TECHNICAL REPORT STANDARD TITLE PAGE

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

FHWA/TX-84/32+248-l
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Dot.

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF JOINTS September 1983

6. Performing Organi zation Code
FOR PRECAST SEGMENTAL BRIDGES
7. Author/.) 8. Performing Organi zation Report No.

K. Koseki and J. E. Breen Research Report 248-1

9. Performing Organization Name and Addre .. 10. Wor~ Unit No.

Center for Transportation Research

II. Contract or Grant No.
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas 78712-1075 Research Study 3-5-80-248
13. Type 0/ Report and Period Coyered
~~--------~~--~~--------------------------~
12. Sponsoring Agency Nome and Addre ..
Texas State Department of Highways and Public Interim
Transportation; Transportation Planning Division
P. O. Box 5051 1<1. Sponsoring Agency Code
Austin, Texas 78763
IS. Supplementary Notes
Study conducted in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration. Research Study Title: '~eevaluation of AASHTO Shear
and Torsion Provisions for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete"
16. Abstract

The joints between the precast segments are of critical importance in

segmental bridge construction. They are critical to the development of structural
capacity by ensuring the transfer of shear across the joints and often play a key
role in ensuring durability by protecting the tendons against corrosion. However,
construction of the joints must be simple and economical. A number of types of
joint configurations have been used in various precast segmental bridges in the
United States, although relatively little information is available on the behavior
and design of such joints. This study reports on a modest scope experimental
investigation to determine the relative shear transfer strength across different
types of joints typically used between adjacent segments of precast segmental
bridges. The types of joints considered included no keys, single large keys, and
multiple lug keys. Both dry and epoxy joints were tested. The test results indi-
cated substantial differences in the strength at a given slip in the various types
of dry joints, but indicated that all types of joints with epoxy essentially
developed the full strength of a monolithically cast joint.

17. Key Word. 18. Distribution Statement

joints, shear strength, segmental No restrictions. This document is

bridges, precast, no keys, single available to the public through the
large keys, multiple lug keys, dry, National Technical Information Service,
epoxy Springfield, Virginia 22161.
19. Security Clolli'. Co, thi. report) 20. Security Clalli'. Co, thi. pagel 21. No. o' Pog.. 22. Price

Unclassified Unclassified 106

Form DOT F 1700.7 IS-U)

 EXPLORATORY STUDY OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF JOINTS

FOR PRECAST SEGMENTAL BRIDGES

by

K. Koseki and J. E. Breen

Research Report No. 248-1

Research Project No. 3-5-80-248

Reevaluation of AASHTO Shear and Torsion Provisions for

Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete

Conducted for

Texas

State Department of Highways and Public Transportation

In Cooperation with the
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration

by

CENTER FOR TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH

BUREAU OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

September 1983
 The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors who
are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the
Federal Highway Administration. This report does not constitute a
standard, specification, or regulation.

ii
 PRE F ACE

This report presents the results of an exploratory study which

considered the behavior and criteria for design of shear keys for
segmental prestressed concrete box girder bridges. This study forms a
part of a larger study which is reevaluating the basic AASHTO shear and
torsion provisions for reinforced and prestressed concrete and stems
directly from review comments wherein FHWA asked the researchers to
consider the criteria for design of such shear keys in the overall
study. The objective of the program reported herein was to review
existing data and to conduct a limited scope experimental program to
determine relative shear transfer strength across different types of
joints between adjacent segments typical of precast segmental bridges.
The types of joints considered included single large key, multiple lug
keys, and joints with no keys. Both dry and epoxy joints were studied.
The work was sponsored by the Texas State Department of Highways
and Public Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration and
administered by the Center for Transportation Research at The University
of Texas at Austin. Close liaison with the State Department of Highways
and Public Transportation has been maintained through Mr. Warren A.
Grasso and Mr. Dean W. Van Landuyt who served as contact representatives
during the project and with Mr. T. E. Strock of the Federal Highway
Administration.
The project was conducted in the Phil M. Ferguson Structural
Engineering Laboratory located at the Balcones Research Center of The
Universi ty of Texas at Austin. The authors would like to acknowledge
the assistance of Figg and Muller Incorporated of Tallahassee, Florida,
who provided detailed information about the mul tiple key joint
configuration used in the study and Kajima Corporation of Tokyo, Japan,
who provided financial support for Mr. Koseki throughout his study. The
authors were particularly indebted to Mr. Gorham W. Hinckley, Laboratory
Technician at the Ferguson Laboratory, who greatly helped in carrying
out the laboratory work involved.

