 43rd in life expectancy and 58th in infant mortality rates.

Most figures are 2015 estimates.

for people of their social class. In Global North countries, socializing agents: family, peers, and teachers (Ballantine
the opportunity is available for most children to attend and Hammack 2012).
school at least through high school and often beyond.
However, some students do not learn to value achieve- Family Life and Child-Rearing Patterns. Attitudes
ment in school due to lack of support from their primary toward achievement are not the only things that differ

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Chapter 7: Stratification    203

among socioeconomic groups. Child-rearing patterns also $660,540 and $2,738,385. During the presidential cam-
vary and serve to reinforce one’s attitude toward achieve- paign of 2012, President Obama and Mitt Romney (along
ment and social position in society. When you were grow- with their allies) raised approximately a billion dollars
ing up, were your after-school hours, weekends, and each. This contributes to the fact that those with more
summers filled with adult-organized activities (e.g., for- money, who can help support such campaigns, also have
mal lessons, youth sports, camps), or were you pretty more influence in elections (Center for Responsive Politics
much free to play on your own, watch TV, or hang out with 2012a, 2012b, 2015; N. King 2012).
friends or extended family? A family’s social class location
shapes the daily rhythms of family life (Lareau 2003). Status Inconsistency. Some people experience high

e
Differences in parenting behavior can lead to the status on one trait, especially a trait achieved through edu-

ut
“transmission of differential advantages to children” cation and hard work, but may experience low standing in
(Lareau 2003:5). Through their socialization by their par- another area. For example, a professor may have high

rib
ents, middle-class children are better able to navigate the prestige but low income. Max Weber called this uneven-
educational and, later, professional occupational worlds ness in one’s social standing status inconsistency. In soci-
than working-class children. This, in turn, influences the eties with high levels of racism and sexism, racial

t
social class destinies of each group (Lashbrook 2009). minorities and women in high-status positions experience

is
status inconsistency. If their lowest ascribed status is
Religious Membership. Religious affiliation also corre- treated as most important, they are likely to experience

d
lates with the social status variables of education, occupa- discontent with the current system and become more lib-
tion, and income. For instance, in the United States, eral in political views (Weber 1946).

or
upper-class citizens are found disproportionately in Life experiences such as hunger, the unnecessary early
Episcopalian, Unitarian, and Jewish religious groups, death of family members, or the pain of seeing one’s child
whereas lower-class citizens tend to be attracted to denied opportunities are all experienced at the micro
t,
Nazarene, Southern Baptist, Jehovah’s Witness, and other level, but their causes are usually rooted in events and
s
holiness and fundamentalist sects. Although there are actions at other levels of the social world. This brings us
po

exceptions, such as Catholicism, most religious groups to our next question: Can an individual move up or down
attract members predominantly from one social class, as in a stratification system?
Chapter 12 illustrates (Roberts and Yamane 2016).
Thinking Sociologically
,

Political Involvement. Political party identification and


py

Describe your own lifestyle and life chances. How


general ideological beliefs affect voting, and they are, in do these relate to your socialization experience and
turn, affected by social factors such as race, religion, your family’s position in the stratification system?
co

region of the country, social class, gender, marital status, What difference do they make in your life today and
for what you think you will accomplish in the future?
and age (Interuniversity Consortium for Political and
What can you do to improve your life chances?
Social Research 2011). Throughout the world, the lower
the social class, the more likely people are to vote for par-
t
no

ties that support greater distribution of wealth, and the


higher the social status, the more likely people are to be SOCIAL MOBILITY: THE
conservative on economic issues—consistent with pro-
tecting their wealth (Domhoff 2014; Kerbo 2008).
MICRO-MESO CONNECTION
o

However, those with lower levels of education and income The LeBron Jameses and Peyton Mannings of the world
D

tend to vote conservatively on many social issues relating make millions of dollars—at least for the duration of their
to minorities and civil liberties (e.g., rights for lesbians, playing careers. For professionals in the world of sport,
gays, bisexual and transgender people; access to birth con- each hoop, goal, or touchdown throw is worth thousands
trol and abortions; and voter registration laws) (Gilbert of dollars. These riches give hope to those in rags that if
2011; Kerbo 2008). they “play hard,” they too may be on the field or court
Money also influences who can run successful cam- making millions. The problem is that the chances of mak-
paigns. For example, during the 2012 congressional elec- ing it big are so small that such hopes are some of the cru-
tions, the average candidate running for a position in the elest hoaxes perpetrated on poor young African Americans
House of Representatives or the Senate spent, respectively, and others in the lower or working class today. It is a false

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204   Part III: Inequality

education? What factors at different levels of analysis


© iStockPhoto.com/Fernando Carceres

might influence your chances of mobility? These are some


of the questions addressed in this section and the next.
The four issues that dominate the analysis of mobility
are (1) types of social mobility, (2) methods of measuring
social mobility, (3) factors that affect social mobility, and
(4) whether there is a “land of opportunity” for those wish-
ing to improve their lot in life.

e
Types of Social Mobility

ut
Mobility can be up, down, or sideways. Intergenerational
mobility refers to change in social class status compared

rib
with one’s parents, usually resulting from education and
occupational attainment. If you are the first to go to college

t
in your family and you become an engineer, this represents

is
intergenerational upward mobility. The amount of inter-
generational mobility—that is, the number of children who

d
move up or down in the social structure compared with
where their parents are—measures the degree to which a

or
society has an open class system. The more movement
there is between classes, the more open the class system.
This young street basketball player has dreams of glory on
the courts. Despite many grand hoop dreams, few experience You can change positions at the same level in the strat-
t,
dramatic social mobility through sports. ification system. For example, you could move from your
s
job as a postal worker and become a firefighter. This type of
mobility is called horizontal mobility. You have changed
po

promise to think of sports as the road to wealth when your position, but your income, power, and social prestige
chances of success are extremely limited (Dufur and remain essentially the same.
Feinberg 2007; Edwards 2000; Hattery and Smith 2012). Intragenerational mobility (not to be confused with
,

Those few minority athletes who do “make it big” and intergenerational mobility) refers to a change in position
py

become models for young people tend to experience within a single individual’s life. For instance, if you begin
“stacking,” holding certain limited positions in a sport. your career as a teacher’s aide and end it as a school super-
co

Moreover, those young players who make it into the major intendent, that is upward intragenerational mobility.
leagues may have done so by going in right after high However, mobility is not always up. Vertical mobility
school or leaving college after a single year. This thwarts refers to movement up or down in the hierarchy and some-
their postathletic career opportunities. When retired from times involves changing social classes. You may start your
t

career as a waitress, go to college part-time, get a degree in


no

playing, few Black athletes rise in the administrative hier-


archy in the sports of football and baseball (basketball has computer science, and get a more prestigious and higher-
a better record of hiring Black coaches and managers). If paying job, resulting in upward mobility. Alternatively,
young people put all their hopes and energies into devel- you could lose a job and take one at a lower status and pay.
o

oping their muscles and physical skills, they may lose the In recent years, people at all levels of the occupational
D

possibility of moving up in the social class system, which structure have experienced downward intragenerational
requires developing their minds and technical skills. mobility after being laid off from one job and having diffi-
Social mobility refers to the extent of individual move- culty finding another at the same level and pay grade.
ment up or down in the class system, changing one’s
social position in society—especially relative to one’s par-
ents (Gilbert 2011). What is the likelihood that your status
How Much Mobility Is There?
will be different from that of your parents over your life- Measures of Social Mobility
time? Will you start a successful business? Marry into One traditional method of measuring mobility is to compare
wealth? Win the lottery? Experience downward mobility fathers with sons and, in more recent research, with daugh-
due to loss of a job, illness, or inability to complete your ters. Determining the mobility of women is more difficult

