Anatomy 1

ANATOMY :- Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body of animals.
# SKELETON SYSTEM #
Classification of bones:-
According to the naked eye appearance, with regard their size

& size, the bones are classified into following categories:-
1. Long bones:- These are LONG, HOLLOW, CYLINDRICAL types of bones,

found in the LIMBS. These are weight bearing bones and act as lever. A long
bone has a body/shaft and two extended ends. These have large medullary
cavity called BONE MARROW, in which blood cells are produced. Eg. Femur,
humerus.
2. Modified long bones :- Some bones are long, but they have no medullary
cavity, are called modified long bones. Eg. Clavicle bones in dog, rabbit,
fowl etc.
3. Miniature long bones:- These are long bones, but small in size. Eg.
Metacarpal and metatarsal.
4. Short bones:- These are small pieces of bones with partially smooth
surfaces found in joints. These help in the mobility of the joints. Most of
these bones have six surfaces. These are composed of spongy substance
with a thin layer of cortical compact bone. Eg. Carpal, tarsal.
5. Flat bones:- These are flat, irregular bony plates designed for enclosing
cavities which contains some vital organs of the body. These bones are
composed of two plates of compact bone. In between these plates there
lies a spongy bone. Eg. Scapula, some cranial bones of skull.
6. Irregular bones:- These are small bones with rough and irregular surfaces,
found in the mid-line of the skeleton. These have so many projections.
These projections help in attachment of various muscles. These bones are
composed of spongy substance with thin covering of compact substance.
eg. Vertebrae.
7. Pneumatic bones:- Some long bones of birds having cavity inside their
bones. These cavities accommodate. Air sacs through pneumatic foramina
in living condition. Eg. Humerus of fowl.
Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)
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In mammals, bones situated close to the nasal cavity, which contain air
filled cavities, also called pneumatic bones. Eg. Frontal bone, maxilla
ethmoid bone etc.
8. Sesamoid bones:- These are seed like small bones, called sesamoid bones.
These work as pulley to avoid friction in the joints. These bones have no
articulation with other bones of the skeleton. Eg. Patella, small bones found
in fetlock and pastern joints.
9. Visceral bones:- These bones are found in the viscera of some animals and
birds. Eg. Os penis in dogs, Os opticus in some fowl, Os cordis in ruminants.
Ossification:- The process of bone formation is called ossification.
# Skeleton System :- It consist of bones and some area of cartilage. Animal

skeleton is made of living tissue. It has nerves and blood vessels. It can be broken
and be repaired and can adjust to changes in stress and pressure. Bone is five
time stronger than steel.
*Functions of skeleton system:-
1 To give shape to the body.
2 To provide anchor points for muscles and therefore help in movement.
3 Reserviour for minerals (Ca, Mg, P).
4 To produce red blood cells.
5 To protect vital organs (lung, heart etc.).
* Two parts of skeleton system:-

(A) Axial Skeleton System.
(B) Appendicular Skeleton System.
# Axial skeleton system:- Axial skeleton system gives shape and support to the
animal body. It consists of following bones:-
1) SKULL :-Skull is the skeleton of head. Except mandible all bones of skull are
connecting by suture (Immoveable joint). Most of the bones of the skull are
irregular and plate like in the shape and some are bilateral and some are single. It
has two parts:-
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(a)Bones of Cranial cavity :- Cranial cavity bones make cranial cavity which
accommodate the brains, eye balls and ears. These bones provide passage for
spinal cord, cranial nerves, and blood vessels.
(b) Skeleton of face – make the face of animal.
*Bones of Skull:-
i. Occipital Bone (single):- This bone forms superior as well as posterior

aspect of skull.
ii. Basilar Bone (single):- It is a thick bony plate, form the posterior part of
floor of cranial cavity.
iii. Super Occipital/Squanous Bone (single):- It is also a bony plate above
the foramen Magnum.
iv. Sphenoid Bone(single):- This bone form the floor of cranial cavity. This
bone form foramen Ovale and foramen orbitorotundum.
v. Parietal Bones (paired):- Each Parietal bone is situated at the lateral
aspect of posterosuperior part of skull.
vi. Frontal Bones (paired):- Each bone situated at the anterolateral aspect
and form the skeleton of forehead.
vii. Temporal Bones (paired):- These bones forms a part of lateral wall of
skull.
viii. Ethmoid Bone (single):- This bone form the anterior part of floor of
cranial cavity and then make portion between cranial cavity and nasal
cavity.
ix. Lacrimal Bones (paired):-Each lacrimal bone is situated at the
anterolateral portion of the skull. These bones makes the lacrimal fossa
which lodge the lacrimal sac.
x. Molar Bones (paired):- Each molar bone is situated at lateral aspect of
face and also Zygomatic bone.
xi. Maxillae Bones (paired):- Largest bone of the skull and helps in
formation of upper jaw, roof of oral cavity and floor of nasal cavity.
xii. Premaxillae Bones (paired):- They form anterior part of upper jaw.
xiii. Palatine Bones (paired):- These bones takes part in formation of upper
part of nasal cavity.
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xiv. Nasal Bones (paired):- These bones remain side by side without fusion
and form the roof of nasal cavity.
xv. Pterygoid Bones (paired):- Each bone is in the form of thin plate and
make lateral wall of nasal cavity.
xvi. Vomar Bone (single):- It is a thin plate like bone situated at the median
plane and takes part in formation of nasal septum.
xvii. Mandible:- It forms the skeleton of lower jaw it comprises of two Rami.
These two rami of mandible fused completely at the mandibular
symphysis situated at the mid line with in the body of mandible.
* Parts of mandible:-
1. Body:- It is horizontal part of the mandible. It has two parts:-
(a). Anterior/incisival part

(b). Posterior/Molar part
2. Rami of mandible:- The rami are the vertical part of the mandible. Each
ramus has two surfaces, two border and two ends. Dorsal ends have coronoid
process and condyle process.
# Comparison with skull of Horse with Ox:-
1. The skull is long and four sided.

2. Forman lacrum is extensive.
3. Fusion between two halves of mandible is complete.
4. Cornual process is absent.
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5. Alveolar border of mandible are found for canine teeth.
Fig:- Skeleton of skull of OX (maxilla, mandible)
2) VERTEBRAL COLOUMN:- It is defined as a series of bone articulating together to

form a long column of axial skeleton is called vertebral column. It is commonly
called spine. There is a hollow canal in between the vertebral column for the
protection of spinal cord. At the junctions of two vertebrae there is a
intervertebral foramen on both side. These foramen give passage to the spinal
nerve and vessels. There are five region of variable vertebrae in the vertebral
column. There are 51 vertebrae in ox and horse. All vertebrae are joint each other
by a fibrous joint and there is a vertebral disc in between adjacent vertebrae
which work as cushion.
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* A typical vertebrae:- A typical vertebrae has a body, process and arch.
(a) Body:- It is a solid cylindrical rod which support other structure of vertebrae.
The cranial end of the body is convex and the caudal end is concave.
(b) Process:- There are the three processes in the vertebrae i.e. spinous process,
articular processes (cranial and caudal), transverse processes. The main functions
of these processes are to prevent undesirable movement of vertebral column and
to give the articulation to the bone and muscles.
(c) Arches:- Each of the halves is composed of lamina and pedicle. Pedicle form
the lateral wall of neural canal and lamina form the roof of neural canal.
Intervertebral foramen are formed in pedicles.
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3) STERNUM ( breast bone):- It is a long plate of osteocartiogenous structure
placed at the mid line of the floor of thoracic cavity. It is composed of several
sternal components called sternebrae. The caudal end of the sternum formed by
xyphoid cartilage which is attached with diaphragm.
4) RIBS:- These are curved elongated bones arranged one after another on the
both sides of vertebral column and form a cage. In ox there are 13 pairs of ribs.
First 8 pairs are attached with sternum which are called sternal ribs or true ribs.
Last 5 are asternal ribs or false ribs. These a asternal ribs connected with each
other. There are 18 pairs of ribs in horse, first 8 are sternal ribs and last 10 are
asternal ribs.
#Visceral bones:- These are floating bones found in the viscera of animals. They
have no connection with skeleton.
i. Ossa cordis:- Two small triangular bones embedded in the myocardium

(upper layer of heart) on the either side of aortic ring of heart of cow.
ii. Ossa penis:- An elongated bone in the penis of dog.
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iii. Ossa opticus:- A ‘U’ shaped bone found in the scleral cartilage of the eyes of
cocks.
iv. Ossa rostrale:- Small flat bone found in nasal septum of pigs.
# Appendicular skeleton system of animals:- It comprises of :-

1.Fore limb:- Fore limb of an ox is comprises of-
i. Scapula of ox:- It is a flat irregular bone situated at cranio lateral aspect of

the thorax. It has two surfaces, three angels and three borders. The dorsal
border is rough for the articulation of scapular cartilage. The distal angle
comprises of glenoid cavity which articulate the head of humreuos.
ii. Humerus:- It is a long bone situated obliquely downward and backwardly. It

forms shoulder joint with the help of scapula above and below elbow joint
with the help of radius and ulna. Proximal end of humerus is large and
present head, neck and tuberosity. Head articulates with glenoid cavity of
scapula and makes shoulder joint. The distal end of humerus has two
condyle – medial and lateral. At distal end there are two fossae called-
a) Radial fossa/coronoid fossa which articulates with coronoid process
of radius.
b) Olecranon fossa which articulates with olecranon process of ulna.
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Fig – Right humerus of ox (lateral view)
iii. Radius & Ulna:- These two bones are fused together in ox but describe
separately:-
a) Radius:- It is larger bone but not longer then ulna. It is situated in
vertical direction in the forelimbs and forms elbow joint with
humerus above and carpal joint with the help of carpal bones. It has
coronoid process which articulates with coronoid fossa of humerus
to form elbow joint.
b) Ulna:- This is ill developed bone fused with radius. Above its
olecranon process articulates with olecranon fossa of radius to form
elbow joint and similarly below makes carpal joint with the help of
carpal bones.
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Fig- Right radius and ulna of ox (medial and Lateral View respectively)
iv. Carpal bones:- There are six short bone arranged in two rows.
1st row:-
a) Accessary carpal (Pisiform)
b) Ulnar form (Cueniform)
c) Intermediate carpal (Semilunar)
d) Radial carpal (Scaphoid)
2nd row:-
a) 4th carpal (Unciform)