iii
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 SUMMARY

The joints between the precast segments are of critical importance

1n segmental bridge construction. They are critical in the development
of structural capacity by ensuring the transfer of shear across the
joints and often playa key role in ensuring durability by protecting
the tendons against corrosion. However, construction of the joints must
be simple and economical. A number of types of joint configurations
have been used in various precast segmental bridges in the United
States, although relatively little information is available on the
behavior and design of such joints. This study reports on a modest
scope experimental investigation to determine the relative shear
transfer strength across different types of joints typically used
between adjacent segments of precast segmental bridges. The types of
joints considered included no keys, single large keys, and mUltiple lug
keys. Both dry and epoxy joints were tested. The test results
indicated substantial differences in the strength at a given slip in the
various types of the dry joints, but indicated that all types of joints
with epoxy essentially developed the full strength of a monolithically
cas t joint.

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 IMP L E MEN TAT ION

The results of this study will assist the designer to assess the
merits of various types of joints proposed for this popular type of
construction. Current design specifications do not address this problem
and these results, while representing only a limited exploratory study,
do indicate important trends and allow the bridge designer to better
understand the trade-offs that are being made in the choice of joint
type.

vii
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 CON TEN T S

Chapter Page

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Precast Segmental Bridge Construction 1

1.2 Objective and Scope 3

1.2.1 Shear keys and epoxy bonding agent 3

1.2.2 Objective •. 6
1.2.3 Shear test 7

1.3 Previous Related Studies 7

1.3.1 Shear friction 7

1.3.2 Shear tests on joints with no-keys between
precast post-tensioned units • . • • • • 12
1.3.3 Shear tests on joints with single key
between post-tensioned precast segments . 17
1.3.4 Studies on shear strength of multiple keys 17

2 TEST SPECIMEN . • . . . . 23

2.1 Specimen Dimensions 23

2.2 Materials 26

2.2.1 Micro-concrete 26
2.2.2 Reinforcement. 26
2.2.3 Prestressing tendon • . 26
2.2.4 Epoxy 26

2.3 Fabrication 32

2.3.1 Reinforcing cages and forms 32

2.3.2 Casting procedure 32
2.3.3 Concrete strength f~7 • 35

ix
x

Chapter Page

3. TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

···· ···· 39

3.1 Preparation ....· ···· 39

3.2 Joining and Post-Tensioning

···· 39

3.2.1 Match-cast joint surfaces

····· 39
3.2.2
3.2.3
Epoxying
Prestressing
···· 39
40
3.2.4 Prestressing forces
· ······ 40

3.3
·
Shear Test Arrangement
······· 42

3.4 Test Results ....·· 42

3.4.1 Stresses due to prestressing

···· 42
3.4.2 Load vs slip
··· ····· 46
3.4.3 Concrete strength, prestressing force and
maximum load · ·
···· 50
3.4.4 Crack pattern at failure
···· 52

4. DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

·· 63

4.1 Capacity of the Specimen

· ···· 63

4.1.1 Flexural capacity

········· 63
4.1.2 Section shear capacity 65
4.1.3 Bearing capacity
· ··· ··· 66

4.2 Shear Strength of the Joints 66

4.2.1 Shear friction 66

4.2.2 Single key joint
··· 70
4.2.3 Multiple key joint
···· 78
4.2.4 Effect of epoxy
·· 82

4.3 Appraisal of Types of Joint

· ····· ··.. 85
 xi

Chapter Page

5. CONCLUSIONS. 87

REFERENCES 91
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 TABLES

Table Page

1.1 Test Specimens 8

1.2 Examples of Multiple Key Configuration 19

2.1 Design Mix Proportion • • • 27

2.2 Concrete Strength at 7 Days • • • 37

3.1 Stresses Due to Prestressing 44

3.2 Concrete Strength, Prestressing Force, and

!1a.x i.mt.lm Load • • • • • • .. • • • • • • . .. . . . .. .. 51

4.1 Capacity of the Test Specimens if Monolithic 64

4.2 Shear Capacity of the Test Specimens 69

xiii
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 FIG U RES
Figure Page

1.1 Typical Precast Segmental Bridge Construction 2

1.2 Examples of Shear Keys 5

1.3 Web Model for the Tests • 9

1.4 Shear Test of Joint • . .... 10

1.5 Model Precast Segments and Test Specimens. 11

1.6 Shear Test on Joints of Precast Segmental Beams

by Franz .... 13

1.7 Shear Tests on Joints between Precast Units by

Jones • . 14

1.8 Unbonded Push-off Test by Gaston & Kriz . 16

1.9 Effect of Shear Key Height to Depth Ratio • • 19

1.10 Concrete Prism Specimen 21

1.11 Segmental Girder Specimen • 22

2.1 Profile of Model Precast Segment 24

2.2 Configuration of Joints . • . . 25

2.3 Stress-Strain Relationship of 6 mm Reinforcing Bars 28

2.4 Stress-Strain Relationship of 10 Gage Wire 29

2.5 Development of Strength of Epoxy 30

2.6 End Forms . • 33

2.7 Match-Casting of Segments . 34

2.8 Separation of Segments after Form Removal • 36

3.1 Post-Tensioning Arrangement . 41

3.2 Shear Test Arrangement 43

3.3 Stresses at Joint . . . 45

xv
xvi

Figure Page

3.4 Load vs "Slip at Joints" without Epoxying • 47

3.5 Load vs "Slip at Joints" with Epoxying 48

3.6 Comparison of the Results with and without Epoxying • 49

3.7 Comparison of f • F and P

c p max 53
3.S Crack Pattern at Failure (Single Key Joint w/o
Epo'XY'ing) • • " • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • 54

3.9 Crack Pattern at Failure (Single Key Joint w/o

Epoxying) - Photo - •.••••.••.••• 55

3.10 Crack Pattern at Failure (Multiple Key Joint wlo

Epoxying) • • . • . • • • • • • 56

3.11 Sheared-off Joint after the Test (Multiple Key

Joint wlo Epoxying) . • • • • • • • • • • • • 58

3.12 Crack Patterns at Failure (Specimens wI Epoxying) . 59

3.13 Crack Pattern at Failure (Epoxied, No-Key Joint) 60

3.14 Crack Patterns at Failure (No-Joint) 61

3.15 Crack Pattern at Failure (Monolithic, No-Joint) • 62

4.1 Correction of Load vs Slip Curve of Single Key

Joint wlo Epoxying . • • • • . . . • 72

4.2 Forces Acting on Single Key (Without Epoxy) • 74

4.3 Forces Acting on Multiple Keys (Without Epoxy) so

4.4 Comparison of Behavior of Joints 84
 C HAP T E R

I NTRODUCT ION

1.1 Precast Segmental Bridge Construction

In precast segmental bridge construction, the structure is
constructed by post-tensioning together precast segments which are
usually manufactured as short longitudinal sections of the box girder
cross section. Balanced cantilever erection (see Fig. 1.1) was the
early predom inant method of constructing segmental bridges. In a number
of recent applications, the span-by-span method with segments assembled
on a falsework truss has seen wide use.
The technology of precast segmental construction was an extension
of cast-in-place segmental prestressed construction which was developed
by Ulrich Finsterwalder and the firm of Dyckerhoff & Widmann A.G.
(Dywidag) in West Germany in the 1950's [1,2]. The first major
application of precast segmental construction was in the Choisy-le-Roi
Bridge in 1962 [1,2]. The structure was designed by Jean Muller and the
firm of Entreprises Campenon Bernard in France. Thereafter, the
techniques of precasting segments and assembling them in the structure
have been continually refined.
Precast segmental construction was introduced to the United States
in the early 1970s. The JFK Memorial Causeway in Corpus Christi, Texas,
was the first application of the method and was completed in 1973 [1,2].
Since 1975, this technique of constructing bridges has gained rapid
acceptance, and there are presently over 80 such bridges either
completed, under construction, or in design in North America [3].
During the initial development of segmental construction the bridges
were constructed by the balanced cantilever method. Currently, such
techniques as span-by-span construction, incremental launching, and
progressive placing are also being utilized. The Long Key Bridge in
Florida, the Wabash River Bridge in Indiana, and the Linn Cove project
in North Carolina are examples of each of these procedures,
respecti vel y.

1
 f>,.)

Precast segments

Pier

(a) Balanced cantilever erection with (b) Balanced cantilever

launching gantry erection with crane

Fig. 1.1 Typical precast segmental bridge construction

 3

A large number of precast segmental bridges use an epoxy resin

jointing material between precast segments. The thickness of the epoxy
joint is on the order of 1/32 in. The use of an epoxy joint requires a
perfect fit between the ends of adjacent segments. This is achieved by
casting each segment against the end face of the preceding one Cmatch-
casting), and then erecting the segments in the same order in which they
were cast.
While numerous examples of successful projects with such joints
exist, there are also a number of possible disadvantages in precast
segmental construction:
--Necessity for a high degree of geometry control during
fabrication and erection of segments.
--Potential joint weakness due to lack of mild steel reinforcement
across the joint.
--Temperature and weather limitations regarding mixing and placing
epoxy jointing material.
--Frequent loading and unloading of segments, with the risk of
damage.
The large number of successful projects in Europe, North America,
and other parts of the world suggest that these obstacles will not curb
the rapid growth in the use of precast segmental bridge construction.
Epoxy joints, grouted tendons, and shear keys have reduced dependence on
the bonded mild steel joint reinforcement, while the versatility of the
match-casting procedure in numerous major projects involving complex
horizontal and vertical alignment has shown that the precast procedures
can deal with geometrical problems. A number of recent projects have
been built with multiple key dry joints to eliminate epoxy coatings and
their attendant problems.