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Chapter 7: Stratification    205

because they often have lower-level positions, and their forces (such as the occupational structure and economic
mothers may not have worked full-time, but a conclusion status in a country) are related to meso-level factors (such
that can be drawn is that both women’s and men’s occupa- as access to education and type of economy) and micro-
tional attainment is powerfully influenced by class origins. As level factors (such as socialization, family background, and
Figure 7.3 indicates, the level of social mobility in the United education level) (Blau and Duncan 1967).
States is lower than in most other Global North nations Researchers from Harvard and Berkeley recently con-
(E. Gould 2012). This figure shows correlations, and a lower ducted the largest study on inequality in the United States
number in this case means the more likely it is that sons will to date (Raz, Hendren, Kline, and Saez 2014). Their
end up in the same (or higher) social class as their fathers. research revealed large regional variations in mobility (as

e
seen in Figure 7.4 on page 206). For example, they found

ut
that “the probability of a child born into the poorest fifth of
Factors Affecting the population in San Jose, California making it to the top
an Individual’s Mobility

rib
is 12.9%, not much lower than in Denmark.” In Charlotte,
Why are some people successful at moving up the ladder, North Carolina, [however,] it is 4.4%, far lower than any-
whereas others lag behind? Mobility is driven by many where else in the rich world” (“Mobility, Measured” 2014).

t
factors, from your family’s background to global eco- The researchers noted five factors that help explain the

is
nomic variables. One’s chances to move up depend on level of mobility in different areas of the United States: “resi-
micro-level factors (e.g., cultural capital, socialization, dential segregation (whether by income or race); the quality of

d
personal characteristics, and education)—and meso- and schooling; family structure (e.g., how many children live with
macro-level factors (e.g., the occupational structure and only one parent); ‘social capital’ (such as taking part in com-

or
economic status of regions and countries; population munity groups); and inequality (particularly income gaps
changes in the number of births, deaths, or people among those outside the top 1%).” They point out that “social
migrating; the numbers of people vying for similar posi- mobility is higher in integrated places with good schools,
t,
tions; discrimination based on gender, race or ethnicity; strong families, lots of community spirit and smaller income
s
and the global economic situation). gaps within the broad middle class” (“Mobility, Measured”
po

Studying mobility can be a complicated process 2014). We now look in more detail at a few of the variables that
because these key variables are interrelated. Macro-level can make a difference in your chances for mobility.
,

Social Mobility: Correlations


FIGURE 7.3 
py

Between Earnings of Fathers and Sons


co

Denmark 0.15
Norway 0.17
Finland 0.18
Canada 0.19
t

Australia 0.26
no

Sweden 0.27
New Zealand 0.29
Germany 0.32
Japan 0.34
o

Spain 0.40
France 0.41
D

Switzerland 0.46
United States 0.47
United Kingdom 0.50
Italy 0.50
Chile 0.52
Slovenia 0.54
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Intergenerational Earnings: The Lower the Number, the Higher the Social Mobility

Source: E. Gould 2012.

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206   Part III: Inequality

Location and Social Mobility for a Child


FIGURE 7.4 
in the Bottom Fifth of Income in the United States

WA

MT ME
VT
ND
OR MN
NH

e
ID
SD WI NY MA
MI
WY

ut
RI
IA PA CT
NV NJ
NE OH
UT IN DE
IL
MD

rib
CA CO WV
KS VA DC
MO
KY
NC
AZ TN
OK AR

t
SC
NM

is
GA
MS AL
TX
LA

d
AK
FL

or
Probability that a child who grew up
in the bottom quintile of income
distribution is now in the top quintile.
HI 20.1%–47.0%
15.1%–20.0%
t,
10.1%–15.0%
5.1%–10.0%
5.0% or less
s
No data
po

Note: Commuting zones are geographic areas that help define local economies and labor markets—where people live and work, independent
of political boundaries.
,
py

Source: Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014). Intergenerational Mobility Statistics by Commuting Zone. The Equality of Opportunity
Project. http://www.equality-of-opportunity.org/index.php/data
co

Family Background, Socialization, Marriage, and Public Radio [NPR] 2013). Children from higher social
Education. Whether you marry and whom you marry can classes learn nuances in language whereas lower-class
move you up or down the social class ladder. As men’s wages children learn primarily commands and short directive
t

have fallen over the past few decades and more women have sentences. Professional parents use three times as many
no

joined the workforce, household incomes (rather than just different words at home as parents in low-income families.
male incomes) play more of a role in people’s social class By the time the children of professional families are 3 years
positions. As people increasingly tend to marry those of old, they have a vocabulary of about 1,100 words and typi-
cally use 297 different words per hour. Children in work-
o

similar income levels, marriage makes even more of an


impact on family income. Two high-income earners make ing-class families have a 700-word vocabulary and use 217
D

much more than two low-income earners (and much more words per hour, and children from low-income families
than one low-income or even middle-income worker) have 500 words and use 149 per hour. These numbers rep-
(Haskins et al. 2008; Pew Charitable Trusts 2012). resent a gap in the range of words they hear at home and
As we have noted throughout this chapter, our family illustrate the difference family background and socializa-
background has a major influence on our chances for tion can make in education and future opportunities. A
upward mobility on the social class ladder. For example, University of Chicago study recommends a “3-Ts”
recent research discusses the continuing social class “word approach—tune in, talk more, take turns—to increase
gap” between children from different classes. Disparities in vocabulary (Hart and Risley 2003; NPR 2013). Because lan-
vocabulary are noticeable as early as 18 months (National guage usage at home impacts school success, that in turn

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Chapter 7: Stratification    207

FIGURE 7.5  Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Education Attainment, 2015

Unemployment Rate Median Usual Weekly Earnings


1.7% Doctoral degree $1,623

1.5% Professional degree $1,730

2.4% Master’s degree $1,341


2.8% Bachelor’s degree $1,137

e
3.8% Associate’s degree $798
Some college,

ut
5.0% $738
no degree
5.4% High school diploma $678

rib
Less than a $493
8.0% high school diploma
All Workers: 4.3% All Workers: $860

t
is
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015.

d
plays a role in a child’s chances of getting into college Differences in Bachelor’s Degree
FIGURE 7.6 
and climbing the stratification ladder. Receipt (by Age 24) by Family Income

Thinking Sociologically
How might your vocabulary affect your success or 70%
t,
in school? How might an expanded vocabulary 60%
s
affect your opportunities in life (for example, Top, 52% Top, 54%
impressing a potential employer)? What can you 50%
po

do to increase your vocabulary? Figure reads: of those dependent family members reporting
40% attaining a bachelor’s degree by age 24 in 2014, 54
percent were in the top quartile of family income and
A college degree potentially helps those at the bot- 10 percent were in the bottom quartile.
30% Third, 20%
tom of the stratification system move up and helps
,

Third, 23%
py

those in the middle and upper classes to remain in those 20%


Second, 16%
higher positions. This positive impact on social class Second, 13%
position relates to the fact that, as Figure 7.5 reveals, 10%
Bottom, 12% Bottom, 10%
co

employment rates and earnings tend to go up dramati-


0%
cally with a college degree. For example, in 2015, the 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
unemployment rate for adults over 25 years old was
t

Bottom Second Third Top


5.4% for those with a high school degree but just 2.8%
no

for those with a degree from a 4-year college. The


median weekly earnings were $1,137 for those with a Source: Cahalan, Perna, Yamashita, Ruiz, and Franklin 2016.
4-year degree but just $678 for those with only a high
school diploma (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015). mediocre math scores has the same chances of earning a BA
o

