CICIND

Model Code for

Steel Chimneys
(Revision 1 - December 1999)
Amendment A - March 2002

Commentaries and Appendices

(December 2000)

Copyright CICIND 2000, 2002

ISBN 1-902998-17-0

Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 ODZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@dcind.org
.~_":.'"
CICIND
,(
Model Code for Steel Chimneys
REVISION 1 - DECEMBER 1999

COMMENTARIES ANO APPENDICES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword , 3 Appendix 2 - Insulation, Linings and Protective Coatings .. .30

Commentary l - Glossary of commonly used words 3 AZ.l. Insulation
Commentary 2 - Safety 6 A2.l.! GeneraI .30
Commentary 3 - Wind Load 8 A2.1.2. InslilatìonDesign .. , , .. '" 30
C3.l. Willd Speed 8 A2.I.3. AluminÌum Cladding 30
C3.1.I. BasicWind Speed 8 A2.l.4. MineraI Wool or Foam Inslilatìon .31
C3.1.2. Wind Maps 8 A2.l.5. Lined and Multiflue Chìmneys " .31
C3.l.3. The Influence of Heighl 8 A2.2. Linings 31
C3.2 The GUSl Faetor 15 A2.2.l. GeneraI .31
C3.3 Vortex Shedding 15 A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners 3I
C3A Movements in tbe second mode , , .16 A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached
C3.5 Ovalling 18 Continuously to tbe Shell " 32
C3.5.1 Static effects .18 AZ.3. Recommended Start-up Procedures 32
C3.5.2 Dynamic effects 20 A2A. Protective and Decorative Treatments .32
C3.6 Interference effects 21 Appendix 3 - Guyed Chimneys 33
Commentary 4 - Fatigue 22 A3.l. Guyed Chimney expansion 33
Commentary 5 - Openings 24 A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations 33
Commentary 6 - Chemical EtTects and InternaI Corrosion . .26 A3.3 Guy Ropes , .33
C6.1. Chemical Effects 26 Appendix 4 - Access Ladders 34
C6.l. 1. Attack Due to SlIlphur Oxides 26 A4.1. GeneraI .34
C6.l.2 Effects or Plue Gas DeslIphurisalion 26 M.2. Defì.nitions .34
C6.1.3. Anack Due to Chlorìne, Chlorides A4.3. Materials .34
and Pluorides 26 A4.4. Finish .34
C6.2. Intemal Corrosion 26 A4.5. Stringers .34
C6.3 Selection of materials 26 A4.6. Rungs 34
Appendix 1- Base PIate Design 28 A4.7. Safety Hoops .34
A 1.1 Simple base plates 28 A4.8. Rest PIatforms and Landings .35
A1.2 Base plates wìtb gussets 28 A4.9. Attachment to Chimney 35
A 1.3 Baseplates with gussets and compression rings 28 A4.1 O. Access Hooks 35
AIA Groutìng 29

DISCLAIMER

This CICIND document is presemed to tbe best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CIClND is not, oor are any of its
members, to be held responsible for any failure aIIeged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of informatioo
published by tbe associatiou in a Model Code or in any otber way.

CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-800l, Zurich, Switzerland

Copyright by CICIND, Zurich

CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page3

FOREWORD Cravat (2.19) - An upstand fixed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate
to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also known as
In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steel counter flashing.
Chimneys was published. This is now expanded by the pubIication of
the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code. Cross-section - The section of the load bearing steel shell including
the corrosion allowance.
The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the
Damping device (2.20) - A device fitted to the structural shell to
principles set out in the Model Code. It is divided into two parts. The
Commentaries cover the theoretical derivation of the formulae and increase its structuraldamping.
the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices relate to Donbling plate (2.21) - A plate fixed to the shell to reinforce it
more practicalconsiderations. where increased stresses occur.

Double skin chimney (2.22) - A. chimney consisting of an outer

COMMENTARY No.1 load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the fIue
gases. Also known as a dual wall chìmney.
GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TERMS Drag coefficient - see wind force coefficient
The numbers in brackets are given in figures C.1.l and C.1.2., Drain pipe (2.23) - A pipe which connects a tundish to a point
showing typical chimney designs. outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate.

Access door (2.01) - A door for the entry of personnel or other means FIue - see liner
of inspection.
Guy (2.24) - A wire rope attached at one end to a chimney and
Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) - A device fitted to the structural shell anchored at the other so as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral
to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding displacement of the chimney
Anchor bolts - See Holding down bolts Guy band (2.25) - A steel section fitted around the outside of a
chimney with provision for the attachment of guys.
Base cone (2.04) - A truncated cone incorporated immediately above
the baseplate of a chimney. Guyed chimney (2.26) - A chimney in which not ali extemaIly
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried excJusively by the structural
Baseplate (2.05) - A horizontal plate fixed to the base of a chimney.
shell and for which guys are provided to ensure stability.
Also called a bearing plate.
Holding down bolts (2.27) - Bolts built into a concrete foundation,
Base 51001 (2.07) - A construction comprising two vertieal plates,
brick base or supporting framework to previde anchorage at the base
welded to the chimney shell and to the baseplate, supporting a
of the chimney.
compression ring (2.14) through which a holding down bolt passes.
Hoops - Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders.
Blanking off plate (2.08) - An imperforate plate fitted immediately
beneath the inlet of a chimney to prevent the waste gases reaching the Inlet (2.28) - A short duct fixed to the shell or baseplate of a chimney
lower portion of the chimney. Also known as afalse bottom. for the entry of fIue gases.
Boiler mounted cbirnney - A chimney supported by a boiler and its Intermediate cone (2.29) - A truncated cone incorporated in the
foundation. chimney shell at an intermediate level.
Bracket (2.10) - A construction providing resistance to lateral Jointing f1ange (2.30) - A steel section fitted to the end of a chimney
displacement of the chimney andlor supporting part or alI of the section to enable sections to be connected together.
weight of the chimney.
Ladder boss - A boss welded to the chimney shell into which an access
Bracketed chimney (2.11) - A chimney in which not alI extemal hook or eye can be screwed to provide fixing for temporary ladders.
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
Lateral supports (2.31) - Supports positioned at appropriate levels
sheIl and for which brackets, attached to an adjacent structure, are
within the structural shell to locate the Iiners, allowing independent
provided to ensure stability. Also known as a braced chimney.
expansion of the shell.
Breeching - see inlet (2.28)
Lightning protection system - System to provide electrical
Cap plate (2.12) - A sloping or convex plate fitted to the top of the continuity between the chimney and earth.
structural shelI, covering the area between it and the liners and
Liners (2.32) - FIue gas ducts contained within the structural shell.
incorporating cravats through which the liners protrude.
Liner base (2.33) - A suitable support positioned at a convenient
Cleaning door (2.13) - A door, normaIly at the base of the chimney,
height above the baseplate of the structural steel shell to carry the
to permit the remova! of fiue dust.
weight of the liners.
Compression ring (2.14) - A steel plate welded to the sheIl which
Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) -Amaterial applied to the internai
transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the holding down
face of the chimney to prevent the fIue gases contacting the inner
bolts. Also known as a base ring. surface of the steel shell.
Cope band (2.15) - A steel section attached to the top of the chimney
Multiflue cbirnney (2.35) - A group of two or more chimneys within
around its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance
at this leveL a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or
more liners within a structural shell.
Cope hood (2.16) - A hood fitted externaIly to the top of a liner,
Nett section - The section of the load bearing steel sbell without
covering the upstand of the cap plate, to prevent the ingress of corrosion allowance.
rain water.
Reinforcement - Structural shapes or plates at or near to shell
Corrosion test piece (2.17) - A fixed or removable steel plate insert,
aperatures to strengthen the shell.
generally of lesser thickness than the shell of the chimney, in contact
with the waste gases and fitted at strategie points where maximurn Roofplate (2.36) - A plate whieh follows the contour of the roof
corrosion is expected to occur. round the chimney where it passes through the roof of a building.
Also known as jlashing.
Cowl (2.18) - A conical or dished cap fitted to the top of the chimney
to reduce the ingress of rain water. Also known as a rain cap. Rungs - Horizontal bars in ladders.
page4 CICINO Model Code -Commentaries and Appendices

Safety system - Proprietary fali arrest system fixed to ladder rungs Stayed chimney (2.40) - A chimney in which not alI externally
or beside the ladder to gìve a safe fixing for attachment of operatives' applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried excIusively by the structural
safety harnesses. shell and far which stays, connected to another structure, are
provided to ensure stability.
Self supporting chimney (2.37) - A chimney in which externally
applied Ioads (e g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural Stiffening ring - Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to
sheli and which, together with the foundation, will remain stable maintain the chimney shell circular during fabrication and
under alI design conditions without additional supporto transportation.

Splitter plate (2.38) - A vertical plate welded to the interior of the Strakes - see aerodynamic stabilisers
shell between two horizonta!Iy opposed inlets to divert the fiow ofthe Stringer - Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.
ftue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of ftue
gases from one inletinto the other.
Stay (2.39) - A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive
resistance to the lateral displacernent of the chimney. ALso known as
a Lateral brace.

Typic:al gérteralarrangement of three types of self supporting steelchimney.

The numbers are related to the texi

c OPE f1QOO 2 16

TOP CONE 2.42

--HELICAL
AEROOYNAMIC
SI ABlllZERS I •••.•...•..
OAHPING
MINER A L WOOl OEVICE 220
INSULA 110N 2.03 I
I
I l.INEIl 232

JOINTING
I I
Fl ANGE 2.3D L,,,,"~
••,,,,,,
••~
I
L1NERS 2.32
I
I
I
1. .~..; .•.~. I
i
I
I
--STRunURAL
SHELL 241
---INTERMEDIA
CONE 219
TE
{.",_~.:."_."""
I ..il 1--STRUCTlIRAL
SHELl 24 f

JOINTING
'FLANGE Z3D

ACCESS

HOOKS 202 ---....

--STRUCTURAl
INI.ETS 2.28 SHrtl141

TUNOISH 143
/' lINER
BASE 2.33
SPLITTER
PlA TE 2.38

BASE CONE 204

DRAIN INl ns 228
PIPE 2 23 -.--.
A(CESS
/ACCESS
. ........-OOOR 2.01
BASE . __ OOOR 201
STOOL 207. :IT..... [/COHPRESSION
__
RING 2.14
BASE STOOl 2.01
'-...
BASE OR Bf ARING HOlOING DDWN HOlOING OOWN 'BASEPLA TE
f'lAH zos BOl.TS z.n BOllS 2.n lQS

;;ELF SlJPPORTING SELF SUPPORTING DOUBLE SKIN

I1ULl.!..FLUjJ;HIMNE Y CHIMNEY CHIMNEY

235 237 Z2Z

Figure C1.1
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page5

Structural shell (2.41) - The main extemal structure of the chimney, Vanes - See Aerodynamic stabiIizers
excluding any reinforcing or flanges.
Venturi. - See Top cone
Top cone (2.42) - A truncated cane or other device fitted at the top
of a chimney to increase the gas exit velocity. Weatherhood (2.44) - A hood designed to shed raio water clear of
the cravat and prevent its entry into the building. Also known as
Tundish (2.43) - A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided counter flashing.
with facilities far drainage. Also known as afa/se bottom.
Wind foree coefficient - The ratio between the wind pressure on the
Thned mass damper - A forro of damping device which employs a chimney and the equivalent pressure on the same area normal to the
pendulum, tuned to the chimney's natural frequency. The moving wind direction.
part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy
absorbing device.

Typical generaI arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys.

The numbers are related to the text

(OPE BANO
/COWL 216 215 2.15 (OPE SAND

(oPE 6AND
= O
O
,/COPE6AND
-=-
-•.•.
••••
i='"
CORROSION
215.

215 '
'-' TEST P1EC[--I-O
211
STAY
. .....-- 239
•••• v
O
•••••
- SUPPORfiNG
- FRAME

BRACKE1S -~
-lOP SECflON 2.10
•••••
~JOINTING
Fl.ANGES JOINfiNG
230 FLANGES
2.30

GUY \oIIRE
2.2ì.

i 2.11
(RAVAT I
2.19
.J

ROOFPLA
236 "
TE

,-
I
,!;y
I
I

I'I--INTERMEDIA
S[(fI0N TE DOUBLING
PLATES
I 221

I fLANGC
230

CLEANING
: /ClEANING
~' JOINTING NLE! DOORS
228 213
, /OOOR
213
'INLET
~A(CESS 226
BASEPLA TE
DOOR

~'D 2.01

BLANKING
OH PLATE
/ INlET
228
205

ELEVA TiON'

208

--BASE FRAME
ACCESS
SEOION
DOOR
201 ---- ::.---STAY 2.39
_5UPPORTING STArs
COLUHN 239
/ /BASEPLATE
205
o&f-CHIMNEY FLUE

m=------SUPPORfiNG BRACKET 210

PLAN PLAN PLM!