1.2 Objective and Scope

1.2.1 Shear Keys and Epoxy Bonding Agent. The joints between the
precast segments are of cri tical importance in segmental bridge
construction. They must have high strength to transfer shear. If
tendons pass through the joints, then they must have assured durability
in ord er to protect the tendons against corrosion. In ad d it io n,
4

construction of the joints must be reasonably easy and not overly

sensitive to atmospheric conditions.
In match-cast segments, single or multiple keys are almost always
used in the webs, with epoxy resins often used to coat the contact
surfaces between adjacent segments.
The web keys serve two functions. The fir st is to al ign the
segments during erection. The second is to transfer the shear force
between segments during that period while the epoxy applied to the joint
is still plastic and acts only as a lubricant. At that time, the web
shear keys alone must be relied upon to transfer the shear force across
the joint, since the fluid epoxy bonding agent minimizes the coefficient
of friction between the segments. Examples of single and multiple keys
are shown in Fig. 1.2. A typical multiple key joint has a series of
small interlocking keys over the entire web height. This arrangement
was developed to relieve the cured epoxy bonding agent of any structural
function [4,5J. Use of internal stiffeners on the webs provides an
anchor zone for the permanent prestressing tendons, thus moving them
from the face of the web and permitting use of the multiple key design.
In some bridges, however, shear keys have not been used. In the
Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge, the match-cast joint contains no shear
keys [6,7J. To facilitate alignment, 2-in. diameter steel pintles were
used in the top slab at each joint. The segments were bonded together
wi th epoxy. The shear force acting on the joint is al ways smaller than
5% of the longitudinal force because of the multi-cable stay system.
The major function of epoxies used in segmental joints is fourfold:
In the liquid state
- To act as a lubricant which facilitates jointing.
- To even out minor irregularities between the mating surfaces and
to perfectly match the adjoining segments.
In the cured state
- To provide water tightness and durability at the joint and to
protect the post-tensioning tendons running through the joint
from corrosion.
- To transfer shear forces and to contribute to the structural
rigidity.
 5

a) JFK Memorial Causeway, Corpus Christi (Single key)

"
.25

28"
96" dIs 3/1
24" (h)
3"
d/h .21

Key (Detail)
Web

b) Long Key Bridge (Multiple keys, dry joint)

3-7/8" Number
9
of Keys
(h)
h/H .60
R = 1"
area dIs 2/1

d/h .32

Web Keys (Detail)

Fig. 1.2 Examples of shear keys

6

Although in the early development of segmental construction, the

main purpose of the epoxy bonding agent was to transfer shear stresses
between adjacent segments, proponents of the use of multiple shear keys
claim that this is no longer necessary. In fact, some recent bridges
have not used the epoxy bonding materials. For example, in the Long Key
Bridge in Florida, the use of epoxy was omitted [8]. Dry joints were
used with span-by-span erection, internal location of the tendons, non-
freeze-thaw climate, and use of multiple shear keys.
Epoxy joints with a single large key in each web have been widely
used on early projects in the U.S. Most applications have been
successful. However, a serious joint failure occurred on a bridge
across the Kishwaukee River in Illinois [9]. The epoxy failed to
harden, lubricated the joint, and caused cracks and spalling in a web
where a singly keyed joint was used. The failure was attributed to
improper blending and insufficient mixing of the epoxy resin and
hardener. This ind icates that improper use or choice of the epoxy can
be critical with respect to shear strength of the joint.
1.2.2 Objective. Due to the rapidly growing number of segmentally
constructed bridges, there is a need to better understand the
characteristics of the different shear key configurations and the role
of the epoxy bonding agent in shear transfer. The overall success of
precast segmental construction will depend heavily on the behavior of
the joints.
The objective of this exploratory study was to determine the
relative shear transfer strength across different types of joints
commonl y used in precast segmental bridges. Types of joints considered
included single large key, multiple lug-keys and no-key joints. Both
dry and epoxied joints were stud ied •
Currently, "shear friction" concepts are often used in the design
of joints. Thus, the dry joint with no-keys was included to allow
results to be related to shear friction theory. All specimens were
compared to the behavior of monolithically cast specimens to indicate
relative efficiencies. The test series was envisioned as an exploratory
series and did not investigate either the wide range of formulations
 7