However, as Figure 7.6 indicates, there is a huge differ- as a low-income student with the highest test scores. If U.S.
D

ence in access to higher education. In 2014, among bache- society were truly a meritocracy, positions would be allo-
lors’ degrees awarded to dependent family members by age cated in a social group or organization according to individ-
24, 54% went to individuals from families in the top quartile uals’ abilities and credentials. One would expect cognitive
of income as opposed to 10% going to individuals from fami- ability to be the most important variable (Gilbert 2011).
lies of the bottom quartile. Comparable figures for 1970 were Even when a young person from a low-income back-
52% and 12% respectively (Cahalan, Perna, Yamashita, Ruiz, ground is admitted to a college or university, she or he may be
and Franklin 2016). Further, this is not just a matter of at a disadvantage in the classroom and feel alienated from past
more capable students succeeding in college. As Figure 7.7 social ties. The culture of 4-year colleges, particularly elite ones,
on page 209 demonstrates, a high-income student with just is typically the culture of the well-educated upper-middle

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208   Part III: Inequality

ENGAGING SOCIOLOGY
First-Generation College Students: Issues
of Cultural and Social Capital
Socioeconomic classes develop subcultures that B. Which of the following relationships were part of
your childhood?
can be quite different from one another, and when

e
one changes subcultures, it can be confusing and  My parents knew at least two influential people

ut
in my community on a first-name basis—such
alienating. College campuses provide an example
as the mayor, members of the city council, the
because they are dominated by middle-class cul- superintendent of schools, the governor, and

rib
tures. First-generation college students often find the district’s representative to Congress.
themselves in a world as alien as visiting another  The regional leader of my religious group—

t
country. Students whose parents went to college are church, temple, or mosque—knew and

is
more likely to have cultural and social capital that respected my family.
helps them understand their professors, who are  My parents knew, on a first-name basis, at

d
generally part of the middle-class culture. Answer least three CEOs of corporations.
the following survey questions. How might your own  When I entered new situations in high school,

or
cultural and social capital cause you to feel at home it was likely that my parents were known by
the coaches, music directors, summer camp
or alienated, privileged or disprivileged, in a college
directors, or others “running the show.”
t,
environment?
 When I came to college, one or more profes-
s
A. Which of the following experiences were part of sors and administrators at the college knew my
po

your childhood? parents, a sibling, or another family member.


 I have often interacted directly and effec-
 Had a library of books (at least 50 adult books)
in your childhood home tively (in a nonadversarial way) with authority
figures.
,

 Had parents who read a newspaper on a daily


py

basis Engaging With Sociology


 Had parents who subscribed to news maga- 1. If you experienced many of the items under A at
co

zines (e.g., Time, The Economist) home, you had fairly high cultural capital. If you
 Listened to music as a family, including classi-
marked most of the items under B, you had a lot
cal or instrumental music such as harp or flute of social capital. If you did not, you may find the
culture of a 4-year college campus to be alien
t

 Traveled to at least 20 other states or to at and even confusing. How well does your back-
no

least 5 other countries ground match up with the cultural capital of a


 Took regular trips to the library
college?

 Took regular trips to museums


2. Which of the following aspects of a college cam-
o

pus do you think might make a first-generation


 Attended plays (theater productions) and college student feel most alienated at your col-
D

concerts lege: economic capital (money), social capital


 Played a musical instrument
(networks with those who have resources), or
cultural capital (knowledge of important aspects
 Took dance lessons of the culture)? Why?
 Listened to National Public Radio (NPR)

 Watched PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) Source: Survey constructed in part using ideas from
on television Morris and Grimes 1997.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    209

FIGURE 7.7  Advantage of Wealth in College Success

B.A. completion rate in three socioeconomic groups, ranked in four groups of math test scores

Low Income Middle Income High Income

Standardized Math Test Scores


Highest 41% 53% 74%

Third 23% 35% 61%

e
Second 12% 19% 41%

ut
Lowest quartile 5% 8% 21%

rib
A low-income college student with top math scores has the same chance of
graduating with a bachelor’s degree (41%) as a rich student with mediocre scores.

t
is
Source: Dynarski 2015; National Center for Educational Statistics 2015.

d
class and may be different and uncomfortable for those from Likewise, whereas women have made some gains, women
other class backgrounds (Dews and Law 1995; Foster 2015). in the U.S. workforce are more likely than men to be in

or
The alienation many first-generation poor and working-class dead-end clerical and service positions with no opportu-
students experience at 4-year colleges is explored in more nity for advancement. Overall, women also still make less
detail in the previous “Engaging Sociology.” money than men (U.S. Department of Labor 2011). Figure
t,
7.8 on page 210 shows the median annual earnings for
Economic Vitality and Population Trends. The eco- population groups by race or ethnicity and gender.
s
nomic health of a nation and population trends can also Women, on average, earn less money than men, but
po

influence an individual’s chances for social mobility. As they now have more degrees than men. Women are 33%
noted earlier, the economic vitality of a country affects the more likely than men (32% compared with 24%) to earn a
chances for individual mobility because there will be fewer bachelor’s degree by the time they are 27 (A. Meyer 2014).
,

positions at the top if the economy is stagnant. Macro-level Whereas women are still woefully underrepresented in
py

factors such as a country’s economy and its place in the upper-level management positions—only 4%, or 20, CEOs
global system shape the employment chances of individuals. of Fortune 500 companies are women—their increasing
The fertility rates, or number of children born at a given edge in education should, eventually, lead to more women
co

time, influence the number of people looking for jobs and in high-level positions in the workforce (Catalyst 2016).
their chance of moving up in society. For example, the U.S.
nationwide baby boom following World War II resulted in a Interdependent Global Market. All members of an
t

flood of job applicants and downward intergenerational economy are vulnerable to international events and the
no

mobility for the many who could not find work comparable swings in the global marketplace. If the Chinese or
with their social class at birth. In contrast, the smaller group Japanese stock markets hiccup, it sends ripples through
following the baby boomer generation had fewer competi- world markets. If high-tech industries in Japan or Europe
o

tors for entry-level jobs. Baby boomers hold many of the falter, North American companies in Silicon Valley,
executive and leadership positions today, so promotion has
D

California, may go out of business, costing many profes-


been hard for the next cohort. As baby boomers retire, sionals their lucrative positions. In ways such as these, the
opportunities will open up, and mobility should increase. interdependent global economies affect national and local
economies, and that in turn affects individual families.
Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Earnings. Many women Whether individuals move from “rags to riches” is not
and racial and ethnic minority groups, locked in a cycle of determined solely by their personal ambition and work
poverty, dependence, and debt, have little chance of chang- ethic. As the information in this chapter indicates, mobility
ing their status. For example, Black people tend to remain for the individual, a micro-level event, is linked to a variety
poor or fall from the middle class more often than people of events at other levels of the social world. What we see and
in other racial groups (Pew Charitable Trusts 2012). hear in the media, though, may have us believe otherwise.

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210   Part III: Inequality

FIGURE 7.8  Median Annual Earnings by Race or Ethnicity and Gender, 2014

$70,000

$60,425
79%
78%
$60,000

$53,267

$47,776
$50,000

$41,585
85% 88% 90%

e
$37,570
$37,461
$36,886
89%
$40,000

$33,772
$32,893
$32,272

ut
$31,191
$29,791

$30,000

rib
$20,000

t
is
$10,000

d
0
Hispanic American Native African White Asian
or Latina/o Indian and Hawaiian American (non-Hispanic) American

or
Alaska Native and Other
Pacific Islander
Women Men xx% = Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings
s t,
po

Source: Infoplease 2016, from U.S. Census Bureau, Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

Note: Based on median annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers, ages 16 and older.

answer is not simple. Countless immigrants have sought bet-


,

Thinking Sociologically
py

ter opportunities in new locations. Their economic future


Think of family members or friends who have depended on the historical period, the economic conditions,
recently lost or acquired jobs. Using your socio-
attitudes toward immigrants, their job skills, and their ability
co

logical imagination, how can you connect those


to blend into the new society.
individual experiences to the national and global
economy? How do you think the national and global During economic growth periods, many immigrants
economies will impact your experience in the have found great opportunities for mobility in the United
t

marketplace after you earn your college degree? States and Europe. However, opportunities for upward
no

mobility have changed significantly with globalization.