GUYED CHIMNEY STAYEO CH/MNEY STAYEO CH/MNEY [2RACKETED SINGLE

226 WITH THREE FLUES WITH FOUR FLUES FLUE CHIMNEY
(CENTRAL COLUMN) (EXTERNAL FRAME) 211

240 240

Figure C1.2
page 6 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY No.2 The principalload is due to wind. The moment is proportional to the
wind pressure, the extreme values of which foIlow a Fisher- Tippett
SAFETY Type I (Fr!) distribution as described in reference 3.
This distribution has a Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
The safety of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors
given by P(q) = exp( -exp( -a.(q - u»)
at the ultimate limit state. These partial safety factors are Iisted in
paragraph 5.3 of the code. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the in which the constants are the mode u and the dispersion 1Ia.. In
maximum stress due to the characteristic load, increased by the temperate climates the product U.a. = 5; other values may obtain
appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress, eIsewhere (see ref.Z)
divided by the partial material safety factor. The level of wind load
Now, the characteristic wind is defined as having annual probability
factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycle fatigue,
of being exceeded = 0.02
caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, can not occur .

Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor In The Wind . . pressure qk = q ( 1 + ~

It foIlows that the charactenstic In(50) )
Direction (Temperate Zones)
This is converted to standard measure by substituting q = x. u
The partialload factor for wind load in the wind direction is derived
then Ps1(x) = exp( -exp( -au(x-l»)
as folIows by considering the soci al and economie consequences of
failure or damage requiring the chimney's repair or replacement. This The probabiIity distribution function (pdi)
involves deriving the acceptable probability of failure (P) duriI1Jgthe d
chimney's lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRIA
= dx PBl(x)=auexp(-au(x-l)Ps1(x)
(U.K.) Report No. 63, entitled "Rationalisation of Safety and
Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes"[l]:
Th e 50 -year Wlll
. d pressure IS
. Xs50 = l +--
au
In(50)
.h (C2.l)
The resistance is assumed norma1ly distributed with mean Xr and
Where standard deviation <Tr
nr = average number of people near the structure during the The characteristic value is Xr5% = Xr - 1.645<Tr
period of risk
xr5% xr-1.645<Tr
Dd = design life of structure (assumed to be 20 years for a
steel chimney) The load factor F = xs50 = l +--
In(50)
au
Ks = a sodal criterion factor, given in table C2.!

Table C2.1 - Social Criterion Factor

:. xr =.F ( 1+ --au ) + 1.64S<Tr
In(50)

Nature 01 structure Ks l 1 x-xr-

( O)?)
Placesof publicassembly,Dams 0.005 the pdf of the resistance is Pr(x) = <Tr~ exp ( -"2 -;;:;-
Domestic,OfficeorTradeand Industry 0.05
The CDF far the wind pressure in period T years is PsT(q) = (P'I(q»T
Bridges 0.5
Towers,Masts,OffshoreStructures 5 The effect of altering the period of exposure from l to T years is to

In order to use equation C2.! it is necessary to estimate the value of . the mode from 1 to l + --
shltt In(T)'thWl out a l'tenng th e s h ape of
a.u
nr. It is suggested [l, 2] that allowance be made for the number of
people Iikely to be dose to the structure at the time that maximum the distribution.
loading can be expected. Since maximum loading is most Iikely to
occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one Hence the CDF is PsT(x) = exp( -exp( -au(x- I) +In (T)))
will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except The probability of failure is given by PFT = I(1-PsT(x»)'Pr(x)dx
through necessity. o
Now the factor F = 'Yw' 'Ym where 'Yw is the wind load factor and 'Ym
If we assume nd = 20 years and Ks as 0.05 for "normal" chimneys the material factor.
and 0.005 far criticaI chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be
estimated as summarised in table C2.2: Assuming 'Ym= 1.1, then
if 'Yw= lA PF2o= 8.10-4
Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities for if 'Yw= 1.5 PF20 = 3.10-4
environmental economie risk
When faiIure is ductile, additional safety against collapse is derived
Ks
Environrnent
.05
0.005
10-4
10-3
.05 P
10-4 nr1
0.1 from the chimney's residual strength, atter mobilisation of its
allowable (yield) strength at one point of its periphery (Le.. at the
ultimate Iimit state).
When failure is by buckling, additionaI safety is implicit in the
reiationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength
and the yield strength of the material. This relationship inc1udes an
It follows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of
additional partial safety faetor to ensure that the criticaI buekling
failure of 10-3 for a "Normal" chimney and 10-4 far a "CriticaI"
stress is sufficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves
chimney.
used as a basis for the design (see ref. 5 ). For normal steel chimneys,
Thc probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of this additional partial safety factor lies between 1.2 and 1.33,
resistance and loading. depending upon the diameterl thickness fatio.
The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally It is, therefore, proved that wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will
disributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of standard deviation ensure failure (collapse) probabilities of 10-3 and 10-4, required by
to mean value) approximately 10%. "Normal" and "CriticaI" chimneys, respectively.
 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page7

(' References
(1) Report 63 "Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors
in structural codes" - CIRIA (U.K.), 1977 .
(2) BS 8100 Part 2, British Standards Institution, 1996
(3) Bierrum, N.R. - Letter to the Editor,
CICINn REPORT VoI.5, No.1, 1989
(4) ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995
(5) 'European Recommendations for steel construction' -
European Convention for Construction Steelwork <ECCS), 1978.
page 8 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

2.11
COMMENTARY 3
WINDLOAD ~---
l V·

./'"
Vb or -
./ ---
./
-...-.-./.-r- y
-..-rL--
~ built up terroin

?pen counlry

At tbe time of publication of tbe revised CICIND Model Code far l.S
Steel Chimneys (1999), tbe wind load mode1 currently used in ENV 1.~
1.3
1991-2-4 (eventually intended to forro tbe basis of Eurocode 1, Part sea cOil$l
1.2
2-4: Actions OD StructureS - Wìnd Actions) has been ShOWDby
1.1
calibration studies by CICIND and otbers to be unacceptable. In view 1.8
3800 600 300 60 30
of tbe time expected to elapse before an acceptable modeI for
Eurocode 1 is agreed by all parties, CICIND have decided for tbe time --+- t (secs)

being to retain tbe wind Ioad modeI described in tbe 1988 version of
this Model Code. A recent paper[l] has shown tbat this model gives Fig. C3.2 - Relationship between windspeed
safe and reasonably accurate estimates of tbe wind load on chimneys. and its averaging time

C3.1 Wind-speed Table C3.1 - Relationship between commonly quoted

windspeeds at 10m height above grade for
As tbe basis for tbe wind-Ioad, tbe hourly mean windspeed has been
"open ground" situations
retained. Tbe wind-Ioad is caJculated after estimating a turbulence
intensity, by a "gust factor" metbod[2J. mean
1.0
1.5
1.45
1.45
1.05
1.0
0.71.4
0.75
3-second
0.95
1.0
1.05
5-second
gust
1O-minute
gust 0.95
0.65
0.7
1.0
Hourly
1O-minute mean mean
5-second
3-second gust
Hourly mean
C3.1.1. Basic wind-speed
Tbe basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-Ioads is tbe wind-speed
averaged aver one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at
the chimney Iocation, which has a probability of exceedence of once
in 50 years.
Tbe value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be
Note:- To convert "Fastest mile" windspeed to the above time-
obtained from data collected by meteorological stations.
averaged windspeeds, use tbe relationship (velocity = distance /
When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than 50 time) to deterrnine the time taken to traverse one mile. This time
years, tbe value of tbe basic windspeed must be extrapolated using should then be entered in fig. C3.2.
tbe Fisher-Tippett Type l expression for tbe statistical distribution of
extreme values, as follows: C3.1.2 Wind Maps
When no results of· wind-speed measurements are available an
P(V) = exp {-exp [ -:-Q(V - u)))
indication of tbe basic wind-speed is given in the figures C3.3, C3.4,
Where: C3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and C3.8 for Europe, USA, Asia, Australia, Africa
and BraziI.
P(V) probabiIity of excedence of velocity V during
the relevant period Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing
instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind ve10cities at specific
sIope of curve in Fig. C3.1 locations. In such cases the customer should specify tbe wind
velocity (Vb) to be used in the designo The map showing isopleths for
u intercept on vertical axis of curve in Fig. C3.1 Africa is unofficial and should be used with cantiano

For a probability of exceedence, once in 50 years, P(V) = 0.02 C3.1.3. The influence of the height
1 Tbe increase of tbe wind-speed with height is in accordance with tbe
In some cases lower values for u and - are found (see lit. [3] ).
Q powerlaw:
The relationship between the wind-speed and the return period is
given in figure C3.1
If the averaging time of tbe measurement is shorter than one hour, the Vb is tbe basic windspeed (Le. measured at 10m above open, level
hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using figure C3.2. In terrain, without obstructions). The scale factor "kp,zo" and exponent
this figure tbe ratio between tbe hour1y mean and shorter averaging "Q" depend on tbe terrain roughness around tbe chimney. Tbe values
periods of the wind-speedis given for various types of terrain. Table kp,zO= 1 and Cl = 0.14 have been chosen in tbe Model Code. This is
C3.l gives a quick reference for "Open country" terrai n situations. assumed to cover the most common case when the chimney is not in
the centre of cities and not at tbe sea share, but somewhere in

-,/./
..-::
......" f-'"
~
-- - hurrJc.ne lOnas between and c1ear above tbe surrounding buildings.
When structures such as buildings are being designed, it is normal to
; nOrmal wind condition
(no hurrieaneJ assume different values of Ci. and kp,z" relevant to the terrain
I.. considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in
•
town centres than in open country. When tali structures, such as
chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity gradient
0.1 continues to be intluenced by the terrain over which it previously
travelled. In some cases, tbe previous terrain continues to be of
influence after tbe wind has travelled by as much as 5km over
rougher terrain. In addition, the gust factor is a function of the
lO SO 100 SOD lODO turbulence, so tbat in town centres, even tbough tbe wind velocity
_iinveart may be Iess than in open country, tbe gust factor could be
considerably higher, partially cancelling out tbe reduction in dynamic
Fig. C3.1 - Relationship between wind-speed pressure. As a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep
and its return period tbe Model Code simple and lise just one terrain category.
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page9

o
O
0-500 ••••M.S.L

SOOm-1500m·H.Sl..
~ ma",· JlXlOm. M.S.L
JISW ••3DlXl",. H.S.l.
Mean ~ 5P"d io> mlS cl Dm
Qbcp". open t.nan.
R.tun p..-cxI 50~.
10 min. mean

\
\
.J
...
l,

6ì

Fig. C3.3 Wind speeds in m/s for Europe (10 min. mean)
(note - to convert to Vb - hourly mean, divide by 1.05)
 !Il
o
'6c::

8-
«c. 90{4O)
"O
c:
l'Il 100(40)
!Il
or:
l'Il
'E
Q)
E
E
o
Cl

Q)
I
"8
G 90(40)
G5
"O
o
::::!:

O
z
C3
C3

t:.J
w
-~.