b) 2nd and 3rd (Os magnus)
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Fig – Right carpal of cow
v. Meta carpal bones :- There are two metacarpal bones in the forelimb of ox.
One is larger and one is small. Large metacarpal is made up of fusion of two
metacarpal bones that is 3rd and 4th metacarpal bone.
3rd and 4th metacarpal:- The fusion is well marked by the groove present
anteriorly and by the presence of double medullary cavity inside. The
proximal end presents two facets. One is lateral which is articulates with
second and third fused carpal and medial is articulates with fourth carpal.
The distal end of main metacarpal is divided into two condyles. These
condyles articulates with corresponding and proximal ends of the 1st
phalanx . at posterior aspect just above the condyles there are four
depressions, each depression give accommodation to the corresponding
sesamoid bones of proximal row.
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Small metacarpal – This is small elongated piece of bone situated at
posteriolateral aspect of large metacarpal. It remains fussed with large
metacarpal bone.
vi. Phalanx :- There are two fully developed digits (3rd and 4th) are present in ox
and second and fifth become rudimentry and developed as dewclaw at the
posterior aspect of fat lock joint. These digits/dewclaw make no articulation
with any bone. Each developed digit has three phalanx.
 1st phalanx:- these are elongated bones situated between
metacarpal and second phalanx.
 2nd phalanx :- shorter then 1st phalanx.
 3rd phalanx:- it resemble the hoof in which whole bone is situated.
# Sesamoid bones:- Seed like bones without any articulation with any bone. There
are two rows of sesamoid bones 4 in 1st row and 2 in 2nd row.
1st row:- Proximal sesamoid bones are 4 in each limb (i.e. 2 in each digit).
2nd row:- 2 bones in each limb (i.e. 1 in each digit).
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Fig- Metacarpal and phalanges of right leg of ox (Anterior View)
# Hind Limb :-
1. Pelvis bones/ hip bones / os coxae:- The pelvic is formed by right and left
hip bones and sacrum and 1st two coccygeal bones. Each hip bone consist of
three large plate like bones called ilium, ischium and pubic. These bones
joint together to form a large cavity which articulates with Femur.
 Ilium:- This is a rectangular plate bone situated at the craniolateral aspect
of pelvis.
 Ischium:- It is roughly a quadrilateral plate situated behind the pubic and
make the floor of pelvis.
 Pubic:- It is a small rectangular plate of bone situated at the anteriomedial
aspect of pelvic floor.
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 Acetabulum or cotyloid cavity:- this is formed by the corresponding angles
of ilium, ischium and pubic. It accommodate the head of femur to form hip
joint.
Fig- Pelvic bones of cow
2. Femur:- It is a cylindrical and longest bone of the skeleton.it is directed

downward and forward in oblique manner. This articulates with hip bones
above to form hip joint and distally articulates with tibia and patella to form
stifle joint.
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Fig- Femur of Horse
3. Patella:-This is a triangular sesamoid bone placed in front of trochlea of
femur.
Fig- Patella of cow

4. Tibia:- It is a strong and massive bone extend obliquely downward and
backward. It forms stifle joint with the help of patella and femur above and
at lower end make hock joint with tarsal bone.
5. Fibula:- This bone is highly rudimentary bone in ox. It’s proximal end is
fused with lateral condyle of tibia and the distal end & body of fibula
remains as blunt prolongation called fibular tarsal.
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6. Tarsal bone:-
Fig- Tarsal of cow (right leg)
There are 5 tarsal bones in ox. Lateral malleolus remains as separate piece of
bone in ox. These 5 tarsal bones are arranged in two rows-
a) Proximal row:- It consist two tarsal bones:-

(i) Tibial tarsus (Tarsus):- It articulates with tibia above and central and
fourth fused tarsal below.
(ii) Fibular tarsal ( Calcaneous):- It is a blunt elongated bonesituated
obliquely latero-posterior aspect of tibial tarsal.
b) Distal row:- It consist three tarsal bones:-
(i) Central and fourth fused tarsal:- This is a plate like bone extended
throughout the hock joint.
(ii) 2nd and 3rd fused tarsal:- It is a small bone placed under central and
4th fused tarsal.
(iii) 1st tarsal:- Small nodule like bone placed below the central and fourth
fused tarsals.
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7. Metatarsal bones:- Like metacarpal, metatarsal bones are two:-
i) Large metatarsal:- This is a large which is formed by fusion of two
metatarsal bones i.e. 3rd and 4th.
ii) Small metatarsal:- It is a very small bone representing 2nd metatarsal.
Fig- Right large metatarsal bone of ox
*Differential features of metacarpal and metatarsal:-
Metacarpal Metatarsal
i) It is a shorter bone. i) It is a longer bone.

ii) Shaft is irregular, cylindrical ii) Shaft is four sided.
and presents two surfaces.
iii) Proximal end has two facet. iii) Proximal end has one facet.
iv) The anterior groove is not iv) The anterior groove is more
deep and wide. deep and wide.
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8. Phalanx and sesamoid bones:- They are almost similar in the hind limb
and fore limb.
# Composition of bone:- Bones is a mineralized connective tissue and the

composition varies with age and size. It provides rigidity and elasticity to the
body. Bones are composed of inorganic and organic material in the ratio of 1:2.
Organic materials includes membrane, cells, cartilage, blood vessels, fluid and
marrow. Inorganic includes calcium and phosphorus. In a mature bone 20 % is
water and remaining dry material has 60-70 % inorganic and 30-40 % organic.
Inorganic materials includes 86 % calcium phosphate, 5.8 %

Calcium carbonate, 3 % magnesium phosphate, 5.2 % sodium carbonate and
sodium flouride.
The deposition of these inorganic material is called ossification of bones
# Joint:- The sight of union between two or more bones are called Joints . Joints
help in the movement of bones. Main joints are bounds by ligament and tendon.
~Joints are of three types:-

1. Fibrous joint :- These joints are bounded by fibrous matter.
2. Cartilaginous joint
3. Synovial joint:- These are the main joints between large bones and help
in movement.
Synovial joint have following part:-

1. Articular surface
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2. Articular cavity
3. Joint capsule
4. Joint ligament
The joint capsule filled with synovia which is a lubricating liquid.
 Synovial fluid :- Synovial fluid is a thick tenacious liquid found in joints

cavity, tendon , bursa and sheath . It has its physical properties which give
lubricating ability. Besides reducing friction in joints. Synovial fluid helps
nurish the articular cartilage
 Cartilage:- It is a flexible, elastic and glossy looking substances . It is made
of protein called CHONDRINE.It present in joints to help the movement of
body . These are also found in nose , ear and the lower parts of ribs.
Skeleton of Foetus is made up of almost entirely of cartilage . When foetus
ages the cartilages slowly change into bone . This change is called
OSSIFICATION. Three types of cartilages –
a) Hyaline
b) Elastic
c) Fibrocartilage
 Fibrous joint:- These joints made by fibrous tissue and have no synovial
fluid. These are immovable joint. These found between vertebrae.
 Sutures:- These sutures like joint found in between the bones of skull.
These are also have no synovial fluid and cavity & these are immoveable
joint.
# TEETH:- The number and classification of permanent teeth is fixed in a species.

This number varies species to species. Different types of teeth work different job.
There are 4 types of teeth :-
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 1. Incisors:- Incisors of animal are flat and edged. They work to cutting
grass. 2. Canines:- These teeth are long
and pointed. There function is teering . 3.
Premolar:- Function of premolar teeth to break or crack .Their shape is
wide with ridges.
 4. Molar:- Function of molar teeth to grind food .Their shape is wide with
ridges.
 Both premolar and molar have 5 surface crown or also called chick teeth.
 # Common structure of a teeth:- Teeth are the hardest portion of the body
and are implanted into alveolar bony socket of lower and upper jaw.
 Exposed part of teeth is called crown and this crown is
covered by a hard translucent material called enamel. The narrow
implanted part is called root.
 The bulk of teeth is formed by dentine. Within the dentine
there is a central canal called as bulk cavity. Bulk cavity contains connective
tissue, blood vessels and nerve endings. Bulk cavity open into apical
foramen. Two teeth is fixed into bony socket with the help of gingva and
gingival membrane.
 * Formula for cattle teeth:-
*Formula for horse teeth:-
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# DIGESTIVE SYSTEM #
# Digestive system :-
Function of this system are reception/Prehension,

digestion and absorption/assimilation.
# Two parts of digestive system :-
1. Alimentary canal or GIT :-

It is hollow irregular tube open at both ends ,
start from mouth and ends at anus . It has mouth , pharynx , esophagus ,
stomach , small intestine , large intestine and rectum.
2. Accessory digestive organ :-

Teeth , tongue , salivary gland , liver ,
pancreas.
# Digestive organ of ruminants :-
The alimentary canal of

