Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia

Moment of Inertia
Definition: Moment of inertia of a particle of mass 𝑚 about a line (called axis of
rotation) is defined as
𝐼 = 𝑚 𝑟2,
where, 𝑟 is the perpendicular distance of particle from line.
Definition: Moment of inertia of a system of a number of particles with masses 𝑚𝑖 ,
about a line (called axis of rotation) is defined as
𝐼 = ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 ,
where, 𝑟𝑖 is the perpendicular distance of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 from line.
Definition: Moment of inertia of a continuous distribution of mass, such as the
solid rigid body (shown in the figure), having mass 𝑀 and constant density 𝜌, about a
line is defined as
𝐼 = ∫𝑀 𝑟 2 d𝑚 = 𝜌 ∫𝑀 𝑟 2 d𝑉 ,
where, 𝑟 is the perpendicular distance of point mass element 𝑑𝑚 of the body and 𝑑𝑉 is its elementary volume.
Moments of inertia with respect to Cartesian coordinate axes are defined in the following table:
Moment of inertia of a Moment of inertia of a set of Moment of inertia of a
Moment of inertia particle with respect to particles with respect to 3- continuous rigid body with
3-dimensioal Cartesian dimensioal Cartesian respect to 3-dimensioal
coordinate system coordinate system Cartesian coordinate system
About 𝑥-axis
∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 ) ∫(𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )d𝑚
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼11 𝑚(𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝑖 𝑀
About 𝑦-axis
∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 ) ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )d𝑚
𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐼22 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝑖 𝑀
About 𝑧-axis
∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 ) ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )d𝑚
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼33 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑖 𝑀
Products of inertia with respect to Cartesian coordinate axes are defined in the following table:
Product of inertia of a Product of inertia of a set of Product of inertia of a
Product of inertia particle with respect to particles with respect to 3- continuous rigid body
3-dimensioal Cartesian dimensioal Cartesian with respect to 3-
coordinate system coordinate system dimensioal Cartesian
coordinate system

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦𝑥 = 𝐼12 = 𝐼21 − ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − ∫ 𝑥𝑦 d𝑚

− 𝑚𝑥𝑦
𝑖 𝑀

𝐼𝑦𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧𝑦 = 𝐼23 = 𝐼32 − 𝑚𝑦𝑧 − ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑧𝑖 − ∫ 𝑦𝑧 d𝑚

𝑖 𝑀

− ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 − ∫ 𝑥𝑧 d𝑚
𝐼𝑥𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧𝑥 = 𝐼13 = 𝐼31 − 𝑚𝑥𝑧
𝑖 𝑀
Definition: Radius of gyration 𝑘 of a rigid body of mass 𝑀 with respect to a line 𝑙 is defined as
𝑘 = √𝐼/𝑀,
where, 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the body with respect to 𝑙.
Problem: Prove in matrix notation that [𝐋] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚], where, all the notations used have their usual meanings.
Proof: The angular momentum of a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles, about an instantaneous axis through
a fixed point, is given by
𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚i (𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )) ∵ 𝐯𝑖 = 𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝐫𝑖 · 𝐫𝑖 )𝛚 − (𝐫𝑖 · 𝛚)𝐫𝑖 ]

𝑖 𝑖

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
Let, 𝐋 = 𝐿1 𝐢 + 𝐿2 𝐣 + 𝐿3 𝐤, 𝛚 = 𝜔1 𝐢 + 𝜔2 𝐣 + 𝜔3 𝐤 and 𝐫𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐢 + 𝑦𝑖 𝐣 + 𝑧𝑖 𝐤
2 2 2
⇒ 𝐫𝑖 · 𝐫𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 and 𝐫𝑖 · 𝛚 = 𝑥𝑖 𝛚1 + 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 + 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3

⇒ 𝐿1 𝐢 + 𝐿2 𝐣 + 𝐿3 𝐤 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 )(𝜔1 𝐢 + 𝜔2 𝐣 + 𝜔3 𝐤) − (𝑥𝑖 𝜔1 + 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 + 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3 )(𝑥𝑖 𝐢 + 𝑦𝑖 𝐣 + 𝑧𝑖 𝐤)]

𝑖
Comparing corresponding components on both sides of above vector equation, we get
𝐿1 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 )𝜔1 − (𝑥𝑖 𝜔1 + 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 + 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3 )𝑥𝑖 ] − − − − − − − −→ (1)
𝑖

𝐿2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 )𝜔2 − (𝑥𝑖 𝜔1 + 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 + 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3 )𝑦𝑖 ] − − − − − − − −→ (2)

𝑖

𝐿3 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 )𝜔3 − (𝑥𝑖 𝜔1 + 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 + 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3 )𝑧𝑖 ] − − − − − − − −→ (3)

𝑖

From Eq. (1), we get, 𝐿1 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [𝑥𝑖2 𝜔1 + (𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 )𝜔1 − 𝑥𝑖2 𝜔1 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝜔2 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 𝜔3 ]

𝑖

= 𝜔1 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑧𝑖2 ) − 𝜔2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − 𝜔3 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
= 𝐼11 𝜔1 + 𝐼12 𝜔2 + 𝐼13 𝜔3 − − − − − − − −−→ (4)
Similarly, from (2) and (3), we get 𝐿2 = 𝐼12 𝜔1 + 𝐼22 𝜔2 + 𝐼23 𝜔3 − − − − − − − −→ (5)
and 𝐿3 = 𝐼13 𝜔1 + 𝐼23 𝜔2 + 𝐼33 𝜔3 − − − − − − − −→ (6)
𝐿1 𝐼11 𝐼12 𝐼13 𝜔1
Writing Eqs. (4), (5)and (6)in matrix form, we get, (𝐿2 ) = (𝐼21 𝐼22 𝐼23 ) (𝜔2 )
𝐿3 𝐼13 𝐼23 𝐼33 𝜔3
⇒ [𝐋] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚] Hence proved.
1 1
Problem: Prove that 𝑇 = 2 𝑀𝐯 2 + 2 𝛚. 𝐋, where all the notations used have their usual meanings.
(or) prove that 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑡𝑟 + 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡
1
where, 𝑇𝑡𝑟 = 2 𝑀𝐯 2 = total translational kinetic energy of the body
1
and 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 2 𝛚. 𝐋 = total rotational kinetic energy of the body.
Proof: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles, which is in general
state of motion (i.e., having both translation and rotation) with respect to a fixed
(inertial) frame of reference 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧.
Let, M = total mass of the body
𝐫𝑖 = position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫𝑖′ = position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐫 = position vector of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐯𝑖 = velocity of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐯𝑖′ = velocity of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐯 = velocity of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝛚 = instantaneous angular velocity of body about instantaneous axis through centre of mass “C ”
From figure, 𝐫𝑖 = 𝐫 + 𝐫𝑖′
Differentiating both sides with respect to time “𝑡”, we get
𝐫̇𝑖 = 𝐫̇ + 𝐫̇𝑖′
⇒ 𝐯𝑖 = 𝐯 + 𝐯𝑖′ = 𝐯 + 𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ∵ 𝐯𝑖′ = 𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′
1
Kinetic energy of the 𝑖-th particle is 𝑇𝑖 = 2 𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 2
Kinetic energy of the whole body is
1 1 1
𝑇 = ∑ 𝑇𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐯𝑖 · 𝐯𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 {(𝐯 + 𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) · (𝐯 + 𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )} ∵ 𝐯𝑖 = 𝐯 + 𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′
2 2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
1
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 {𝐯 · 𝐯 + 𝐯 · (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) · 𝐯 + (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) · (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )}
2
𝑖

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
1
𝑇 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 {𝐯 2 + 2𝐯 · (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + 𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )}
2
𝑖
1 1
= (∑ 𝑚𝑖 ) 𝐯 2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐯 · (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 {𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )}
2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
1 1
= 𝑀𝐯 2 + 𝐯 · (𝛚 ⨯ ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ ) + 𝛚 · ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) , where, 𝑀 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 = total mass of the body
2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Also, ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ = 𝟎, as 𝐫𝑖′ is the position vector of 𝑖th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝑖
1 1
⇒ 𝑇= 𝑀𝐯 2 + 𝛚 · ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) − − − − − − − −(1)
2 2
𝑖
But, angular momentum 𝐋 of the body with respect to centre of mass “C ” is given by
𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖′ ) = ∑ 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ {𝑚𝑖 (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )} = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ ⨯ (𝛚 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) − − − − − − − −(2)
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Using (2) in (1), we get,
1 1
𝑇= 𝑀𝐯 2 + 𝛚. 𝐋
2 2

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑡𝑟 + 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡
1
where, 𝑇𝑡𝑟 = 𝑀𝐯 2 = total translational kinetic energy of the body
2
1
and 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝛚. 𝐋 = total rotational kinetic energy of the body
2
Problem: Find moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given line
passing through the origin and having direction cosines are (𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈).
Solution: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles. And let us take
given line as 𝑧-axis, as shown in the figure.
Let, 𝑀 = total mass of the body
𝐫𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐢 + 𝑦𝑖 𝐣 + 𝑧𝑖 𝐤 = position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 w.r.t. origin “𝑂”
𝑑𝑖 = perpendicular distance of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 from given line 𝑙
𝜃𝑖 = angle between position vector 𝐫𝑖 and given line 𝑙
𝐞 = unit vector in the direction of given line 𝑙
Then, 𝐞 = 𝜆𝐢 + 𝜇𝐣 + 𝜈𝐤, where, (𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈) are direction cosines of the given line 𝑙.
The required moment of inertia 𝐼𝑙 is given by

