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Intersectionality in Feminism

Introduction

It was around 1961 that African American women had to work in a separate colored
building due to segregation laws in Virginia, United States of America. Katherine, Mary and
Dorothy were employees at NASA‟s Computers department. It was the time period when the
USA had to launch an orbit into space. These three African American women were brilliant and
had excellent mathematical and analytical expertise. However, they were struggling with the
racist and anti-feminist hurdles being women of color in seeking promotion to higher echelons
and prestigious designations. This was not the story of Katherine, Mary and Dorothy as
exquisitely portrayed in “Hidden Figures” film. Indeed it was the story of every women of color
facing obstacles and battling with the racist and anti-feminist discourse and practices in several
spheres of life.

Genesis

Anna Julia Cooper is known as the pioneer of intersectionality. Her excellent piece of
writing titled as “A Voice from the South by a Black Woman of the South” adroitly articulates
an intersectional approach explaining how the interlocking systems of power, race, sex, and class
oppression influence and affect the lives of Black women (Carastathis, 2014). Feminism refers to
political, cultural, and economic struggles that aim at establishing equal social, political and
equal rights for women and ensuring legal protections for women. The history of feminism is
divided in to three waves.

First wave of feminism

The first wave of feminism began in the early 20 th century. It was chiefly concerned with
granting property rights and the right to vote for women. This struggle led to the passage of the
19th amendment in the United States Constitution which permitted women the right to vote. First
wave of feminism did not raise voice against the racial inequalities and highlighted only the
issues of white women.

Second wave of feminism

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The second wave began in the early 1960‟s and lasted till late 1970‟s. This wave raised
voice on the equality of women and condemned gender discrimination. It led the women‟s
liberation movement. Betty Friedan was the prominent personality in leading the second wave of
feminism. However, the second wave of feminism was also led by the white middle-class women
and it ignored the grievances of women of color.

Third wave of feminism

The third wave started in the early 1990‟s and attempted to address the lacunae of the
second wave of feminism. This wave bridged the gap and viewed women‟s lives and issues as
intersectional. It incorporated the elements of race, ethnicity, class, gender, creed, language and
nationality.

Kimberle Crenshaw’s Intersectionality

Inspired by the tremendous work of Anna J. Cooper, Kimberle Crenshaw introduced the
intersecting categories of discrimination experienced by Black women. Kimberle Crenshaw is a
feminist legal scholar. Intersectionality has its deep roots in Black feminism. Crenshaw
introduced intersectionality in the legal context and critiques the leading discriminatory laws.
Intersectionality is nowadays referred to the structures of oppression. If gender oppression and
racial persecution are explained against each other it means that one is considered to be
oppressed as a woman (sexism) but not oppressed a woman of color (racism).The origins of
intersectionality lie in the political struggle of Black women and other women of color
(Crenshaw, 1989). In her article, titled as “De-marginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex”,
Crenshaw describes that boundaries of sex and race inequalities are explained only through the
lens of white women‟s and Black men‟s experiences and disregarded the unique experiences of
Black women as being women of black race (Crenshaw, 1988).

Theoretical Underpinnings

The expression “intersectionality” was devised by legal specialist Kimberle´ Crenshaw in