Multinational corporations look for the cheapest sources
Is There a “Land of Opportunity”? of labor in the Global South with low taxes, few labor
Cross-Cultural Mobility unions and workplace safety regulations, and many work-
o

Television shows bombard us with images of rich bachelors ers needing jobs. This has drained away low-skilled, manu-
D

and the desirability of marrying a millionaire to improve facturing jobs from Global North countries, making it
our status in life. By playing a game of trivia or being chal- even more essential to have advanced educational creden-
lenged on an island on a TV show, we too might “strike it tials (such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree).
rich.” Another possibility is that we might win the lottery Most jobs in the United States today focus on providing
by buying a ticket at our local convenience store. In reality, services. These service-sector jobs tend to require either a
these quick fixes and easy get-rich-fast plans are seldom great deal of education (e.g., lawyers, computer engineers, or
realized, and the chances of us profiting are slim indeed. doctors) or minimal training (e.g., retail sales, nurse’s aides,
The question for this section concerns your realistic fast-food workers, or security guards). The low-skill jobs do
chances for mobility and whether you have a better chance to not pay well, and labor unions, with declining memberships
improve your status by moving to some other country. The and political clout, have increasingly limited influence on

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Chapter 7: Stratification    211

the wages and working conditions of workers. The result is a The Shrinking
FIGURE 7.9 
shrinking middle class in the United States, as is shown in
American Middle Class
Figure 7.9 (Parlapiano, Gebeloff, and Carter 2015).
This inequality trend exists throughout the world.
Although the new factories for multinational industries 53% Middle Income
springing up in Global South countries such as Malaysia,
Mexico, and the Philippines provide opportunities for mobil-
50%
ity to those of modest origins, much of the upward mobility 45%
in the world is taking place among those who come from 43%

e
small, highly educated families with individualistic achieve-

ut
ment-oriented values (Featherman and Hauser 1978; 40%
Gratton 2012; Rothman 2005). They tend to be positioned to

rib
take advantage of the changing occupational structure and
high-tech jobs. Their education and social and cultural capi-
30%
tal allow them to work effectively in multiple nations

t
(Gratton 2012). As the gap between rich and poor individu-

is
als widens, education becomes more important.
20%

d
Thinking Sociologically

or
What social factors in your society limit or enhance
the likelihood of upward social mobility for you and 10%
other members of your generation? Explain.
s t,
0%
MAJOR STRATIFICATION 1967 2000 2013
po

SYSTEMS: MACRO-LEVEL
ANALYSIS Source: Parlapiano, Gebeloff, and Carter 2015.
,

Note: Middle income is defined here as $35,000 to $100,000 per year.


py

Mansa works on a plantation in Mozambique. He tries in


vain to pay off his debt. Like his parents, however hard he
and his wife and children work, they will always be in debt to achieve a higher ranking by working hard, obtaining an
co

because they cannot pay the total amount due for their hut education, and choosing an occupation that pays well.
or food from the owner’s store. Basically, they are slaves—
they do not have control over their own labor. They were
Ascribed Status:
t

born into this status, and there they will stay.


Caste and Estate Systems
no

Imagine being born into a society in which you have no


choices or options in life because of your family back- Caste systems are the most rigid ascribed stratification
ground, age, sex, and ethnic group. You cannot select an systems. Individuals are born into a status, which they
occupation that interests you and cannot move. You see retain throughout life. That status is deeply embedded in
o

wealthy aristocrats parading their advantages and realize religious, political, and economic norms and institutions.
D

that this will never be possible for you. You can never own Individuals born into caste systems have predetermined
land or receive the education of your choice. occupational positions, marriage partners, residences,
This situation is reality for millions of people in the social associations, and prestige levels. A person’s caste is
world—they are born this way and will spend their lives easily recognized through clothing, speech patterns, fam-
this way. In ascribed stratification systems, characteris- ily name and identity, skin color, or other distinguishing
tics beyond the control of individuals—such as family characteristics. From their earliest years, individuals learn
background, age, sex, and race—determine their position their place in society through the process of socialization.
in society. In contrast, achieved stratification systems To behave counter to caste prescriptions would be to go
allow individuals to earn positions through their ability, against religion and social custom and to risk not fitting
efforts, and choices. In an open class system, it is possible into society. That can be a death sentence in some societies.

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212   Part III: Inequality

In caste-based societies, the institution of religion works Thinking Sociologically


together with the family, education, economic, and political What might be some advantages, for both the society
institutions to shape both expectations and aspirations and and the individuals living in it, of a society where status
to keep people in their prescribed places in caste systems. was ascribed rather than achieved? Do you think you
would enjoy living in such a society? Why or why not?
For example, Hindu ideas dictate that violating the caste
prescriptions can put one’s next reincarnation (or rebirth in
the Hindu tradition) in jeopardy. Stability in Hindu societies
is maintained in part by the belief that people can be reborn
Achieved Status:
into a higher status in the next life if they fulfill expectations Social Class in the United States

e
in their ascribed position in this life. In contrast to ascribed status systems, achieved stratifica-

ut
The clearest example of a caste system is found in tion systems maintain that everyone is born with common
India, a predominantly Hindu society. The Hindu religion legal status and equality before the law. In principle, all

rib
holds that individuals are born into one of four varnas, individuals can own property and choose their own occu-
broad caste positions, or into a fifth group below the caste pations. However, in practice, most achieved status sys-
system, the outcaste group. The first and highest varna, tems, like the class system found in the United States, pass

t
called Brahmans, originally was made up of priests and privilege or poverty from one generation to the next.

is
scholars but now includes many leaders in society. The Individual upward or downward mobility is more difficult
second varna, Kshatriyas or Rajputs, includes the original than the ideology invites people to believe.

d
prince and warrior varna and now embraces much of the Social class refers to the wealth, power, and prestige
army and civil service. The Vaishyas, or merchants, are the rankings that individuals hold in society. Members of the

or
third varna. The fourth varna, the Sudras, includes peas- same social class have similar income, wealth and economic
ants, farmers, artisans, and laborers. The final layer, below position, lifestyles, levels of education, cultural beliefs, and
the caste system, encompasses profoundly oppressed patterns of social interaction. Our families, rich or poor and
t,
people—“a people put aside”—referred to as untouchables, educated or unskilled, provide us with an initial social rank-
s
outcastes, Chandalas (a Hindu term), and Dalits (the ing and socialization experience. We tend to feel a kinship
po

name preferred by many “untouchables” themselves). and sense of belonging with those in the same social class
Although the Indian Constitution of 1950 granted full and tend to live, attend school, and work with people from
social status to these citizens, and a law passed in 1955 our social class. We think alike, share interests, and probably
made discrimination against them punishable, deeply look up to the same people as a reference group.
,

rooted traditions can be difficult to change. Caste distinc- Our social class position is based on the three main fac-
py

tions are still very prevalent, especially in rural areas. tors in the stratification system: (1) property, (2) prestige,
Estate systems are characterized by the concentration and (3) power. This is the trio—the three Ps—that,
co

of economic and political power in the hands of a small according to Max Weber, determines where individuals
minority of political-military elite, with the peasantry tied rank in relation to each other (Weber 1946, 1947). By
to the land (Rothman 2005). They existed in ancient Egypt, property (wealth), Weber refers to owning or controlling
the Incan and Mayan civilizations, Europe, China, and the means of production. Power, the ability to control
t
no