ruminants is more complex than non ruminants . Stomach of ruminants
has four compartment namely RUMEN , RETICULUM , OMASUM ,
ABOMASUM.
#Parts of Alimantry canal :-
1. Mouth :-
It has lips, teeth and pharynx. Function of mouth are
prehention or reception , mastication and in salivation and
rumination.There is no digestive enzymes in the mouth of
ruminants. Only preliminary chewing or mastication and mixing of
saliva is done in the mouthof ruminants.
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2. Esophagus :-
This is a muscular tube starts from pharynx and
downwardly connected to the upper part of rumen. The junction of
esophagus to the rumen is a valve called Cardia . This cardia works as
a valve, When Boli of food passing into or out of the rumen or gasses
escape from rumen.
3. Rumen :-
It is the largest compartment of the stomach and has great
significance in the digestion of ruminants. It is a large SAC extending
from , Diaphragm to pelvis . It fills the left side of abdominal cavity .
It is divided into two sub compartment . DORSAL PART and VENTRAL
PART . The ventral SAC is connected with reticulum. Rumen works
as a store of food which is injested in hurry without proper
mastigation by the ruminants. Rumen has large number of
microflora which help in digestion of roughages. Microflora work by
fermentation . Microflora in the rumen work to ferment the food to
produce Microbial protein.
4. Reticulum :-
The reticulum is most cranial compartment. It is also
called Honey comb . The grooves present in reticulum work to pass
the food material direct from esophagus to omasum . These grooves
are functional in suckling animal and therefore non-functional in
adult animal . Reticulum is present near the diaphragm and heart .
Any foreign object such as nail or wire etc, wallowed by the animal
may lodge in reticulum and penetrate through diaphragm making
diaphragmatic Hernia. Then these foreign body may penetrate the
heart which is very fatal condition.
5. Omasum :-
This is a spherical organ filled with muscular laminal
bearing pointed papillae. These laminae arranged in such a manner
that food moves from Reticuloomasal orifice.The food material
entering the omasum contains 90-95% water and thus main function
of omasum is to remove water from this food upto 50%.
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6. Abomasum :-
It is true stomach which has digestive gland . it located
ventral to the omasum and right side of rumen . The junction of
abomasum to small intestine is called PYLORUS . PylorUs is a
sphincter of circular smooth muscle . The epithelial cell linning of
abomasum secretes electrolytes , is specially HCl , pepsin and mucus
, pepsin is peptic enzyme which is responsible for the digestion of
microbial protein in the abomasum hence true digestion starts from
abomasum in ruminants.
7. Small intestine:-
Length of small intestine in cow is about 145 ft.
Small intestine divided into three parts:- (a) Duodenum
(b) Jejunum
(c) Ileum
These parts are histologically and microscopically
different. Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. Ducts
from pancreas and liver enter the first part of duodenum. Jejunum is
the next part of small intestine and ileum is the last part. Ileum make
a junction with large intestine called ileo-ceco-colic junction. Small
intestine is the chief sight of absorption of digestive food. The mucus
membrane of small intestine has numerous tiny like projections
known as VILLI. Each villus is further surrounded by numerous finger
like projections called microvilli. These villi and micro villi provide
greater space for food absorption. The duodenum receives both
biles and pancreatic secretion from the gall bladder and pancreas
respectively. The entry of both ducts into duodenum is at same
point. Bile consists of bile acid and bile pigment which are
responsible for the digestion of fats. Pancreatic secretion contains an
enzyme called TRIPSIN. Tripsin with the help of pepsin secreted by
abomasum, responsible for degradation of microbial proteins
happens in small intestine similarly lipids which have escape from
ruminal fermentation also digested in small intestine with the bile
juice.
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8. Large intestine:-
Size of large intestine of cow is about 35 ft. It has main two parts –
CAECUM and COLON. The microbial fermentation as in rumen is also
found in large intestine. The microbial degradation of
polysaccharides and carbohydrates which escaped from rumen
happens in large intestine. Water is also absorbed in large intestine.
Rectum is the last part of large intestine but small which open as
anus.
# Accessory organ of digestive system #

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1. Salivary gland :-
The salivary glands in ruminant are present in pair. The
main salivary gland in ruminant are :-
(a) Parotid :- Parotid salivary gland located ventral to each ear and to the
caudal border of the mandible.
(b) Mandibular or Submaxillary :- These glands are situated ventral to the
parotid gland.
(c) Sublingual:- These salivary gland are located deep to the mucus
membrane along the lateral surface to the tongue and near the floor of
mouth.
The other salivary glands include labial, buccal, lingual, palatin found in
other species. The secretion of saliva in ruminants is continuous but rate
is greatly increased by Stimuli associated with feeding , rumination and
presence of coarse feed . In cattle total volume may range from 100 litre
to 200 liter per day . The saliva of ruminant is slightly alkaline.
 Uses / function of saliva

1. Lubrication :- Saliva keep the mouth lubricant and wet.
2. Buffering capacity :- Large amount of bicarbonate present in saliva do the
buffering of food.
3. Nutrients for microflora of rumen :- Saliva has good amount of urea , mucin
, phosphate , magnesium and Chlorides which are the feed of the micro
flora of rumen.
4. Prevention of bloat :-Gases accumulation in the rumen may cause bloat
condition . Saliva acts as surfactant and thus help to prevent bloating.
5. Taste :- Saliva solubilises a number of chemical present in food and hence
help in tasting by taste buds presenting in the mouth.
6. Protection :- Saliva keeps the mouth wet/moist and hence protects the
inner lining of mouth.
7. Source of digestive enzyme :- Saliva of ruminants has no digestive enzyme
but saliva of dogs , pigs , horse , contain amylose enzyme which help in the
digestion of starch.
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2. Pancreas :-
Pancreas is the second main accessory digestive organ . In a
cow its weight may range from 350gm to 500gm.Pancrease is a soft , lumpy
organ with a large head , long body and tapering tail. The head of pancreas
lies in the cavity of duodenum . It has two parts - the greater part is
endocrine gland and exocrine gland .
 Endocrine part of pancreas:- Endocrine part of pancreas is just a

tiny spherical mass. Endocrine gland of pancreas is made up of small
islets which is called langerhan’s islets . It produce insulin.
 Exocrine part of pancreas:- This is a compound gland of pancreas
called Tubulo axinal gland. Acini are composed of cells contain
granules of digestion enzyme. The acini are connected with small
ductlets which further make a single duct which entre in to
duodenum. The main enzymes secreted by the pancreas are Tripsin,
Amylase, Lipase etc. The pancreatic secretion are stimulated by vagus
nerve.
3. Liver and Billary system :-
Liver is the largest gland of the body. It is solid
and redish brown in colour .Weight of liver is about 3-5kg in adult cattle. It
is placed in right sider of abdominal cavity. It has two surface –one is
parietal second is visceral. It is an important organ of intermediate
metabolism. It has also an exocrine section which secrets bile. Bile is stored
and concentrated in gall bladder. All domestic animals except horse have
gall bladder. Gall bladder is situated at visceral surface of Liver. The bile
duct is formed by the union of hepatic cystie duct and it open in
duodenum. Structure of liver shows no specific feature of importance. The
liver is enclosed with in a tough fibrous capsule. Liver receives its blood
through hepatic artery and portal vein. Blood leaves the liver through
hepatic vein. The blood from hepatic artery and hepatic vein is mixes and
processes in the liver and return to general circulation. The functional
tissue of liver is called hepatic sinusoids.
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4. The Spleen :-
Spleen is a hemolymph organ. Spleen is eleptical in out line,
has 2-3cm thickness, 50 cm length and 2.5 cm width and weight is about
900gm in adult cattles. This organ is situated at craniodorsal part of the
rumen against left half diaphragm and attached these two organs. Spleen is
made of soft tissue and steel blue or redish color. It is divided into red and
white pulp. The main functions of spleen are phagocytosis, hemopoiesis,
immune response and storage of RBCs.
# The Mouth of Ruminants :-
Mouth is a oral opening and small size in

ruminants therefore they can not ingest large mouthful of food at one time. The
vestibule of mouth is roomy and lies between chicks, gums and lips. The inner
surface of chicks and lips have backwardly pointing papillae. These papillae are
most prominent towards the corner of mouth. Mouth cavity is mostly occupied by
tongue. The palate of mouth has dozen of transverse ridges. Lips of ruminants are
less mobile but lips of horse are very mobile. Lips are the main organ of
prehention of food. Tongue of ruminants is pointed and has small papillae and
taste buds. These papillae of tongue give it roughness. Tongue also help in
sounding in animals.
# Pharynx :-
It is roughaly a funnel shaped space at the base of cranial cavity

and behind posterior nasal aperture. Its walls are formed by muscle fibre and
mucus membrane. The pharynx is common for digestive and respiratory passage.
It connects mouth to the esophagus. The pharynx restricts the size of morsel that
can be swallowed by the animal. It receives and transmits to the mouth the
regurgitated cuds in ruminants. Pharynx of horse is comparatively larger and
narrow.
# Esophagus :-
It is a muscular tube extends from pharynx to

rumen/stomach. The average length of esophagus is 90 cm in ruminants. In horse
27
its length is 140 cm. The average thickness is about 4 cm. It lies dorsal lateral to
the trachea on left side of neck. Along its whole length the inner wall has fibrous,
muscle fibre, submucus and mucus coat. The muscles of esophagus are striated.
# Peritoneum :-
It is a serous membrane which lines the abdominal wall and

reflected over the visceral organs. The lining portion is called parietal and the
reflected portion is called visceral layer. The space between visceral and parietal
layer called peritoneal cavity. This cavity has a fluid called peritoneal fluid. This
fluid is helpful for free movement of visceral organs. The connecting fold of
visceral layer is called mesentery. Mesentery transmits blood vessels and nerve to
and from visceral organs.
*Functions of Peritoneum :-
1. It provides slippery space for the movement of abdominal viscera.
2. The phagocytic cells of peritoneum protects viscera against infections.
3. It acts as storage of food.
# GIT of Horse :-
1. Stomach :- The stomach of horse is in the form of a simple saccular

structure. The capacity is about 12 litres in an adult horse. It is curved and
‘J’ shaped. The lesser curvature is short, pylorus and cardia are very close.
The mucus membrane of stomach is divided into two parts-non glandular
and glandular. The glandular part is divided into three parts:-
(a) Fundic
(b) Pyloric
(c) Cardiac
These portions are divided due to presence of different types of digestive

glands.
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2. Small intestine :- It is divided into three parts-Duodenum, Jejunum and
Ilium. Total length is about 22 meters and diameter is about 6-7 cm.
3. Large intestine :- It has two parts- Cecum and colon. This is a wider tube
ends into rectum and open as anus. Length about 10 metres.
# Structure of GIT :-
There are four structural layers in the walls GIT :-
1. Mucosa :- It lines in the lumen and composed of epithelial cells.