~ Puerto Rico
Location
(65)
(mls)
(47)
(76)
(56) 145
170
105
125
VmphHawail
Guam Islands
American
Virgin Samoa
110{49} 120{54}
100(45) 130(58) 90(40) ~

Special Wind Region

100(45) Notes:
110(49) 1. Values are nominai design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour
(mls) at 33ft (10m) above ground. To derive Vb divide by 1.5.
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Island and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind
speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind
regions shall be examined for unusal wind conditions.

o..-
CI>
Cl
l'Il
C. Fig C3.4 - Wind Speeds in USA
 CIC/ND ModelCode- CommentariesandAppendices page11

i:-
ìj

Fig C3.5 - Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)

 ~ REGION C
'6
c Tropical Cyclones
Q)
a. 0.
~
uc
ca

III
.~
c smoothed
Insels trom coastline tf 100
50 km
Q)
E
E
o
O
I
Q)
U
o REGION D
O
Severe Tropical
uo
Qi
Cyclones
~
Cl
Z '2.00
(3
(3

250
Maryoorough

300

Basic windspeed Vb
(hourly mean)
Regions mls '\)

A 25
REGION A
B 29 Normal
C 34
D 41

C\I
,-
Gl

g>
a. Fig 3.6 - Basic Windspeeds for Australia
QICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 13

- --- - -

Tropical
storm zone

\
'®

Fig C3.7 - Basic wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa. Isopleths shown dotted should be used with caution. Far final designs local
regulations should be used in ali cases.
page 14 crCIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

70°
50"

45'
40'

I 35"
I
O·

5°

10'

____
--l 15"

20°

---- 25"

Fig. C3.S - Windspeeds in mls far Brazil (3-second gusts)

Note - To convert to basic windspeed (hourly mean), divide by 1.5
 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 15

(
,P=- C3.2 The gust factor response induced by the chimney's own motion. The aerodynarnic
parameters K" and aL incorporate the effects of the motion-induced
The proposed method for the calcuIation of the bending moments in
response by means of aerodynamic damping:
the chimney is based on the gust factor method (see lil [4])
- The first term {Ka op' tfl/1llo} introduces negative
This conventional approach is:
aerodynamic damping

Wg(Z) =G o wrn(z) - The second term {l - [(Jy/(aL .d)J2} gives the positive
aerodynamic damping - important for large amplitudes and
where: ensuring that the response is self-limiting.
For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the
Wg (z) = the load at level Z aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurateIy by the first
term onlyo
G = the gust factor - a function of wind turbulence and the
chimney's natural frequency, damping and height It can be seen that, when the structural damping t is much greater
than the negative aerodynarnic damping, (Jy is quite small. As the two
Wm(Z) = the load due to the mean wind velocity vaIues converge, however, the increase in (Jy becomes dramatic, until
the self limiting amplitude is approached and increases become
An extension of this method has been proposed by Eol Vickery (see smaller (see Fig. C309).
]it. [5]) to account for the inertiaI response of a chimney and give
The maximum value "y" of the top deftection amplitude is calculated
more accurate values of the bending moments at levels above the
by multiplying the standard deviation (J y with a peak factor kp'
baseo This method has been adopted in the CICIND Model Code for
Leo y = kp olTyoFor small amplitudes below approxo 1-2% of the
Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where
diameter, the peak-factor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochastic
steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often over the
type of vibration. For large amplitudes, the peak-factor is equal to
chimney heighto In the case of steel chimneys however, which are
about 1.5, corresponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant
lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inerti al
amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases
response) and for which there is less scope for changes of thickness
gradually with decreasing amplitudeo However, for the sake of
with height, it was decided to use the simpler conventional methodo
simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of
lTy= 4% of diametero
C3.3 Vortex shedding
Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicular to the wind direction
may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a
natural frequency f of the chimneyo This occurs at a mean wind (J'y
velocity "V" equal to the criticaI wind velocity "V cr" determined by:

V = V cr = f· d / St ..o(C303ol)

in which d is the predominant chimney diameter over the top third

and St is StrouhaI numbero

Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of

the chimneyo The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton
number Sc defined as:

4°1To{01llo Fig. C3.9 - Relationship between O'y and Structural Damping (9

Sc = ..o(C3.302)
poa-jJ for given values of Ka, mo and d
in which { is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effective mass
per unit height of the chimney as defined in the model code and p is Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that the
the density of air. maximum value y of the top deflection amplitude (Leo zero to
maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 709):
The risk of large vortex-induced vibrations depends on a combination
of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the "o (C303.4)
incorning wind field. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or high
Scruton numbers reduces the risk of large vortex-induced vibrations.
where the constants Cl and Cz are equal to:
A structure with a given Scruton number may be stable in the kind of
turbulence f10w normally encountered but become unstable in rare
cases with low turbulence occurring under stable atmospheric ..o(C303.5)
stratificationo

C3.3.1 Structural Amplitudes

The standard deviation "(Jy" of the top structural deftection is given
QLZ p tflo CaZ d
o o o

by, see ref. [6]: cz = K. mo . St4 . h

o
"o (C3.3.6)

~=_l_. Ca .ptfl.!i In smooth f10w conditions, aL = approximate!y 0.4 (see table l),
d StZ {-{Kaopotfl/mo}o{l-[lTy/(aL'd)]2} mo h which gives the foIlowing expressions far Cl and C2 (see Mode! Code,
7.2.402):
... (C3.3.3)
Cl = O.OS·{l- [~·mo/(Ka· p'd2)]}
in which Ca, Ka and aL are aerodynamic parameterso The
aerodynamic parameter Ca is found from the generaIised vortex- 0.16· p.tf3, C.2
C -
induced wind load on structures without any significant additional 2- Ka 'm,. ·8(4. h
page 16 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scruton numbers less s

than 4·'lT·K", the influence of the constant ~ ìs negligìble and the Re = lO
amplitude of the structural deflection (O - max.) can be found from:

y/d = kp.(2'C1P5 = OA·kp· {I- [Sc/(4·'lT·K,,)]}O.5 ... (C3.3.7)

0.30

In the present simplified and approximate approach, the aerodynamic

damping parameter Ka is estimated for smooth flow cases as a
function of Reynolds number <Re) only. A function of longìtudinal 0.15
turbulence intensity, "f' gives the reduction in turbulent flow, Le.:

... (C3.3.8)
0.00

The aerodynarnic damping parameter, Ka,max for smoothflow at O 5 lO 15 20 25

various values of Re is given in Table 1. Scruton number, Se.

The function Kv may approximately be determined by:- 6

Re,;= IO

KJl) = ]-3] for O ,,;;],,;;0.25 and

KJl) = 0.25 for l> 0.25. 0.30

For terrain category 1 (Le. within 5km of open sea), the minimum
turbulence intensity, lmin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities 0.15
less than or equa! lOm/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than
10m/s. Far alI other terrain categories the minimum turbulence
intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than
or equal to 7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 7m/s. 0.00
Further studies are needed to clanfy the influence of turbulence more
accurately. o 5 IO 15 20 25
Scruton number. Se.
Table C3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth flow. For
Reynolds numbers between the Iimits given, the aerodynamic Figure C3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations as function of
parameters are determined by Iinear interpolation using turbulence intensity and Reynolds number. It is assumed that
In(Re) as argument mol pd2 = 50 and h/d = 30, which influence thelow amplitude
part of the curves shown.
1.0
0.4
1.0
=0.01
0.4
Re>5 .105
interpolation
Re 1lJ6 0.4
< 1()5
Re 0.02
1.5
Aerodynamic parameter
The amplitude should be limited to ensure that stresses are within
permissible lirnits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue
life. In addition, the amplitude should not be large enough to alarm
bystanders. This limit is difficult to define in generai terms as
bystanders' a!arm is subjective, depending upon how often the
response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the
bystanders' perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting
Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced vibrations as a function of amplitude for this aspect is, therefore left to the owner and the
turbulence intensity for Reynolds numbers equal to 105 designer to agree for each individuai case. Some guidance for highly
and 106, respectively. visible chimneys with low values of V cr « 1Om/s within 5km of sea
or lalee-shore, < 7m/s in inland locations) is given below:
C3.3.2 Bending Moments Criticai Chimneys - Top double amplitude (peale to peale)
should be not more than 10% top diameter
The bending moments in the chimney can be calculated from the
inertialload per unit length (Fw) corresponding to the relevant mode Normal Chimneys - Top double amplitude (peak to peale)
shape (~i)'where: should be not more than 25% top diameter

These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys andJor

... (C3.3.9) those with higher values of Vcr (Le. those which rarely see large
amplitude response).
where ni = relevant natura! frequency
C3.4 Movements in the second mode
Ymax = maximum amplitude at the relevant natural frequency
Just as in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode,
a response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplitude
or from the bending moment due to a force at 1/6 of the chimney exceeding about 4% of the top diameter, triggers an increased
height from the top, causing the same deftection Ymax' response, initiated by the chimney's own movement.
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 17

In the case of fundarnental mode movements, response is only top amplitude in tbe first mode. The stresses, however, will be about
important to vortices shed over a length near to the chirnney top, equaI the same in each case.

/
to abour 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11.

•tIO..
857
2r r~iam~tlr

= l' mode
2' mode

/ 1/

2.0000 -- --
top-deflection 2~""1·
[MIS r.m.s.p REAL
H<

0.0
10.000 HZ
o
100.00
top

Vcr = 5;9 m/s, Scr = 4.8, f = 40 hz

J7
top deflection 21t=O.15xl'"

\V
enerqy 1",. enerqy 2- stress 2" u stress l"

Fig. C3.13 -Stresses and energy levels in first and second mode

This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a fulI-scale

chimney - see fig. C.3.14. The measured values in this trace are of
)1 stresses at the base and it can be seen that many of the stress cyc1es
IO
in that part of the response in the second mode are much the same as
those in the first mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however,
only about 15% of the first mode amplitudes.
0.0 r
10.000 HZ 100.00° top La
.H
Vcr = 4.2 m/s, Scr =18.7, f = 29.5 hz
t .•
I .•
Fig. C3.11 - Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal !~
00
~'f
(velocity signal), measured at Vcr in the wake of the model, di -B.D
measured over top half ~
CQ -.2

-. <

The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur at the top (see -.6
fig. C.3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H /4. -. H

This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex -1.0 FirsIMo(J. /"
shedding is iinportant will be much smalIer in the case of second B.1SE:+aa 1.61E'+61 z."6E:+atJ 3.~at+011 1.1et+6I'
mode response. 4'---llme (secs)~
1, = 0.7 Hz 12 = 2.6 Hz

Fig. C3.14

The proPOSaIfor determining the top amplitudes in the second mode is

given in fig. C.3.15. The stresses in both the first and second modes
should be taken into account when deaIing with the effects of fatigue.

Fig. C3.12 - Mode shapes, first and second mode

, 0'1.
In the second mode, the energy due to f1uctuating wind pressures will -- ....
---- ·-""~---""---··-l
be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a Re < 3.105
chimney responding in the second mode will never be as great as that
reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode. This
is because much more wind-induced energy would be required in the
second mode. This is iIlustrated in Fig. C.3.13, which shows the
bending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode as
in the first mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the
other hand, the energy required to cause the same base stress in the
second mode is almost the same as that in the first mode, even though
top deflection in 2nd mode is much smaIler. IO 15 2.0

The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that Sc-
more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the
chimney is in the first or the second mode. It therefore follows that Fig. C3.15 - Relationship between Scruton Number
the top amplitude in the second mode would only be about 1/6 of the and top amplitude
paga 18 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

C3.5 Ovalling horizontal seetions of an unstiffened shell due to the total wind
distribution, involving mainly the cos<\>and cos2<\>terms (fig. C.3.18)
The static as well as the dynamicaIly fiuctuating pressure causes a
varying pressure over the circumference of the chimney. The varying
wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a "static" ovalling
defonnation of the cic1e. The dynarnics in the wind, including vortex A major part of the stresses on horizontal seetions is due to the
shedding can cause a vibration of the circular shape, the lowest order transition from a cìrcular shape at the base to an ovai shape.
mode and most likely to occur being that of ovalling.

C3.5.1 Static ovalling load

The distribution ofthe wind pressure around the circurnference ofthe
shell can be written as:

p = Po' {-0.823 + 0.448cos</J + 1.l15cos2</J + OAOOcos3</J

- 0.113cos4</J - 0.027cos5</J} ... (C.3.5.1) Wmd
- Direction

where: Po = the wind pressure = 0.5 . p . v2

</J = Ang1e between wind direction and point on
cìrcumference under consideration

The first term (0.823· Po) is an overall suction and causes a small
uniform tensile force on vertical cross sections of the shell.

The seeond term (0.448· Po . eos</J) is the pressure in the wind

direction (fig. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the foree
coefficìent (shape factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. It causes no Fig. C.3.18 - Circumferential wind pressure and deflected shape
departure from a eireular cross-section.

Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fairly straight-forward,

as the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam flexure and
restraint of ovalling deformation oeeur at the base at 180° to the wind
direetion (Le. on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code
gives the expression:-

{tensile sheli stress = tensile beam sress x (1 + {6 / [(l/r)2. (t/r)]).

Fig. C.3.16 - Wind pressure and deflected

Therefore, for t/r = 0.008 and IIr = 50, the increase in tensile
shape due to Pocosepterm
stress = 30%. This is probably unimportant in the design of ehimney
shells, which are usually governed by compressive stresses, but it is
The third terrn (1.115 . Po . cos</J- fig. C.3 .17) causes ovallìng.
important in designing the base joint and holding-down bolts. The Model
Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) to be
used for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio < 25.