Japan. In estate systems an individual’s rank and legal others, includes not only the means of production but also
rights are clearly spelled out, and arranged marriages and the position one holds. Prestige involves the esteem and
religion bolster the system. In Europe, during the Middle recognition one receives, based on wealth, position, or
Ages, knights defended the realms and the religion of the accomplishments. Chances of being granted high prestige
o

nobles. Behind every knight in shining armor were peas- improve if one’s patterns of behavior, occupation, and life-
D

ants, sweating in the fields and paying for the knights’ food, style match those valued in the society (e.g., in U.S. society
armor, and campaigns. For farming the land owned by the today that would include scientists, physicians, military
nobility, peasants received protection against invading officers, lawyers, and college professors).
armies and enough of the produce to survive. Their lives Although these three dimensions of stratification are
were often miserable. If the yield of crops was poor, they ate often found together, this is not always so. Recall the idea
little. In a good year, they might save enough to buy a small of status inconsistency: an individual can have a great deal
parcel of land. A very few were able to become independent of prestige yet not command much wealth (Weber 1946).
in this fashion. Today, similar systems exist in some Central Consider winners of the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize
and South American, Asian, and African countries on large such as Wangari Maathai, a Kenyan environmentalist who
banana, coffee, cacao, and sugar plantations. won the prize for starting a movement to plant trees and

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Chapter 7: Stratification    213

for her political activism, or Betty Williams and Mairead recent U.S. presidential campaign. All the candidates were
Corrigan of Northern Ireland, founders of the Community talking about the middle class. Did you ever hear the poli-
of Peace People who won for their efforts to find a peaceful ticians define what they meant? You probably did not,
end to their country’s conflicts. None of them was rich, but because the broader and more inclusive the definition, the
each made contributions to the world that gained them more useful it is to politicians who are trying to appeal to a
universal prestige. Likewise, some people gain enormous range of voters.
wealth through crime or gambling, but this wealth may When given a choice among lower, middle, and
not be accompanied by respect or prestige. upper class, almost all Americans will say they are mid-
Some theorists see power as the key element in systems dle class. When given a choice that includes working

e
of stratification. Conflict theorists maintain that those who class, however, 45% say middle class, and another 45%

ut
hold power control the economic capital and the means of define themselves as working class (Gilbert 2011). You
production in society (Ashley and Orenstein 2009). can see sociologist Dennis Gilbert’s social class model in

rib
Consistent with Marx, many recent conflict theorists argue Figure 7.10.
that a power elite composed of top leaders in corporations, Most social scientists measure social class by looking
politics, and the military rules society (Domhoff 2014). at the income, education, and profession of respondents.

t
These interlocking groups of elites grow up together, Sometimes, social scientists break down members of the

is
attending the same private schools and belonging to the middle class into two groups: the white-collar middle class
same private clubs. There is an unspoken agreement to pro- and the working class. Most white-collar workers have a

d
tect each other’s positions and ensure that their power is college education, have professions with salaries (rather
not threatened. Those not in this interlocking elite group than jobs where they are paid by the hour), work in an

or
do not hold real power and have little chance of breaking office setting, and earn within a specified range around the
into the inner circles (Dye 2002, 2014; C. W. Mills 1956). median income. Members of the working class work for
Pluralist power theorists, on the other hand, argue that hourly wages, do manual labor, and do not usually have a
t,
power is not held exclusively by an elite group but is shared college degree.
s
among many power centers, each of which has its own self-
po

interests to protect (Ritzer and Goodman 2004). Well-


financed special interest groups (e.g., insurance industry, FIGURE 7.10  Gilbert’s Model
dairy and cattle farmers, or truckers’ trade unions) and profes- of Social Class
sional associations (e.g., the American Medical Association or
,

American Bar Association) have considerable power through


py

collective action. From the pluralist perspective, officials who TYPICAL TYPICAL
hold political power are vulnerable to pressure from influen- OCCUPATIONS INCOMES
co

tial interest groups, and each interest group competes for Investors, capitalist Top 1% make about
heirs, and $1.5 million
power with others. Creating and maintaining this power executives class per year
through networks and pressure on legislators is the job of lob-
Upper managers,
byists. For example, in the intense U.S. debate over health care upper- 14% make
t

professionals, and about $80,000


middle class
no

legislation, interest groups from the medical community, medium-sized per year
business owners
insurance lobbies, and citizens’ groups wielded their power to
Lower managers, 30% make
influence the outcome, but because these major interests con- semi-professionals, middle about $45,000
craftsmen, foremen,
flict and no one group has the most power, no one group class per year
o

and non-retail sales


attained all it wanted. Some groups wanted to nationalize
D

health care and others wanted to completely privatize it; the Low-skill manual, 30% make
clerical, and working class about $30,000
Affordable Care Act did neither. The core idea of pluralist theo- retail sales per year
rists, then, is that many centers of power create at least some
Lowest-paid manual, 13% make about
checks and balances on those in elite positions. retail, and service working poor $20,000 per year
workers
Unemployed or Bottom 13%
part-time menial underclass make about
Examples of Social jobs, public assistance $10,000 per year

Classes in the United States


Imagine that you are a politician. The public is clamoring
for more help for the middle class. Flash back to the most Source: Gilbert 2011.

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214   Part III: Inequality

Thinking Sociologically some of the time (Feeding America 2015; Sauter and Hess
How does today’s popular culture on TV and in films, 2013). States most severely affected by food insecurity
magazines, and popular music reflect the interests (lack of consistent access to food) include Mississippi,
of different social classes? How are rich and poor Arkansas, Texas, Alabama, North Carolina, Georgia,
people depicted? Who appears responsible for their
Missouri, Nevada, Tennessee, and Ohio. These states also
wealth or poverty—the individuals, the society, or
have among the highest obesity rates due to poor diets
some other combination? Do any of these depictions
question the U.S. class system? (Coleman-Jensen, Gregory, and Singh 2014). Households
led by single women are especially likely to be food inse-
cure, with 34.4% lacking sufficient food. Race also influ-

e
ences the likelihood of food insecurity. One out of four
POVERTY AND

ut
Black (26.1%) and Hispanic (23.7%) households are food
insecure (Coleman-Jensen et al. 2014).
SOCIAL POLICY

rib
Most people living in poverty have no property-based
Nothing describes poverty more vividly than hunger. income and no permanent or stable work, only casual or
Stories about hunger and famine in Global South coun- intermittent earnings in the labor market. They often

t
tries fill the newspapers. Chronic hunger has declined by depend on help from government agencies or private orga-

is
130 million people since 1990 (World Food Programme nizations to survive. In short, they have personal troubles
2013; World Hunger Education Service 2013). Yet, around in large part because they have been unable to establish

d
the world, nearly 870 million people, or roughly 1 in every linkages and networks in the meso- and macro-level orga-
8 people on earth, still go to bed hungry every night. nizations of our social world. The reality is that most of the

or
Figure 7.11 shows where hunger is most severe. gap is due to structural issues, with the wealth gaps
One hardly expects to see hunger in rich countries, yet becoming so extreme that in 2016, just 62 individuals own
in the United States more than 50 million people, or 1 in 7 more wealth than 3.5 billion people—half of the world’s
t,
in the U.S. population and 1 in 5 children, are hungry population (Cohen 2016; Oxfam 2016).
s
po

FIGURE 7.11  Global Hunger Index, 2015


,
py

Asia
co

North
America Europe
t
no

Africa

South
America
o

Australia
D

Level of Undernourishment
and Food Insecurity
Extremely alarming 50 or more
Alarming 35.0–49.9
Serious 20.0–34.9
Moderate 10.0–19.9
Low 9.9 or less
Most industrialized—lowest risk
No data