2. Sub- mucosa :- It is the connective tissue between mucosa and tunica
muscularis. This layer support the mucosa. It is made of loose connective
tissue.
3. Tunica muscularis :- It is composed of an inner circular layer and outer
longitudinal layers. These muscles wrap the GIT in such a way that the GIT
can propel the content in lumen of GIT.
4. Tunica serosa/Adventitia :- It is the outer most layer of GIT covered by
serosa/adventitia which connect the GIT with peritoneum.
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# Myology :- study of muscles .
# MUSCULAR SYSTEM #
 Name of meat of various type animals:-

Beef –cow , buffalo , horse , camel.
Mutton-goat , sheep.
Pork-pig.
Chicken-Hen.
 Muscle:-
Muscles are composed of bundle of muscle cells also called muscle
fibre which are contractable. The main function of muscular system is
locomotion , which is defined as progressive movement . Approximately
48% of body mass is due to muscles. Major function of animal husbandry is
to produce meat such as beef , mutton , pork , chicken , fishes etc. Selling of
meat is a huge bussines in the world.
 There are three types of muscles:-

1. Voluntary or skeletal muscle.
2. Involuntary or smooth muscle.
3. Cardiac or heart muscle.
# Voluntry muscle:- These muscles from the bulk of body which is called MEAT.
A typical voluntary muscle has tendon on each end , which are attached to the
bones. These muscles work voluntarily in the control of nervous impulses. Each
fibre of muscle is connected with nerve and blood vessels . when nerve is
stimulated or get order from nervous system , the muscle fibre contracted .
Stronger the nerve impulse , powerful the contraction . Thus these muscles are
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direct control of the will of the animal . Some skeletal muscles work involuntarile
under the control of involuntary nervous system.
*Types of skeletal muscles:-
(A) According to the color of muscles :-
(1) RED MUSCLES:- They are red in colour due to presence of myohaemoglobin in
them. They are generally situated at the deeper aspect of the body.
(2) WHITE MUSCLES:- They have less myohaemoglobin . They are abundant in
sacroplasma (cytoplasm of muscle). They have abundant of nerve supplies and
very sensitive to the nerve stimulation. These muscles are situated superficially (in
S/c).
(B) According to the direction of muscle fibres:-
(1) PARLLEL MUSCLES:- Their fibres are long and placed parallel to the line of pull.
Fibres are less in number but are long in structure. Eg- Bisceps Brachi
(2) PINNATE MUSCLES:- The fibres are short and oblique to the line of pull. They
are of three types:-
a. UNIPINNATE
b. BIPINNATE
c. MULTIPINNATE
(3) SPIRAL MUSCLES:- The fibres are arranged in twisted manner. These muscles
are help in stationed movement.
(4) CRUCIATE MUSCLES:- The fibres are arranged in superficial and deep plane
crossing like ‘X’.
(C) According to the force of action:-
(1) SPURT MUSCLES:- They provide accelerating movement to joints.
(2) SHUNT MUSCLES:- These muscles provide stablishing and centripetal force on
a joint.
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# Involuntry or smooth muscles:-These muscles have different structurefrom
skeletal muscles. These muscles are found in GIT (Gastro Intestinal Tract) and
blood vessels. These muscles work involuntarily of the will of the animal. These
are controlled by central nervous system. The GIT muscles work by wave like
contraction called peristalsis . The food moves in the GIT due to peristalsis. Blood
vessels muscles can expand and contract when necessary. The healing of these
muscles is very difficult.
#Cardiac or Heart muscles:-These are also involuntary muscleshaving different

structure to both of above muscles. These have a very short but strong
contraction followed by a period of rest. This process is called BEATING ACTION
OF HEART. These muscles are also work involuntarily without the will of animal.
The rate of heart beating of different animals is fixed but hormones can alter the
beating of heart in abnormal conditions such as in diseases, shock, fear,
excercising and sexing etc.The main hormone for this alteration of heart beating is
ADRENALLINE. The healing of these muscles are impossible.
#Cutaneous muscles:- Some striated muscles are placed at the sub-cutaneous of

some parts of the body are sub-cutaneous muscles.The fibres of these muscles
are inserted into skin and cause twitches of skin on contraction. They may or may
not have any connection with skeleton. Some fibres of these muscles are attached
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to the fascia covering superficial muscles. These muscles are characterstics to the
quadrupeds.
# Some terms of Myology:-
1. MOTOR UNIT:- Few to few thousands muscle fibres which are supplied by
the branch of one nerve cell are called Motor Unit or Functional unit of
muscles.
2. FASCIA:- These are the membrane made up of dense-fibrous connective
tissues which separates the muscles from each other and keep them in
position .
3. BURSA and SHEATH:-Bursa is a thin walled bag , containing a small amount
of synovial fluid , tendon and muscles and bones . They provides friction
less environment. When friction from all sides expected a tubular synovial
bag encircled the tendon known as Synovial Sheath . A bursa may
communicate with the joint capsule which is situated very close to it .
4. RIGAR MORTIS :- With in 1-7 hours after the death of the animal , the body
get stiffened due to hardening of muscle tissue . This condition help into
performing POSTMORTEM. This condition disappeared after 1-5 days or
when muscular decomposition start .
5. ADIPOSE TISSUE :-The fibrous connective tissues packed with masses of fat
cells are called ADIPOSE TISSUE. It form a thick layer under the skin and it
mainly found around the kidneys and buttocks .It serves both as insulating
organ and an energy source .Excess food eaten is converted into fat stored
with in the fibrous tissue sub-cutaniously .Presence of large accumulation
of fat in the tissue is called ADIPOSE OR LIPOSIS.
# THE SKIN:- Skin is a outer protective layer of the body and largest tissue of
the body. It has nerve endings which transmit sensation of heat, cold and touch to
the CNS. It is also protects the body from injuries, entering of pathogens and
parasites into the body. It also acts an excretory organ. It excretes harmful
chemicals through sweat. Skin protects body from becoming dehydrated and act
as thermodynamic instrument that is its protects body from heat and cold. Skin of
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cattle is 3 to 4 mm thick. The color of skin varies from organ to organ and animal
to animal.
Skin has two parts:-
1. DERMIS/CORIUM:- It is also called true skin. It is a thick layerof living

tissue that lies between epidermis and sub-cutaneous tissue. It consists of
mainly connective tissues called collagen. Dermis contains:-
(a) Number of blood cappillaries.
(b) Sensory nerve endings.
(c) Lymph glands.
(d) Sweat glands.
(e) Hair follicles.
(f) Sebacious gland.
(g) Smooth muscles fibres.
2. EPIDERMIS:- Epidermis is the outer part of skin which has 4 layer:-
(a) Stratum Germinatum:- It consists of countinous dividing cells. The other
three layers are continually replaced or renewed as the cells from this
layer gradually pushed outward and become keratinized.
(b) Stratum Granulosum:- It is very thin and has follicle cells.
(c) Stratum Lucidum:- It is a transparent layer and called clear layer.
(d) Stratum Corneum:- Outer most layer which is made up of dead cells. The
cytoplasm of these cells entirely replaced by keratin. Eg. The hair ,nails
,horn ,hooves enamel of teeth. This process is called keratinization. The
hooves of animal further become harder and modified called laminae of
the hooves.
# SEBUM AND SEBACIOUS GLANDS:-The dermis contains sebaceous

glands which secerates SEBUM. Sebum reaches to the outer skin through hair
follicles. Sebum provides a thin film of fat over the skin which slow evaporation
and it has antimicrobial effect also.
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# KERATIN AND KERATINIZATION:-
# KERATIN:- Keratin is a fibrous protein that forms horny tissues of body such as
nail, hairs, hooves, horns, enamel of teeth.
*KERATINIZATION:- Keratinization is a process in which cells become horny due to

deposition of KERATIN with in them. In this cells become flattened and loose their
cytoplasm.
#SWEAT GLANDS:- These glands present in dermis of skin all over the body
except glans penis and tympanic membrane (middle ear). These are two types:-
1. Merocrines:- Merocrines are long tubular coil glands which produces only
sweat.
2. Appocrines:- These are modified glands which starts functioning after
puberty. These are found in axilla, internal ear meatus, and in mammary
glands.
# HAIRS:- Hairs are thread like structure developed from epidermis. They are
keratinized appendages of the skin and has a shaft and root. The follicle of hairs
situated in the dermis. Tectile hairs are found on lips, nostrils, eyelids, external
ears and pubic area.
# COLLAGEN:- It is a protein that is the principal part of white fibrous

connective tissue STORMA. This is found in tendon, ligaments, in skin, cartilages
etc. It is relatively inelastic but has a tensile strength.
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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM (angiology)
Circulatory system consists of heart and blood vessels i.e. Arteries and veins. It
also consists of lymphatics and lymph nodes.
# The Heart :- it is a hollow muscular organ. It consists of two atria (atrium) i.e.
receiving chambers and two ventricles i.e. discharging chambers. Heart work as a
double pump for pulmonary and systemic circulations. There are 3 layers in the
wall of heart:-
i. Epicardium – outer serous layer

ii. Myocardium – middle muscular layer (heart muscles)
iii. Endocardium – inner endothelial layer.
The myocardium of the heart is made up of special type of muscular fibers.

These fibers are responsible for the contraction of heart. The contraction of
these muscles are involuntary and controlled by vagus nerve and sympathetic
nervous system. The weight of heart of an adult cow is about 0.4 to 0.5% of
body weight. Heart has 4 chambers:-
1. Right atrium:- It is smaller than the left atrium. It receives deoxygenated

blood from two vena cava (cranial and caudal vena cava) and vena azygos.
2. Right ventricle:- This chamber situated below the right atrium. Its walls are
thick. It receives deoxygenated blood from right atrium through tricuspid
valve. Then this blood from the right ventricle is discharged into the lungs
through pulmonary arteries. There are two pulmonary arteries.
3. Left atrium:- It receives oxygenated blood through pulmonary veins. There
are four pulmonary veins. Two from each lungs.
4. Left ventricle:- The walls of the left ventricle are very thick. It receives
oxygenated blood from left atrium through bicuspid valves(Mittral valve).
The left ventricle discharge the oxygenated for systemic circulation through
aorta. Thus the heart works as a double pump.
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# Blood supply to the heart:- heart tissue receives its blood through coronary
arteries. There are 2 coronary arteries left and right.
# Blood circulation:- There are 2 types of blood circulation in the animal body:-
1. Pulmonary circulation:-
A very short artery called pulmonary trunk leaves heart
from right ventricle and this deoxygenated blood is discharge to the lungs.
This pulmonary trunk is divided into two pulmonary arteries - left and right
pulmonary arteries & discharge deoxygenated blood into the
corresponding lungs. From lungs oxygenated blood return to the left atrium
through four pulmonary veins, two from each lungs.
2. Systemic circulation :-
The oxygenated blood from lungs return to the left
atrium. From left atrium it is discharged into left ventricle through bicuspid
valve (mitteral valve). Than the muscles of left ventricle which are very
strong, pump the blood into the whole body through aorta(ascending
aorta).
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 Arteries of systemic circulation:-
1. Aorta :- It is also called ascending aorta. This is a great arterial trunk.
It originates from the base of left ventricle. It makes an arch. In this
arch there present semilunar valve, which prevent the back flow of
the blood. From this arch, there originate coronary artery. At the
aortic arch the ascending aorta bifurcates into two branches:_
(a) Brachiocephalic trunk (Anterior aorta):- It is a very large vessel
which gives two branches i.e. right auxiliary artery and left auxiliary
artery, they are also called sub-clavical arteries. After giving these
two arteries i.e. right and left auxiliary arteries, this brachiocephalic
trunk called bicarotid trunk. This bicarotid trunk bifurcates further
into right carotid artery and left carotid artery. These further
bifurcates into two branches i.e. external carotid artery and internal
carotid artery. These all arteries give supply to the head, neck, face
and some area of thoracic cavity. Auxiliary arteries give supply to
the fore limbs.
(b) Descending aorta:- This is a large voluminous thick walled vessel. It
originates from the aortic arch. It descends and extends through
thoracic and abdominal regions. It has two parts thoracic aorta and
abdominal aorta.
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I. Thoracic aorta:- This part of descending aorta gives supply
to the thoracic region. The thoracic aorta gives following
branches -
A. Bronchial artery:- It gives supply to trachea, lungs etc.
B. Esophageal artery:- It gives supply to esophagus,
lymph nodes, pericardium etc.
C. Inter coastal artery:- It gives supply to ribs area,
thoracic vertebral area, pleura, spinal cord etc.
D. Phrenic artery:- It gives supply to diaphragm.
II. Abdominal aorta:- It extends upto the lumber region and
at lumber region it bifurcates into two paired artery called
Iliac arteries. Before this bifurcation, the abdominal aorta
gives following branches –
A. Celiac artery:- It’s branches give supply to the organ of
abdominal cavity like liver, spleen, stomach, lymph node
etc.
B. Cranial mesenteric:- It gives supply to small and large
intestine.
C. Renal artery :-It gives supply to kidney and renal areas.
D. Testicular/Ovarian artery :- It gives supply to
reproductive organs of male and female respectively.
E. Lumber artery:- It gives supply to the abdominal wall.
F. Caudal mesentery artery:- It gives supply to the colon and
rectum.
# Paired internal and external iliac arteries:- the abdominal aorta