The position regarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8)

Iimited itself to consideration of stresses at the base, at 0° to the wind
direction. Bere, the compression due to beam flexure is reduced or
even reversed by the shell stresses induced loeally by restraint of
ovalling deformation. However, increases in compressive stress are
possible elsewhere. Inereases in compressive stress are due to either
of two effects:

l) At the base and between values of <\>about 60° and 120° to the
Fig. C.3.17 - Wind pressure and deflected wind, the redueed compression stress due to bea.rn flexure (function
shape due to Pocos2epterm of <\»has to be added to the compressive shell stress due to restraint
of ovalling (function of2<\» - see fig. C3.l9. Significant increases
The remaining terrns have little infiuence. in total compressive stress only occurr at relatively small values of
tJr for l/r ratios less than 30 - see table C3.5.1
C3.5.1.1 Unstiffened shells

C3.5.1.1.1 - Effect on vertical moments

2) For relatively thìck shells at low l/r ratios, increases of
(stresses on horizontal sections)
compression stress occurr on the down-wind side at 0° to the wind
An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened sheli direction, at heights about 6 diameters above the base - see table
(assurning a rigidly fixed cireular base) due to the ovalling load has C3.5.2. This is due to contrafiexure effeets, associated with
been given elsewhere in the literature[8J. This considered stresses on restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height.
 CICINO. Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 19

Ur
r'" 20
beam 0.0
4.06.0
I/r
beam 2.06.0
4.070
0.03.3
1.42.5
1.990
6.070 MPa
MPa
shell
3.23.7
stress
1.73.7
4.8
0.07.3
1.690
stress
4.870
9.270
2.390
11.570
degrees cjl stress max.
MPa atcjl total stress rafio
Base of Unstiffened Chimney at cjl
MPa
n Stresses at
7.3 3.18
8.0 1.35
10.0 0.87
4.8 2.63
5.4 1.13
6.9 0.75

3.3 2.13
3.9 0.98

Ur 20
IIr1.2
11.0
beam
0.4
0.9
0.8
max.comp.
(x MPa
.4
height
761.3
23.1
8.8
1.5
1.8.8
.29MPa
at
.6zstress
1.43
1.04
11.4
111.8
1.32
1.03
1.57
1.10
.7
total
1.11
24.0
1.64
22.2.3
dia.) ratia
(z)
stress atz
about 6 diameters above base of an unstiffened chimney.
side),

Ovai 3.0

1-=20
R
2.0
~Wind <TCT

<TCB

1.0
~ ~ -=30
Circle
R
Flexure Ovalling
.004 .006 .ooa .01 .011

Nel
Compression
l
_
t
ti R

Fig. C3.20 - Increases in compressive stress over lower 6

diameters of an unstiffened chimney, due to shell effects
0<
Down
Wind Upwind

C.3.5.1.1.2 - Effect on horizontal moments (stresses on

-l TOlal Ten";on
vertical sections)
The distribution of ovalling pressure = 1.115· PO' cos2<jJ
Fig. C3.19 - Stresses at chimney base
Where Po is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds.
Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened shell, the consequent
Therefore, combining both tables it can be seen that consideration of bending moment at position <jJis mo, where:
shell stresses leads to significant increases in compressi ve stresses, 1.115
either at the base or at a height about 6 diameters above the base for 1/r ma = -4-' R2. PO' cos 2e!> h. (C3.5.2)

ratios < 30. Guidance regarding these increases is given by fig. C3.20 and mo (max) = 0.07· Po' d2(NmJm)
 page20 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

(Note: 0.07 increased toO.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), to allow This must be much less than Wo,say IIS.
for effect of initial curvature)
Therefore, Ir must be, say, greater than 5 times (0.06' dl.5 . t2.5).This
The associated deftection of an unstiffened shell at point <I>is wo, will ensure ovalling stresses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of
where: those in an unstiffened shell.
12·R4.1.1I5·po
... (C3.5.2) i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be "" 0.56· d· (d/t)O.5
Wo= 16. E. t3 . cos 2<1> and the moment of inertia CIr)of the stiffening ring (including
and wo (max) = 0.06· Po' d41 (E· t3) particìpating shell (see Model Code Fig. 7.4) should be:
Ir> 0.3· d1.5. t2.5 when L = 0.56· d· (df1)°·5 ... (C.3.5.7)
C3.5.1.2 Stiffened shells

The addition of correctly sized circumferential stiffeners at the top and Ir > 0.3· dl.5 . t2.5. L/ 0.56· d . (dft)O.5 ... (C3.5.8)
at the correct spacing will reduce shell stresses due to ovalling to when L < 0.56· d . (dft)O.5
negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following
approach is used: C3.5.2 Dynamic component of ovalling
Based upon the theory of shells[9], the deformation (w) at a distance C.3.5.2.1 - Unstiffened shells
(height) x from the stiffener is (with a small approximation) given by
the following function: The resonance frequency of the fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for
an unstiffeneq cylinder is given by:
w = wo' {I - e-kyxJ2 . [cos(À'yxl2)+sin(À:yxl2)]} ... (C3.5.4)
2 l
f1 = 27l"
J 7.2·E·I t
P . A . R4 = 0.49· d2 . ..; ~
rp:- ... (C3.5.9)
where: À:y12 = (3)0.25. R . (tIR)0.5
where E = Young's modulus of the shell
Substituting À"{12= 1.52· (t)0.51 (R)1.5, the deformation of the p = Density of the shell
stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at a
A = Cross-section area of shell (= t m2/m)
distance 1.58· R· (R/t)0.5, or 0.56· d· (d/t)O.5The deformation of the I = Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis
shell above and below the stiffener is shown in fig. C3.21. t3
(= -12 m4/m)
1.2S

;:j Li:
R, d and t = Radius, diameter and thickness of shell
1.0
o.n
0.25
In the case of steel:

f = 2560 . t I d2 ... (C3.5.11)

Defonnation with rings The frequency of vortex shedding relevant to ovalling = 2 . St· V I d

at dlstances x = 1.32R{~" Therefore large scale resonant movemements can occur if:

2560· tld2 = 2· St· V/ d

o
For St = 0.2, therefore, Vcr = 6500· ti d ... (C3.5.I2)
.- ... 2
To ensure that ovalIing vibrations do not occur, it is necessary to
increase the moment of inertia of the shell to give a value of Vcr
Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)
sufficiently high to avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming
that Vcr = 30 rnfs is high enough to achieve this, the required value
of I is then given by:

Fig. C3.21 - Ovalling deformation of a cylinder f=2·St·Vcr/d=- 1 fi!lJ.2.E.I

with a stiff ring at x = O 27l' p·A·R4
Giving:
It can be seen that the ovalIing deformations and, therefore stresses,
remain low (about 0.03wo) if the distance between stiffeners of p·A·R4
infinitely high stiffness is smaller than 0.56· d· (dlt)O.5. ... (C3.5.13)
7.2·E
The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is
obtained after integration of the shear forces in the shell:-
For Vcr > 30rnfs, St = 0.2, P = 7850 kg/m3 and
E = 210 . 109 N/m2, therefore
M = 0.028· Po' d3 . (d/t)0.5 (Nm) ... (C3.5.5) I> 7.4.10-6. A· R2 = 1.8.10-6. d2. t (m4/m height)

In order to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this For an unstiffened sheIl, this means t3/12 > 1.85.10-6• d2. t
moment must be much smaller than Wo - this requirement being ... (C3.5.14)
more important than its strength.
i.e. tld must be > 0.004, otherwise stiffening rings will be required
The deformation of the ring (with spacing = L) is obtained by
to avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations.
integration of the bending moment M. The result is:
C.3.5.2.2 - Stiffened shells
When L = 1.58 . R . (R1t)O.5:
Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a ring satisfying
0.19· Po' R5.5 equation (C3.5.8), ovalling vibrations can still occur at lower levels
... (C3.5.6)
w= E.Ir.(t)O.5 ·cos2<1> if the t1d ratio is < 0.004. These vibrations are defined by:
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 21

Literature
w = __
l2(1-v2)
E_t3_ ilx2 ily2 ]4 w + _E_·
[_iJ_2+_iJ_2 ilx4 +
R2t_il_4w_ [Il B.J. Vickery -
"Wind loads and Design Jor Chimneys" -
CICIND REPORT, VoI. 14, No.2, 1998
+p·t·- -+- w=O ... (C3.5.l5) [2] A.G. Davenport - "Wind structure and wind climate" -
. a2 [il2ilx2
iI'f2 a2 ]2
ily2 Seminar on Safety of Structures, Trondheim, 1977.
Where w = defonnation [3] P.J. Rijkoort and J. Wieringa - "Extreme wind-speeds by
x = coordinate along the shell (Le. vertical direction) compound Weibull analysis oJ exposure-corrected data".
y = coordinate alongthe circurnference Journal ofWind Engineering, no. 13,1983.
T=Time [4] A.G. Davenport - "Gust loading Jactors" - Proc. ASCE
Journal Struct. Div., VoI. 93, No, ST 5, June, 1967.
The solution is approximated by:
[5] B.J. Vickery - "Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete
w= Wo' cos wt· cos (2y/R)· COS (1T' x/L) chimneys" - Nat. Seminar on Tal1 Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys,New Delhi, 1985.
Where L = distance between stiffening rings
S. O.Hansen - "Vortex lnduced Vibrations oJ Line-Like
Wo = deformation of unstiffened shell Structures" - CICIND REPORT, VoI. 15, No.1, March 1999
w =2·1T·f
f = frequency Shoei-Sheng Chen - "Flow-induced vibration of circular
cylindrical structures". Hernisphere Publishing Corporation 1987.
Substituting in equation (C3.5.l2) gives:
H. van Koten - "The Stress Distribution in Chimneys due to
E·t2 {('ll'/L)2+ (2/R)2}4+ {'ll'4/(R2.l4)} Wind Pressure" - CICIND REPORT VoI. 11, No.2, 1995
wZ = 12· p . {('ll'/L? + (2/R?F H.van Koten :- "Structural analysis oJ shells" - Technical
University of Deift.
An approximation is:
00= (E/ p)05. {li [R + (4· U)/(1TZ, R)]}
Therefore L2 = (1T/2)z. {[(R/ 21T' f). (E/ p)O.5] - RZ)

Assurning that V cr > 30mls is high enough to avoid oscillations and

f=O.2,Vc/R and substituting E=2IO·109 N/m2 and p=7850
Kglm3:

L< 18·R, or9·d ... (C3.5.l9)

From equation (C3.5.I4), we have seen that the rninimum value ofl
per unit height to avoid oscillations is:

(m4/m height)

Assurning the stiffener to provide the equivalent I of a Iength of

shell = 9 . d, Ir of stiffener (including participating shell - see Model
Code, Fig. 7.4) ) must be:

Ir> 1.75 . 10-5. d3. t ... (C3.5.20)

C3.6 Interference Effects

In considering the effect of aerodynamic interference by an upstream
cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is
generally accepted that the value of lift coefficient increases with the
localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buffetting[l].
In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2
that this does not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He
states that: "Across-wind response of the downstream structure is
enhanced but the mechanism is not completely clear". He assumes
that a second contribution comes from reinforcement of the
movement by buffeting at a similar frequency to that of vortex
shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement
can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping.
Unfortunately little research data is yet available to define the way in
which the increase in negative aerodynarnic damping is affected by
spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence.
Therefore, for spacings between chimney and interfering structure
less than lO diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition
of structural damping to increase the chirnney's Scruton Number to
more than 25. At this point it is unlikely that excessive response will
be experienced. When research data is available, more definite design
guidance can be given.
page 22 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY No.4 - FATIGUE Aachen

C7, 'a 102.7 N/mm*

When we consider the long terro history of movement ofa chimney

subject to cross-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we
must take iuto account the following phenomena:

(1) Movement is subject to a "start-up" and a "wind-down" phase at

the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4. J)

(2) The stress at a point on the chimney tcnds to vary, reducing as the
wind direction changes and itsspeed departs from its critical
value, ali due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction "1-1
depends upon the level of turbulence. B = 28 m H '" 35 m
Ve< B m/s Ve: 2.5 m/s
93 days 264 days

TlM( rUNCTICtl -CHRN l

D!=ITf\-poltàs'" 489G nAxlvALuc]-B.914E-sz V

'::
i..i
Pirna
01 - 11,6 N/mml a, = 17.1 N/mml
t- t. R(!Ckiinghausen

1.0 f-=~.~:S:~:::::::):::::::T:.~:::r::::::~

-.: 1
-.2
-.' j
i ::rt~t~!l~'~
I
O. 2

. •.•.... ~•....•.. ~..•..•. "

0.0 .....• :...•... :

~ ...•.•. ~..

_..~.....• ~ ~
: •.•.• \

;•.... ,'"
-.61
-.' 1 I IO' lO' lO' la' IO' 101 10'

-1.0 j~
e
-----~------c-----~ ~----~
B.\5E+es
,
1.61(.01 2.<t6( .•.~u 3.Z8t.~al ';.t3(-tOI S,
B = 60 H = 38 m
8 m/s
Ve>: Ve. 3.5 m/s
322 days 152 days
Fig. C4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations
Fig. C4.2 - Histograms of long term response of
four .full-scale chimneys
Further, in inland locations ami at relatively high criticaI windspeeds,
atmospheric turbulence is high enough to ensure that the maximul11
amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long
term measllrements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the
response· of four steel chimneys in Germanyll! - see fig. C4.2. It can
be seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceedìng 90% of
maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about la cycles during
93 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles during 264 days at Cologne.
Tbe method in tbe Model Code takes these facts into account and
develops a spectrum of response, using the Miner Rule lo determine
fatigue life. The Miner sllm is:

... (4.1)
~og n
Where CT max the maximum stress. per sectioll 7.2.4 of the
Model Code Fig. C4.3 Loadlcycle collectives far various values of 11.