the 1990‟s. She worked extensively on the experiences of Black women facing discrimination in
multiple arenas of life (Crenshaw, 1989; 1991). Some of the theoretical assumptions are
discussed as:
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 Crenshaw emphasizes that the categories of identity (social, political and cultural) must
be broadly understood and considered as interdependent (Crenshaw, 1991; Weber &
Parra-Medina, 2003; Collins, 2015). For instance, sex and race are not mutually exclusive
categories. They are inter-linked and inter-locked with one another. In order to
understand the social inequalities and oppression, gender, social class and ethnicity are
not mutually exclusive; rather they are inter-twisted and interdependent.
 Intersectionality theory argues that the experiences of persons are not understood in
isolation. Rather our experiences are influenced by multiple identities that interrelate and
intersect (Crenshaw, 1989). For example, individuals have multiple identities such as
socio-economic status, nationality, creed, sex, language and race etc. These identities are
taken into account. Single-axis analysis narrows down the perspective; whereas, multi-
dimensional perspective is intersectional and caters all social identities. In case of Black
feminism, there sex and race interlock and cannot be understood in isolation.
 In addition to these, the intersectionality theory emphasizes upon promoting social justice
and eliminating social and structural inequalities (Hankivsky & Christoffersen, 2008;
Collins, 2015). It can be elaborated in such a way that the anti-discriminatory laws for
Black women must be inclusive of their identity as Black and a woman. Crenshaw as a
legal expert analyzed in her theory that anti-discrimination laws are limited in scope as
they safeguard Black women to the degree only if their experiences of oppression
correlate with the experiences of white women or with those of Black men. She contends
that the American anti-discrimination laws expose the doctrinal insufficiency to address
and relieve the grievances and sufferings of women of color. She argues that the legal
cover to protect Black women against discriminatory practices is inadequate. In
Crenshaw‟s views, discrimination must be rethought, revisited and redefined with respect
to the experiences of Black women (Carastathis, 2014).
 Moreover, this intersectionality theory explains that single-axis approach is insufficient to
accommodate and remedy the dilemma of inequality and discrimination experienced by
marginalized segments of the society. (Crenshaw, 1989; Collins, 2015).

Intersectionality and the doctrinal perspective. In order to understand intersectionality,

it is important to look into the courts‟ responses and verdicts in response to Black women
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plaintiffs. It gives us a better insight into the problem of intersectionality. Following are the cases
of Black women plaintiffs:

DeGraffenreid v General Motors. In this case, Black women went into litigation and
filed against the General Motors. These five women of color alleged that the seniority system in
the company was discriminatory against the Black women. However, the court rejected the claim
of race and sex discrimination stating that the law does not include and address a new
classification of “black women” who identify themselves as separate from White women and
Black men. In fact the court declined to accept that Black women come across collective race
and sex discrimination. Therefore, it can be interpreted that problem of intersectionality
prevailed and remained unaddressed (Crenshaw, 1988).

Moore v Hughes Helicopter, Inc. This case also reflects the court‟s inability to
acknowledge Black women‟s‟ demands. The complainant alleged that the firm exercised race
and sex discrimination in granting promotions to higher ranks and positions. The court held
opinion that the Black women could not claim discrimination in managerial jobs as these Black
women had litigated on the basis of Black women not as a woman (Crenshaw, 1989). Crenshaw
further argues that the white woman asking for discrimination against females is in a superior
position as compared to the Black woman who appeals for discrimination. She added that the
judicial conceptualization of sex discrimination is flawed and narrow in scope (Crenshaw, 1991).

Feminism and Black women. The feminist theory has been evolved from white women
perspective and it rarely acknowledges the Black women. Thus it ignores and excludes the
aspects of women of color. Feminists raise voice against gender discrimination and this often
privileges them over other women of color. Therefore, feminist discourse is biased and remains
white. For example, it has been observed that Black women have conventionally worked more as
labor outside the home as compared to white women. Patriarchy has always remained dominant
but white women have remained privileged that were excluded from labor work. Feminist have
always supported White women against patriarchy. On the other hand, history reveals that Black
women have been burdened by double responsibilities inside and outside the home. Gender-
based role expectations were not applicable to Black women as were applicable to White women
(Crenshaw, 1989).
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Forms of Intersectionality

This paper also addresses the various forms of intersectionality as explained by Crenshaw
in her theory of feminist intersectionality. These are discussed as:

Structural Intersectionality. Crenshaw explains that how social and class structures
intersect and interconnect and are not separated from race and sex. These social structures paly
profound role in influencing the experiences of women of color

Structural Intersectionality and Battering. It can be illustrated as how the social and
economic structures are not favorable to the experiences of women of color. Economic
considerations impact the lives of women of color. These include employment, poverty, shelter
and housing etc. Socio-economic status is not free from race and gender. Impoverished women
are more subjugated and vulnerable to assault. They experience domestic violence and
mistreatment by intimate partners. For example, Crenshaw reported that several women of color
are poverty-stricken, saddled by domestic responsibilities and lack vocational skills.