available for epoxies or consider the wide range of loading conditions

possible in service.
1.2.3 Shear Test. To accomplish the above-stated objective, seven
jointing conditions for the test specimens were determined, as shown in
Table 1.1.
Since the shear force acting on a box girder section is carried
primarily by the webs, simple rectangUlar web model sections were used
in the tests. Dimensions of the small-scale model specimens are the
same as those of the 1/4 scale model used by Stone for the study of
post-tensioned anchorage zone tensile stresses [10]. Figure 1.3 shows
the relationship between typical box girder sections, a prototype web
section, and the model web section used.
In order to obtain the relative shear transfer strength across the
joints, the specimens were subjected to a predominantly shear test using
the loading scheme shown in Fig. 1.4. This corresponds to a low aid
ratio. Since distributed load applications provide smaller maximum
moment and less bearing stresses than concentrated ones, while giving
the same amount of shear force at the joint, the load was applied in
that manner as shown in Fig. 1.4(b).
Since time and resource requirements restricted the magnitude of
this exploratory study, only one test specimen was made for each
jointing cond i tion. Figure 1.5 illustrates the fabrication sequence of
the model precast segments and the test specimens made out of those
model segments. Fabrication methods for the model segments and the
details of the test will be described in the following two chapters.
The test results will be discussed in Chapter 4.

1.3 Previous Related Studies

Several research papers which deal directly or indirectly with the
subject studied herein have been published to date. Some of them are
reviewed below, and the results obtained from those studies will be
referred to later in Chapter 4.
1.3.1 Shear Fr iction. Shear fr ic tion theory applic ations for
precast connections are based on the work done by Birkeland and
Birkeland [11] and Mast [12] at ABAM Engineers, Inc., and Concrete
8

TABLE 1.1 TEST SPECIMENS

Type of Shear Carrying Practical

Specimen Epoxy
Joint Key Mechanism Application

1 No-Key No Friction No
2 Single No Friction + Key No
Key

3 Multiple No Friction + Keys Yes

Keys

4 No-Key Yes Friction + Epoxy Yes

Bonding

5 Single Yes Friction + Key + Epoxy Yes

Key Bonding

6 Multiple Yes Friction + Keys + Yes

Keys Epoxy Bonding
Monolithic
7 Specimen V +V
c s
(No-Joint)

Concrete Strength
Fixed Condition Amount of Prestress
(
Type of Epoxy

*Pasco-Kennewick Bridge (-Prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge

with multiple stays-) has no shear keys in the web, but has steel
pins in the upper slab.
 9

Typical web reinforcement

,Longitudinal: /13 or /14 @ 10"-12"
\Transverse: 17 or /18 @ 12 "-15"

lllillIflfC Shear area

7"- 9" typo

70 "- 95 i'J"1I"':§~I..._
12"-15" typo
typo

(a) Typical box girder section

~8 @ 12"
80"

~4 @ 12"

(c) 1/4 web model

(b) Web prototype

Fig. 1.3 Web model for the tests

 t-'
o
Load P

(1: p = P)

I I
I . I
VJ01nt ~Joint

I
I
I
I I
I --. I
I I

P/2 lp/2
1\

Moment due
to load

Shear force
due to load

(a) Concentrated load application (b) Distributed load application

Fig. 1.4 Shear test of joint

 , , + + + ~ .
Ma tch-cast joints
Cu tting lines

~ 20"
I 1

I
I

I
I I I
I I

~ ~
I I I I I I
I
I
I I
I
I I 1
1
I
I

3 11
(a) Fabrication sequence of 7 model precast segments Section

No key Solid

Multiple
keys

Single key

Without epoxying • ~ With epoxying

(b) Test specUnens

Fig. 1.5 Model precast segments and test spectmens

......
......
12

Technology Corp., Tacoma, Washington. The ACI Building Code [13,14]

adopted the theory, referring to other related studies [15,16] by
Mattock and Hawkins. The AASHTO Specifications [17] are largely
patterned after the ACI recommendations.
Shear friction theory is an explanation of interface shear transfer
which states that the shearing force across a potential crack or plane
of weakness is resisted by virtue of friction along the crack or plane,
if there is a normal compressive force across the crack.
Coefficient of friction values given by Mast, the AASHTO
Specifications, the ACI Building Code, and the PCI Design Handbook are
as follows:

AASHTO
and ACI PCI
Mast 318-77 Handbook
Concrete placed monolithically 1.4-1. 7 1 .4 1.4
Concrete placed against
hardened concrete with
roughened interface 1.4 1 .0 1.0
Concrete cast against steel 0.7-1.0 0.7 0.6
Concrete cast against smooth
concrete 0.7-1.0 0.4