CTwn the stress causing cracks after n cycles To deterrnine the number of load cycles(n), it 1s first necessary to
(per WohJer curve) know thc number of occasions the wind will blow at its criticaI
velocity (V cr). This is detennined l'rom cOllsiderations of the
k probability of their occurrence - P(V cr):
3 in the case of fatiglle in steeI

Vcr '
À a function (dependent lIpon Ver) dellning the P(Vcr) = 2· --, . e'-(Vcr/vot '" (4.4)
shape of the load/cycle collective curve Vo-
(Fig. C4.3) as follows:-
Where Vo wind velocity averaged over one year
U = umax' (l - (log n flogo j) l).. ... (4.2) = approx. V b(h) /4
hourly mean velocity at chimney top, with
À = (Ver /8)1.2 ... (4.3)
exceedance probability of once in 50 years.

n Number ol' load cycles due to cross-wind excitation It is assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities between
during tbe lifetirne T UVcr and O.9Vcr.
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page23

Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the The load/cycle collective predictions over 20 years, calculated by
wind direction, so that the point of maximum stress is moved away equations (3) & (5) are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. C4.2.
fram the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is
Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on
proportional to cos2<1> and the tota] effect is raughly:-
relatively few chimneys, a modelling safety factor = 1.4 is
introduced in the expression for the Miner Number.
(1 /2'IT)' rCOS2<l>d<l> = 0.5
() Literature
As a result,
[l] W. Langer,H. Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe - "Untersuchungen
il = 3.15.107 ·T·f·4· 2 ·0.5·0.1 ·A·e-A2 des Querschnittverhaiten von OriginaI Stahischornstein" -
Forschungsbericht P. 230
= 1.26.107• T· f· A . e-A' ... (5) (see Model Code 8.5.2) [2] H. van Koten - "A Calculation Method for the Cross- Wind
Vibrations of Chimneys" - CICIND REPORT VoI. 14, No. l,
Where A = 4· Vcr Nb(h) lune 1998
f = Resonance frequency
page 24 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendioes

COMMENTARY No.5 - OPENINGS placed normaI to the shell {see Figures CS.2 & CS.3) and
concentrated aIong tbe edge of the opening.
Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of:
However, sudden ending of of tbe reinforcement above and below tbe
Strength opening can cause stress concentrations. These can treble stresses
Resistance against - fatigue locally and lead to fatigue damage such as 10caI cracks. To avoid this,
- instability in tbe case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney
diameter locally, tbe verticaI stiffeners should connect at each end
The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the with a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference
strength of an undisturbed section if the section modulus is the same. (see fig. CS.2).
This equaIity of section moduli is sufficient to fullfill tbe first
condition of strength.
The moment of inertia of a circIe with an opening subtended by tbe
angle 2<f>is: ~' • / t

1= d3 X t/8 X {'!T- <P - sin<f>cos<f>

- [(2sin2<f»/('!T- <f»]}

Derivation forrnulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both

t
1
R"t 1
2 t
!!!J.
R't 1
2
l 2
R2t 1
(!:):~'
/= :,
,--,"0' =.M..
W1
unreinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more tban one
opening at the same elevation are given in Table CS.I
lf 13 is small then tbe value of I is cIose to that of the complete circle
(0.12S X '!Td3X t). As 13 increases, however, tbe value of I drops
'!TL7T~
.:E.
2
~lìtr
'TI' ~1T'
2
---JIo- W

Fig C5.1 - Reduotion of inertia at openings

7T~.R

-~'
"
"2 'lT

rapidly (see Fig. C.S.l). The same holds for section modulus. To
replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners are welded verticaIly
When tbe width of opening is less than 40% of tbe chimney's diameter
to the chimney on each side of the opening. To be effective, tbe cross-
locally, it is not necessary to provide a horizontaI stiffener extending
section area (A) of each of the reinforcing stiffeners should be at least
around the full circurnference and a more 10caI arrangement may be
eqUaI to A = 1.25 X R X t X (sinl3)O.5.
used (see fig.. CS.3). VerticaI reinforcement should be continued
A cross section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling. above and below the opening to a point where the added stress is
This is due to the stiffness of the weakened cross-section being unimportant. The code deems that continuing the reinforcement
reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance
of the opening. To prevent tbis tbe reinforcement stiffeners have to be at least O.S times the width of the opening will suffice.

A = 2tr ('TI"
- 2f3) A = 2tr ('TI"
- 2f3)+ 4a A = 2tr ('TI"
- f3) A = 2tr ('TI"
- f3)+ 2a
e = rsinf3/ ('TI"-f3)
e=--~--- tr2 sin[3 - arcos[3
tr ('!T-l') + a
100 == tr3 ('TI"
- f3- sinf3 COSI3)
+ 2ar2cos2f3

IGG= 2tr3 (7T/2-f3-sinl3cosf3) IGG= 2tr3 ('TI"/2-f3-sinf3oosf3) IGG= tr3 {7T-I3-sinl3cosf3 IGG = 100 - Ae2
ZGG= IGG/ rcosf3 + 4ar2cos2f3 -[2sin213/('TI"-I3)]} Z1GG = IGG/ (e+rcosf3)
~G = IGG/ rcosl3 Z1GG = IGG/ (e+rcosl3) Z2GG= IGG/ (r-e)
Z2GG = IGG/ (r-e)

IG'G' = 2tr3 (7T/2-f3+sinf3cosf3) IG1G'= 2tr3 ('!T/2-f3+sìnf3cosl3) IG'G1= tr3 ('TI"-I3-sinf3cosl3) IG'G1= tr3 (7T-I3-sinl3cOSI3)
Ze'G1 == IG1G1/r + 4ar2sin213 ZG1Gl= IG1G'/r +2ar2sin2f3
Z"PG' == IG1G,!r ZG'G1= IG'G,/r

Fig. C5.1 - Oerivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a = reinforcement area)
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page25

L = 0.5 opening
width
SectionAA
Section AA

Fig. C5.3 - Suggested detail of reinforcement far

narrow openings « 0.40)

Even though it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with

strength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally
Fig. C5.2 - Suggested detail of reinforcement far the stiffness of the chimney and affect its natural frequencies. This
wide openings (> 0.40) reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when
deriving the chimney'sdynamic response. This isdoneby taking
If the vertical height of the opening is morethan twice its horizontal account of the reduced local stiffness at the opening when calculating
width, a stability check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given "x" for each section-in equation 7.16 of the Model Code.
in the chapter on bending of plates under lateralloads in "Plates and
shells", by Timoshenko.
When the duty of-the chimney requires fiue gas inlets whose width
exceeds two-thirds of the structural shell's diameter, a possible
solution would be to provide a large number of small circular
openings, giving a total area equivalent to that required.
Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and
around the whole group, as required.
page 26 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY 6 - C6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and fluorides ('

CHEMICAL EFFECTS ANO INTERNAL Chlorides are found in most solicl fuels, inclucling refllse and in many
liquid fuels. lt is also sometimes faund as a pollutant in some FGD
CORROSION processes. Upon combustion chlorides are transformed into free
ehloride ions which, on eontaet with water vapollr are transformed
C6.1. Chemical effects into hydrochloric acido The highest condensation temperature at
which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60°C, Thus, when any flue
C6.1.1. Attack due to sulphur oxides surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will
occur. This dew point is cIose to the water and sulphurous acid dew
The most cammon form of internaI chemical attack is due to acids point. Even very small amounts 01' chlorides in combination with
formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides in the Hue gas. Sulphur other condensed acids can cause seI10us corrosion problems.
is found in al! solid and liqllid fuels to varying degrees ancl can also
be founcl in gaseous l'uels. Dwing the combustion process, nearly alI Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluori do. and free chlorine in ftue gases
also become corrosive in their vapour stage, Stainless steels are
sulphur in the l'Ùel is oxidised tosulphur diox,ide (S02) which can be
absorbed by condensing water vapour to fonn sulphurous acido attacked at temperatures above 320QC. Fluoride vapours are-
corrosive to stainless steels al temperature above 250°C.
Asmall quantity (jl' sulphur clioxide (S02) is further convetted to
sulphur trioxide (SO)). The quantity depends in a complex manner C6.2. Internai Corrosion
upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount 01' exeess air
The intemal cOITosion allowances in table 8.2 of the Model Code are
avanable cluring combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber
and the presenee of catalysts sueh as iron oxicles. This small based upon limited exposure to condensing slllphurie acicl per Fig
eoneentration of S03 Cusual1y measurecl in PPM). gives rise to most C6.1. They are derived l'rom the relationship be.tween "Peak
of the acid eorrosion problems encountered in ehimneys. This is corrosio!1 rate" and "S03 concentration" shown in figure C6.3. This,
beeause on eondensation, the S03 ions combine with water vapour to in turn, was clerived l'rom the upper bound 01' a family 01' curves
form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%. which show the same relationship observecl in practical situations.
See Iìt. [2] and [3]. A safety factor 01' 4 has been used in arriving at
Conclensation of these aeids takes pIace when the temperature of the the corrosion allowances.
fIue gas fa11s below their respective acid dew point temperatures
(ADP). or when the ftue gas comes into contaet with a surface, at or
below the relevant acid dew point temperature. Gas
240
The acid dew pointtemperature of sulphuric acid depends upon the
concentration of S03 in the ftue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the
temperature 01' the tlue gas and the surfaces with which it can come 200
into contact are maintained loec above the acid dew point estimated
from Fig. C6.I, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause.
160
Alternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to ()
° Mixture 01
protect the steel. Guidance on suitable coatings and their
performance is given in "CICIND Manual far Chimney Protective
!
::I
gas and condensate

Coatings". F! 120
Cl
Q.
E
The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65°C, a little above ~
the water dew point. If the fuel is contaminated, other acids, such as 80
hydrochloric and nitric aGid can be expected to con dense in the same
temperature range. Thus, even il' fuel and combustion processes are
chosen to minimi se production of S03' or if ftue gases are scrubbed 40
to remove most of the SOo and S02, severe cOITosion can be expected Condensate
if the temperatures of tlle tlue gas or the surfal~es with which it can
come into contact fall below 65°C, or the acid dew point temperature o
O 20 40 60 80 100
relevant lO the reduced S03 concentralion, if this ìs higher. Again. a
H2 804: Gew %
safety margin is recommended of IOeC above the acid dew point
temperature estimated from figure C6.1.
Fig. C.6.2 - Phase diagram: sulphuric acid - water vapour

C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)

C6.3 Guideline to choice of Iiner metallic materials
Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides dwing FGD, a
severe corrosion risk remai ns. This is because, downstream 01' a Guidelines on the stùtability 01' various metals and alloys l'or the
scrubber, the ftue gas is uSllally very wet and its temperature is often range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be gìven in
very low - low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew CJCIND's "Metallic Materials Manual" (to be published in 200 I).
point temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide
content. Fig. C6.2 shows the relationship between temperature and Literature
acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that flue gas
condensing at temperatures as low as 80°C can end up as guite [l] "Desulphurisation S:vstems and their Effèct 011 Operational
concentrated acido Also the Uue gas often contains chlorides, carried Conditions in Chimneys". Henseler, E, CICIND REPORT,
VoI. 3, No.2, 1987
over l'rom the serubbing materials.
[2] "lnjluence offuel oil characleristics Clnd combuslioll
AlI steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and tÌtanÌum
conditions 011 the gas properties in. water tube boilers" Bunz
wOllld deteliorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the
G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. - Jnl 01' the lnstitute 01'
expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets al'
FuelSept 1967
al10y or titanillm to the inner faee of carbon steel or other vllinerabie
Iiners. Some organic coating materials have aiso been developed l'or [3J "Prevention olcold end corrosioll in industriai boilers". Lech
this duty. ami Landowski - "Conision" - March 1979
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page27

10-1
1.000
i1l>

-·d:.. ·1

.• 1

E
c.
c.
:;
'"
.S
100 :E
K

'S
IO .2
:;
li>

E r.
o'
..

by valume -

_.,:'1 a. 1-_==1== •J
-lO'U20 I o~
~
5
"
·.1 1_1 ~••

.,L •....... 1

'r·.~ ."~. I ::.:.l'li'"A.,;+I.t

'~'I:t;l:I'l:l;I:f:-t'~" l-~l '.:

10·1, .. r I J I f I '0.1
IO 90 IUO 110 110 130 140 ISO
O.wJloill.1. ·C
lO"
120 130 140 150
·U! UrTll LTU in 11TTTITTJIIT-IrUlJ IO
160 110 100 190
Dcvvpoirl1, "c

Fig. C6.1 - Relationship between ADP and 503 concentration

peak corrosion
rates
(micranl
1000 hours)

".