bifurcates into two paired arteries at lumber area -
i. External iliac artery (paired):- these arteries gives

supply to the hind limbs.
ii. Internal iliac artery (paired):- These give supply to
pelvic viscera, pelvic walls, udder etc.
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After bifurcation of iliac arteries the abdominal aorta continues as median sacral
arteries. It gives supply to wall of pelvic cavity, coccygeal vertebrae and the tail.
# Systemic veins:- From different tissues of the body, the systemic veins drain the
deoxygenated blood to the heart. The blood from head, neck, shoulders and
forelimbs is drained by cranial vena cava. Other blood is drained by caudal vena
cava and vena ezygos. All veins contains deoxygenated blood except pulmonary
vein. All veins except vena cava and pulmonary vein have valves. These valves
prevent the back flow of blood. There are only few important veinous distribution
which undergo independent course will be discussed below:-
1. Cranial veinous sinus:- It drains blood from brain.

2. Jugular vein:- This vein has a great significance of applied anatomy in
ruminants and equines:-
i. Internal jugular vein:- It drains blood from cranial region of the body.
It is called internal jugular vein.
ii. External jugular veins is a large vessel which drains blood from
superficial aspect of head and neck. At neck, it lodges in a furrow
between brachiocephalic above and sternomaxillaries muscles
below. This vein has a great significance for applied anatomy.
3. The portal vein:- The branches of this large vein receives the products of
digestion, absorbed by capillaries of the villi of small and large intestines.
They join with other veins from stomach and spleen & form portal vein.this
portal vein discharged its blood into liver. This vein starts with capillaries
and ends with capillaries.
4. Vena azygos:- It is a single vein which drain blood from dorsal and lateral
walls of thoracic and abdominal cavity and discharge the blood direct into
the heart i.e. in right atrium.
# Difference between arteries and veins:-
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Arteries Veins
1. These carry blood from heart. 1. These drain the blood to heart.
2. These contain oxygenated blood 2. These contains deoxygenated blood

except pulmonary arteries. except pulmonary vein.
3. These are thick walled and have no 3. These have valves to prevent back
valve except aorta and pulmonary flow of blood except vena cava &
artery pulmonary vein.
4. They have blood pressure. 4. They have no blood pressure.
5. These situated deeper in the body. 5. These present superficially.
6. Color of these vessels are reddish. 6. Color of these vessels are blueish.
# Lymph, lymphatics and lymph nodes:-
1. Lymph:- Lymph is a colorless tissue fluid made of excessive body fluids,

lymphocytes and antibodies. Lymph is produced and filtered into lymph
nodes.
2. Lymphatics:- These are the vessels other than blood vessels which drain
lymph from lymph glands to the venous system. Lymphatics are distributed
between mucosa, serous membrane and synovial membrane.
3. Lymph nodes:- These are oval, bean sized, nodular, brown or reddish black
color structures. Their size may vary from very minute to lemon size. Lymph
nodes are found in specific areas – axilla, inguinal region, mesentery, pre
scapula region or sub-mammary region etc.
These all make the deffensive mechanism of the body and remove excess
fluids from body.
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# ANIMAL BLOOD #
Blood is a specialized and circulatory tissue composed of cells suspended in liquid.
Blood circulates through a closed system of blood vessels due to pumping action
of heart. If blood is centrifuzed before clotting, it separates into two parts :-
- A straw colored liquid called plasma.

- Less than half of the blood is packed with formed elements consisting of
RBCs, WBCs and Platelets.
# Difference between Serum and Plasma :-
In plasma a proteinous substance

called fibrinogen is found but in serum this fibrinogen is not found.
Fibrinogen is a protein (globulin, albumins) which help in clotting with the help of
platelets.
# Functions of blood :-
1. Blood carries nutrients made by digestive system to the all tissues of body.
2. It carries oxygen from lungs to the tissue of body and carries carbon dioxide
from tissue to lungs for excretion.
3. Waste products from various tissues carried to kidneys for excretion.
4. Hormones are carried from endocrine glands to various organ of the body.
5. Blood helps in temperature control of body.
6. Water balance of body is maintained by blood.
7. Clotting capability of blood helps in preventing excessive loss of blood during
injuries.
8. Blood helps in maintaing tissue pH.
9. Blood contains antibodies which help in disease control.
10. Blood help in circulating of drugs to all tissues during treatment and
vaccination.
# Volume of blood in animals :-
42
The percentage of blood present in animal body
to the total weight of animal body is called volume of blood in animal.
 Blood percentage in various animals :-

Cattle - 7.7 % of body weight
Sheep - 8 % of body weigth
Dog - 5.5 % of body weight
# Components of blood :-
1. Plasma :- When whole blood is centrifused before clotting, the blood

divided into two portions- one is a straw coloured fluid which is about 55 %
of whole blood is called plasma. Plasma consist of 92 % water and 8 % other
substance 90 % is a protein called fibrinogen. Fibrinogen is made up of two
proteins Albumins and Globulin. And 0.9 %inorganic matter and remain
9.1% other non-proteinious organic matters. The main function of
fibrinogen is to make clots with platelets which prevent excessive bleeding
during injuries.
2. Serum :- When blood is allowed to clot then it divides into two parts –one
is solid mass and second is colorless fluid called serum. Serum contains
antibodies. Therefore plasma – fibrinogen =serum
3. The formed elements :-
(a) RBCs/Erythrocytes :- RBCs make 32 % of blood. The red color of the blood is
due to Haemoglobin. The shape of RBC is byconcave, disc like, flexible and
having no nucleous shape of RBCs varies with species and breed of animal.
The number of RBCs varies with different breed, nutritional status, physical
activities, age and health conditions. RBCs are produced in bone marrow of
long bones. They are also producing by ribs, sternum, vertebrae and pelvic
bone. RBCs main function is to carry oxygen to body tissue and carbon
dioxide back to lungs for excretion. Hb has a protein compound named
globin and it is united with four non protein groups called hemes. Each
hemes contain iron atom. The hemes are able to combine one oxygen
compound reversibly. Thus each Hb molecule is capable of combining for
oxygen molecule. When Hb is combined with oxygen is called
oxyhemoglobin . When blood returns lungs from tissues then 25 % of Hb is
43
not having oxygen molecule is as reduced Hb, carbondioxide is reversible
combined with heme group of Hb which are called carboxyhemoglobin.
This process is countinous and oxygen is supplied to the body tissue for
oxidation to produce energy for life and after oxidation a byproduct
carbondioxide is carried back to lungs and excreted out. In some diseases
such as poisoning, snake bite, blood parasitic infestation, hypotonic
solutions ingestion, the Rbcs are ruptured and Hb comes out in plasma, this
condition is called Haemoglobinemia and when this ruptured Hb excreted
through urine, this condition is called Haemoturia. If proper treatment is
not given in time, the death of animal is sure. The average age of
erythrocytes 50-120 days which is varies with species and breeds . Thus
millions of RBCs are produced and degraded in every second .
(b) WBCs/ Leucocytes :-
1. These colour less cells found along RBCs .They are
larger than RBCs but fewer in numbers . All WBCs have nuclei but no
Haemoglobin . These are capable of independent movement . In
addition to blood these WBCs are found into lymph glands , spleen and
GIT.
There are of two types :- GRANULOCYTES and AGRANULOCYTES.
Granulocytes are of three types :-
1. Eosinophills
2. Basophills
3. Neutrophils
Agranulocytes are of two types :-
1. Monocytes
2. Lymphocytes
 Granulocytes :-
These WBCs have granules in their cytoplasm but in
agranulocytes these granules or fewer or absent.
(i) Neutrophills :-
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These WBCs make greatest part of White Blood. They
have granules which not stain with basic dyes. The nucleus of
neutrophils has 3 to 5 lobs , these have Phagocytic property.
(ii) Eosinophills :- These also have granules and stain reddish with basic
dyes . They are weekly phagocytic property. There number is about 5-
10% of WBCs . There nuclei have 2 lobs . The main function of
Eosinophills is detoxification of toxins which are entre through lungs
and GIT or produced by bacteria , viruses and parasites .
(iii) Basophils :- Their count is 0- 0.2 % of all WBCs . They stain blue in basic
dyes . The nucleus has two lobs. They contain heparin which is
anticagulent .Therefore the main function of basophils is to help
clotting of blood.
 Agranulocytes :-
(i) Monocytes :- They are largest WBCs . They have phagocytic properties
and help in production of globulin.
(ii) Lymphocytes :-They are variables in size and appearance and having a
big nucleus covering almost all the area of lymphocytes .Their main
function is to make antibodies from antigens and they help in
production of globulin.
 %age of leucocytes in blood of cattle :-

(1) Neutrophills 25-30%
(2) Lymphocytes 60-65%
(3) Eosinophills 2-5 %
(4) Basophills <1%
(5) Monocytes 5%
(c) Platelets :-
These are the fragment of protoplasm found in blood. They
help in clotting of blood with the help of globulin to prevent excessive
bleeding during injury.
45
Urinary System
This system excretes waste products from the blood and maintain alkalinity &
chemical composition of blood, constant.
This system composed of following organs:-
1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra
Fig : Urinary tract

1. Kidney:- The kidney are paired, lobulated oval or bean shaped organs.
These are right and left situated at the cranial part of the abdominal cavity.
These are situated above the peritoneum. The outer side of kidney is
divided into number of lobules. There are deposition of fat on the kidneys.
46
Fig : Kidney
 Average measurements and weight of an adult healthy cow:-
Sr. Measurements Right kidney Left kidney
no.
1. Length 16 cm 14 cm
2. Width 9 cm 8 cm
3. Thickness 5 cm 6 cm
4. Weight 650 g 700 g
Right kidney is of bean shaped and flatten. Right kidney is placed on fixed site i.e.
below the last rib and 1st two or three lumber vertebrae. Left kidney has three
surface and the place of left kidney is variable. When rumen is full then left kidney
slipped downward as compare to right kidney.
 Structure of kidney:- Kidney is composed of capsule and cavity of kidney.