𝑑𝑖
𝐼𝑙 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (|𝐫𝑖 | sin 𝜃𝑖 )2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 |)2 − −−→ (1) ∵ sin 𝜃𝑖 = and |𝐫𝑖 | sin 𝜃𝑖 = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 |
|𝐫𝑖 |
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
Now, 𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 = | 𝜆 𝜇 𝜈 | = (𝜇𝑧𝑖 − 𝜈𝑦𝑖 )𝐢 + (𝜈𝑥𝑖 − 𝜆𝑧𝑖 )𝐣 + (𝜆𝑦𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥𝑖 )𝐤
𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑧𝑖
⇒ (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 |)2 = (𝜇𝑧𝑖 − 𝜈𝑦𝑖 )2 + (𝜈𝑥𝑖 − 𝜆𝑧𝑖 )2 + (𝜆𝑦𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥𝑖 )2 − − − − − −→ (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get
𝐼𝑙 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝜇𝑧𝑖 − 𝜈𝑦𝑖 )2 + (𝜈𝑥𝑖 − 𝜆𝑧𝑖 )2 + (𝜆𝑦𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥𝑖 )2 ]
𝑖
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝜇 2 𝑧𝑖 2 + 𝜈 2 𝑦𝑖 2 − 2𝜇𝜈𝑦𝑖 𝑧𝑖 ) + (𝜈 2 𝑥𝑖 2 + 𝜆2 𝑧𝑖 2 − 2𝜆𝜈𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 ) + (𝜆2 𝑦𝑖 2 + 𝜇 2 𝑥𝑖 2 − 2𝜆𝜇𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 )]
𝑖

= 𝜆 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖 2 + 𝑧𝑖 2 ) + 𝜇 2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 2 + 𝑧𝑖 2 ) + 𝜈 2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 2 + 𝑦𝑖 2 ) + 2𝜆𝜇 (− ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 )

2

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

+ 2𝜇𝜈 (− ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑧𝑖 ) + 2𝜆𝜈 (− ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 )
𝑖 𝑖
⇒ 𝐼𝑙 = 𝜆2 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝜇2 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝜈 2 𝐼𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜆𝜇𝐼𝑥𝑦 + 2𝜇𝜈𝐼𝑦𝑧 + 2𝜆𝜈𝐼𝑥𝑧
This is required moment of inertia.

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
Problem: Find the equation of “ellipsoid of inertia” or “momental ellipsoid” of a rigid body.
Solution: As we know that moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given line 𝑙 having direction cosines (𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈)
with respect to a coordinate system 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧, whose origin “𝑂” lies on the line 𝑙, is given by
𝐼𝑙 = 𝜆2 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝜇2 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝜈 2 𝐼𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜆𝜇𝐼𝑥𝑦 + 2𝜇𝜈𝐼𝑦𝑧 + 2𝜆𝜈𝐼𝑥𝑧 − − − −−→ (1)
On the line 𝑙, choose a point 𝑃 such that |𝑂𝑃 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = 1/√𝐼𝑙 . If coordinates of 𝑃 are (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝜆, = 𝜇, =𝜈
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑂𝑃 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑂𝑃 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑂𝑃
⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑥√𝐼𝑙 , 𝜇 = 𝑦√𝐼𝑙 , 𝜈 = 𝑧√𝐼𝑙 − − − −−→ (2)
Eliminating 𝜆, 𝜇 and 𝜈 from (1) and (2), we get
𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑙 (𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑦 2 + 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑧 2 + 2𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝑦𝑧 + 2𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑧)
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑦 2 + 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑧 2 + 2𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝑦𝑧 + 2𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑧 = 1
Since, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦𝑦 and 𝐼𝑧𝑧 are all positive, therefore, above equation represents an ellipsoid called “ellipsoid of inertia” or
“momental ellipsoid” of the rigid body.

Note:
(𝑖) The momental ellipsoid of a rigid body contains information about moments and product of inertia of that
body.
(𝑖𝑖) The centre of momental ellipsoid lies at the origin of the coordinate system.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) If 𝑃 is any point on momental ellipsoid, then
1 1
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = ⇒ 𝐼𝑙 =
|𝑂𝑃 2,
√𝐼𝑙 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑂𝑃
showing that moment of inertia about line ⃡⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑂𝑃 is equal to the reciprocal of square of distance of point 𝑃 from
origin 𝑂.
Problem: State and prove perpendicular axis theorem for a discrete mass distribution.
Statement: The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body in the form of discrete mass
distribution (i.e., a set of particles) about a given axis perpendicular to the plane of the
body is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes
lying in the plane of the body and meeting at a common point on the given axis.
Proof: We choose Cartesian coordinate system 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 such that 𝑥𝑦-plane lies in the plane
of the body, while 𝑧-axis lies perpendicular to it, which is assumed to the given axis.
Let, 𝐫𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐢 + 𝑦𝑖 𝐣 be the position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 w.r.t. origin “𝑂”.
Then moment of inertia of the body about 𝑧-axis is

𝐼𝑧𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 |𝐫𝑖 |2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 2 + 𝑦𝑖 2 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 2 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
⇒ 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 Hence proved.
Problem: State and prove perpendicular axis theorem for a continuous mass distribution.
Statement: The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body in the form of continuous mass distribution about a given
axis perpendicular to the plane of the body is equal to the sum of moments of inertia of same body about two
mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane of body and meeting at a common point
on the given axis.
Proof: We choose Cartesian coordinate system 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 such that 𝑥𝑦-plane lies in the plane
of the body having mass 𝑀, while 𝑧-axis lies perpendicular to it, which is assumed to the
given axis.
Let, 𝐫 = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 be the position vector of elementary particle of body of mass d𝑚 w.r.t.
origin “𝑂”.
Then moment of inertia of the body about 𝑧-axis is
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = ∫|𝐫|2 d𝑚 = ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )d𝑚 = ∫ 𝑥 2 d𝑚 + ∫ 𝑦 2 d𝑚 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
⇒ 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 Hence proved.
Problem: State and prove parallel axis theorem for the case of moment of inertia for a discrete mass
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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
distribution.
Statement: The moment of inertia of a rigid body in the form of discrete mass distribution (i.e., a set of particles)
about a given axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of same body about a parallel axis (to the given axis)
through the centre of mass of the body and the moment of inertia due to the total mass of the body placed at its
centre of mass, about given axis.
Proof: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles. Let 𝑙 be the given and 𝑙 ′ be an axis which is parallel to 𝑙
and passing through centre of mass of the body. Let, M = total mass of the body
𝐫𝑖 = position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫𝑖′ = position vector of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “𝐶 ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝜃𝑖 = angle between position vector 𝐫𝑖 and given line 𝑙
𝑑𝑖 = perpendicular distance of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 from given axis 𝑙
𝑑𝑖′ = perpendicular distance of 𝑖-th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 from parallel axis 𝑙 ′
𝑑𝑐 = perpendicular distance of centre of mass 𝐶 from given axis 𝑙
= perpendicular distance between 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′
𝐞 = unit vector in the direction of given line 𝑙
𝑑
From figure, sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑑𝑖 = |𝐫𝑖 | sin 𝜃𝑖 = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 |
|𝐫𝑖 |
Similarly, 𝑑𝑖′ = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ | and 𝑑𝑐 = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |
Moment of inertia of the body about given axis 𝑙 is given by
𝐼𝑙 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 |)2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖 )
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
′
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [𝐞 ⨯ (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝑖 )] · [𝐞 ⨯ (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝑖′ )] ∵ 𝐫𝑖 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝑖′ (from figure)
𝑖
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )
𝑖
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ )]
𝑖
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |)𝟐 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ |)𝟐 ]
𝑖

= (∑ 𝑚𝑖 ) (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |)𝟐 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ ) + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑖′ |)𝟐

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝟐
= 𝑀𝑑𝑐 𝟐 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ ) + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑖′ , where, 𝑀 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 = total mass of the body
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Also, ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖′ = 𝟎, as 𝐫𝑖′ is the position vector of 𝑖th particle of mass 𝑚𝑖 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶” and
𝑖
2
𝐼𝑙′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑖′ = moment of inertia of the body axis 𝑙 ′
𝑖
⇒ 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑙′ + 𝑀𝑑𝑐 2 Hence proved.
Problem: State and prove parallel axis theorem for the case of moment of inertia for a continuous mass
distribution.
Statement: The moment of inertia of a rigid body in the form of a continuous mass distribution about a given axis is
equal to the sum of moment of inertia of same body about a parallel axis (to the given axis) through the centre of
mass of the body and the moment of inertia due to the total mass of the body placed at its centre of mass, about
given axis.
Proof: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a continuous mass distribution. Let 𝑙 be the given and 𝑙 ′ be an axis which
is parallel to 𝑙 and passing through centre of mass of the body.
Let, M = total mass of the body
𝐫 = position vector of elementary mass dm with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫 ′ = position vector of elementary mass dm with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “𝐶 ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝜃 = angle between position vector 𝐫 and given line 𝑙
𝑑 = perpendicular distance of elementary mass dm from given axis 𝑙
𝑑′ = perpendicular distance of elementary mass dm from parallel axis 𝑙 ′
𝑑𝑐 = perpendicular distance of centre of mass 𝐶 from given axis 𝑙
= perpendicular distance between 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′
𝐞 = unit vector in the direction of given line 𝑙
From figure, sin 𝜃 = 𝑑/|𝐫| ⇒ 𝑑 = |𝐫| sin 𝜃 = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫|
Similarly, 𝑑′ = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ | and 𝑑𝑐 = |𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |
Moment of inertia of the body about given axis 𝑙 is given by
𝐼𝑙 = ∫ 𝑑 2 d𝑚 = ∫(|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫|)2 d𝑚 = ∫(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫)d𝑚
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
′ )]
= ∫[𝐞 ⨯ (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 · [𝐞 ⨯ (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′ )]d𝑚 ∵ 𝐫 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′
𝑀