Source: von Grebmer et al., 2015. Used with permission from the International Food Policy Research Institute.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    215

head of household were in poverty in 2013 (DeNavas-Walt


Thinking Sociologically and Proctor 2014). Some of those in poverty find them-
Explain how your family’s ability to provide food for selves without a home. As of January 2014, there were
its members at the micro level is largely dependent
578,424 homeless people in the United States (U.S.
on its connectedness to the meso and macro levels
Department of Housing and Urban Development 2014).
of society.
Among them, 69% were in transitional or emergency shel-
Sociologists recognize two basic types of poverty: ters and 31% were unsheltered. Almost 1 out of 4 of the
(1) absolute poverty and (2) relative poverty. Absolute homeless (23%) were children under the age of 18.
poverty, not having resources to meet basic needs, means Families now make up over one third (37%) of the home-

e
no prestige, very little access to power, no accumulated less population.

ut
wealth, and insufficient means to survive. Some die of eas- The Obama administration made a concerted effort to
ily cured diseases because the bodies of those in absolute combat homelessness and used social scientific research

rib
poverty are weakened by chronic and persistent hunger to do so. Studies have shown that “mainstream housing,
and almost total lack of medical attention. health, education, and human service programs must be
Relative poverty occurs when one’s income falls fully engaged and coordinated to prevent and end home-

t
below the poverty line, resulting in an inadequate stan- lessness” (Sullivan 2013). Research also reveals that pro-

is
dard of living relative to others in the individual’s country. viding a wide range of services for the homeless actually
In the United States, relative poverty means shortened life saves taxpayers money in the long run “by interrupting a

d
expectancy, higher infant mortality, and poorer health. costly cycle of emergency room visits, detoxes, and even
Whereas few people starve on the street and suffer from jail terms” (Sullivan 2013). Thanks to strategies based on

or
the easily cured diseases more common among the poor in these findings, the number of homeless has declined by
Global South nations, food insecurity and the stress and 11% since 2007 (despite the impact of the Great
hardships of relative poverty lead to more health problems Recession and rising levels of inequality) (U.S.
t,
and earlier deaths for the poor in the United States and Department of Housing and Urban Development 2014).
s
other Global North nations with high levels of inequality. How can we effectively address inequality? First, we
po

The feminization of poverty refers to the trend in must become aware of the problem. As this chapter has
which single females with children make up a growing described, almost every society has some system of stratifi-
proportion of those in poverty. In 2013, 11.8% of males cation. We do not all have the same chances of “making it.”
and 15.3% of females aged 18 to 64 in the United States Most of us, though, do not fully realize the extent of the
,

lived in poverty, and Table 7.2 shows how much income inequality in the society we call home. For example, in a
py

would remove one from the poverty line. One in five chil- recent study, a nationally representative sample of U.S. citi-
dren (20% of girls and 19.8% of boys) were in poverty zens was shown three charts that displayed different distri-
co

(DeNavas-Walt and Proctor 2014). If you were raised by a butions of wealth ranging from somewhat equal to very
single mother, you have a greater chance of experiencing unequal. When asked which of the three charts illustrated
poverty. Almost 1 out of 3 families (30.6%) with a female how wealth was distributed in the United States, most
t
no

Table 7.2  Poverty Thresholds for 2014 by Size of Family


o

Size of Family Unit Weighted Average Thresholds


D

One person $12,071

Two people $15,379

Three people $18,850

Four people $24,230

Five people $28,695

Six people $32,473

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2015a.

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216   Part III: Inequality

respondents chose the chart that actually described wealth Wealth Inequality in
FIGURE 7.12 
distribution in Sweden, the nation with the lowest level of
the United States: Actual, Estimated,
economic inequality in the world. The chart most often
picked by respondents as an “ideal” distribution of wealth
and Perceived Ideal
illustrated an even more equitable distribution of wealth
than that found in Sweden (Norton and Ariely 2011). Figure Actual distribution of wealth
7.12 shows the actual U.S. wealth distribution plotted
against the estimated and ideal distributions across all
respondents. Responses varied a bit by age, income, and What Americans think it is

e
political party, but there was overall agreement that

ut
America would be better off with a smaller wealth gap
(Weissmann 2014).
What they would like it to be

rib
Thinking Sociologically
What distribution of wealth and income would you

t
favor for your nation, and why? What changes would 0 20 40 60 80 100%

is
you make to approach your favored distribution? top 20% second 20% third 20%
fourth 20% bottom 20%

d
After reading this chapter, you understand that the
United States has higher levels of inequality and poverty and

or
Note: The actual U.S. wealth distribution plotted against the estimated and
less class mobility than most other wealthy nations. Once ideal distributions across all respondents. Because of their small percentage
we understand the extent of inequality and poverty, we can share of total wealth, both the “4th 20%” value (0.2%) and the “Bottom 20%”
value (0.1%) are barely or not visible in the “Actual” distribution.
start to develop ways to address these issues. We can also cri-
t,
tique poverty reduction programs now under way in differ- The bar labeled “What Americans Think It Is” represents the actual
distribution of wealth in Sweden.
s
ent nations and help to create more effective ones, if needed.
Source: Norton and Ariely 2011; Weissman 2014.
po

Solutions to Poverty:
Some Policy Considerations Start, which provides early childhood education. Both pro-
,

Government programs exist in the United States and many grams have received high grades for effectiveness. Yet child
py

other countries to help individuals through difficult times, poverty rates are still high compared with those of 35 other
especially during economic downturns. The stated goal of Global North countries, with the United States ranked 34th
co

most public and private poverty reduction and welfare pro- (meaning only one other nation in the group has higher
grams is to change factors that perpetuate poverty, but this rates of child poverty; Fisher 2013).
requires money, jobs, and remodeling our social institu- In addition to micro-level incentives such as child care
tions. Sociologists and other social scientists work to under- and work training, success in helping people out of poverty
t

stand social problems. They also devise programs to mitigate


no

depends on meso-level economic conditions: Are there jobs


them and evaluate programs in existence to help ensure that available at living wages? Are taxpayers, many of whom are
only effective programs continue to receive funds. Some pol- attracted to politicians who cut taxes, willing to provide
icymakers suggest attacking the problem of poverty institu- money for social programs to help the “invisible” poor out of
o

tion by institution, offering incentives for family stability, for poverty as well as provide subsidies for other groups, includ-
D

students to finish high school, and for job training. ing farmers, homeowners, college students, and corpora-
tions? Ironically, government institutions such as prisons
Welfare, Workfare, and Other Aid Programs. Most and the criminal justice system absorb public funds that
Global North countries provide assistance to citizens who could go to poverty reduction. Yet, as we discussed in
need help when they are unemployed, sick, or elderly. The Chapter 6, crime itself is often a result of people in poverty
United States established the Great Society programs of the feeling that they have no other options for survival.
1960s and 1970s as part of the “War on Poverty” of that era. Since the 2007–2009 Great Recession and the slow recov-
Some of these programs still exist, including the Special ery that followed, jobs have become harder to find, and the
Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and success story of workfare has been challenged. Social workers
Children (WIC), which provides nutritional help, and Head and others working with people living in poverty have seen

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Chapter 7: Stratification    217

increases in the number of people needing food stamps, food

Getty/NurPhoto/Contributor
pantries and food kitchens, and other stopgaps for the desti-
tute (Feeding America 2015). Some policymakers argue for a
new federal initiative that would put jobless individuals to
work in public service employment, a plan that would help
communities and those needing assistance (Johnson, Rynell,
and Young 2012). The American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act and the American Graduation Initiative recommended
that policymakers prioritize 2-year associate degrees at com-

e
munity colleges in order to increase the number of adults

ut
who have better job skills and credentials (Carnevale 2012).
As you can see, there are multiple, often intersecting

rib
reasons one can fall into or remain mired in poverty.
Policy analysts look at how poverty reduction may require
addressing different issues at once. This is one way sociol-

t
ogists can help form public policy efforts aimed at reduc-

Getty/damircudic

is
ing poverty. In the next “Sociologists in Action” on page
218, Dr. Mary Gatta is an example of a sociologist making

d
just such a contribution. She uses her sociological train-
ing to create policies and programs that help working-

or
poor mothers gain education and skills training.