" ..
so, concentration (ppm by voi) ,
1 ppm = part per miflion (1O~

Fig. C6-3 - Relationship between peak internai corrosion rates and 503 concentration
page28 CICIND ModelCode - Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A - March 2002

APPENDIX 1- The maximum baseplate stress (0"*) is givcn by the following

expression:
DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES
0"*=131'0"*c,P/tb2<fk/U ... (A1A)
This appendi x is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate
details. In thc following calculations, base plate bearing stress (0"*c)
where 131is given by:
and maximum boll teasion (Pb *) are calculated for factored load and
overtuming momento In thc case of bases with a compression ring l/b 131

andlor gussets tbc values of 0"*c and Pb* are calculated using elastic O 3.00
ana1ysis as a reiaforced concrete ring assuming the modular ratio of 0.2 2.68
12 11l.l21.Thc· area of stecl bolts istak.enas the thread root cross 0.3 2.30
section area of the bolts. In chimneys requiring an increase in design 0.4 1.85
tensiJe. stress at the base 011account 01'c1ause 8.2 of thc Mode! Code, 0.6 1.25
the value or Pb* should be factored according1y. 0.8 0.83
1.0 0.51
A.1.1 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression 1,25 0.30
rings (Fig. A.1.1) 1.5 0.22

T ension side anel 1 = the outstand of the basplate from the chimney sheJl
b = distance between gussets
p* perboll
The baseplate stresses (cr*) on the tension side muy be calculated using
thc method described in !it [1]. For the particular case of 1= 4· O:

er*e
+ -----
tb
-- -- -- --
----
Where 132is obtained as follows;
l/b
0.2
132
2.38
... (AJ.5)

Fig. A1.1 - Simple Baseplate 0.3 2.28

OA 2.07
On the cOl11pression side, the vertica1 shell foree is distributed over a 0.5 1.87
strip of width (2.13 + t,), where 13 is chosen to limit the pressure on 0.6 1.65
the grOtit (O"*c)to no greater than fkg I ].5. 0.8 1.33
l.0 1.06
The maximum baseplate stress (o-*)is then given by: 1.25 0.81
1.5 0.62
... (ALl)

where ti,
Both equations A lA and A 1.5 must be satistìed.
characteristic strength of the botto m plate steel
The height of the gussets (h) should bc sufficient to maintain
pressure on the grout
acceptab1e shell stTesses. Thc stress in the sheJl (O"*s)is givcn by the
thìckness of shell following expression:
fkg eharaetel;stic compressive strength of the graut
rr*, = w*. [(exI t,) + (133' Rslt}»):s fk Il. l '" (AJ.6)
On the tension side, the values al' Il and 14 should be adjusted to give
Where: ex and 133 are given by:
vertical and rotational equilibrium. Thc active circumferentiallength
of the buseplate may be taken as :I ./2 or the bolt spacing, whichever No. of gussets
is the lessero (equally spaced)
6 1.00 0.53
Thc bolt tcnsion (Pb*) then = p*. (lI + 12)/1, ... (A1.2) J2 1.93 0.26
Where p* is the verticaltensile force in the sheJl per boll. 16 2.50 0.20
Assuming a distribution al' baseplate stress over a length al' 3 .12: 20 3.20 0.16
24 3.83 0.13
0-* = 2· p* IlbZ < fk/l.l ... (A1.3) 28 4.47 0.11
Both equations A 1.1 und A 1.3 have to be satisfied. 32 S.IO 0.098
40 6.37 0.079
A1.2 Baseplates with Gussets (Fig. A1.2) 60 9.55 0.052
80 12.74 0.039
Rodius Rs 100 15.92 0.03.1
ts
Compression
Side and R,= shelJ radius
Gussel spocing b. w* = the radiai foree 011the sheIJ per unit height of gusset
equoll y spoced
cbout bolts. at the top of the gussets, given by the following
2D
expression:
w* = 3. M*lh2
D
Where M* is the bending moment al the base of each gusset
erO
e plate due to out of balanee forces under the basepJate.
M* = p* , 20 per gusset on the tension sidc
Fig. A1.2 - Baseplate with gussets = O"*c. 6 . 1)2. b per gll~set on thc compression side
CICIND Model Code- Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A - March 2002 page 29

Allowancc should be made for stress concentrations that may occur A 1.4 Grouting
at the top of thegussets.
COMMENTARY 7
A1.3 Baseplate with gussets and compression ring
NON SHRINK GROUT
(See Fig. A1.3) OF' THE SAME STRENGTH
AS THE CONCRETE BASE.
BASEPLATE
ts
Compression Tension
Side Slde

Gusset spocing
05 above
2D 2D

---------
---------
a'c

Fig. A1.3 - Baseplate with gussets & compression ring

Tbe baseplate stresses are calculated in the same way as in section

Al.2 above using equation AIA.
The compression ring bending stresses (a*) are calculated in tbc
same way as in sectiol1 A 2 above, using equation A 1.5, substituting
1.•

tç (tbickness of compression rillg) for tb (baseplate thickness). Aclded PACKER PLACED NEXT TO BOLT
lO this is a direct cìrcumferential stress arising from the out ofbalancc
l1lomenl caused by Ùle eccentlicity 01' the bolts, giving a total stress: Note - If the chimney is intially levelled using a nut placed on the
holding down belt under the basep late , this nut should be loosened
after packers are introduced.

where N = number of bolts Fig. A1.4 provides guidaoce 00 the grouting procedure to be
used under chimney baseplates.
A gussel plate thickness of O.25D wil! suffice il' it is of a steel whose
yie.lelstrength at least equals that of the bolts. References:
Notes regardillg tbe derivation of ~1 and ~2 [I] Brownell & Young - "Process bquipment Design",
Chapter lO
Stress coetTicients 131 and [32 were obtained as follows:
~1 is tbe coefficient applicable to the compression side anel is derived [2] Pinfold, C.M. - "ReÙ~forced Conaete Chimneys and Towers"
l'rom Timoshenko's work on a rectangular plate fìxed 011three sides
and l'ree on the fOllrth. This is a reasonable assumption because
pressure under the base inside the shell will produce fixity. At the
gussets there is fixity by virtue of thc continuity of tbe basplate.
132 is the coefficient applicable lo the tension side. In tl1e literature [l]
this is taken from a model comprising a rectangular plate simply
supporled on ali sides, with a patch load at the centre representing the
bearing of the nu!. This is not a (fue reflection of the boundary
conditions which are more truIy fixed on two opposi te sides (at tbe
gusstes), one side being pinned (at tbe shell) and the fourtb side free.
Neither is t!le effect of tbe holding down bolt hole consielered. ln this
Appendix, therefore, tbe values of 132 have been derived from plale
element FE analysis. using tbe more realistic above boundary
conditions anel allowing l'or the bolt hole in tbe plate.
 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
page 30

('" I
values 75mm
4.0
50mm
0.35*
4.5 (m2
2.3*
0.5*
0.7*
1.15*
25mm
100mm
150mm
thickness
6mm
1Bmm
W airgap
air K)
gap overall average U
APPENOIX 2type
- INSULATION
of insulation
aluminium
ANO PROTECTIVE
mineral wool
minerai
minerai woo/
wool
expanded minerai
aluminium
LlNINGS AND COATINGS

A.2.1 1nsulation

A2.1.1 Generai

In order to minimise loss of heat from a chimney and to maintain the

temperature of the sheU or liner(s) above flue gas acid dewpoint
level, insulation may be fiùed. But it should be appreciated that,
however effective the insulation, acid will condense if the fiue gas
temperature entering the chimney is at or below its aeid dewpoint
temperature.
Even if metal in contact with fiue gas is generally at temperature, * These vaiues apply for il mean insulation temperature of 40oG. They ShOllld be
above its aeid dewpoint, rapid local corrosion can oceur at cold spots. increased by 5% for each 500e increase in mean insulation temperature.
In arder to eliminate cold spots careful attendon should be given to
the following details: Table A2.1 Typical insulation conductivities
Potenti al air leaks should be eliminated by properly sealing
flanged joints, inspeetion/cleaning doors, expansion joints and Minerai wool or foa111 insulation exposed to weatber ShOllId be
instrumentation apertures. The long-term effeetiveness of sealing protected by weather proofed c1adding. Design of this cladding and
materials at the relevant service temperatures should be its fixings should ensure its integrity under tbe actioll of wind at a
demonstrated .. velocity of 1.5 X basie wind-speed at the relevanl height (per
paragraph 7.2.2.of the Model Code). The design should take account
Direet metal/metal contaet between steelliners and the stmctural
of the variation of wind pressure around the surface 01' the chimney
shell shollld be avoided. Liner support should incorporate a at a given elevation.
tbermal isolation devic:e.

Attachments such as guy ropes, aerodynamic stabilizers, ladders, A2.1.3 A1uminium cladding
platforms and pipes can aet as cooling fins. Their attaehment to Aluminium c1adding enclosing a narro w airspace is an effective form
metal in contact with fiue gas shouId incorporate a tbermal of insulation, due to its high tbermal reflectivity. (Note - Sheet steel
isolation device.
or otber fonl1S of cladding may be sLlitable in certain cases.)

A2.1.2. Insulation design The exterior of tbe steel shell beneath the cladding should be couted
with heat resisting paint.
lnsulatìon should be designed to maiutain the surface in contad with
the tlue gas above aGid dew point temperature everywhere, when tbe The cladding should consist of aluminium sheet not less than LOmm
fiue gas is at normal operating conditioo and at abnOlmal conditlons thick with symmetrical fiange eovers made in haives from aluminium
if they can last for more than 25 hours per year (see table 7.1 of the sheet which also shal1not be less than l.Omm thick.
Mode! Code). Far design purposes, the following parameters shollid
be used: The cJadding should be made in strakes, using il number of equal
plates per strake. AH seams shollld be connected by aluminium alloy
Theoretical acid dewpoint, calculated taking aecount of sulphur rivets at not more than 100mm centres. Vertical seams of each stTake
content and excess comhustion air should be increased by a should be se! at tbe midpoint of thc. strake beneath.
safety margio of IO"C. lf data is not available to permit
The eladding should be fitted with its il1temal face the required distance
calculation of the t1ue gas acid dew point temperature, the
away from the extemal face of the chimney shell, this distance being
followiog values ShOllldbe used for minimum metal temperature
maintained by continuous circumfercntial spacers of tbe reqtùred
in contaet witb fiue gas:
thiclmess low conductivity tape coiucident with thc horizontal joints of
• When l'uel is oil andlor gas, containing more than 0.5% by the aluminium. The tape should he eemented into position by means of
weight of sulphur, 175"C sodium silicate or otber suitable adhesive. The ends of the horizontal
rivets in the alunùnium sheets serve lo retain tbe tape in position after
• When fuel is coal containing more tbau 0.5% by weight of erection. The circumferential spacers divide the airspace between tbe
sulpllllr, 135"C stecl shell and tbe aluminium cladding into sections not more than
.I.5m high, tbus reducing convection heat losses.
• When fuel contains less than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 100°C

Ambient air temperature shouId be the minimum winter air When the Iength of the prefabricated sections of shell between
temperature at the chimney location, obtained by averaging the tlanges is not a whole multiple of tbe strake widtb, only one make-up
mc.an temperature each night over a period of one month. strake per section of chimney should be used.

Wind velocity shouId be assumed to be 5m/s. AH projections shouId be elad. Cleaning doors ami other points
where access is required shollld be "boxed in" with removabie
The temperature of the metai in contact witb fiue gas shouId be aluminium panels.
checked for the condition of highest anticipated fiue gas temperature.
Far this eheck the following design parametcrs should he assumed: The airspace at the top of tbc chimney should be completely sealed to
prevcnt ingress of moisture between tbc stce] shell and the cladding.
Ambient air tempermure should be maximum anticipatcd air
temperature at the chimney location. Each upper strake or aluminium should lap over the lower strake by
a minil1lum of 25mm, The vertical seams similarly shouId have a
Zero wind velocity. minimum lap of 25mm.

The design or insulation thickness lO satisfy the requìrements 01' this To permit examination of the steel shell of the chimney without
clause should be based upon the eonductivity value of the insulation removing the cladding, 150 mm square openings, [ocuted at careful1y
materia l, provided by the insulation manufacturer. ]f such data is not seiected points and covered by removable panels approximately
available, typical values listed in table A3.1 may be used. 230mm square, may be provided. Suitable positions are:
C/CIND Model Code - Commentaries andAppendices
page 31

- diametrically opposite any inlet - To aet as insulation to maintain the fine gas temperature above its
acid dew point.
- approximalely l,25m from the top of tbe chimney
- Reduce potenti al for aerodynamic instability.
Greal care should be taken lo ensure tl1at dissimilar metals do nol
come into contact with each olher. lf it is essential in the design that
Chimney Iinings may be:
two dissimilar metals have to be connected, a suitable non-conductive
and impervious film or agent should be placed between tbem. a) Separate !iners, with a space between the liners and tbe outer
structllral shell. More than one liner may be accomodated within
A2.1.4. Minerai wool or foam Insulation the structural shell, to form a "mlllti-flue" chimney.