47
I. Capsule:- Capsule of kidney is made up of fibrous material and it
covers the whole kidney this fibrous capsule can be easily separated
from cavity of the whole kidney.
II. Cavity of kidney:- Kidney is composed of renal sinuses. The
functional unit of kidney is nephron.
 Blood supply:- Blood is supplied to the kidney by the two arteries i.e. right
renal artery and left renal artery. These both arteries originated from the
abdominal aorta.
 Nerve supply:- Nerves are supplied from renal plexus.
2. The ureters:- These are the excretory ducts of the kidneys and one each
from right and left kidney. These originate from renal pelvis of
corresponding kidney. These pass caudally and terminate into the urinary
bladder. At the point of termination/entry of ureter into the bladder, they
become oblique which work as valve and stop the back flow of urine into
the kidney. Diameter of ureters is 6-8 mm and length of right ureter is 60
cm and left ureter is 50 cm.
3. Urinary bladder:- It is a thick walled sac, it works as reservoir for the urine.
The shape and size depend on the amount of urine it contains. When
bladder is empty then it is placed in contracted form at the floor of pelvis.
When it is full of urine then it is distended into the abdominal cavity. In
female the dorsal border of urinary bladder is related to the ventral side of
vagina and uterus. In male the dorsal border of urinary bladder is related to
rectum, vas deferens and seminal vesicle. The caudal end of the urinary
bladder is in the form of narrow tubular which is called sphincter of neck of
urinary bladder. This neck is continuous as urethra. The walls of urinary
bladder are made of interlacing bundles of involuntary muscles. The lining
of neck of urinary bladder walls are made of specialized mucus lining. This
mucus lining with the help of urinary bladder muscles can stretch to a great
extent.
4. URETHRA-: In male it is a tube extend from the neck of U.B to the glans
penis. It is a common passage for urine and semen. It has two parts pelvic
part and penile part. In female it is 8-12 cm long narrow tube extends from
the neck of U.B to external urinary meatus. It travels along the vagina. The
48
mucus layer of female urethra is rich in blood vessels and urethra open as
E.U.M.
# Urination/micturition:- The periodic discharge of urine from the bladder is

called urination. It is initiated by voluntary relaxation of muscle of neck of Urinary
bladder and maintained by the involuntary reflex contraction of urinary bladder
muscles. Therefore urination is both voluntary and involuntary function.
Some condition occurring during urination:-
I. Incontinence:- It is inappropriate involuntary passage of urine resulting

in wetting. It is of three types:-
i. Stress incontinence
ii. Over flow incontinence
iii. Urge incontinence
II. Enuresis:- It is the involuntary passage for urine especially night bed
wetting. This is the functional disorder of urinary tract. This condition is
automatically cures when child is grow up. It is hardly happened in
adult.
49
Reproductive System
# Male reproductive system:- Male reproductive organs are divided in to 3
categories:-
1. Primary male reproductive organs:- The testes

2. Secondary male reproductive organs:- These are the ducts leading from the
testes to the exterior. It consists vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens,
urethra and penis.
3. Accessory male reproductive organs:- these are some glands which secrets
some secretion which gives bulk to make semen and provide nutrition to
the spermatozoa.
# Primary male reproductive organs:-
The testes:- testes produce viable potentially fertile spermatozoa and male sex
hormone called testosterone. All mammals except living in sea and the birds have
testes. Testes are the primary reproductive organ of male. These develop in the
scrotum in mammals. Birds have no scrotum. There are 2 testes suspended in the
scrotum. Descending and ascending mechanism of testes in the scrotum gives
thermodynamic conditions for the development of viable and fertile
spermatozoa. Size of testes in cow bull is about 10-16 cm long and 5-8 cm wide.
The size of testes varies with age and weight of animal. Weight is about 250-300
gm.
Histology:- (microscopic study of anatomy)
Histologically each testes is composed of several crypts enclosed in a serous

membrane called tunica vaginalis. Each crypts has a number of seminiferous
tubules. Seminiferous tubules have 2 layers, basement layer and multilayered
sperm producing epithelium. This multilayered sperm producing epithelium
produces spermatozoa. The space between seminiferous tubules there are
interstitial cells called as ley dig cells which produce male sex hormone called
testosterone. Several seminiferous tubules combine to make the bigger tubule
called vasa efferntia.
50
# Secondary male reproductive organs:-
1. Epididymis:- Vasa efferentia emerges from testicles and enters into

epididymis. Epididymis is paired tube arising from the dorsal part of the
testicle. The length of this tube is about 33-35 m in ox. There are three
parts of this tube capet (head), carpus (body) and cauda (tail). Throughout
the length of the epididymis lined with secretory cells. This secretion helps
in nourishing, concentrating, storing and transferring of spermatozoa. It
takes 7-9 days for any sperm travel from germinal epithelium to the cauda
of epididymis. The diluted spermatozoa produced from testes are
concentrated and stored in epididymis.
2. Vas deferens:- This is also a paired tube arise from the cauda of epididymis.
It is slender tube with thick cord like wall. These tubes along with spermatic
nerves, vessels and cremaster muscles surrounded by tunica vaginalis are
also known as spermatic cord. Vas deferens is abundantly supplied by
nerve. Vas deferens by involuntary contraction of musculature help in
ejaculation of semen. The vas deferens ends in urethra.
3. The urethra:- The urethra is a common passage of semen and urine. It
extends through pelvic area & penis and ends at tip of penis i.e. glans penis.
The outer end of urethra is called external urethral opening [EUO], in
females it is called external urinary meatus [EUM].
4. The penis:- Penis is the male copulatory organ and it is composed of
erectile tissues. It carries the urethra through which urine and semen are
discharged. Urination can occur in a hanging position. The erectile tissue
are called corpus cavermosum and corpus spongyosum. These tissues filled
with blood and the penis becomes enlarged and rigid on sexual sensation.
The semen can be ejaculated with erected penis only. In bull penis is of ‘S’
shaped called sigmoid flexure. In normal condition this sigmoid flexure is
situated behind the scrotal sac. The tip of penis is called glans penis and this
glans penis has maximum sex stimulating nerve endings just like clitoris in
female. In bull length of penis is 3 feet and diameter is 1 inch.
# Accessory sex organs of male:- The accessory sex organ of male provide the bulk
of semen plasma. This semen plasma is rich in carbohydrates, citric acids,
51
proteins, amino acids, water soluble vitamins. This plasma relatively high in buffer
capacity. Theses accessory organs consist of three exocrine glands-
1. Seminal vesicles(paired):- These situated either side of ampulla and open

in vas deferens. The secretion of these glands has high level of fructose
(carbohydrates) and citric acids. And the secretion of these glands
contribute the maximum content of semen plasma.
2. Prostrate gland (single):- This glands consists of two joint parts. It is
surrounded by urethral muscles. The secretion contains antagglutin and
high content of minerals.
3. Tubule urethral gland (Cowper’s gland) (paired):- It has a compact body as
the size of walnut in bull. This is located above the urethra. It’s secretion is
viscid and mucous like.
# Some other important organs of male reproductive system:-
1. The scrotum and pampiniform flexure:- the spermatogenesis requires a

fixed temperature in mammals. The scrotum with its muscles fibrous lining
and outer skin supports and protect and provide the testes an appropriate
temperature. The testicles temperature is maintained 1-8o F cooler than
body. The muscles of testicles, external cremaster and tunica dortus draw
the testes towards the body when the environmental temperatureis lower
i.e. is in winters and when the environmental temperature is higher i.e. in
summers then these muscles let loose the testicles away from body. This
wonderful process as controlled by a looped flexure called pampiniform
flexure.
2. The semen:- The fluid ejaculated from the penis an male orgasm is called
semen. It is generally appears viscous, creamy, slightly yellow or greyish. It
contains spermatozoas/sperms suspended into seminal plasma. The
seminal plasma is secreted by 3 male accessary genital glands called
seminal vesicle, prostrate and urethral gland. The volume of semen and
sperms concentration varies with species to species. In man’s single
ejaculation of semen contains 300-500 millions of sperms. Semen contains
nutrients and provide facilities to the sperms to travel from testes to
exterior of penis.
52
3. Spermatic cord:- This is a cord which extends from upper end of the
corresponding testes to the ring of inguinal canal.
It has 2 ends:-
(i) Cranial:- It consists blood vessels i.e. arteries and veins, nerve,
lymphatics, vas deferens, cremaster muscle.
(ii) Caudal:- it consists only vasdeferens.
Spermatic cord is covered by tunica vaginals i.e. a fibrous membrane.
# Male genital organs of horse:-
1. Scrotum is short and oval.