Thinking Sociologically
t,
First, read the “Sociologists in Action” feature on page
s
218. Recalling what you have learned about poverty,
po

how would you develop a plan to attack the problem


of poverty within your community or nation, taking
into account micro, meso, and macro levels of anal-
ysis? Consider job training, changing family values,
,

providing child care for working parents, raising the


py

minimum wage—or other factors. First describe the


root causes of poverty and then suggest solutions.
co

NATIONAL AND GLOBAL


DIGITAL DIVIDE: MACRO-
t
no

LEVEL STRATIFICATION
Mamadou from Niger and Eric from Ghana answer their
iPhones to the sound of chimes from London’s Big Ben
o

clock tower and a Bob Marley song. In addition to English,


D

one speaks in Kanuri and French and the other in Twi to


friends and family thousands of miles away. They are the
future generation of elites from the Global South, fluent in
the languages of several countries, adept in computer soft- This homeless girl walks in the rain in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The child’s
family has little power to improve its situation or her life chances.
ware, and at the forefront of their countries in digital tech-
Compare her circumstances to those of the boy and girl in their
nology. Many of their fellow citizens in Niger and Ghana in
parents’ arms on a yacht.
Africa are not so fortunate. With insufficient education to
participate in the changing economy and new technolo- Global economic and political institutions increasingly
gies, they have little contact with the digital world swirling produce and transmit information through digital technology.
overhead through satellite connections. Few tools are more important than computers, smartphones,

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218   Part III: Inequality

SOCIOLOGISTS IN ACTION
MARY GATTA

Poor Women, Work, work and family needs. She has crafted programs
and School—Help to that are flexible so that women can receive their
Accomplish It All! education without compromising their family or

e
work responsibilities.

ut
Gender, race, class, age, and educational levels,
among other variables, impact the effectiveness To address education and work issues, Gatta has
overseen a new and rapidly expanding system of

rib
of public policies. Yet public officials and policy-
makers are not often trained to understand the training single working mothers via the Internet,
effects of such variables. Working-poor women and she conducts research on workplace flexibility

t
for low-wage workers in a variety of professions.

is
face a dual challenge: How will they survive eco-
nomically in the present, and, then, how will they Her work enables single mothers to obtain better

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attain the skills that will enable them to be more jobs and become more active participants in U.S.
marketable in the future? Women, and in particu- society by providing them with flexible educational

or
lar single, poor, working mothers, face a system of alternatives. The Internet is available around the
structural barriers—child care, elder care, irregu- clock, so women can fit education into their lives,
lar work hours, and transportation inequities—that as opposed to fitting their lives into educational
t,
make it hard for them to gain education in tradi- structures. In addition, these programs provide
s
tional classroom settings. computers for the women and their children, help-
po

ing bridge the digital divide.


Using a sociological framework, Dr. Mary Gatta
Gatta’s background in sociology helps her educate
examines why so many policies have not succeeded
policymakers on the gender effects of policy. Her
,

in helping poor working women. With data gathered


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book, Not Just Getting By: The New Era of Flexible


from posing as a client at workforce development
Workforce Development (2005), coauthored with
centers, Gatta concludes that working-poor women
Kevin McCabe, is an excellent example of her abil-
co

are caught in a system in which they are not only


ity to use sociology for the public good. Gatta’s
unable to support themselves but are also unable to
use of sociological training in her work helps poli-
acquire human capital resources to attain self-suffi-
cymakers to do their jobs more effectively and
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ciency via the traditional mechanisms of education


no

ensures that gender is taken into account at the


and skills training.
policy table.
Gatta helps create social policy and programs
o

that take into account the effects of variables


such as race and gender on marginalized groups. Mary Gatta is senior scholar at Wider Opportunities for
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Specifically, Gatta has helped to create and imple- Women, a national organization based in Washington,
ment workforce development programs that provide DC. This excerpt is adapted from Korgen and White’s
access to education and skills training for single, Engaged Sociologist: Connecting the Classroom to
working-poor mothers in ways that attend to their the Community.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    219

and the Internet. In nearly every salaried and professional posi-

© Elise Roberts
tion, computer knowledge and ability to navigate the Internet
are critical employment skills. The digital divide refers to the
gap between those with knowledge and access to information
technology and those without it. The lines of the divide are
drawn by the position of the country in the world, socioeco-
nomic status of citizens, and urban versus rural residence
(World Economic Forum 2015).
Many individuals in Global South countries have insuffi-

e
cient technology and education to participate in this new econ-

ut
omy. Approximately 90% of residents of low-income nations
have never gone online (World Economic Forum 2015). Still,

rib
the number of Internet users in the world is increasing rapidly.
In 2000 just 250 million people (around 1%) could access the
Internet, but by November 2015 46.4% of the world’s popula-

t
tion had used the Internet (Internet World Statistics 2016;

is
Renick 2011). As Table 7.3 on page 220 makes clear, this varies
greatly by region of the world. Internet penetration refers to

d
© Arthur Dries/Stone/Getty Images
the percentage of Internet users in each country.
Researchers have laid out three tiers in the digital

or
divide, based on the following: (1) personal computers per
100 in the population, (2) Internet users per 100 in the pop-
ulation, and (3) Internet bandwidth per person. Using these
t,
standards, all developed countries plus some additional
s
countries in the Caribbean, Eastern Europe, and the Middle
po

East are Tier 1—the places with most access. The second
tier includes Brazil, Russia, China, and some smaller coun-
tries in South America. African nations account for the
majority of members in the lowest tier, reflecting the disad-
,

vantage of the continent in terms of lack of computers,


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computer use, and bandwidth (“The International Digital


In Laos, where many people live in grass houses such as this one
Divide” 2011). However, undersea fiber-optic cables are (top), families do not have access to electronic devices or the Internet.
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being laid around Africa to provide faster and more reliable Their homes and their life chances stand in stark contrast to those of
Internet access (African Undersea Cables 2013). the children seen here working on computers—seen as necessary
As Internet technology expands, it brings the world to equipment.
remote villages, opening new horizons and options and
t
no

changing lifestyles. Some poor countries are transitioning


into the electronic age and making policies that facilitate growth from smartphones (Cisco 2014). Africa had the lowest
rapid modernization. They are passing over developmental number of subscribers at 63% (Pramis 2013; Whitney 2012).
stages that rich Global North countries went through. As an The growing use of cell phones has helped shrink the
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illustration, consider the telephone. Most telephones in the digital divide more than anything else. For example,
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world are cell phones, many using satellite connections. around the world people can buy and sell goods and send
Some countries never did get wired for landlines and have money through their cell phones. The influence is felt
skipped that step in development. With the satellite technol- from the micro to the macro level, as it improves the lives
ogy now in place, some computer and Internet options are of individuals, increases business in the area in which they
available to them without landlines (World Economic Forum live, and helps connect them to the global economy by
2015). Use of cell phones in poor countries has boomed, giv- allowing individuals to save and invest money in the local
ing people access to health care and other services. By 2014, and global economies (Langfitt 2011).
there were more than 7 billion mobile phones in the world Haiti, one of the poorest nations in the world, also
(enough for 96% of the world’s population), with 77% of provides a great example of the potential positive power