= ∫[(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ ) + (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ )]d𝑚

𝑀

= ∫[(|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |)2 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ ) + (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ |)2 ]d𝑚

𝑀

= ( ∫ d𝑚) (|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 |)2 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · ∫(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ )d𝑚 + ∫(|𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫 ′ |)2 d𝑚

𝑀 𝑀 𝑀

2 ′2
= 𝑀𝑑𝑐 + 2(𝐞 ⨯ 𝐫𝑐 ) · (𝐞 ⨯ ∫ 𝐫 ′ d𝑚) + ∫ 𝑑 d𝑚 , where, 𝑀 = ∫ d𝑚 = total mass of the body
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
Also, ∫𝑀 𝐫 ′ d𝑚 = 𝟎, as 𝐫 ′ is the position vector of mass element dm with respect to centre of mass “C”,
2
and 𝐼𝑙′ = ∫𝑀 𝑑′ d𝑚 = moment of inertia of the body axis 𝑙 ′
⇒ 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑙′ + 𝑀𝑑𝑐 2 Hence proved.
Problem: Prove in matrix notation that [𝐋̇] = [𝛚 ⨯ 𝐋] + [ 𝐈 ][𝛚̇], where, all the notations used have their
usual meanings.
Proof: As we know that the angular momentum of a system of particles is given by
𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖
𝑖 𝑖
Differentiating both sides with respect to time “𝑡”, we get
𝐋̇ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫̇𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯̇ 𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯̇ 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
d d𝐯𝑖 d
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 ) ∵ 𝐯𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 = 𝟎 and 𝐯̇ 𝑖 = = (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )
d𝑡 d𝑡 d𝑡
𝑖

= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × [(𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 ) + (𝛚̇ × 𝐫𝑖 )] = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚̇ × 𝐫𝑖 )

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Writing in matrix form, we get

[𝐋̇] = [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 )] + [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚̇ × 𝐫𝑖 )] − − − −→ (1)

𝑖 𝑖

As we know that [𝐋] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚] ⇒ [∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 )] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚] ∵ 𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 )

𝑖 𝑖

⇒ [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 ] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚]
𝑖

⇒ [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚] ∵ 𝐯𝑖 = 𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖
𝑖

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Replace 𝛚 by 𝛚̇ on both sides, we get

[∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚̇ × 𝐫𝑖 )] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚̇] − − − −→ (2)

𝑖
Now consider,
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐯𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × [𝛚 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )] = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × [(𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖 )𝛚 − (𝛚 · 𝛚)𝐫𝑖 ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 [(𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖 )(𝐫𝑖 × 𝛚) − (𝛚 · 𝛚)(𝐫𝑖 × 𝐫𝑖 )] = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖 )(𝐫𝑖 × 𝛚) − − − −→ (3) ∵ 𝐫𝑖 × 𝐫𝑖 = 𝟎

𝑖 𝑖
Further consider that
𝛚 × (𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 ) = 𝛚 × [𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )] = 𝛚 × [(𝐫𝑖 · 𝐫𝑖 )𝛚 − (𝐫𝑖 · 𝛚)𝐫𝑖 ] = (𝐫𝑖 · 𝐫𝑖 )(𝛚 × 𝛚) − (𝐫𝑖 · 𝛚)(𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 )
= −(𝐫𝑖 · 𝛚)(𝛚 × 𝐫𝑖 ) = (𝛚 · 𝐫𝑖 )(𝐫𝑖 × 𝛚) − − − − − −−→ (4) ∵ 𝛚×𝛚 = 𝟎
Using (4) in (3), we get
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝛚 × (𝐫𝑖 × 𝐯𝑖 ) = 𝛚 × ∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 ) = 𝛚 × 𝐋 ∵ 𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝑖 × (𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 )
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Writing above equation in matrix form, we get, [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝐫𝑖 × (𝛚 × 𝐫̇𝑖 )] = [𝛚 × 𝐋] − − − − − −→ (5)

𝑖
Using (2) and (5) in (1), we get
[𝐋̇] = [𝛚 ⨯ 𝐋] + [ 𝐈 ][𝛚̇] 𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐝.
Problem: Show that inertia matrix [ 𝐈 ] is a Cartesian tensor of rank 2.
Proof: As we know that the angular momentum of a system of particles is given by
𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝛼 × (𝑚𝛼 𝐯𝛼 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝐫𝛼 × 𝐯𝛼 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝐫𝛼 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝛼 )) ∵ 𝐯𝛼 = 𝛚 × 𝐫𝛼
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

= ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [(𝐫𝛼 · 𝐫𝛼 )𝛚 − (𝐫𝛼 · 𝛚)𝐫𝛼 ] = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛚 − (𝛚 · 𝐫𝛼 )𝐫𝛼 ] − − − − − − − −→ (1)

𝛼 𝛼
Let, 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ), 𝛚 = (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 ) and 𝐫𝛼 = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
3

Then, 𝛚 · 𝐫𝛼 = 𝜔1 𝑥𝛼,1 + 𝜔2 𝑥𝛼,2 + 𝜔3 𝑥𝛼,3 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗

𝑗=1
3

So (1) can be written as: (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 ) − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝑗,𝛼 ) (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )]
𝛼 𝑗=1
3

⇒ 𝐿𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝜔𝑖 − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ] , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3

𝛼 𝑗=1
3 3 3

=∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ] ∵ 𝜔𝑖 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑗

𝛼 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
3 3 3

=∑ 𝑚𝛼 ∑[𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ]𝜔𝑗 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − − − −−→ (2)
𝛼 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝛼 𝑗=1

where, 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝑗 ′ th component of inertia tensor

𝛼
Since, both the angular velocity 𝛚 = (𝜔𝑗 ) and the angular momentum 𝐋 = (𝐿𝑖 ) are known to be vectors
(i.e., Cartesian tensors of rank 1), it follows from equation (2) and quotient theorem that the inertia tensor
[ 𝐈 ] = (𝐼𝑖𝑗 ) is a Cartesian tensor of rank 2.
Problem: Express angular momentum in tensor notation.
Solution: As we know that the angular momentum of a system of particles is given by

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
𝐋 = ∑ 𝐫𝛼 × (𝑚𝛼 𝐯𝛼 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝐫𝛼 × 𝐯𝛼 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝐫𝛼 × (𝛚 × 𝐫𝛼 )) ∵ 𝐯𝛼 = 𝛚 × 𝐫𝛼
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

𝐋 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [(𝐫𝛼 · 𝐫𝛼 )𝛚 − (𝐫𝛼 · 𝛚)𝐫𝛼 ] = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛚 − (𝛚 · 𝐫𝛼 )𝐫𝛼 ] − − − − − −−→ (1)

𝛼 𝛼
Let, 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ), 𝛚 = (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 ) and 𝐫𝛼 = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
3

Then, 𝛚 · 𝐫𝛼 = 𝜔1 𝑥𝛼,1 + 𝜔2 𝑥𝛼,2 + 𝜔3 𝑥𝛼,3 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗

𝑗=1
So, (1) can be written as
3
(𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 ) − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝑗,𝛼 ) (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )]
𝛼 𝑗=1
3

⇒ 𝐿𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝜔𝑖 − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ] , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3

𝛼 𝑗=1
3 3 3

=∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − (∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ] ∵ 𝜔𝑖 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑗

𝛼 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
3 3 3

=∑ 𝑚𝛼 ∑[𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ]𝜔𝑗 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − − − −−→ (2)
𝛼 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝛼 𝑗=1

where, 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝑗th component of inertia tensor
𝛼
Equation (2) is required tensor form of angular momentum.
Problem: Express rotational kinetic energy in tensor notation.
Solution: As we know that the rotational kinetic energy of a system is given by
1
𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝛚 · 𝐋
2
Let, 𝛚 = (𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 ), 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 )
3
1 1
⇒ 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡 = (𝜔1 𝐿1 + 𝜔2 𝐿2 + 𝜔3 𝐿3 ) = ∑ 𝜔𝑖 𝐿𝑖
2 2
𝑖=1
3 3 3
1
𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝜔𝑖 (∑ 𝜔𝑗 ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]) ∵ 𝐿𝑖 = ∑ 𝜔𝑗 ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]
2
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝛼 𝑗=1 𝛼
3 3 3
1 1
= ∑ 𝜔𝑖 ∑ 𝜔𝑗 (∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]) = ∑ 𝜔𝑖 𝜔𝑗 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − − − −−→ (1)
2 2
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝛼 𝑖,𝑗=1

where, 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝑗th component of inertia tensor
𝛼
Equation (1) is required tensor form of rotational kinetic energy.
Problem: Express parallel axis theorem in tensor notation for a
discrete mass distribution.
Solution: Consider a rigid body in the form of discrete mass distribution (i.e.,
a set of particles). Let, C be the centre of mass of the body. We consider two
parallel coordinate systems 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 and 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′, as shown in the figure.
Let, 𝑀 = total mass of the body
𝐫𝛼 = position vector of 𝛼-th particle of mass 𝑚𝛼 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫𝛼′ = position vector of 𝛼-th particle of mass 𝑚𝛼 with respect to centre of
mass “𝐶”
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
From figure, 𝐫𝛼 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝛼′ − − − − − − − −→ (1)

Prepared by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 8

Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
′ ′ ′
Let, 𝐫𝛼 = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ), 𝐫𝑐 = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) and 𝐫𝛼′ = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
Equation (1) becomes
′ ′ ′
(𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ) = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) + (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
′
⇒ 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 = 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 − − − − − − − −→ (2)
As we know that
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [(𝐫𝛼 · 𝐫𝛼 )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]
𝛼 𝛼
′ ′
= ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [((𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝛼′ ) · (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝛼′ ))𝛿𝑖𝑗 − (𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 )(𝑥𝑐,𝑗 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 )] (by using (1) and (2))
𝛼
′ ′ ′ ′
= ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [(𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫𝑐 + 2 𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫𝛼′ + 𝐫𝛼′ · 𝐫𝛼′ )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]
𝛼
′ ′ ′ ′
= ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [(𝐫𝑐2 + 2 𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫𝛼′ + 𝐫𝛼′2 )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]
𝛼