Wrapping thc· sleel shell with a suitable grade insulation material 01' b) Attached continuously to the inner face of the structural shell.
sufficient thickness provides more effcclive insulation tban Snch Iinings may be either cast againsl thestructural shell, or be
aluminium cladding with thc usual 6mm air gap. applied by spray, trowel or brush. Sueh Iinings may be:

Thicknesses of over 50mm are applied in two separate layers, the - castable refractory
outer layer being filted so that the vertical and horizontal joints are
- soJid grade diatomaceous concrete
staggered from the joints of the inner layer. Ifa stiffener or f1ange of
the chimneysectiol1 projects past thè outer face of the insulation, it - chemical resistant coatings
should be wrapped with an additionallayer of thc same thickness for
- libregJass reinforced pJastic (FRP)
at least 75mm on each side ofthe f1ange or stiffener. Insulation has to
be protected from the weather, a convcnient way of doing this is to A2.2.2 Design of separate Iiners
cover it with metal cJadding. designed as descibed above.
The insulation should be fixed to the steel shell by wrapping it around A2.2.2.1. GeneraI considerations
so that the ends butt. It can be seenred in pIace by steel strapping. At
For information on the design of separate liners see the "CICIND
least two bands of strapping should be used for each strake of
Model Code for Concrete Chimncys, Part C - Steel Liners".
insulation. lnsulation tends to compact and slip down the surface of
the steel during ti-ansportation and erection thus leaving bare patches Latera] support should be provided between the Iiner and the
of steel which are potential "cold spots". The slipping of the structural shell as near as possible to the top of the chimney.
insulation may be prevented by wclding steel pins to thc shell. On
Additional lateral supports may be require.d at inteonediate elecations
low chemical load chimneys the pins can project through the
between the top of the liner and its base, depending npon cOllsiderations
insulation and have spring retaining washers fitted.
of stability and dynamic response, but their nllmber should be
On medium chemical load chimneys it is advisable to use short pins minimised as far as possible. The lateral restraints should be. designed
which only project half the thickness of the insulation so as to prevent to pem1it the linings to expand freely both vertically and radialJy.
"cold spots" forming.
A gap between the'liner and its lateral restraint(s) of between 3mm
Usually an interval of 600mm is nsed between the pins. and 6mm (the larger gap being appropriate for larger diameter liners)
wHI ensurc that impact damping enhances the structunù damping
A2,1,5. Lined and multiflue chimneys sufficiently to avoid problems of cross-wind oscillation in most cases.
The sapce between the outer shell and the lincr of a double skin The liner shollid be designed to resist stresses due 10 loads imposed
chimney can be iì.lled with mineraI wool, expanded mineraI, or other by the latera] restraints, as thc structural shell moves under the effect
suitable insulator. of wind or earthquake.
When expanded minerai is used as insulation, the design and The presence of horizontal restraints between the liner and structural
fabrication of the chimney must ensure that there are no voids or shell may prevent tbc liner from adopting a distorled shape in response
openings out of which the expanded mineraI can leak.. A suitable lO differenti al expansion. As a result, bending stresses may be
drain off position must be provided at the lowest point of the introduced in both the liner and the structural shell, These stTesses can
expanded mineraI area to ensure that the expanded mineraI ean be be very high when a single Iiner carries flue gases fTom two or more
drawn off if access lo the interior of the ehimney shell is required. sources with different temperatures. In addition, the resnlting
differentialliner temperature will introduce secolldary thermal stresses.
Notices should be fitted to the exterior of the chimney warning that
the chimney has been filled with expanded minc'ral. A cover should be provided at the top of the structural shell to give
weather protection to the airspace between liner and shell. The design
After 6 to 12 months, expanded mineraI insulation compacts by about
of this cover should pennit free expansion of the linee Sufficient
10% thus leaving areas of the liner exposed. It is essential that this
radiai clearance should be incorporated to pelmit any relative
void is "topped up" with more expanded mineraI and that adequate
movement, between liner and shell, that may be aIJowed by the
provision is 1eft in the cap plate for topping up to take piace.
latera! restraint system. In the design of this cover, speciaJ attention
Sometimes a seeond "topping-up" is necessary after a further 12
shonld re paid to the integrity of its fastenings, bearÌng in mind the
month periodo
risk of acid cOlTosion, stress corrosion and fatigne cracking which
may be caused byaerodynarnic "fiutler".
A2.2 Protective linings
A2.2.2.2 Steelliners
A2.2.1 Generai
Unprotected steeJ liners should not be used in eonditions of high
Linings may be require.d in steel ehimneys for one or more of the
chemicalload (see table 7.1 of Model Code). In eonditions of low or
following purposes:
medium chernicalload. internai eorrosion allowances listed in table 8.2
To maximise the stre.ngth ofthe structural shell by keeping it cool of the model code may be lIsed. In conditions of high chemical load
As fire proteetion (such as downstream 01' FGD), unprotected steel can be replaced by (or
protected by "Wallpapered" coatings of) high nickel alloys, titanium or
- To proteet an externally insulated struetural shell fra m other metals. Guidance on choice of these materials is contained in
excessively hot fiue gases. These could be generated by an CICIND's "Metallie Materials Mannal", to be publishe.d in 2001.
operational upset or occur when an energy conservation system
is by-passed. Liner supports and lateral restraints should incorporate thermal
insulation so as to avoid formation of localised cold spots on the
- Corrosion protection lining surfaces due to conduction of heat to the structural shelI.
page 32 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

Consideration should be given to the risk 01' fire andlor high when wet and when dry. Only coatings should be used that have been
temperature excursions described in paragraphs 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 ofthe proved capabie of retaining their protective properties in these
model code. 11' the risk is significant, consideration should be given conditions throughout the life of the chimney. AIso, the chosen
to the provision 01' fire protection. coating material should have expansion characteristics compatible
with those of the shell throughout the relevant temperature range.
A2.2.2.3. Plastic liners
A2.3 Recommended start-up procedures for new
Plastic and FRP Iiners are suitable for conditions 01' "high chemical
castable refractory in steel chimneys or Iiners.
load" (see tabJe 7.1 of the Model Code), combined with low
temperatures. In order to prevent material degrading, the temperature The start-up procedures ShOllld follow the refractory manufacturer's
01' these linings should not be allowed to exceed 100°C. Short term instrllctions. If none are available, thefollowing procedures may be
excursions to 150°C can be tolerated if the right type 01' piastic is used:
chosen, but the life is reduced.
- Hold gas temperature in the range of 70°C-90"C for at leasl
In order to ensure liner temperature is maintained below 100°C, an 3 hours.
automatically conlrolled quenching system may be installed
- ContraI subsequent increases in temperature und gas fiow so that
upslream 01' the chimney, which is aetivated when the fiue gas
temperature exceeds IOQoC. nopart of the Iiner is exposed to a gas temperature. im:rease
exceeding 50°CIhr. AH parts 01' the lining should be exposed to gas
temperature at least 75% of design temperature for at least 6 hours.
A2.2.3 Design of linings attached continuously to the shell
These requirements also apply lO old refractory linings which have
A2.2.3.1 Generai been left exposed to weather and have become soaked with water.
Llning or coating selection criteriu and qualilY standards to be used A2.4 Protective and decorative treatments
dllring slIrface preparation and Iining installation are detailed in the
crCIND "Chimney Protective Coatings Manual". Treatmenl selection cliteria and quality standards to be used during
surface preparation and coating application are detailed in the
A2.2.3.2 Castable refractory linings (including CIClND "Chimney Protective Coatings ManuaI".
diatomaceous concrete linings)
Stainless steel is nornlalIy supplied in its mill finish condition, which is
Castable refractory should be inslIlating type with a minimum bulk a matt, light grey. Polishing to achieve a shiny tìnish involves extra COS1.
density, after drying, 01' lOOOkg/m3• Diatomaceous concrete should
Weathering steeI, unless gril blasted, may 110toxidise evenly.
be of the "solid" grade. They shouId be single layer cOl1stTUction,
installed without vapour stops. They may be cast against thc inner
face of the steel shel1 or they may be applied by a gunning processo
Mìxing procedures and water quantities sha11 fo11ow the
.manufacturers' recommendations.
The minimum thickness 01' lining sha11 be SOmmo Linings 50mm to
65mm thick shall be reinforced by eIectric welded wire· mesh. The
mesh should be 50 X 50mm with wire of minimum diameter 2mm, or
il may be 100 X IOOmm with minimum wire diameter 3mm.
The mesh shouId be positioned 20mm from the surface of the steel shell
and should be anchored to it by steel studs, welded at 450mm spacìng.
Linings thicker than 65mm shall be reinforced by arc welded "V"
studs, randomly orientated and at a minimum spacing of 1.6 per
square metre.
A corrosion resistant meta! cap should be provided at the top 01' the
refractory to protect its horizontal sUlt"ace from the weather.
Providing its surface in contaet with flue gas is above acid dew point.
this type of lining provides corrosion protection to the steel chimney
or Iiner to which il is applied. Application of such a lining would
convert a steel chimney, c!assed as being under "High chemicalIoad"
when unprotected, to a "Low chemical load" classification.

A2.2.3.3 Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) linings

The use of plastic and FRP for Iinings applied to steel chimneys is
severly restricted by their tendency to separate from the steel, due to
differential expansion. To minimize this problem, lining temperatures
should not exceed the following vailles:
- epoxy resins, SODC - polyesters, 60°C
Il is essential that the FRP linings aclbere lìrmly to tbe inside face of
the chimney shell so that tbe surface does not crack or spalI. lf tbc
acìd fiue gas penetrates the FRP il wiU attack the steel shel!.

A2.2.3.4 Chemical resistant coatings

Guidance on the selecion and application of chemical reisistant
coatings is given in the CIClND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
In the selection of a coating for internai use. consideration should be
given to the maximum temperature lo which it will be subjected, both
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page33

APPENDIX No.3 - GUYED CHIMNEYS Mm = overtuming momentproduced by dead-weight or otber

permanent loads which may act to increase combined
A3.1. Thermal expansion effects mornent

Steel chimneys are subject to therrnal expansion when tbe shellis Me = overtuming moment produced by permanent loads which
heate<! by the flue gases and, to a small extent by strong sunlight and act at all times to reduce combined moment
by large variations in ambient temperature. The vertical expansion Ma = restoring moment producedby tbe foundation (including
can be considerable on tali chimneys with reasonably high tlue gas
guy rape anchorages) without exceeding allowable material
temperatures, especìal1y if tbey are extemally insulated. stresses or tbe foundation allowable bearing pressure.
For example, thevertìcal expansion of a steel chimney witb a guy In determining tbe support provided by the windward guy ropes, the
band 80m above ground level and witb a shelt temperature of 250°C, relative stiffnesses of tbe chimney (acting as a cantilever) and the guy
would be 280mm.
ropes, including tbeir non-linearbehaviour, should be taken into
This vertical expension expansion can greatly affect tbe tellsion in the account. Many modern structural computer programs have routines
guy wires and tbe consequent compressi ve load on tbe chimney sbel1. for analysing guyed structures, which do this automatically. If
calcuiations are made by hand, however, guy rape tensions should
Tlle stresses in gUy ropes arld shel1 should be chec;ked under both fust be calculate<l,assumingtbe.chimn(lyispjnned at itsbase.
"hot" and "cold" conditions. For instance, if thé guy wires are Horizontal deftections at tbe rope attachment points sbould tben be
correctly tensioned when tbe chimney is "cold", tbe vertìcal determined. Tbe staèk shell should tben be analysed as a cantilever,
expansion when the chimney goes on 10ad will increase the tension propped by springs at tbe rope attachment points. The stiffness of
in the guy ropes, it wìl1 also increase the vertical component in the tbese springs is determined by the deflections and horizontal
shell plate, when it could in extreme cases produce buckling. components of tension in tbe ropes, previously calculated. Second
However, if tbe guy wires are tensioned when the chimney is "hot", order effects should be considered.
when it goes off load the chimney will reduce in height and tbeguy
wires williose part of their tension. This could cause more movement A3.2.2 Abnormal conditions
under wind load tban is desirable. In order to avoid tbese problems,
a compromise initial guy rape tension under cold conditions may be ThestabiIity of tbe chimney should be checked at 0.1 X Design
necessary Le. a tension that allows some lateral deftection of the Windspeed, assuming one of tbe guy ropes to be broken.
chimney under design wind and "cold" conditions, while increasing
the verticalload in thc chimney by a significant but safe margin under A3.3 Guy ropes
"hot" conditions.
Guy ropes should be provided in at least 3 vertìcal planes. T he angle
Alternatively, if a chimney is used on a constant load 24 hours a day between any two planes should not exceed 130°. Guy ropes should
for long periods and maintenance resources permit, tbe guys can not slope more tban 60° to tbe horizontal.
initially be correctly tensiom:d when the chimney is cold. When the Guy ropes shall be of gaivanized steel wire, witb steel cores,
chimney starts up and is heated to its operating temperature, the guys complying witb IS01R346. The wires should have a minimum tensile
can be readjusted to the correct tension after tbe chimney has strengtb of 1450 N/mm2, A completed rape should be evenly laid and
expanded. As soon as the heat load is reduced and the chimney free from loose wires, disturbed strands or otber irregularities and
resumes its "cold" hcight, however, the guys must be retensioned. should remain in this condition when properly unwound fromtbe reel
or coiI.Fittings sbould be of galvanized steeI. Prior to erection,
A3.2. Calculations
completed guy ropes should be greased and subjected to a tensile
force amounting to 20% of their minimum breaking load for a period
A3.2.1 Normal conditions of 30 minutes.
Thc guyed chimneys shall be calcuiated taking into thc considcration Guy ropes and fittings should be designed so that tbeir minimum
second order effects. The decisive winddirections which should be breaking strengtb exceeds 3 X maximum calcuiated load, due to tbe
taken into accollnt are given in figure A3.1 sum of pretension, design wind and chimney expansion.
After erection and while tbe chimney is cold, tbe guy ropes should be
pretensioned sO as to minimise top deflection of tbe chimney. The
pretension may be measured by tbe use of a suitable instrurnent and
should be not less tban 15% nor more than 30% of tbe calculated
maximum tension due to design wind under the hot condition.
Attachments of the guy ropes should be positioned sufficiently far
below tbe chimney top to avoid corrosive effects of tbe fiue gases.
A minimum distance of 3m is recommended.