1.3.2 Shear Tests on Joints ~ith No-keys bet~~ Precast Post-

tensioned Units. A number of such tests have been reported.
1.3.2.1 Test.Q1. Franz at the Karlsruhe Technical ~ollege in ~est

Germany [18]. The testing method used by Franz is schematically shown

in Fig. 1.6. The test result obtained from the specimens without any
epoxy, any mortar or indentation in the joint surfaces indicated that
the coefficient of friction is practically independent of the amount of
the normal force, and the value is around 0.70. It was also independent
of the eccentricity of the normal force (existence of bending moment).
Applied normal stress at the centroid was 230 to 930 psi.
1.3.2.2 Test by Jones at Ce~ent and Concrete Association in
England [19]. The testing method used by Jones is schematically shown
in Fig. 1.7. The surfaces of the ends of the specimen butted together
 Pas t- tens ioning
Prestressing force ons

20 cm
I. ..,

N 'J
1'
'N[-1~6t
.._____
• d 20 cm

~J
/ > 7 7 » >I , > > 7...1
Section

Fig. 1.6 Shear test on joints of precast segmental beams by Franz (Ref. 18)

.....
w
 t-'
~
(a) Plain butt joints

~pPlied load Prestressing

force

--
~. a
13 " I
-'"

j
-
~I1- -- -- I
- -- 6"
I -

L
r"
27" ±} 1-1/2"
Section

(b) Precracked units

Applied load
/'

-----. - -

t
-

21"
•
3"l
J
- I
~

i a
Fig. 1.7 Shear tests on joints between precast units by Jones (Ref. 1~
 15

were obtained by casting against steel bulkheads, thus resul ting in a

very smooth finish. Failure occurred by slipping of surfaces. The
minimum value of the coefficient of friction of the surfaces at the
plain butt joint was found to be 0.39 and that of the surfaces at a
mortar joint 0.65. Up to 3000 psi of prestress, the coefficient of
friction is constant.
1.3.2.3 Test by Gaston and Kriz at Portland Cement Association
[20]. The testing method used by Gaston and Kriz is schematically shown
in Fig. 1.8. The nature of the contact surface, the contact area of the
joint, and the normal stress on the contact area were variables. Half
of the specimens were assembled with no bonding medium between the
surfaces, and half had a 1-in. layer of mortar between the concrete
blocks. The slip between the contact surfaces increased slowly until
the maximum load was reached and a sudden, large slip occurred. No
visible damage to the contact surfaces of either the bonded or the
unbonded specimens was detected. They reported that the coefficient of
friction ~ may be pred icted as

F 43 x A.
IJ = N = 0.78 + N ] (for unbond ed specimen)

Aj = contact surface area (in. 2 )

N = normal force (lb)

This ind icates that ~ increases slightl y as the contact area increases
or as the normal force decreases.
1.3.2.4 Test by Moustafa at Concrete Technology Corp., Washington
[21]. The performance of a segmentally constructed prestressed concrete
I-beam bridge was investigated by Moustafa. In order to test the joint
itself without any help from shear keys or alignment pins, the segments
were cast with flat smooth ends. Epoxy was applied on each of the
mating surfaces. To determine the shear strength of epoxy joints, small
test beams made from 6-in. cubes were prepared in the same way as the
segmental girders. The loading was applied in such a way as to force a
failure in pure shear at the joints. Failure always occurred in the
concrete layer adjacent to the epoxy. The shear strength increased from
16

~------~--------------------~------~---r

I I
-ffi- -(f)-
~...:t
I I
........
...... o
I ...... o
... I I N
~
-ffi- -ffi-
I I

... '"

, 8/~-Z 1-- II "'7/1-S"

..
II S"1
118/1-L

I
I
I
I
I
I :I ~
I
I I I I ~
I I I ~
I I, I r..;
I ,
I

II I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I I I
I I I , I
.
00
I ' I
I I 00
I I ......
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I .~
be
.
I I I I ~
L I
I
I
,
I I I
I I ~
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