′ ′
= ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼′2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] + 2 𝐫𝑐 · (∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝐫𝛼′ ) 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + (∑ 𝑚𝛼 ) 𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − (∑ 𝑚𝛼 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

′ ′
− (∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 − (∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − − − − − − − − − − − −−→ (3)
𝛼 𝛼
′ ′ ′
Now , ∑ 𝑚𝛼 [𝐫𝛼′2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ] = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝑖𝑗th component of inertia tensor with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ system
𝛼

Also, ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝐫𝛼′ = 𝟎, (∵ 𝐫𝛼′ is the position vector of 𝛼˗th particle of mass 𝑚𝛼 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”)
𝛼
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
⇒ ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ) = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 = 0, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 ∵ 𝐫𝛼′ = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
𝛼 𝛼

And, ∑ 𝑚𝛼 = 𝑀 = total mass of the body

𝛼
So equation (3) becomes
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 + 𝑀𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗
This is required tensor form of parallel axis theorem for discrete mass distribution.
Problem: Express parallel axis theorem in tensor notation for a continuous mass distribution.
Solution: Consider a rigid body in the form of continuous mass distribution. Let, C be the centre of mass of the body.
We consider two parallel coordinate systems 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 and 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′, as shown in the figure.
Let, 𝑀 = total mass of the body
𝐫 = position vector of elementary mass d𝑚 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫 ′ = position vector of elementary mass d𝑚 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
From figure, 𝐫 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′ − − − − − − − −→ (1)
Let, 𝐫 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), 𝐫𝑐 = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) and 𝐫 ′ = (𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )
So, equation (1) becomes (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) + (𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )
′
⇒ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 − − − − − − − −→ (2)

𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∫[𝐫 𝟐 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]d𝑚 = ∫[(𝐫 · 𝐫)𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ]d𝑚
𝑀 𝑀

= ∫[((𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′ ) · (𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′ ))𝛿𝑖𝑗 − (𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖′ )(𝑥𝑐,𝑗 + 𝑥𝑗′ )]d𝑚 (by using (1) and (2))
𝑀

= ∫[(𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫𝑐 + 2 𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫 ′ + 𝐫 ′ · 𝐫 ′ )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑗′ − 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 𝑥𝑖′ − 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ ]d𝑚
𝑀

Prepared by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 9

Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia

𝐼𝑖𝑗 = ∫[(𝐫𝑐2 + 2 𝐫𝑐 · 𝐫 ′ + 𝐫 ′2 )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑗′ − 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 𝑥𝑖′ − 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ ]d𝑚
𝑀

= ∫[𝐫 ′2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ ]d𝑚 + 2𝐫𝑐 · ( ∫ 𝐫 ′ d𝑚) 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + ( ∫ d𝑚) 𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − ( ∫ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − ( ∫ 𝑥𝑗′ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀

− ( ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − − − − − − − − − − − −−→ (3)

𝑀

Now , ∫[𝐫 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ ]d𝑚 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗

′2 ′
= 𝑖𝑗th component of inertia tensor with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ system
𝑀

Also, ∫ 𝐫 ′ d𝑚 = 𝟎, (∵ 𝐫 ′ is the position vector of mass element d𝑚 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”)
𝑀

⇒ ∫(𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )d𝑚 = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ d𝑚 = 0, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 ∵ 𝐫 ′ = (𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )

𝑀 𝑀

And, ∫ d𝑚 = 𝑀 = total mass of the body

𝑀
So equation (3) becomes
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 + 𝑀𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗
This is required tensor form of parallel axis theorem for continuous mass distribution.
Problem: State and prove parallel axis theorem for the case of products of inertia for a discrete mass
distribution.
Statement: Consider a rigid body, in the form of discrete mass distribution (i.e., a set of particles). Let, C be the
centre of mass of the body. If 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 and 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ be two parallel coordinate systems as shown in figure, then we have
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = product of inertia with respect to 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧˗system
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = product of inertia with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ˗system
(𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) = position vector of centre of mass “𝐶 ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝑀 = total mass of the body
Proof: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles.
Let, 𝐫𝛼 = position vector of 𝛼˗th particle of mass 𝑚𝛼 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫𝛼′ = position vector of 𝛼-th particle of mass 𝑚𝛼 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
From figure, 𝐫𝛼 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫𝛼′ − − − − − − − −→ (1)
′ ′ ′
Let, 𝐫𝛼 = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ), 𝐫𝑐 = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) and 𝐫𝛼′ = (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
′ ′ ′
So, equation (1) becomes (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ) = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) + (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 )
′
⇒ 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 = 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 − − − − − − − −→ (2)
′ ′
Now consider for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = − ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 = − ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 )(𝑥𝑐,𝑗 + 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 )
𝛼 𝛼

′ ′ ′ ′
= − (∑ 𝑚𝛼 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − (∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 − (∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 ) 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 − − − −→ (3)
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝑖

where, ∑ 𝑚𝛼 = 𝑀 = total mass of the body,

𝛼
′ ′ ′
Also, − ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 𝑥𝛼,𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = product of inertia with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ˗system
𝑖
′ ′ ′ ′
∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝐫𝛼′ = 𝟎 ⇒ ∑ 𝑚𝛼 (𝑥𝛼,1 , 𝑥𝛼,2 , 𝑥𝛼,3 ) = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑥𝛼,𝑖 = 0, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
′
⇒ 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ {1, 2, 3} Hence proved.

Prepared by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 10

Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
Problem: State and prove parallel axis theorem for the case of products of inertia for a continuous mass
distribution.
Statement: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a continuous mass distribution. Let, C be the centre of mass of the
body. If 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧 and 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ be two parallel coordinate systems as shown in the figure, then we have
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = product of inertia with respect to 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧˗system
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = product of inertia with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ˗system
(𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) = position vector of centre of mass “𝐶 ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝑀 = total mass of the body
Proof: Consider a rigid body, in the form of a set of particles.
𝐫 = position vector of elementary mass d𝑚 with respect to origin “𝑂”
𝐫 ′ = position vector of elementary mass d𝑚 with respect to centre of mass “𝐶”
𝐫𝑐 = position vector of centre of mass “C ” with respect to origin “𝑂”
From figure, 𝐫 = 𝐫𝑐 + 𝐫 ′ − − − − − − − −→ (1)
Let, 𝐫 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), 𝐫𝑐 = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) and 𝐫 ′ = (𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )
So, equation (1) becomes (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) + (𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )
′
⇒ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 − − − − − − − −→ (2)

Now consider for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝐼𝑖𝑗 = − ∫ 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 d𝑚 = − ∫(𝑥𝑐,𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖′ )(𝑥𝑐,𝑗 + 𝑥𝑗′ )d𝑚

𝑀 𝑀

= − ( ∫ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − ( ∫ 𝑥𝑗′ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑖 − ( ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ d𝑚) 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 − ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ d𝑚
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀

where, ∫ d𝑚 = 𝑀 = total mass of the body,

𝑀

Also, − ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑥𝑗′ d𝑚 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗

′
= product of inertia with respect to 𝐶𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ˗system
𝑀

And ∫ 𝐫 ′ d𝑚 = 𝟎 ⇒ ∫(𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ , 𝑥3′ )d𝑚 = ( ∫ 𝑥1′ d𝑚 , ∫ 𝑥2′ d𝑚 , ∫ 𝑥2′ d𝑚) = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ ∫ 𝑥𝑖′ d𝑚 = 0, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
So equation (3) gives
′
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ {1, 2, 3} Hence proved.