For instance, many immigrant women of color experience battering by their spouses.
They have inadequate and restricted access to resources that further exacerbates their dilemma.
Moreover, cultural obstacles also intimidate immigrant women from battering and violence
(Crenshaw, 1991).These women are also susceptible to spousal battering because they depend on
their spouses regarding their legal statuses they are not permanent resident and fear expatriation.

Structural Intersectionality and Rape. Black women experience discrimination in the

social and economic walks of life. These under-privileged women are destitute, impoverished
and vulnerable. Therefore, they are unable to meet their necessities as compared to those women
who are privileged. For instance, rape victims belonging to racially un-privileged strata have to
grapple with economic deprivation as well as their rape problems. It multiplies their difficulties
and sufferings (Crenshaw, 1991). Empirical evidences propose that women of color are
marginalized and have limited access to the criminal justice system. Legal protection is almost
negligible when it comes to marginalized women (Collins, 1990).

Political Intersectionality. It can be conceptualized in a way that the discourses of both

racism and sexism have not been successful to address all the dimensions of intersectionality.
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The political structure is not conductive and supportive to the women of color. It is the
predicament that feminism has been failed so far to question the element of race and further
strengthen the subordination of women of color. Likewise, it is ironical that antiracism is not
strong enough to question patriarchy and this will consequently reinforce the subservience of
Black women. The political discourse of feminists and anti-racists prevents the women of color
to be empowered and privileged.

The Politicization of Domestic Violence. It refers to how political motives women of

color are masked, buried and sometimes endangered by the political forces and authorities that
subdue intersectional problems of women of color. Various political powers are at play to
suppress the voice of intersectionality and politicize the problems faced by Black women and
other women of color. For instance, the Lose Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D) retains
information about domestic violence and battering. However, it does not disclose the information
related to domestic violence in the minority communities. If such data is broadcasted or
displayed publically, it can jeopardize the integrity of a certain community. It can misrepresent
any racial community that such abusive practices like violence are more common in a certain
community. For instance, Latin Americans or Black Americans are generally labeled as violent
(stereotypes) and publishing such data can damage their reputation. However, this concealment
affects the lives of women of color adversely as they are experiencing battering and domestic
violence. The suppression of such information amplifies the sufferings of Black women and
gives more space to violent practices in such communities (Crenshaw, 1991).

Anti-racists lobbying. The agenda to politicize violence against women will do nothing
good and of no help to rectify and remedy the sufferings and plight of non-white women. It is
imperative to recognize and acknowledge the consequences of racial segregation and
stratification among all women. In the same way, the anti-racist narrative cannot be advanced
and propagated by throttling the truth of intra-racial violence against women of color (Crenshaw,
1988).

Representational Intersectionality. This representational intersectionality primarily

refers to the symbolic and metaphorical attribution of women of color based on the accounts and
discourses of sexist and racists. Furthermore it also depends on how critiques represent,
symbolize and objectify the women of color (Crenshaw, 1991). It illustrates that how gender,
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sexuality and racial class are inter-connected to one another and impact the opinions and
representation of women of color. Women of color are generally represented in conservative,
orthodox, subordinate and, stereotypical roles. Crenshaw argues that African American women
are regarded as loud and wild.). Literature and media portray all women of color in a negative
and stereotypical manner that further create and strengthen racial segregation and gender
discrimination.

The current status of Intersectionality

Intersectionality theory is in vogue nowadays as many scholars, experts, researchers and

specialists from various fields such as social sciences, women‟s studies, sociology, legal studies,
education and medical sciences are employing this approach (Carbado et al., 2013). It has a
broad scope as is being practiced in multiple disciplines. It is also important to mention that the
United Nations Organization and the European Union are also incorporating the intersections of
social classes and multiple identities. The United Kingdom and the European Union have passed
non-discrimination laws which cater and address multiple intersections primarily concentrating
on eliminating inequalities and oppressions. Intersectionality is now widely used in the global
context and in enormous fields and disciplines (Davis, 2008).