t t
 17

1130 to 1900 psi when the normal prestress introduced by post-tensioning

was increased from 0 to 400 psi. From these results, it was inferred
that the shear strength of the joints is not critical in precast
segmental beam girders when epoxy is applied to the joints.
1.3.3 Shear Tests on Joints with Single Key between Post-tensioned
Precast Segments. Comprehensive studies were made by Kashima and Breen
at The University of Texas at Austin [22] related to the JFK Memorial
Causeway Bridge in Corpus Christi, Texas. As a part of the studies, an
ultimate shear test was carried out, using a 1/6-scale model specimen
with whole box girder section and joints having single large keys.
Epoxy was applied to the joints. The test specimen essentially devel-
oped the theoretical shear for a monolithically cast box girder. The
results of the test can be taken as a conclusive indication of the
efficiency of properly applied epoxy joints in segmental construction.
Provision of these joints did not significantly lower the shear strength
of the unit.
Design of the key in single key joints may be considered to be
somewhat analogous to that of corbels. Among the references related to
the corbel design are Refs. 13,15,16,23,24,25,26, and 27.
1.3.4 Studies ~ Shear Strength of Multiple Keys
1.3.4.1 MIT Investigation. A comprehensive literature review of
the past studies on joints in large panel precast concrete structures
was conducted by Zech at Massachusetts Institute of Technology [28].
Several parameters influence reinforced concrete joint strength and
behavior. Among the most important of these are the geometry of panel
edges, bond between joint and panel concrete, and existence of normal
forces simultaneously acting with shear.
(a) Geometry of panel. The geometry of panel edges will determine
the amount of mechanical interlock at the joint. In increasing order of
strength, these joints may be plain, grooved, or keyed Oightly-
heavily). Under monotonic load, keyed joints may be as much as 3 to 4.5
times stronger in ultimate strength than plain ones when the joints are
otherwise identically constructed. Strength is dependent not only on
the presence of keys but on their shape and size. Tests of sinusoidal
and triangular keys have shown less shear strength than the typical
18

trapezoidal forms. It has further been shown that the slope of the key
faces should be greater than 55 0 to 60 0 for greatest strength. It is
recommended that the depth of keys be no less than 0.4 in. and the
depth-to-length ratio d/h be greater than 0.125 (see Fig. 1.9). For
comparison, examples of multiple key configuration used in three recent
segmental bridges are shown in Table 1.2.
The reason for the depth-to-length ratio limit is that extremely
long keys will fail by shearing off or crushing of only one corner,
rather than the whole key, with a resulting smaller failure load. In
general, the larger the proportion of key area to panel edge area, the
stronger the joint will be. This relationship will only be true up to a
certain point. Beyond this, failure will commence in the overall panel
rather than in the joint keys.
(b) Bond bet~~ joint and panel concrete. Until the bond is
broken, the behavior of a joint panel assembly is approximately
monolithic. Unreinforced joints will fail by slip at the contact
surface as soon as bond is broken. This is a distinctly brittle
failure. In one case, shear capacity of unbonded castellated joints was
found to be higher. This was thought to be due to the more uniform
shear distribution along the joint.
(c) Existence of normal compressive forces. The effect of normal
compression is cumulative with that of the shear friction steel across
the joint, so that the important parameter was found to be N + Avfy.
This is reasonable since the effect of either is to increase frictional
resistance. The effect of normal compression is the same as that of the
clamping action of the reinforcement, except that slip is required to
mobilize resistance of the shear friction reinforcement. Post-tensioned
joints provide an added shear friction resistance beyond that in an
otherwise identical nonprestressed joint.
1.3.4.2 Tes t by Kup fe r, Gli c h ~!!.!2.~!:..s. e r, ~s!. Da ~£!!!!.~!:. a t ~ he
Technical University, Munich [29]. A very interesting series of
experimental investigations to determine the structural behavior of
segmental precast prestressed girders with cement mortar joints and
epoxy bonded joints was undertaken by Kupfer et al. In preliminary
tests, both the use of a modified cement mortar by application to very
 19

TABLE 1.2 EXAMPLES OF MULTIPLE KEY CONFIGURATION

Bridge Long Red Linn

Key River Cove
1d+
I s Number
9 7-31 12

H[J-"/'_
s
h
of Keys

h/H .60 .73 .70

dIs 2/1 111 1.25/1

dlh .32 .31 .36

Failure /
load /
/
/

o .125 .25
dlh

Fig. 1.9 Effect of shear key height to depth ratio (Ref. 28)
20

thin joints of only a few millimeters wide (closed joints) and the
development of the strength (green strength) of grouted joints of a few
centimeters wide were investigated. Concrete prisms with joints
oriented obliquely to the direction of compression (see Fig. 1.10) may
be regarded as sections of a compressing strut in the joint area of a
segmental precast girder. Compression tests on such prisms with cement
mortar joints provided with multiple keys and a large angle (cr= 50 0 )

yielded a joint strength amounting to 91% of that of comparable

monolithic concrete prisms in the case of the closed joint and 18% in
the case of the grouted joint. The structural behavior (cracking) and
the load capacity (especially concerning transverse shear) were further
investigated by load tests on two segmentally constructed prestressed
girders, about 9 m long and 10 cm deep (see Fig. 1.11). The girder with
multiple key joints of modified cement mortar showed the same favorable
behavior as the girder with epoxy bonded multiple key joint~ The web
failing in inclined compression indicates that in both cases the load
capacity due to shear was not impaired by the presence of the multiple
key joints.
 21

Cemeni
Mortor
S=O.7mm~
~
50
/
/
/

e
(,)
o
CD

Section B - B

J-20cm-J-
Fig. 1.10 Concrete prism specimen (from Ref. 29)
 Section CC N
N
10
= CJS
~I ~g ID Ie IUlie IT lSI I" I'i' i1~cm ;-JC: = iO to
til

- - , " r - - ' 175 em 1 156 lei 56 1

All dimensions in em.