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
Definition: A set of three mutually perpendicular axes having origin 𝑂 which are fixed in the rigid body and
rotating with it and which are such that the product of inertia with respect to them are zero are called “principal
axes of inertia” or simply “principal axes” of body at point 𝑂.
Definition: An axis is called “principal axis of inertia” or simply “principal axis” of a rigid body if directions of
angular momentum 𝐋 and angular velocity 𝛚 are same, when rigid body is rotating about this axis.
Theorem: Above two definitions of principal axes are Conversely, suppose that for a rigid body we have
equivalent. three mutually concurrent and mutually
Proof: Suppose that for a rigid body we have three perpendicular axes for which second definition holds.
mutually concurrent and mutually perpendicular axes for Choosing these axes as Cartesian coordinate axes, and
which first definition holds. Choosing these axes as assuming that body rotates about 𝑥 − axis, we have,
Cartesian coordinate axes, the inertia matrix with respect by supposition, angular momentum and angular
to this coordinate system is given by velocity are parallel
𝐼11 0 0 ⇒ 𝐋𝑥 = λ1 𝛚𝑥 , where λ is constant
[ 𝐈 ] = ( 0 𝐼22 0 ) ⇒ 𝐿𝑥1 𝐢 + 𝐿𝑥2 𝐣 + 𝐿𝑥3 𝐤 = λ1 (𝜔𝑥1 𝐢 + 0𝐣 + 0𝐤)
0 0 𝐼33 𝐿𝑥1 λ1 𝜔𝑥1
If rigid body rotates about 𝑥 − axis, then its angular ⇒ ( 𝐿 𝑥2 ) = ( 0 ) − − − −→ (1)
𝜔𝑥1 𝐿𝑥3 0
velocity has the form 𝛚𝑥 = ( 0 ) As we know that [𝐋𝑥 ] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚𝑥 ]
0 𝐿𝑥1 𝐼11 𝐼12 𝐼13 𝜔𝑥1 𝐼11 𝜔𝑥1
As we know that [𝐋𝑥 ] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚𝑥 ] (𝐿𝑥2 ) = (𝐼12 𝐼22 𝐼23 ) ( 0 ) = (𝐼12 𝜔𝑥1 ) → (2)
𝐿𝑥1 𝐼11 0 0 𝜔𝑥1 𝐼11 𝜔𝑥1 𝐿𝑥3 𝐼13 𝐼23 𝐼33 0 𝐼13 𝜔𝑥1
⇒ (𝐿𝑥2 ) = ( 0 𝐼22 0 ) ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) = From (1) and (2), we have
𝐿𝑥3 0 0 𝐼33 0 0 λ1 𝜔𝑥1 𝐼11 𝜔𝑥1
𝜔𝑥1
( 0 ) = (𝐼12 𝜔𝑥1 )
𝐼11 ( 0 ) 𝐼13 𝜔𝑥1
0
0 ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 0 ∵ 𝜔𝑥1 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐋𝑥 = 𝐼11 𝛚𝑥 12 13
This shows that angular momentum is parallel to angular Similarly, assuming the rotation of body about 𝑦 −
velocity. Similarly, we can show that when body rotates axis (𝐋 𝑦 = λ 𝛚
2 𝑦 ), we get, 𝐼12 = 𝐼23 = 0.
about 𝑦 or 𝑧 axis then angular momentum is parallel to ⇒ All product of inertia are zero. Hence first definition
angular velocity. Hence second definition also holds for also holds for given axes. (Note: λ𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3)
given axes.
Definition: The moment of inertia with respect to a principal axis is called “principal moment of inertia”.
Theorem: Prove that for a rigid body a set of three mutually perpendicular principal axes exists at given
point.
Proof: As we know from the definition of principal axis that if a rigid body rotates bout principal axes, passing
through a point 𝑂, then the angular momentum 𝐋 and the angular velocity 𝛚 of the body are in same direction. So
we can write, 𝐋 = 𝜆𝛚, where, 𝜆 is constant
Let, 𝐋 = 𝐿1 𝐢 + 𝐿2 𝐣 + 𝐿3 𝐤, 𝛚 = 𝜔1 𝐢 + 𝜔2 𝐣 + 𝜔3 𝐤
Then, 𝐿1 𝐢 + 𝐿2 𝐣 + 𝐿3 𝐤 = 𝜆(𝜔1 𝐢 + 𝜔2 𝐣 + 𝜔3 𝐤)
Comparing corresponding components on both sides of above vector equation, we get
𝐿1 = 𝜆𝜔1 , 𝐿2 = 𝜆𝜔2 , 𝐿3 = 𝜆𝜔3 − − − − − −−→ (1)
As we know that, [𝐋] = [ 𝐈 ][𝛚]
𝐿1 𝐼11 𝐼12 𝐼13 𝜔1
( 2 ) = (𝐼12 𝐼22 𝐼23 ) (𝜔2 ) − − − − − −−→ (2)
𝐿
𝐿3 𝐼13 𝐼23 𝐼33 𝜔3
From (1) and (2), we get,
𝐼11 𝜔1 + 𝐼12 𝜔2 + 𝐼13 𝜔3 = 𝜆𝜔1
𝐼12 𝜔1 + 𝐼22 𝜔2 + 𝐼23 𝜔3 = 𝜆𝜔2
𝐼13 𝜔1 + 𝐼23 𝜔2 + 𝐼33 𝜔3 = 𝜆𝜔3
This system can be written as,
(𝐼11 − 𝜆)𝜔1 + 𝐼12 𝜔2 + 𝐼13 𝜔3 = 0
𝐼12 𝜔1 + (𝐼22 − 𝜆)𝜔2 + 𝐼23 𝜔3 = 0} − − − − − −−→ (3)
𝐼13 𝜔1 + 𝐼23 𝜔2 + (𝐼33 − 𝜆)𝜔3 = 0
This is homogeneous system of three equations in three unknowns 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 and 𝜔3 . This system will have non

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
trivial solution if an only if

𝐼11 − 𝜆 𝐼12 𝐼13

| 𝐼12 𝐼22 − 𝜆 𝐼23 | = 0
𝐼13 𝐼23 𝐼33 − 𝜆
This is cubic equation in 𝐼 which is called characteristic equation of inertia matrix [ 𝐈 ]. It has three roots, say, 𝜆1 ,
𝜆2 and 𝜆3 , which are, in fact, principal moments of inertia. By substituting 𝜆 = 𝜆1in system (3), we can obtain the
ratios 𝜔1 : 𝜔2 : 𝜔3 , which give direction of principal axes relative to which moment of inertia is 𝜆1 . Similarly, we
can find direction of other two principal axes corresponding to moments of inertia 𝜆2 and 𝜆3 . We can always find
three mutually perpendicular principal axes because [ 𝐈 ] is symmetric. This shows that there exists three mutually
perpendicular principal axes passing through given point 𝑂.
Problem: A triangular plate is made of uniform material and has sides of lengths 𝑎, 2𝑎 and √3𝑎.
Determine the (direction of) principal axes and corresponding principal moments of inertia at 30o
corner (or vertex).
Solution: Let 𝑀 and 𝜎, respectively, be the mass and surface (areal) mass density of triangular plate 𝑂𝐴𝐵 lying in
𝑥𝑦-plane, as shown in the figure, with |𝑂𝐴| = √3𝑎, |𝐴𝐵| = 𝑎 and |𝑂𝐵| = 2𝑎.
2
Clearly, |𝑂𝐵|2 = (2𝑎)2 = (√3𝑎) + 𝑎2 = |𝑂𝐴|2 + |𝐴𝐵|2 .
This shows that 𝑂𝐴𝐵 is right angled triangle with right angle at 𝐴.
|𝐴𝐵| 𝑎 1
Also, tan(𝑚 ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵) = |𝑂𝐴| = 3𝑎 ⇒ 𝑚 ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = tan−1 ( 3) = 30o .
√ √
Thus, we have to find principal axes and corresponding principal
moments of inertia at vertex 𝑂. The moment of inertia of triangular
plate about side 𝑂𝐴 (𝑥-axis)is given by
1 1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼11 = 𝐼𝑂𝐴 = 6 𝑀|𝐴𝐵|2 = 6 𝑀𝑎2
The moment of inertia of triangular plate about side 𝐴𝐵 is given by
1 1 2 1
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 6 𝑀|𝑂𝐴|2 = 6 𝑀(√3𝑎) = 2 𝑀𝑎2
Let 𝐶 be the centre of mass of the plate and take 𝐷 on 𝑂𝐴 and 𝐸on
𝑂𝐵 such that 𝐷𝐸 is passing through 𝐶 and parallel to 𝐴𝐵.
Then moment of inertia of plate about 𝐷𝐸 is given by (using parallel axis theorem)
1
𝐼𝐷𝐸 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 − 𝑀|𝐴𝐷|2 = 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀|𝐴𝐷|2 − − − − − −→ (1)
2
1
From figure, |𝐴𝐷| = |𝑂𝐴| − |𝑂𝐷| = √3𝑎 −(𝑥-coordinate of centre of mass C) = √3𝑎 − (𝑥𝑂 + 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 )
3
1 2√3𝑎 3√3𝑎−2√3𝑎 √3𝑎 𝑎
= √3𝑎 − 3 (0 + √3𝑎 + √3𝑎) = √3𝑎 − = = 3 = 3 − −→ (2)
3 3 √
1 2 𝑎 2 1 2 1 2 3𝑀𝑎 2 −2𝑀𝑎 2 1
Using (2) in (1), we get, 𝐼𝐷𝐸 = 𝑀𝑎 − 𝑀 ( ) = 𝑀𝑎 − 𝑀𝑎 = = 6 𝑀𝑎2
2 √3 2 3 6
Then moment of inertia of plate about 𝑦-axis is given by (using parallel axis theorem), as follows,
2
1 1 0 + √3𝑎 + √3𝑎
𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐼22 = 𝐼𝐷𝐸 + 𝑀|𝑂𝐷| = 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀(𝑥˗coordinate of centre of mass 𝐶)2 = 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀 (
2
)
6 6 3
2
1 2√3𝑎 1 4 𝑀𝑎2 + 8𝑀𝑎2 9 3
= 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀 ( ) = 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀𝑎2 = = 𝑀𝑎2 = 𝑀𝑎2
6 3 6 3 6 6 2
Then moment of inertia of plate about 𝑧-axis is given by (using perpendicular axis theorem), as follows,
1 3 𝑀𝑎 2 +9𝑀𝑎 2 10 5
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼33 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 6 𝑀𝑎2 + 2 𝑀𝑎2 = = 𝑀𝑎2 = 3 𝑀𝑎2
6 6
𝑥 𝑥
√3 √3𝑎 √3𝑎 𝑦2 √3
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼12 = − ∫ 𝑥𝑦 d𝑚 = −𝜎 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 d𝑥d𝑦 = −𝜎 ∫𝑥=0 (∫𝑦=0 𝑥𝑦 d𝑦) d𝑥 = −𝜎 ∫𝑥=0 (𝑥 ( 2 )| ) d𝑥 ∵ d𝑚 = 𝜎d𝑥d𝑦
𝑦=0
3𝑎
𝜎 √3𝑎 1 2𝑀 𝑥4 √ 1 2𝑀 9𝑎 4 √3 𝑀 𝑀 2𝑀
= − 6 ∫𝑥=0 𝑥 3 d𝑥 = − 6 ( ) ( )| = −6( )( 4 ) =− 𝑀𝑎2 ∵ 𝜎=1 =1 =
√3𝑎2 4 𝑥=0 √3𝑎 2 4 |𝑂𝐴||𝐴𝐵| (√3𝑎)(𝑎) √3𝑎2
2 2
As 𝑧 = 0 in 𝑥𝑦-plane, therefore, 𝐼𝑥𝑧 = 𝐼13 = − ∫ 𝑥𝑧 d𝑚 = 0 and 𝐼𝑦𝑧 = 𝐼23 = − ∫ 𝑦𝑧 d𝑚 = 0
The inertia matrix at point 𝑂, with respect to coordinate system 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑧, is given by