Fig. A3.1 - Wind directians far guyed chimneys

Thc stability of the structure and foundation as a whole or any part of

it should be investigated.
Weight of anchorage should be provided such that:

M= l.4Mw+ 1.35Mm-O.9Me<O.9Ma

in which:
M = cornbined rnomcnt

Mw = overturning moment produced by tbe design wind and

irnposed loads
 CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
page 34

Stringers should, if possibIe, re in a continuous Jength. but where they

APPENDIX No.4 - ACCESSLADDERS are in more than one length they shall be joined by lishplates on the
inside.<;of the stringers, either welded or bolted. .lf bolts afe used they
A4.1. Generai
shal! be countersunk 011 the stringer and not Iess than 12rom in diameter.
This section specifies the requirements for steelladders, permanently There shail be not less than two bolts on each side of the joint.
fixed to steel chimneys, to provide means of accesso They are to be
fixed lo the chimney in a continuous verticallength interspersed with A4.6. Rungs
Iandings an<lJor rest platforms as required.
Rungs shal] be of round bar not less than 20mm diameter. lf the bar
There may be relevant local requirements or standards which are
is reduced in diameter at the ends for welding, tbe reduced diameter
more stlingent than those detailed below and, in these cases, they shall be 6 mm less than the diameter of the bar and there shaU be a
must be followed.
1.5mm radius at the root of the shoulder.
An altemative to the caged ladder system is an open Iadder with a
proprietary safety system, either running beside the ladder or The rungs in a ladder or ftight of ladders,shall be uniformly spaced
centraily between the stringers. tbrollghout at centres of 225mm minimum to 300mm maximllm. The
top rung sha11 be on the same levei as the platform which shall be
Rest platforms as described in A5.8 shmùd stili be incorporated at the extended. if necessary, 10 limit,.tO not.IDore than 75mm, thegap
relevant levels.
between the rung and platform. Alternatively the platform may be
extended to replace the top rung.
A4.2. Definitions
Rungs shall be fitted into holes dòlled in the stringers and secured by
For the purpose 01' this appendix the following definitions shall apply:
we!ding. Rungs shaU be welded to the stringers with or without
I) Stringers. The side members of the Iadder to which the rungs shouldering. Holes in the stringers shall be drilled to give a 1rom
are fitled. cIearance and where shouldered rungs are used, holes shail be
countersunk 1.5mm to c!ear the root radius (see figure A4.1).
2) Safely hoop. A bar fixed to Ihe slringers to enclose the path of
persons climbing the ladder, to prevent them falling outwards.
3) ResI platform. A platfonn provided to enable the person
climbing the ladder lo rest.
4) Landing. A platform provided to enable access to part of or the
whole of tbe circumference of the chimney.

A4.3. Materials

The materiais used for the construction of ladders. hoops, platforms l mm CLEARANCE 1 mm CLEARANCE
HOLE HOLE
and rest platforms shall be of carbon steel and conform to Euronorm
28- 32, except those components within 3 diameters of the clùmney
Fig, A4,1 - Attachment of ladder rungs to stringers
top which, in the case of chimneys carrying flue gas with high S02/S03
content, should be of high molybdenum stainless steel (ASTM 316L or
similar) or should be protected by an acid-resistant coating. A4.7. Safety hoops
A4.4. Finish lf safety hoops are fittcd to thc ladder, the following provisions
shall apply.
AH burrs, weld-ftash, sharp edges and other imperfections likely to
cause injury to the hands of a person using the Iadder, shall be
AUladders òsing 2300mm or more from a lower platform or ground
removed and made smoothbefore the finishing treatment.
level to the top rung sha11be fitted with safcty hoops, the spacing of
Depending on the situation and atmospheric conditions in which the which shail be uniform and at intervais not exceedillg IOOOmm
ladders are to be lIsed, they shall be given a suitable protective finish. measured along the stringer. The ]owernlost hoop shall be fitted to the
stringers at a height of 2300 - O + 75mm from a Iower platfann or
Hot dip galvanizing is not recommended for ladder components or graund in order to give sufficient overhead clearance when getting on
connections manufactured by a cold fonning processo Galvanizing to the ladder. The uppermost hoop shall be fixed in line with any
may only take pIace after drilling, bending, sawing, etc. guard rail to the upper platform but in any case shall be at a height of
nOlless than 1075mm above the level of this platform.
A4.5. Stringers
Stringers shall be of flat bar of minimum elimensions 65 x IOmm. A4. 7.1. Size of hoops
The stringers shaU be parallel anel straight throughout the rung
portion anel the distance between the stringers measurcd from the Circular pattem. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm,
illside faces shall not be less than 300mm and noI more than 450mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back
of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 760 to
Thc stringers shal] extend upwards, to a height of not less than
850mm (see 11gureA4.2).
1075mm above the upper platform and shall be seclIrely fastened at
their extrcmities. Such extension of the stringers shall noI encroach Rectangular pattem. The width across the hoop shal1 be 690 to
on thc c1ear width of the platform passageway. 760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the insidc of
Where, in order to step from the laclder into a landing platfonn, it is the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, sha11
necessary to pass between the extended portion of the stringers. these be 690 lO 760mm. The ractius of the comers shal1 be noI less !han
shall be opened out from platform leve! to provide a clear width of 150mm (sce figure A4.2).
600-675mm belween them at handraillevel.
The minimum dimensions of the hoop and strap mateIial shall be
Where access to an upper platform ìs from the side or front of a 50 X 8mm. AI Ieasl three vertical straps shall be fitted intemally to
ladder, the ladder itself shail be extended above thc plalform level far brace the hoops; one of these straps sha11be al the centre back of the
a ctistance of not less than 1075mm or equivalent handholds shall hoop, and thc others spaced evenly betweell the centre back of the
be provided. hoop and the ladder stringers.
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 35

300mmM1N. The hooks are to be used far the temporary attachment of ladders
4S0mmMAX,
only except as noted below.

A pulley is sometirnes rigged from the top of a steeplejacks' ladder

for the purpose of lifting smallloads for maintenance of the clùmney.
It is important that such loadsshall be kept as Iight as possible and in
no circumstance should any single load exceed 50kg. lf a hook is
!; E -
oc used directly forlifting purposes, the weights of tbe lifting device
~I({--
",on
•... '"
suspended from it and of the load to be Iifted shouId together not
exceed 50kg.

/
HOOP5 ANO HOOP
STRINGER5 FROM
so mm x B mm MINIMUM
690mm MIN.
760 mm MAX.
A4.10.3. Materials

Hooks shall be made from steel complying with the requirements of

Euronofl11 25-72. In a normalised condition tbe stecl shall have a
minimum tensile strength of 430N/111I112 and a muximum tensile
Fig. A4.2 - Ladder hoops strength of 500N/mm2• The sockets shal1 be made from round steel
bar complying with the requirements of Euronofl11 25-72.
Hoops and straps shall be fixed by bolting or welding. If bolts are
used they shall be countersunk, inserted fr0111the inside of the strap A4.10.4. Design
or hoop and shal1 he not less than 12mm diameter. The assembly of
hoops and straps shall be suitably braced unless secured to the The design shall be as shown in figure A4.3 for the welded hooks.
stringers by double bolting, or welding.
The design shall be as shown in figure A4.4 for the screwed hooks
and sockets.
A4.8. Rest platforms and landings
When required, l'est platfofl11s shall be provided at intervals òf not It is recommended that the screwed type of hook be used on insulated
greater than 20m. Landing places, other than working plalt'orms, chimneys Le., those with mineral wool or aluminium cladding as the
which are provided specifìcally at l'est plalforms shall re al least hook does not project through the insulation. This projection could
825111m square and shall have a gllardrail at a heìght of 1075mm cause "cold spots" on the chimney shelL
above the platform level with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
An insulating spacer should be attached to the faee of tbe socket to
When reqllired, landings shall be provided al suitable levels to provide minimise heat conduction between the face of the socket and the
access to sampling points etc. These landings are to be adeqllately surface of the aluminium cladding.
supported fTOmthe ehimney shell and shall have a minimum widtb of
825mm. They are to be fìtted with a guardrail at1075mm above the 6 mm FILlE'T WELD
platform level, witb an intermediate rail and toeboards.

A4.9. Attachment to chimney

~
The ladder shall be vertical except where it follows tbe slope of a
cane section.

Stringers shall be attached to lhe chimney by suitable connections

which shall be lirmly attached to tbe stringers and the chimney and
be sufficiently close together to make tbe ladder rigid throughollt its
length. The connections shall be of sufficiellt length to gìve a
c1earance of not less than 200111111behind the rungs. Suitable
provision shall be made at fixing points for any differenlial expansion
(except at platforms and landings) .

A4.10. Access hooks

~-~~---\
mm .
A4.10.1. Generai
Fig_A4.3 - Welded ladder hooks
This section specifies requirements for hooks which are intended to
pro vide means 01' access l'or inspection and maintenance only by
steeplejacks and members of similar trades who normally tit lbeir IF ALUMINIUM CLAOOING 15
USED AN INSULATING WASHER
own ladders. 5HALL BE PLACEO BETWEEN
FACE OF BOSSANO THE
ALUMINIUM.
The hooks may be of two types:
a) Those welded permanently to the steel shell
b) Those which are screwed into sockets welded to the. shell of the
steel chimney

A4.10.2. Use of access hooks

The hooks shall be in a verticalline on the exterior of the structure.
The lise of access hooks inside chimneys exposed to corrosive gases
is not recollllllended. Tbe first hook should be 1.2m + 50 - Omm
above access leve!.

The hooks should be spaced at multiples of l.5m vertical eentres witb EXTERNAL 80SS INTERNAL BOSS

a loeal tolerance of + 50mm which will accommodate the majOlity or

the various length.s of ladders used by steeplejacks. Fig_A4.4 - Screwed ladder hooks and bosses
page 36 CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

A4.10.5. Construction be carried out by suspending [rom the hook a mass 01' 200kg when no
l'racture, crack or visible deformation shall oecur. Tbe socket of the
The hooks shall be hot forged by hand out of solid bar. The hooks shall
screwed-type hook shall be lìxed to the chimoey by means of a finet
pass visual examination to ensure freedom from surface defects and
weld of 6mm leg size for the whole of the perephery of tbe socket.
shall be cleanly forged in 8uch a maoner that the mit:roscopic flow
lines follow tbe body outline of tbe hook. The whole ofthe shank shall Por new chimneys t.he welding should be carried out in tbe
be forged in one piece, integraI with the hooIe. The hooks shall be fabtication shop.
normalised after tbe completioo of all forging operations by heating
them uniformly in a furnace until the whole of tbc metal has attaioed lt is normaI practice for the steeplejack firm to supply tbe screwed
a temperature between 880°C and 910°C and tben cooled io still air. type hooks far tbeir own use when they ladder tbe chimney.

A4.10.6. Method of fixing

The welded type hook shall be lìxed to thc chimney by means of a
fillet weld of 6mm leg size on each side of the shank and returned
across the top and bottom. Atter welding to tbe structure, a test shall