2. Color of scrotum is black.
3. Testis are smaller.
4. Penis shorter and thicker.
5. Sigmoid flexure is absent.
6. At the base of glans penis there is a border called corona glandis.
# Female reproductive system:- It consists of:-
1. The ovaries
2. Uterine or fallopian tubes
3. The uterus
4. Vagina
5. The vulva
There is an accessory genital organs, mammary gland which starts
functioning on maturity or pregnancy.
A. The ovaries:- there are 2 oval bodies situated little above the middle of
pelvic inlet. The size of ovaries varies with animal to animal. Normally the
size of ovary in cow is 2-3 cm long, 2 cm wide and 1 cm thick. The ovaries
are rich in blood vessels and nerves.
Ovaries perform dual purpose:-
Endocrine function to produce two female hormone estrogen and
progestron.
In a mature ovary of cow there present 7500 follicles called griffin follicles.
The griffin follicles are round body found in different stages of
53
development. They are found in primary, secondary and in mature form.
The cell in the center of griffin follicle developed as ova. The remnant of
ruptured griffin follicle is called carpus luteum. Carpus luteum is remained
as reddish yellow colored body on the ovary. On the surface of ovary the
carpus leuteum remain for a fixed period. In pregnant animal carpus luteum
present in well developed during all gestation period.
B. Uterine/fallopian tube/oviducts:- these are 2 narrow flexible tubes which
are continuous with the pointed ends of uterine horns. Each has length of
about 20-30 cm and width 2-3 mm. oviduct has 3 parts-
i. Isthmus:- it is also called uterine portion. It is narrow and thick
walled.
ii. Ampulla/ovarian half:- It has thick walled and little dilated.
iii. Infundibulum/ovarian half:- It is also dilated and form a funnel.
Infundibulum is situated in such a position near the ovary which
never fails to capture the ovum shed by the ovary.
The oviduct is composed of serous, muscular and mucous
layer. Muscular coat consists of circular and longitudinal muscle
fibers. The mucous membrane is made by ciliated epithileum.
Fertilization is generally occur in ampullary part of oviduct.
C. The uterus:- it is thick walled and hollow structure/organ situated almost in
the abdominal cavity. It is partly situated in pelvic cavity also. Urinary
bladder situated below and colon & rectum above. First portion of uterine
horns are caudal part which is attached with vagina. Uterus is attached to
the sub-lumber region and to the lateral wall of the pelvis. The abdominal
part of the uterus is attached with broad ligament. It consists of three
parts:-
i. Uterine horns:-they are two in number left and right. Each horn is
a spiral muscular tube which is tapered caranially to join the
oviduct. They are broad caudally and narrow cranially. The joint to
form body of the uterus. The average length of uterine horn is 30
cm in non-pregnant cow.
ii. Body:- It is very small in length about 4-5 cm. it is laterally
attached with broad ligament. The caudal part is called cervix. The
54
mucosal inner lining of the uterine body and uterine horns is
made up of number of raised spots called as caurancles. The
caurancles develop into cotyledons during pregnancy. These
cotyledons are attached to placenta and hence to nurish the
embryo. P.D. is done by palpation of uterine body and uterine
horns.
iii. The cervix:- It is also called the neck of the uterine body. Its length
about is 8 cm. the cervix of cow is very thick. It is made up of
spiral folds of mucous membrane. It is tightly closed during
pregnancy and anestrous. It is dilated during parturition.
D. The vagina:- It is muscular tube extended from the caudal part of cervix to
the vestibule. Average length of vagina of cow is 20 cm. the length
increases during pregnancy. It is a highly elastic organ which is lined with
mucus membrane. Vagina functions as birth canal during parturition and it
is female copulatory organ & accommodate erected penis during
copulation.
E. The vulva :- It is the verticle opening of female genital system. It lies just
below the anus. Vulva has two labia – one is outer called labium majus and
second is inner called labium minoris. Labium majus has tectile hairs. The
diameter of vulva is greater than the vagina. The vulvar wall is linned by
mucus membrane which secrets mucus during copulation and sexual
excitement. On the posterior floor of vulva there lies clitoris. Clitoris is the
counter part of male penis. It is a bud like structure. It is very sensatory and
erectile in nature. Just below the clitoris external urinary meatus [E.U.M.]
or urethral opening is presents. Clitoris also called Pseudopenis.
# Accessory female genital organs :-
1. Placenta and extra embryonic membrane:- Placenta can be defined as an

area where a close fusion takes place between uterine wall and the
embryo. This fusion helps in the exchange of nutrients and oxygen from
mother to embryo. The blood of mother and fetus never mixed. Three
germinal layers in the fetus :-
55
i. Yolk sac:- It is very small in mammals and remain functional for a very
short time. It provides nutrition to the embryo.
ii. Amnion:- it is the inner most membrane enveloping the embryo. This
membrane forms a cavity called Amniotic cavity. This amniotic cavity
filled with a fluid which protect the embryo from any mechanical
injuries to the embryo.
iii. Allantois:- It is another foetal membrane. It contributes in the
formation of placenta and umblical cord. This layer comes in contact
with chorion.
 Chorion:- It is outer most layer which makes contact with uterine wall
through cotyledons.
2. Mammary glands:- it is an accessory reproductive organ of female. It
developes with the influence of hormones during puberty and starts
functioning after conception (after the stage of pregnancy) and secreting
milk after parturition. It is modified sweat gland. The development of
mammary glands occur by the action of estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones cause –
i. Deposition of fat.
ii. Development of stroma.
iii. Growth of lobules, alveoli and duct.
The gland of both side (right and left) are separated by a septum.
Demarcation of glands of same side is not clear and have no connection or
duct system. The udder is attached to the abdominal cavity with the help
of suspensory apparatus and udder is situated in the inguinal region
between the thighs. Mammary glands are made up of epithelial
component and connective tissue (stroma). Epithelial component has
number of alveoli. Which secret milk and collected in the teat system of
the corresponding teat. There are 4 teats in cow. Teats are long tubular in
shape and the distal end of teats is conical. Teats have muscular sphincter
which prevent leakage of milk when milking is not done.
56
Respiratory System
The respiratory system has two components:-
1. The respiratory passage:-

It includes:-
I. Nose and nasal cavity:- It is the first part of the respiratory passage.
It extends from exterior of the nose to the nasopharynx. This is
bilateral, irregular tubular passage and this is enclosed by facial
bones and cartilages. The external opening of nasal cavity is called
nostrils. Nostrils are ‘comma’ shaped, oblique openings placed on the
both sides of the muzzle. Both nostrils are separated by a cartilage
called nasal septum. The nasal cavity is lined by mucus membrane.
Nasal cavity in animals is hairless and kept moist by the secretion of
mucus membrane. The posterior last 1/4th part of the nasal cavity
works as olfactory organ.
II. Pharynx:- This is common organ of digestive system and respiratory
system. Pharynx connect the nasal cavity to the larynx.
III. Larynx:- It is a musculo cartilage elongated compartment of
respiratory passage. It is situated between pharynx and trachea. It is
composed of four cartilages i.e. thyroid cartilage, epiglottis cartilage,
erytenoid cartilage and cricoid cartilage. These 4 cartilages form
laryngeal cavity extends from the entrance of larynx and the caudal
borders.
57
Fig: Larynx of ox
IV. Trachea:- It is an elastic tube extends from larynx to the level of base
of heart. It is made of cartilages and membranes. There are about 50-
60 cartilages in the form incomplete rings in trachea of cattle. The
open ends of the rings placed caudally. The rings are completed by
connective tissue and smooth muscles of trachea. The length of
trachea in cow is about 60 cm. Trachea bifurcates into two right and
left bronchi at the lower terminal end. Trachea is divided into two
parts i.e. cervical and thoracic. Before this bifurcation there originate
and extra bronchus on the right side called apical bronchus.
58
Fig: (A) Trachea of cow
 Thoracic part of trachea:- In thoracic part there is extra bronchus on

the right side of trachea at level of thirds ribs in ruminants. It is called
apical bronchus. This apical bronchus ventilates the apical lobe of the
right lung. This is a peculiarity in the ruminants.
Composition of trachea:-
 Outer layer of fibrous adventitia.
 Cartilaginous rings – This is hyaline in nature.
 Sub-mucosa
 Mucus membrane.
2. The Lungs:- Lungs are in a pair and these are main organs of respiration.
They occupy most of the area of thoracic cavity. The two lungs are
59
separated by mediastinum. Each lung is placed into the corresponding
pleural cavity. Lung are pink in color in fresh condition. Lungs are soft and
spongy in appearance. They are crepitate to the touch and float in water.
Lungs of new born calf are solid and do not float in water. Right lung is
larger than left. Each lung is conical in shape and divided into lobes. Lungs
have two surface, two border, one base and one apex.
 Lobes of the lungs:- The lungs are divided into lobes by fissures.
Right lung has four lobes:-
i. Apical lobe
ii. Cardiac lobe
iii. Diaphragmatic lobe
iv. Accessory/intermediate lobe.
Left lung has three lobes:-
i. Apical lobe
ii. Cardiac lobe
iii. Diaphragmatic lobe
The apical lobe of right lung is larger than the apical lobe of left lung and
it is ventilated by a special bronchus called apical bronchus.
 Structure of lungs:- Lungs is an organ which is enclosed space covered

by external serous coat called pleura. Lungs have thousands of lobules
and broncheoles. These lobules are the basic unit of respiration.
60
Fig: Lung of a cow
# Bronchial tree:- Trachea after giving of apical bronchus at the level of 3rd rib,
bifurcates into right and left bronchi. These are called primary or pleural bronchi.
Then these primary bronchi further bifurcates into secondary bronchi or lobular
bronchi. The secondary/lobular bronchi ventilates each lobe. These
secondary/lobular bronchi again sub-divided into tertiary bronchi which ventilate
the specific area of the lobe. Then further divided into terminal bronchi. Terminal
bronchus further divided into bronchioles. Bronchioles further divided into
terminal bronchiole. These terminal bronchiole further divided into respiratory
bronchioles and the respiratory bronchiole divided into alveolar duct. Alveoli are
the basic unit of respiration. These are microscopic and exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli and there are thousands of alveoli in the
lungs.
61
Fig: Bronchial tree
# Pulmonary circulation:- Pulmonary circulation is of 2 types:-
1. The deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle is discharged into the
lungs by 2 pulmonary arteries. After oxygenated, the blood is discharged
into the left atrium via pulmonary veins.
2. Bronchiole artery from thoracic aorta supply the oxygenated blood to the
tissues of lungs. Nerve supply to the lungs are by pulmonary branch of
vagus and symphathetic nervous system.
# Respiratory organs of Horse:-
1. Nasal cavity is narrow and longer.