Criticism on intersectionality theory

Definitional problem. A major criticism on intersectionality theory is the lack of any

specific definition. Intersectionality theory is open-ended and vague. This theory has not defined
which, where, when and why a specific category is given recognition and while others are
excluded (Davis, 2008)

Methodological issues. This theory lacks a clear methodology for studying

intersectionality and to apply its assumptions to social research (Hancock 2007). Intersectionality
theory is seen to add multiple dimensions of social identities, making it impossible to expand
research scope. Including multiple social identities is also making analysis more complex. The
question here arise which component of social identity to add in a research and which to
exclude? If a researcher is adding any identity, in which context he has added and gave
importance to that identity. Considering all components of identities will generate results that
will be more like focusing on individuals rather than groups (McCall, 2005).
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Empirical research. In order to measure oppression and discrimination, certain scales

are devised. Theses scales are better to use with people who have experience of a single domain,
for example ethnic or racial discrimination (Diaz et al., 2001). Such scales of oppression are
designed with non-intersectionality assumptions, so these scales cannot be used with members of
multiple marginalized groups. They cannot simply breakdown the types of oppression that are
specific to each part of their identity or experience. Because of lack of literature on methodology
of intersectionality, researchers have to learn how to conduct intersectionality research based on
trial and error method (Bowleg, 2008).

Quantitative vs qualitative research. Intersectionality is thought to be best explored by

qualitative research as compared to quantitative research because of the complications involved
in the intersections of identities but quantitative analysis is also used (Christensen & Jensen,
2012; Trahan, 2011). Moreover qualitative methods are preferred in researches about
intersectionality because in qualitative researches we don‟t have prior assumptions or hypothesis
and draw information from participants so results can be based upon the information provided
that are underrepresented in theory (Marecek Fine, & Kidder, 1997).

Intersectional invisibility. Intersectional visibility, a term given by Purdie-Vaughns and

Eibach (2008) is defined as the failure to recognize those individuals that have intersecting
identities and as a result intersecting subordinate identities are made invisible. Problem arises
while making decisions about which intersections to include are not carefully considered.
Objective behind this phenomenon is that those individuals within a social category who have
more social status and power are perceived as prototypical for that category. So those individuals
with more subordinate identities are perceived as non-prototypical and they do not fit the
prototypes of their subordinate group. For example white lesbian women and ethnic minority
women are people with intersecting subordinate identities.

Discrimination against gender/others. If talking about daily life matters one cannot
specifically say that discrimination at workplace is just because of gender. May be other factors
like language, experience and communication skills have contributed in defining an individual‟s
post. So a female cannot possibly decide whether she has been discriminated just because of her
gender and not because of other factors (Ludvig, 2006).
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Dividing people into categories. Intersectionality theory‟s primary focus was on black
women but the number of victims soon multiplied. A criticism on intersectionality is this theory
is dividing people rather than uniting them. For example black disabled women, black
homosexual women, black homosexual with white partners etc.

Ignoring individual differences. A criticism on intersectionality is that this theory is

ignoring individual differences. According to this theory black women are oppressed and whites
are oppressors or privileged. This theory also criticized feminist movements for neglecting black
women and for misunderstanding oppression. A criticism is that they are judging people based
on their class and category. Not all white men or women think exactly in the same way. May be
some whites have better ideas for black women so one should focus on the idea ignoring from
which class that person is. Just ignoring white‟s ideas because they are labeled as privileged is a
pitfall of this theory.