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1 √3
𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 0
𝐼11 𝐼12 𝐼13 6 4 2𝛼 −3√3𝛼 0
√3 3 1
[𝐈𝑂 ] = (𝐼12 𝐼22 𝐼23 ) = − 𝑀𝑎2 2
𝑀𝑎 0 = (−3√3𝛼 18𝛼 0 ), where 𝛼= 𝑀𝑎 2
4 2 12
𝐼13 𝐼23 𝐼33 5 0 0 20𝛼
( 0 0 𝑀𝑎2 )
3
To find the eigenvalues, we have the characteristic equation det([𝐈𝑂 ] − 𝜆[𝐼3 ]) = 0, where [𝐼3 ] is unit matrix of
order 3.
2𝛼 − 𝜆 −3√3𝛼 0
det([𝐈𝑂 ] − 𝜆[𝐼3 ]) = 0 ⇒ |−3√3𝛼 18𝛼 − 𝜆 0 |=0
0 0 20𝛼 − 𝜆
On expanding by third row, we get,
2
(20𝛼 − 𝜆) [(2𝛼 − 𝜆)(18𝛼 − 𝜆) − (−3√3𝛼) ] = 0 ⇒ (20𝛼 − 𝜆)[36𝛼 2 − 2𝛼𝜆 − 18𝛼𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 27𝛼 2 ] = 0
⇒ (20𝛼 − 𝜆)[𝜆2 − 20𝛼𝜆 + 9𝛼 2 ] = 0
Either 20𝛼 − 𝜆 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = 20𝛼 20𝛼±√(20𝛼)2 −4(1)(9𝛼2 )
or, 𝜆2 − 20𝛼𝜆 + 9𝛼 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2(1)
20𝛼±√400𝛼 2 −36𝛼 2 20𝛼±√364𝛼2 20𝛼±2√91𝛼
⇒ 𝜆= = =
2 2 2
= (10 ± √91)𝛼
Thus, 𝜆1 = 20𝛼, 𝜆2 = (10 + √91)𝛼, and 𝜆3 = (10 − √91)𝛼
These eigenvalues gives principal moments of inertia at point 𝑂. To find the direction of corresponding principal
axes, we find eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue.
𝑥1
𝑥
For 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝜶: Let 𝑋 = ( 2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆1 = 20𝛼, then
𝑥3
2𝛼 − 20𝛼 −3√3𝛼 0 𝑥1 0 −18𝛼 −3√3𝛼 0 𝑥1 0
([𝐈𝑂 ] − 𝜆1 [𝐼3 ])𝑋 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( −3√3𝛼 18𝛼 − 20𝛼 0 𝑥
) ( 2 ) = (0) ⇒ (−3√3𝛼 −2𝛼 0) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 0 20𝛼 − 20𝛼 𝑥3 0 0 0 0 𝑥3 0
−18𝛼𝑥1 − 3√3𝛼𝑥2 = 0 6𝑥 + √3𝑥2 = 0 − − − − − −(3)
⇒ { ⇒ { 1
−3√3𝛼𝑥1 − 2𝛼𝑥2 = 0 3√3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 0 − − − − − (4)
√3 √3 3
From Eq. (3), we have 𝑥1 = − 6 𝑥2 and putting it in (4), we get, 3√3 ( 6 𝑥2 ) − 2𝑥2 = 0 ⇒ 2 𝑥2 − 2𝑥2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = 0.
Put 𝑥2 = 0 in (3), we get, 𝑥1 = 0
𝑥1 0 0
Thus, 𝑋 = (𝑥2 ) = (0) , where, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ , 𝑟 ≠ 0 ⇒ For 𝑟 = 1, we get, 𝑋 = (0) = 0𝐢 + 0𝐣 + 𝐤 = 𝐤
𝑥3 𝑟 1
𝑦1
For 𝝀𝟐 = (𝟏𝟎 + √𝟗𝟏)𝜶: Let 𝑌 = (𝑦2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆2 = (10 +
𝑦3
√91)𝛼, then
−(8 + √91)𝛼 −3√3𝛼 0 𝑦1 0
([𝐈𝑂 ] − 𝜆2 [𝐼3 ])𝑌 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( −3√3𝛼 (8 − √91)𝛼 0 (
) 2𝑦 ) = (0)
𝑦3 0
0 0 (10 − √91)𝛼
−(8 + √91)𝛼𝑦1 − 3√3𝛼𝑦2 = 0 (8 + √91)𝑦1 + 3√3𝑦2 = 0 − − − − − −(5)
⇒ { −3√3𝛼𝑦1 + (8 − √91)𝛼𝑦2 = 0 ⇒ {3√3𝑦1 − (8 − √91)𝑦2 = 0 − − − − − −(6)
(10 − √91)𝛼𝑦3 = 0 𝑦3 = 0
𝑦1 − 3√3 𝑦1 8 − √91 8 − √91 8 + √91 −27 − 3√3
From Eq. (5), we have = and from Eq. (6), we have = = · 8 + 91 =3 = 8+
𝑦2 8 + √91 𝑦2 3√3 3√3 √ √3(8 + √91) √91
Thus, Eq. (5) and Eq. (6) are mutually identical, therefore, last system of equations can be written as
(8 + √91)𝑦1 + 3√3𝑦2 = 0
{
𝑦3 = 0
−3√3
Let, 𝑦2 = 𝑠, where, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ , 𝑠 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑦1 = 𝑠
8 + √91

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𝑦1 −3√ 3
𝑠 3√3
Therefore, 𝑌 = (𝑦2 ) = (8 + √𝑠91 ) ⇒ For 𝑠 = −(8 + √91), we get, 𝑌 = (−(8 + √91)) = 3√3𝐢 − (8 + √91)𝐣
𝑦3
0 0
𝑧1
For 𝝀𝟑 = (𝟏𝟎 − √𝟗𝟏)𝜶: Let 𝑍 = (𝑧2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue
𝑧3
𝜆3 = (10 − √91)𝛼, then
−(8 − √91)𝛼 −3√3𝛼 0 𝑧1 0
([𝐈𝑂 ] − 𝜆2 [𝐼3 ])𝑍 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( −3√3𝛼 (8 + √91)𝛼 0 𝑧
) ( 2 ) = (0)
𝑧3 0
0 0 (10 + √91)𝛼
−(8 − √91)𝛼𝑧1 − 3√3𝛼𝑧2 = 0 (8 − √91)𝑧1 + 3√3𝑧2 = 0 − − − − − −(7)
⇒ { −3√3𝛼𝑧1 + (8 + √91)𝛼𝑧2 = 0 ⇒ {3√3𝑧1 − (8 + √91)𝑧2 = 0 − − − − − −(8)
(10 + √91)𝛼𝑧3 = 0 𝑧3 = 0
𝑧1 − 3√3 𝑧1 8 + √91 8 + √91 8 − √91 −27 − 3√3
From Eq. (7), we have 𝑧2
= 8 − √91
and from Eq. (8), we have 𝑧2
= 3√3
= 3√3
· 8 − 91 =3 = 8−
√ √3(8 − √91) √91
Thus, Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) are mutually identical, therefore, last system of equations can be written as
(8 − √91)𝑧1 + 3√3𝑧2 = 0
{
𝑧3 = 0
−3√3
Let, 𝑧2 = 𝑡, where, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ , 𝑡 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑧1 = 8 − 𝑡
√91
𝑧1 −3√3
𝑡 3√3
Therefore, 𝑍 = (𝑧2 ) = ( − √𝑡91 ) ⇒ For 𝑡 = −(8 − √91), we get,
8
𝑍 = (−(8 − √91)) = 3√3𝐢 − (8 − √91)𝐣
𝑧3 0
0
Principal moment of inertia Principal axis Normalized principal axis
𝜆1 = 20𝛼 𝑋=𝐤 𝑋̂ = 𝐤
𝜆2 = (10 + √91)𝛼 𝑌 = 3√3𝐢 − (8 + √91)𝐣 1
𝑌̂ = [3√3𝐢 − (8 + √91)𝐣]
√182 + 16√91
𝜆3 = (10 − √91)𝛼 𝑍 = 3√3𝐢 − (8 − √91)𝐣 1
𝑍̂ = [3√3𝐢 − (8 − √91)𝐣]
√182 + 16√91
Problem: Determine the (direction of) principal axes and corresponding principal moments of inertia of a
uniform solid hemisphere at a point on its rim.
Solution: Let 𝑀, 𝑎 and 𝜌, respectively, be the mass, radius of the base and volume mass density of a uniform solid
hemisphere. Let 𝐴, 𝑂 and 𝐶, respectively, be point on the rim, centre of the base and centre of mass of the
hemisphere. Choose three coordinate axes 𝐴𝑥𝑦𝑧, 𝑂𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ and
𝐶𝑥 ′′ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑧 ′′ as shown in the figure.
As we know that, the moments and product of inertia with
respect to coordinate system 𝑂𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ are given by
2
𝐼𝑂11 = 𝐼𝑂22 = 𝐼𝑂33 = 𝑀𝑎2 and 𝐼𝑂12 = 𝐼𝑂23 = 𝐼𝑂13 = 0.
5
Therefore, the inertia matrix with respect to coordinate
system 𝑂𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ is given by
2
𝑀𝑎2 0 0
𝐼𝑂11 𝐼𝑂12 𝐼𝑂13 5
2
[𝐈𝑂 ] = (𝐼𝑂𝑖𝑗 ) = (𝐼𝑂12 𝐼𝑂22 𝐼𝑂23 ) = 0 𝑀𝑎2 0
5
𝐼𝑂13 𝐼𝑂23 𝐼𝑂33 2
0 0 𝑀𝑎2
( 5 )
Next, we apply parallel axis theorem in tensor notation to find inertia tensor [𝐈𝐶 ] with respect to coordinate
system 𝐶𝑥 ′′ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑧 ′′, as follows
𝐼𝑂𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝐶𝑖𝑗 + 𝑀𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗
⇒ 𝐼𝐶𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑂𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝐫𝑐2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗

Prepared by: Dr. Amir Mahmood Page 27

Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐼𝐶11 𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶13 𝐼𝑂11 𝐼𝑂12 𝐼𝑂13 𝐫𝑐 0 0 𝑐,1 𝑐,1 𝑐,1 𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,3
𝑥
⇒ (𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶22 𝐼𝐶23 ) = (𝐼𝑂12 𝐼𝑂22 𝐼𝑂23 ) − 𝑀 ( 0 𝐫𝑐 0 ) + 𝑀 (𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,3 ),
2

𝐼𝐶13 𝐼𝐶23 𝐼𝐶33 𝐼𝑂13 𝐼𝑂23 𝐼𝑂33 0 0 𝐫𝑐2 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,3 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,3 𝑥𝑐,3 𝑥𝑐,3
3
where, 𝐫𝑐 = (𝑥𝑐,1 , 𝑥𝑐,2 , 𝑥𝑐,3 ) = (0, 0, 8 𝑎) is the position vector of centre of mass 𝐶 with respect to coordinate
system 𝑂𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′.
2 9 2
𝑀𝑎2 0 0 𝑎 0 0
5 64 0 0 0
𝐼𝐶11 𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶13
2 9 0 0 0
⇒ (𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶22 𝐼𝐶23 ) = 0 𝑀𝑎2 0 −𝑀 0 𝑎2 0 +𝑀( 9 )
𝐼𝐶13 𝐼𝐶23 𝐼𝐶33 5 64 0 0 𝑎2
2 2
9 2 64
( 0 0 𝑀𝑎 ) ( 0 0 𝑎
5 64 )
2 9 83
𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 0 0 𝑀𝑎2 0 0
𝐼𝐶11 𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶13 5 64 320
2 9 83
⇒ [𝐈𝐶 ] = (𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶22 𝐼𝐶23 ) = 0 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 0 = 0 𝑀𝑎2 0 .
5 64 320
𝐼𝐶13 𝐼𝐶23 𝐼𝐶33 2 9 9 2
0 0 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀𝑎 2 0 0 𝑀𝑎2
( 5 64 64 ) ( 5 )
Now, we apply parallel axis theorem in tensor notation to find inertia tensor [𝐈𝐴 ] with respect to coordinate system
𝐴𝑥𝑦𝑧, as follows
′ ′
𝐼𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝐶𝑖𝑗 + 𝑀𝐫𝑐′2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝑀𝑥𝑐,𝑖 𝑥𝑐,𝑗
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
𝐼𝐴11 𝐼𝐴12 𝐼𝐴13 𝐼𝐶11 𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶13 𝐫𝑐′2 0 0 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,3
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
⇒ (𝐼𝐴12 𝐼𝐴22 𝐼𝐴23 ) = (𝐼𝐶12 𝐼𝐶22 𝐼𝐶23 ) + 𝑀 ( 0 𝐫𝑐′2 0 ) − 𝑀 (𝑥𝑐,1 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,2 𝑥𝑐,3 ),
𝐼𝐴13 𝐼𝐴23 𝐼𝐴33 𝐼𝐶13 𝐼𝐶23 𝐼𝐶33 0 0 𝐫𝑐 ′2 𝑥 ′
𝑥 ′
𝑐,1 𝑐,3 𝑥 ′
𝑥 ′
𝑐,2 𝑐,3 𝑥 ′
𝑥 ′
𝑐,3 𝑐,3
3
where, 𝐫𝑐′ = (𝑥𝑐,1
′ ′
, 𝑥𝑐,1 ′
, 𝑥𝑐,1 ) = (0, 𝑎, 𝑎) is the position vector of centre of mass 𝐶 with respect to coordinate system 𝐴𝑥𝑦𝑧.
8
83 73 2
𝑀𝑎2 0 0 𝑎 0 0 0 0 0
𝐼𝐴11 𝐼𝐴12 𝐼𝐴13 320 64 3 2
83 73 2 0 𝑎2 𝑎
⇒ 𝐼
( 𝐴12 𝐼𝐴22 𝐼𝐴23 ) = 0 𝑀𝑎2 0 +𝑀 0 𝑎 0 −𝑀 8
𝐼𝐴13 𝐼𝐴23 𝐼𝐴33 320 64 3 2 9 2
2 73 2 0 𝑎 𝑎
( 0 0 𝑀𝑎2 ) ( 0 0 𝑎 ( 8 64 )
5 64 )
83 73
𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀𝑎2 0 0
𝐼𝐴11 𝐼𝐴12 𝐼𝐴13 320 64
83 73 3
[𝐈𝐴 ] = (𝐼𝐴12 𝐼𝐴22 𝐼𝐴23 ) = 0 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2
𝐼𝐴13 𝐼𝐴23 𝐼𝐴33 320 64 8
3 2 73 9
( 0 − 𝑎2 𝑀𝑎2 + 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 )
8 5 64 64
7
𝑀𝑎2 0 0
5
2 3 56𝛼 0 0 1
[𝐈𝐴 ] = 𝑀𝑎2 − 𝑀𝑎2 = ( 0
0 16𝛼 −15𝛼 ) , where, 𝛼 = 𝑀𝑎2
5 8 40
0 −15𝛼 56𝛼
3 2
7 2
( 0 − 𝑀𝑎
8 5
𝑀𝑎 )
To find the eigenvalues, we solve characteristic equation det([𝐼𝐴 ] − 𝜆[𝐼3 ]) = 0, where [𝐼3 ] is unit matrix of order 3.
56𝛼 − 𝜆 0 0
det([𝐈𝐴 ] − 𝜆[𝐼3 ]) = 0 ⇒ | 0 16𝛼 − 𝜆 −15𝛼 | = 0
0 −15𝛼 56𝛼 − 𝜆
On expanding by first row, we get,
(56𝛼 − 𝜆)[(16𝛼 − 𝜆)(56𝛼 − 𝜆) − (−15𝛼)2 ] = 0 ⇒ (56𝛼 − 𝜆)[896𝛼 2 − 16𝛼𝜆 − 56𝛼𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 225𝛼 2 ] = 0
⇒ (56𝛼 − 𝜆)[𝜆2 − 72𝛼𝜆 + 671𝛼 2 ] = 0

Either 56𝛼 − 𝜆 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = 56𝛼 72𝛼±√(72𝛼)2 −4(1)(671𝛼2 )

or, 𝜆2 − 72𝛼𝜆 + 671𝛼 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2(1)
72𝛼±√5184𝛼2 −2684𝛼 2 72𝛼±√2500𝛼 2 72𝛼±50𝛼
⇒ 𝜆= = =
2 2 2
72𝛼+50𝛼 72𝛼−50𝛼 122𝛼 22𝛼
⇒ 𝜆 = , = , = 61𝛼 , 11𝛼
2 2 2 2