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220   Part III: Inequality

Table 7.3  World Internet Usage by Region, 2015

World Regions Internet Penetration (% Population) % of Total Global Internet Users


Africa 28.6 9.8

Asia 40.2 48.2

Europe 73.5 18.0

Middle East 52.2 3.7

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North America 87.9 9.3

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Latin America/Caribbean 55.9 10.2

Oceania/Australia 73.2 0.8

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WORLD TOTAL 46.4 100.0

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Source: Internet World Statistics 2016.

is
of Internet technology. Whereas only 10% of Haitians global poverty and inequality. The potential is enormous,

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have bank accounts, 80% have cell phones. Aid agencies, and sociologists in action like Dr. Mary Gatta (described
after the earthquake of 2010, have been able to make use earlier) can help us determine how to make the most effec-

or
of this technology, distributing aid to far-flung refugees tive use of the new technologies. Digital technology is an
via their cell phones (Beaubien 2011; Partners in example of one important force changing the micro- to
Prepaid 2012). macro-level global stratification system—a spectrum of
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Using the Internet to promote saving and investment is people and countries from the rich and elite to the poor
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one powerful means, just now being tapped, of addressing and desperate.
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We leave this discussion of stratification systems, chapters, the answer to the opening question—why
including class systems, with a partial answer to the some have riches and some have only rags—should
,

question posed at the beginning of this chapter: be even clearer. Socioeconomic status is important
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Why are some people rich and others poor? In the as a measure in any society, but it is not the sole
next two chapters, we expand the discussion to basis for stratification. In the next chapter, we look
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include other variables in stratification systems— at the role of race and ethnicity in social inequality.
race, ethnicity, and gender. By the end of these
t
no
o

WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED?


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The issue of social stratification calls into question the whereas others have little access to those resources.
widely held belief in the fairness of our economic sys- Few social forces affect your personal life at the micro
tem. By studying this issue, we better understand why level as much as stratification. That includes the deci-
some individuals are able to experience prestige sions you make about what you wish to do with your
(respect) and to control power and wealth at the life or whom you might marry. Indeed, stratification
micro, meso, and macro levels of the social system, played a role in why you are reading this book.

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Chapter 7: Stratification    221

• Stratification—the layering or ranking of people • Some macro systems stress ascribed status
within society—is one of the most important factors (assigned to one, often at birth, without consider-
shaping the life chances of individuals. This ranking ation of one’s individual choices, talents, or intelli-
is influenced by micro, meso, and macro forces and gence). Other systems purport to be open and
resources. based on achieved status (depending on one’s con-
tributions to the society and one’s personal abilities
• Depending on the theoretical perspective, stratifi-
and decisions).
cation can be viewed as either functional or harmful
• Poverty is a difficult social problem, one that can be

e
for society and its members.
costly to a society as a whole. Various solutions at

ut
• The United States has less social mobility and
the micro, meso, and macro levels have had mixed
higher levels of inequality and poverty than most
results, partly because it is in the interests of those

rib
other Global North nations.
with privilege to have an underclass to do the
• For individuals, where they stand in the system of strat- unpleasant jobs.

t
ification is highly personal, but it is influenced by the

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• Technology is both a contributor to and a possible
way the social system works at the meso and macro
remedy for inequality, in that the digital divide cre-

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level—due to access to education; the problems cre-
ates problems for the poor, but electronic innova-
ated by gender, racial, and ethnic discrimination; and
tions also create new opportunities in the social

or
the vitality of regions and the global economy.
structure for networking and connections to the
• People without much social capital have fewer con- meso and macro levels—even for those in the
t,
nections to the meso and macro levels and are less Global South, the poorer regions of the world.
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likely to attain power, wealth, and prestige.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
,
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1. Were you surprised to learn that among rich 4. Describe factors at the (a) micro, (b) meso, and
co

nations, life expectancy in the United States is (c) macro levels that impact your ability to move
among the lowest? Explain. What sociological up the social class ladder.
theory best explains this fact? Support your
t

5. How do the forces that have led to the shrinking of


answer.
no

the middle class impact your chance of becoming


2. How has the social class of your parents and your (or remaining) a member of the (a) middle,
upbringing influenced your success in school and (b) upper-middle, or (c) upper class after you
o

your professional aspirations? graduate from college?


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3. What is the social class of most of the people 6. How can bridging the global digital divide lead to a
with whom you hang out? Why do you think you decrease in inequality across the world? How does
tend to associate with people from this social your ready access (or lack of access) to a com-
class? puter and the Internet impact your life chances?

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222   Part III: Inequality

KEY TERMS
absolute poverty  215 estate systems  212 relative poverty  215
achieved stratification income 198 slavery 187
systems 211 inequality 186 social capital  191
ascribed stratification lifestyle 201 social mobility  204
systems 211 meritocracy 207 social stratification  191

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caste systems  211 pluralist power theorists  213 wealth 198

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cultural capital  191 power elite  213

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CONTRIBUTING TO OUR SOCIAL WORLD: WHAT CAN WE DO?

t
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At the Local (Micro) Level • Founded in the early 1990s, AmeriCorps includes

d
a variety of programs from intensive residential
• Volunteer to serve a meal at an area soup kitchen.
programs to part-time volunteer opportunities in
Your campus activities office should be able to

or
communities across the United States. For more
help you find one in your area and even connect
information, go to the organization’s website at
you with a group on campus that regularly volun-
www.americorps.gov.
t,
teers at one.
s
At the National/Global (Macro) Level
• Tip service people in cash. Housekeepers in hotels
po

and motels, maids, meal servers at restaurants, and • The Peace Corps involves a serious, long-term
food delivery employees may depend on tips to sur- (2-year) commitment, but most who have done it
vive. In order to make it more likely that they receive agree that it is well worth the time and energy. The
,

the tips intended for them, be sure to tip in cash, Peace Corps is an independent agency of the U.S.
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rather than using a credit card. government, founded in 1961. Volunteers work in
foreign countries throughout the world, helping
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At the Organizational/Institutional (Meso) Level local people improve their economic conditions,
health, and education. The Peace Corps website
• Habitat for Humanity pairs volunteers with current
(www.peacecorps.gov) provides information on
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and prospective homeowners in repairing or


the history of the organization, volunteer oppor-
no

constructing housing for little or no cost. Habitat


tunities, and reports of former and present
projects are under way or planned for many
volunteers.
communities in the United States and around the
o

world. See the organization’s website at www • Grameen Bank (www.grameenfoundation.org), a


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.habitat.org for more details and to see if you can micro-credit organization, was started in Bangladesh
volunteer for a project in your area. by Professor Muhammad Yunus, winner of the 2006

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Chapter 7: Stratification    223

Nobel Peace Prize. It makes small-business loans to • Free The Children is a youth-focused organiza-
people who live in impoverished regions of the world tion whose international programs help free peo-
and who have no collateral for a loan. Consider doing ple across the globe from the cycle of poverty by
a local fund-raiser with friends for the Grameen Bank providing clean water, schools, health care, and
or other micro-credit organizations, such as FINCA sanitation. You can learn more about this organi-
(www.finca.org), Kiva (www.kiva.org), and Care zation and how you can join its efforts at www
International (www.care-international.org). .freethechildren.com.

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For chapter-specific resources, including Frontline, TED, and YouTube videos; self-quizzes; web exercises;
and more, visit edge.sagepub.com/ballantine6e.

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SAGE News Clips, available in the interactive eBook, showcase real-life examples to reinforce sociological concepts.

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Poor School Conditions

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Lobbying for Global Technology

Afghan Poverty
NEWS

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Increasing Rent Rates
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Uneven Job Growth
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Homeless in Hawaii
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