Ignoring root cause of social inequality. Intersectionality has successfully described the
effects of multiple oppressions but this theory lacks an explanatory framework to address the
root cause of social inequality. Oppression is intersecting and multiple which has produced
experience of various kinds but the root cause of oppression has not addressed. Like gender has
not caused sexism, race had not caused racism, but the ways in which gender and race has
historically been shaped needs to be understood in explanatory framework (Meyerson, 2000).

Ignoring context. According to intersectionality theory, an oppressed person is the one

who can better judge his experience of oppression. Issue arises when same event is given
different interpretations by people who are oppressed. So it becomes difficult to understand a
common cause behind any action (Bright, Malinsky, & Thompson, 2016)

Applications of intersectionality theory

Intersectionality and health. Intersectionality can be applied in health research in order

to understand health inequalities embedded in dynamic, interlocking systems of power. Health
scholars have addressed the need to understand how social and cultural systems influence health
behaviors that limit or support an individual‟s ability to act in a particular way (Halkier &
Jensen, 2011). Intersectionality focuses on differences among groups and seeks to highlight
interacting social factors that affect human lives. Intersectionality approach can best be applied
in low and middle income countries because of growing inequalities in disease across socio-
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economic status and ethnicity (Gkiouleka et al., 2018). Through intersectionality lens practitioner
should take the experience of minority groups as a starting point rather than considering them in
relation to dominant group (Hankivsky & Christoffersen, 2008). Intersectionality theory can be
applied to transform public health policies that should cover broader health actions, benefiting
everyone and not only the dominant ones.

Intersectionality and public policy. Intersectionality can be applied in public policy in

order to understand how policies and acts address inequalities that are faced by certain social
groups (Bishwakarma, Hunt, & Zajicek, 2007). Public policy is not neutral and it is not
experienced by everyone in the same way so it is important to consider these differences while
developing, implementing and evaluating public policy.

Intersectionality and Climate change. An analysis of climate change illustrates how

individuals and groups respond differently to climate change based on their location. Natural
hazards do not affect everyone equally, many social groups are more vulnerable and everyone
has different experiences depending on the context they are living (Carr, Thompson, 2014).
Usually low income areas and marginalized groups are more exposed to unpleasant impacts of
climate change. These groups are also underrepresented when decisions are made regarding the
issue (Hemmati & Röhr, 2009). Intersectionality approach can be used in order to make
decisions and strategies that will address the issues faced by marginalized groups.

Intersectionality and violence. Violence of every type including intimate partner

violence has roots in early history. In many countries and societies violence against women is
considered as normal. Many legal forums address issue of intimate partner violence as a private
matter ignoring the status of female. In many societies females remain silent because they take
violence as a part of relationship and because of the fear of social isolation and limited access to
social services that prevent women from seeking help (Adams & Campbell, 2012). Men use
violence because they think it represents their status of dominance. Intersectionality approach
highlights the issue of social injustice and explains how individuals in different groups are
oppressed and how this give raise to social inequalities and inequitable access to resources.

Intersectionality and education. Education is the right of every individual irrespective

of his class, race, gender and ethnicity. Regardless of an institution‟s emphasis on gender and
racial diversity, still they show discrimination against subgroups that are viewed as having low-
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income status and minority (Hewstone, 2015). Teachers are seen to favor students of their own
class and ethnicity. Intersectionality is essential in educational setups to address inequalities
during policy making and practicing. Policies should use intersectionality approach in addressing
institutional biases that are affecting students and also to promote diversity among students.

Intersectionality and Sexual assault. Rape or sexual assault is one of a serious issue
that has affected the lives of many women, children and even men. Sexual victimization most of
the times involves individuals from different social positions and socio economic status. Usually
it is seen that victims are from minority group or disabled ones. Many people think that rape is
only a sexual activity but if seen into depth rape do involve sexual act but it is rather motivated
by the desire to control another person. Individuals from low income families, ethnic minorities
and disabled individuals are highly vulnerable to sexual assault (McGuffey, 2013).
Intersectionality approach can be taken into consideration to address the growing rates of sexual
assaults as literature suggests the more marginalized victims perceive themselves in social order,
the less survivors are to disclose their experience of sexual assault. When a person is aware of his
marginalized group, let‟s say a black woman aware of her social location, the less is the
possibility that sexual assault will be reported as such people believe that no one cares about
their suffering (Washington, 2001).