2. Thoracic cavity is larger.
3. Trachea is longer.
4. Apical bronchus is absent.
5. The apical lobe of right lung is not so large as compare to ox.
62
# Pleura and pleural cavity:- Pleura is a thin transparent serous membrane. This
encloses the lungs and line the interior of thoracic cavity. Pleura has 2 surfaces i.e.
parietal and visceral.
Visceral:- It invest the surface of lungs. The space between these 2 layers is called
pleural cavity.
63
NERVOUS SYSTEM (NEUROLOGY)
Nervous system:-
It is the system, that receives the information with regards to the

environment (internal and external) of the body, in response, regulates the
appropriate functions, that is it controls the functions of the body. It is the center
of intellectual, thoughts and emotions.
Neurons:-
The functional unit of the nervous system is neuron. A neuron has a

processes or fibers. There are two types of processes or fibers in a neuron –
 First is long and called Axons. Carry the impulses away from the neuron.
 Second is short called Dendrons. These brings the impulses towards the
neurons.
Neurons are classified according to their numbers of processes such as

Apolars, Unipolars, Bipolars and Multipolars.
Meninges:-
The brain and the spinal cord are enclosed by three membranes for there
protection, these called meninges. These are three in numbers –
1. Duramater – outer
2. Arachnoid – middle
3. Piamater – inner
Mainly nervous system is divided into three parts:-
1. CNS (central nervous system) – It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. PNS (peripheral nervous system) – it consists of cranial and spinal nervous.
3. ANS (Autonomous nervous system) – It has two parts i.e. Sympathetic and
parasympathetic ANS.
64
CNS (central nervous system):-
A. The Brain:-
Brain is the main part of CNS. It is situated into the cranial cavity of the
skeleton. Brain has three parts –
1. Brain-stem:- It connects the brain to the spinal cord. It further divided into
three parts –
i. Mid brain
ii. Pons
iii. Medulla oblongata
2. Cerebellum:- It is situated between the brain stem and the cerebrum (fore-
brain). Its function is coordinating i.e. to maintain the balance of the body.
3. Cerebrum:- it is largest part of the brain. It consists of two Cerebral
Hemispheres i.e. left and right. These part of the brain is the center of
intellectual and thoughts.
4. The thalamus and hypothalamus:- They work as the relay stations of
sensory inputs and outputs.
B. Spinal cord:-
This is a thick cylindrical structure situated in the vertebral column. It

extends from brain stem, through FORAMEN MAGNUM, to the middle of the
SACRUM. It is the continuous of MEDULLA OBLONGATA. About 37 pairs of spinal
nerves are attached to the lateral aspect of the spinal cord. These nerves are
grouped with concerned vertebrae i.e. cervical, thoracic, lumber, sacral and
coccygeal.
PNS (peripheral nervous system):-
This system is composed of the nerves that connects the outlying

parts of the body to the CNS (Brain and Spinal cord). These include 12 pairs of
cranial nerves and 37 pairs spinal nerves.
65
1. Cranial nerves:-
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. These nerves originate from
the different parts of the brain and leave brain through various foramina.
These nerves supply to the different organs of the body. These are of three
types:-
 SENSORY
 MOTOR
 MIXED (i.e. both sensory and motor)
These are following:
i. Olfactory (S) :- Supply to the olfactory area.

ii. Optic (S) :- Supply to the Visual Cortex.
iii. Occulomotor (M):- Supply to Occular muscle (the seven muscles,
which are responsible for the rotation of the eyes).
iv. Trochlear (M):- Supply to the muscles of the eyes.
v. Trigeminal (Mx):- Supply to face, teeth, gum, muscles of mastication,
horns, nasal cavity, tongue etc.
vi. Abducent (Mx):- Supply to the eyes.
vii. Facial (Mx):- Supply to face.
viii. Cochlea Vestibular (Auditory) (S):- Supply to the ears.
ix. Glosso pharyngeal (Mx):- Supply to pharynx, larynx, tongue,
mandible etc.
x. Vagus (Mx):- Supply to pharynx, larynx, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, trachea, lungs, liver, heart, pancreas, spleen, kidneys etc.
xi. Spinal accessory (M):- Supply to muscles of neck and shoulders.
xii. Hypoglossal (M):- Supply to tongue.
2. Spinal nerves:- There are 37 pairs in ox and 42 pairs in horse.
Cervical – 8
Thoracic – 13 ( in horse thoracic are 18 pairs)
Lumber – 6
Sacral – 5
Coccygeal – 5
66
These nerves emerges from intervertebral foramina and supply to the
peripheral areas of the neck, thorax, abdomen, limbs and other parts of the
body except face.
ANS (Autonomous nervous system):-
This is the visceral components of the nervous system. The nerve fibers
of this system are distributed to the viscera, blood vessels, various glands. Eg.
Salivary glands, sweat glands etc. and the smooth muscles. This system works at
Subconscious or unconscious level. This is not an autonomous system completely,
but partially regulated by CNS. This system is divided into 2 parts.
-Parasympathetic
-Sympathetic
These two systems are antagonistic to each other.
 Important functions of parasympathetic nervous system:-

i. Inhibition of Blood Pressure.
ii. Fall of Blood Pressure.
iii. Constriction of Pupil of Eyes, Bronchi & Bronchioles.
iv. Relaxation of Sphincter of the Gut.
v. Evacuation of Bladder and Rectum.
 Important functions of sympathetic nervous system:-
i. -Increase of Heart Rate.
ii. Dilation of Pupils, Bronchi and Bronchioles.
iii. Decrease of Glandular Secretions.
iv. Decrease of Peristaltic Movements.
v. Stimulation of sphincter Muscles of Gut.
vi. Stimulation of Sweat glands, hence helps in decreasing of body
temperature.
67
Eyes
Eye ball is the chief apparatus of vision. Each eye ball is housed in the orbit within
a soft atmosphere of surrounding fat and maintained in position by the action of
extra ocular muscles. Eye have following parts:-
1. Eye lids:- These are two fibrous sheath attach to the periphery of orbital
margin. These cover the anterior portion of the eye ball when closed.
2. Conjunctiva:- This is a thin transparent membrane which covers the front
portion of sclera and cornea.
3. Orbit:- This is bony cavity which accommodate the eye ball at the apex of
the cavity/orbit. There is a optic foramen through which optic nerve is pass.
4. Lacrimal apparatus:- This is composed of lacrimal glands which produce
tears.
5. Ocular muscles:- There are 7 ocular muscles which are responsible for the
movement and holding of eye ball. These muscles are controlled by
occulomotor cranial nerve.
6. Eye ball:- It is spherical in shape with a transverse diameter of 3-5 cm. the
axial diameter is slightly longer due to forward building of cornea. This is
composed of three coats:-
i. Fibrous coat:- This is outer hard protective coat.
ii. Vascular coat:- It has choroid, ciliary body and iris.
iii. Nervous coat:- This is the inner most layer of the eye and have
delicate membrane called retina. This retina is connected with optic
nerve.
7. Vitreous humer and Aqueous humer:- These are two liquid and jelly like
substance which fills the eye ball.
8. Iris:- It regulates the entry of light in eyes through pupil.
68
The Ears
This is an organ associated with hearing and equilibrium. It is also called

vestibulocohlear organ. It consists of three parts :-
1. External ear:- it is divided into two parts:-

i. Auricle or Pinna:- Pinnae of animal, unlike to human beings. Can be
moved in desired direction by muscles. These are elongated funnel
shape structures made of elastic cartilage.
ii. External acoustic meatus:- It is a canal leads medially towards the
middle ear. It accommodates some sebaceous and sweat gland which
produces cerumen, a wax type material. In between external and
middle ear there lies tympanic membrane. This is oval type structure
which seperates external and internal ear.
2. Middle ear:- It is an irregular biconcave small space between tympanic
membrane and internal ear. This space is called tympanic cavity which
contains three ear ossicles (small ear bones). These bones arranged in such
a way in a chain which connects tympanic membrane to internal ear.
3. Internal ear:- This is the main portion of the organ of hearing. It is situated
within temporal bone. It consists of a osseous labyrinth which has three
parts:-
i. Vestibule:- It is bony cavity placed middle to the tympanic cavity. It is
continues with cochlea and semilunar canal.
ii. Cochlea:- It is a bony spiral canal just like shell of snail.
iii. Semilunar canal:- These are three tubes placed at right angle to each
other.
69

Anatomy 1

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ANATOMY :- Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body of animals.

According to the naked eye appearance, with regard their size

1. Long bones:- These are LONG, HOLLOW, CYLINDRICAL types of bones,

Ossification:- The process of bone formation is called ossification.

# Skeleton System :- It consist of bones and some area of cartilage. Animal

* Two parts of skeleton system:-

(b) Skeleton of face – make the face of animal.

i. Occipital Bone (single):- This bone forms superior as well as posterior

1. Body:- It is horizontal part of the mandible. It has two parts:-

(a). Anterior/incisival part

# Comparison with skull of Horse with Ox:-

1. The skull is long and four sided.

Fig:- Skeleton of skull of OX (maxilla, mandible)

2) VERTEBRAL COLOUMN:- It is defined as a series of bone articulating together to

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

i. Ossa cordis:- Two small triangular bones embedded in the myocardium

# Appendicular skeleton system of animals:- It comprises of :-

i. Scapula of ox:- It is a flat irregular bone situated at cranio lateral aspect of

ii. Humerus:- It is a long bone situated obliquely downward and backwardly. It

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

a) 4th carpal (Unciform)

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

2nd row:- 2 bones in each limb (i.e. 1 in each digit).

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Fig- Pelvic bones of cow

2. Femur:- It is a cylindrical and longest bone of the skeleton.it is directed

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Fig- Patella of cow

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Fig- Tarsal of cow (right leg)

a) Proximal row:- It consist two tarsal bones:-

Fig- Right large metatarsal bone of ox

*Differential features of metacarpal and metatarsal:-

i) It is a shorter bone. i) It is a longer bone.

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

# Composition of bone:- Bones is a mineralized connective tissue and the

Inorganic materials includes 86 % calcium phosphate, 5.8 %

The deposition of these inorganic material is called ossification of bones

~Joints are of three types:-

Synovial joint have following part:-

The joint capsule filled with synovia which is a lubricating liquid.

 Synovial fluid :- Synovial fluid is a thick tenacious liquid found in joints

# TEETH:- The number and classification of permanent teeth is fixed in a species.

*Formula for horse teeth:-

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

Function of this system are reception/Prehension,

# Two parts of digestive system :-

1. Alimentary canal or GIT :-

2. Accessory digestive organ :-

# Digestive organ of ruminants :-

The alimentary canal of

#Parts of Alimantry canal :-

Written By:- Shrikant Siwach (VLDD student of SDS COAS 2015-2017)

# Accessory organ of digestive system #

 Uses / function of saliva