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
Thus, 𝜆1 = 56𝛼, 𝜆2 = 61𝛼, and 𝜆3 = 11𝛼.
These eigenvalues gives principal moments of inertia at point 𝐴. To find the direction of corresponding principal
axes, we find eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue.
𝑥1
𝑥
For 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟓𝟔𝜶: Let 𝑋 = ( 2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆1 = 56𝛼, then
𝑥3
56𝛼 − 56𝛼 0 0 𝑥1 0 0 0 0 𝑥1
([𝐈𝐴 ] − 𝜆1 [𝐼3 ])𝑋 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( 0 16𝛼 − 56𝛼 𝑥
−15𝛼 ) ( 2 ) = (0) ⇒ (0 −40𝛼 −15𝛼 ) ( 2 ) = 𝑥
0 −15𝛼 56𝛼 − 56𝛼 𝑥3 0 0 −15𝛼 0 𝑥3
0
(0)
0
− 40𝛼𝑥2 − 15𝛼𝑥3 = 0 8𝑥 + 3𝑥3 = 0 − − − − − −(1)
⇒ { ⇒ { 2
−15𝛼𝑥2 = 0 𝑥2 = 0 − − − − − −(2)
Thus we have, 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 0 and 𝑥1 = 𝑟, where, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ , 𝑟 ≠ 0
𝑥1 𝑟 1
𝑥
Thus, 𝑋 = ( 2 ) = (0) , ⇒ For 𝑟 = 1, we get, 𝑋 = (0) = 𝐢 + 0𝐣 + 0𝐤 = 𝐢
𝑥3 0 0
𝑦1
For 𝝀𝟐 = 𝟔𝟏𝜶: Let 𝑌 = (𝑦2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆2 = 61𝛼, then
𝑦3
56𝛼 − 61𝛼 0 0 𝑦1 0 −5𝛼 0 0 𝑦1 0
([𝐈𝐴 ] − 𝜆2 [𝐼3 ])𝑌 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( 0 16𝛼 − 61𝛼 𝑦
−15𝛼 ) ( 2 ) = (0) ⇒ ( 0 −45𝛼 𝑦
−15𝛼 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −15𝛼 56𝛼 − 61𝛼 𝑦3 0 0 −15𝛼 −5𝛼 𝑦3 0
−5𝛼𝑦1 = 0 𝑦1 = 0
𝑦1 = 0
⇒ { −45𝛼𝑦2 − 15𝛼𝑦3 = 0 ⇒ { 2 𝑦3 = 0
3𝑦 + ⇒ {
3𝑦2 + 𝑦3 = 0
−15𝛼𝑦2 − 5𝛼𝑦3 = 0 3𝑦2 + 𝑦3 = 0
Let, 𝑦2 = 𝑠, where, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ , 𝑠 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑦3 = −3𝑠
𝑦1 0 0
Thus, 𝑌 = (𝑦2 ) = ( 𝑠 ) ⇒ For 𝑠 = 1, we get, 𝑌 = ( 1 ) = 0𝐢 + 𝐣 − 3𝐤 = 𝐣 − 3𝐤
𝑦3 −3𝑠 −3
𝑧1
For 𝝀𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝜶: Let 𝑍 = (𝑧2 ) be the required eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆3 = 11𝛼, then
𝑧3
56𝛼 − 11𝛼 0 0 𝑧1 0 45𝛼 0 0 𝑧1 0
([𝐈𝐴 ] − 𝜆3 [𝐼3 ])𝑍 = 𝟎 ⇒ ( 0 16𝛼 − 11𝛼 −15𝛼 ) (𝑧2 ) = (0) ⇒ ( 0 5𝛼 −15𝛼 ) (𝑧2 ) = (0)
0 −15𝛼 56𝛼 − 11𝛼 𝑧3 0 0 −15𝛼 45𝛼 𝑧3 0
−45𝛼𝑧1 = 0 𝑧1 = 0
𝑧1 = 0
⇒ { 5𝛼𝑧2 − 15𝛼𝑧3 = 0 ⇒ {𝑧2 − 3𝑧3 = 0 ⇒ {
𝑧2 − 3𝑧3 = 0
−15𝛼𝑧2 + 45𝛼𝑧3 = 0 𝑧2 − 3𝑧3 = 0
Let, 𝑧3 = 𝑡, where, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ , 𝑡 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑧2 = 3𝑡
𝑧1 0 0
Thus, 𝑍 = (𝑧2 ) = (3𝑡) ⇒ For 𝑡 = 1, we get, 𝑍 = (3) = 0𝐢 + 3𝐣 + 𝐤 = 3𝐣 + 𝐤
𝑧3 𝑡 1
Principal moment of inertia Principal axis Normalized principal axis
𝜆1 = 56𝛼 𝑋=𝐢 𝑋̂ = 𝐢
𝜆2 = 61𝛼 𝑌 = 𝐣 − 3𝐤 ̂
𝑌 = (1/√10)(𝐣 − 3𝐤)
𝜆3 = 11𝛼 𝑍 = 3𝐣 + 𝐤 𝑍̂ = (1/√10)(3𝐣 + 𝐤)
Definition: Two distributions of matter are said to be “equimomental” if they have the same moment of inertia
about any line in spase.
Theorem: Two systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equimomental if and only if the following three conditions are
satisfied,
(𝑖) they have same mass,
(𝑖𝑖) they have same centre of mass, and
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) they have same principal axes and principal moments of inertia at centre of mass.
Proof: Suppose that two systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equimomental. We will show that conditions (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖𝑖) are
satisfied.

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Mechanics Made Easy Moment of Inertia
(𝒊) Let 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 , respectively, be the masses of the systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 and 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , respectively, be their centres
of mass. Since the systems are supposed to be equimomental, therefore their moments of inertia about any line
should be same. In particular, their moments of inertia about line 𝑙 through 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 should also be same, say, 𝐼𝑙 .
Let 𝑙 ′ be any line parallel to 𝑙 and 𝑑 be the perpendicular distance
between 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′ . Further suppose that 𝐼𝑙′ be the common moment
of inertia of both systems about line 𝑙 ′ .
By parallel axis theorem, we have,
𝐼𝑙′ = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝑀1 𝑑2 (for system 𝑆1 ) − − − −−→ (1)
2 (for
𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝑀2 𝑑
′ system 𝑆2 ) − − − −−→ (2)
From equations (1) and (2), we have,
𝐼𝑙 + 𝑀1 𝑑2 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝑀2 𝑑2 ⇒ 𝑀1 = 𝑀2 = 𝑀 (say)
⇒ masses of both systems are same ⇒ condition (𝑖) is satisfied.
(𝒊𝒊) Now, let 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 , respectively, be the lines through 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 and
perpendicular to line 𝑙. Let common moment of inertia of each system about line 𝑙1 be 𝐼𝑙1 and about line 𝑙2 be 𝐼𝑙2 .
By parallel axis theorem, moment of inertia of system 𝑆1 about 𝑙2 is
𝐼𝑙2 = 𝐼𝑙1 + 𝑀|𝐶1 𝐶2 |2 − − − − − −→ (3)
Again, by parallel axis theorem, moment of inertia of system 𝑆2 about 𝑙2 is
𝐼𝑙2 = 𝐼𝑙1 − 𝑀|𝐶1 𝐶2 |2 − − − − − −→ (4)
From equations (3) and (4), we get
𝐼𝑙1 + 𝑀|𝐶1 𝐶2 |2 = 𝐼𝑙1 − 𝑀|𝐶1 𝐶2 |2 ⇒ |𝐶1 𝐶2 | = 0 ⇒ 𝐶1 ≡ 𝐶2 ≡ 𝐶 (say)
⇒ centres of mass of both systems are same ⇒ condition (𝑖𝑖) is satisfied.
(𝒊𝒊𝒊) Since both system have same centre of mass 𝐶 and same mass 𝑀,
Therefore, they both have same momental ellipsoid at 𝐶. Hence, they have same principal axes and principal
moments of inertia at centre of mass 𝐶. ⇒ condition (𝑖𝑖𝑖) is satisfied.
Conversely, suppose that for two systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , conditions (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖𝑖) are satisfied. We will show that
both systems are equimomental.
Let 𝐶 and 𝑀, respectively, be the common centre of mass and common
mass of both systems. Further let that 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 be the common principal
moments of inertia about common principal axes at centre of mass 𝐶. In
figure, common principal axes at 𝐶 are shown by Cartesian coordinate
system 𝐶𝑥𝑦𝑧.
Let 𝑙 be an arbitrary line in space. Draw a line 𝑙 ′ through 𝐶 parallel to 𝑙.
Then the moment of inertia of each system about 𝑙 ′ is given by
𝐼𝑙′ = 𝐼1 𝜆2 + 𝐼2 𝜇2 + 𝐼3 𝜈 2 ,
where, 𝜆, 𝜇 and 𝜈 are direction cosines of line 𝑙 ′ . Now, by using parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia of each
system about line 𝑙 is given by
𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑙′ + 𝑀𝑑2 = 𝐼1 𝜆2 + 𝐼2 𝜇2 + 𝐼3 𝜈 2 + 𝑀𝑑 2 ,
where, 𝑑 is the perpendicular distance between lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′ . Since the moment of inertia of both system about an
arbitrary line 𝑙 in space is same. This shows that both systems 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equimomental.
Problem: Show that a hoop of mass 𝑚 and radius 𝑎/√2 is equimomental with a circular plate of mass 𝑚
radius 𝑎.
Proof: The moment of inertia of a circular hoop (or ring) of mass 𝑚 and radius 𝑎/√2 about an axis through its
𝑎 2 1
centre and perpendicular to its plane is 𝐼1 = 𝑚 ( 2) = 2 𝑚𝑎2 .
√
The moment of inertia of a circular plate (or disc) of mass 𝑚 and radius 𝑎 about an axis through its centre and
1
perpendicular to its plane is 𝐼2 = 2 𝑚𝑎2 .
Since, both moments of inertia are same. Therefore both systems are equimomental.
Problem: Find the equimomental system of particles for a uniform rod 𝐴𝐵 of mass 𝑀 and length 2𝑎.
Solution: Let 𝑂 be the centre of mass of the rod 𝐴𝐵 having mass 𝑀. If we replace
the rod by three particles, as shown in the figure, such that two particles, each
having mass 𝑚, are placed at end points 𝐴 and 𝐵 of the rod and third particle of
mass 𝑀 − 2𝑚 is placed at its centre of mass 𝑂, then it is clear that,
(𝑖) mass of both systems is equal to 𝑀,

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(𝑖𝑖) centre of mass of both systems is same (i.e., point 𝑂),
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) symmetry axes (and hence, principal axes) of both systems are also same at centre of mass 𝑂.
Moment of inertia of the rod about an axis 𝐶𝐷 through 𝑂 and perpendicular to the rod is given by
1 1
𝐼1 = 12 𝑀(2𝑎)2 = 𝑀𝑎2
3
Moment of inertia of the system of particles about axis 𝐶𝐷 is given by
𝐼2 = 𝑚𝑎2 + 0 + 𝑚𝑎2 = 2𝑚𝑎2
The two systems will equimomental if
1 1
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ⇒ 3 𝑀𝑎2 = 2𝑚𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑚 = 6 𝑀
Hence, equimomental system of particles is given by first particle of mass 𝑀 at 𝐴, second particle of mass 𝑀 − 2𝑚
at 𝑂 and third particle of mass 𝑀 at 𝐵.

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