Intersectionality and media reforms. Media representation of issues like domestic

affairs, policy issues and class representation needs an investigation. Racism and sexism is
equally seen to be represented by media. How ethnicity is portrayed in media needs to be
revisited. In media usually black men are usually portrayed to be perpetrators of sexual violence
on white women. Along with that media has set such goals that are attainable by males thus
discriminating ladies to achieve higher posts in media (Ross, Boyle, Carter, & Ging, 2018).
Intersectionality approach can be helpful in order to eliminate such discriminations and media
can be used as a platform to address social inequalities.

Intersectionality and workplace. Inequalities at workplace are more likely to be

experienced by women of color. Initially these inequities are termed as micro-inequities but with
the passage of time they create large disparities within the workplace. Women of color are more
subjected towards comments and discrimination as compared to white women. Intersectionality
approach can be adopted at workplace that encourages the organization to make an environment
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where people of color can be successful at all levels. Along with that organizations should
empower marginalized groups in the context of management (Atewologun, 2018).

Intersectionality and leadership. Stereotypes portraying women as less successful

leaders as compared to men still exits. Not only stereotypes but also our minds automatically
think about men when it comes to any managerial posts or leadership. Literature has also
highlighted that African American female leader not only felt pressure to be a role model for
their profession but they were also expected to serve their gender and race. The perception of
leader differences and efficacy seems attributable to an interaction between profession, context,
and gender rather than from any one factor alone (Richardson & Loubier, 2008).

Intersectionality and criminology. It has been seen that few areas are more subjected
towards crime as compared to others. Criminologists are interested in exploring the relationship
of gender and race with offending and victimization and how these factors interact with one
another. Literature also shows that usually individuals of marginalized groups and low income
status are more involved in crime. Such rates of crime can be attributed to social injustice and
limited availability of resources (Coster & Heimer, 2017). Intersectionality can be adopted to
address the issues of social inequality and also to locate areas where the rates of crime are higher
in relation to other areas.
Intersectionality and Leadership (Richardson & Loubier, 2008).

This research was done to investigate the perception of leadership style and efficacy of
two successive university presidents. Narratives were taken from students and also literature was
reviewed. Findings of the study revealed that the differences among people on perceived
leadership style were dependent upon multiple factors and they attributed. Along with that
people used gender labels when they described traits of a leader; however initiated outcomes
were labeled by gender neutral labels. Professional background of leaders also determined the
way they behaved and took initiatives.

Afghan women in exile and repatriation: Passive victims or social actors? (Ross-Sheriff,
2006).

This research was done in order to explore the role of Afghan women before and during
times of war and when they were in exile in Pakistan. Media has always portrayed Afghan
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women as helpless victims but this study has explored that Afghan women played an active role
in decision making and they were social actors who faced the challenges of war and supported
their families. In-depth interviews were conducted with 60 Afghan women about their
experiences. Findings of the study revealed that Afghan women showed resilience at the time of
war and they were optimistic for future.

Getting Out and Staying Out: Issues Surrounding a Woman’s Ability to Remain Out of an
Abusive Relationship (Horrill, 2002).
This research was done in order to examine the abilities of women to stay out of abusive
relationship. Women narratives were taken and they were analyzed. Four themes were extracted
out of those narratives. Findings of the study revealed that women left abusive intimate
relationship when their beliefs were changed. Many young women reported that they believed
their partner will fulfill all their dreams and their partners will provide a trusting environment to
them. As soon they realized that nothing is true and they are just living with an abusive partner,
they left. Many women rediscovered their self. What they were before and what they are after
marriage made them leave that abusive relationship. Women also reported a concern of
sustaining relationships after many years of marriage. Findings also revealed that women
approached health professionals whenever they needed and they were not left alone during that
time.
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