Shear Diaora m

O0j4.F,

A=F, FI

F.0,6.F,1
2 ls.O....,
Moment DiaQram
MA =-175' F2 =-'05 'F,

Fig. 1.11 Segmental girder specimen

(Ref. 29)
 C HAP T E R 2

TEST SPECIMEN

2.1 Specimen Dimensions

Figure 2.1 shows the general profile of the model precast segment.
Dimensions of the segments were 3 in. (width) x 20 in. (depth) x 48 in.
(length), except for the first segment whose length was 20 in.
For stirrups, 6 mm (1/4 in.) deformed bars were used at 3 in.
spacing. Ten gage wire was also used at 3 in. spacing for supplementary
longitudinal reinforcement. The reinforcement cage of this 1/4 scale
model segment corresponds to typical prototype web reinforcement of #8
stirrups and #4 longitudinal bars both at 12 in. spacing (see Fig. 1.3).
However, this correspondence of model reinforcement to that of some
prototypes has relatively little importance since the joint shear test
(shown in Fig. 1.4b) was chosen so that the maximum shear force occurs
only in the joint vicinity or at the mirror image of that joint.
However, the web reinforcement is important in the test of the
monoli thic model with no joint used as the baseline for comparison of
the various jointing methods.
Two tendon ducts (one at the top and the other at the bottom) were
placed in each specimen with 8 in. of eccentricity. Prestressing
tendons were later inserted to provide normal force and bending moment
resistance. The duct location caused minimal disturbance in the center
portion of the joint surface and the tendons prevented significant
flexural tensile stresses in the specimen.
The three types of joint configurations examined are illustrated in
J:ig. 2.2. In the single key specimens, both male and female keys were
reinforced with 10 gage wire. On the other hand, in the mul tiple key
segments, no reinforcement in the keys was provided as is the practice
in usual multiple key joint construction. A trapezoidal shape without
any intentional rounding off of the corners was used for the multiple
key configuration. The characteristics of the single and multiple keys
were meant to be similar to those of the JFK Memorial Causeway Bridge
and the Long Key Bridge, respectively.

23
 (unit - lnchea) N
]/4". tendon duct 10 ._.e vhe
.j::o-

Conduit)
CUUlnB 6.. deformed bar.
ltne 1/2")

\ All
~~
..
I
- --::Jr:!:"
--II---u- --11---_ .. __ _

I - ~I
I~ · I~
I r-

1• c
I . I: C"'i

I .. -- ~I \D

I~ - L..I
N[ -::jJ===11= ==1I===l= =~===~-=-=II=: =II==~===~= ==~==::~===~~=~==::I =1--1 ~_

l· 15 @4: • 45 -J I J.I ~
1
SectioD. A-A
!:!

Fi& 2.1 Profile of model precast segment

 (Unit: inches)

~~.l
/' ~. .""'":->
. :-" ~
" ....
.:..,.....~.-
• ............:.-
-~-
N

t---"""'""""II~ I I -11-1- - - I

00

~
I..:: =::H:::::::l : II / a
·n II- I~ ~
,,------tt1l-10 gag e
wire
1------l11-- I------l-ll-
00

-11 II-

'-'/~::::!tzL_ ~~b...
~ --;';~~f=21 /~ //~~E:::fV -If';;X~i(~";:~~'"f '. I}':'-
N
.jJl----j

(Key area/web area = .3, (h/H = .63, dIs = 2/1,

dIs = 3/1, d/h = .25) d/h = .4)
a) No-key b) Single key c) Multiple keys

Fig. 2.2 Configuration of joints ""

VI
26

2.2 Materials
2.2.1 Microconcrete. Microconcrete was used as a model concrete.
Mix proportions of the microconcrete were determined based upon that
used by Stone [10]. The basic design mix proportion used is shown in
Table 2.1. Design 7-day compressive strength of the concrete was 4000
psi. Twelve 3 in. diameter x 6 in. cylinders were made at each casting
of concrete. Cylinder specimens were tested at 7 days and at the time
of each shear test. Concrete strengths at time of testing are shown in
Table 3.2. "Prototype" for the concrete mix proportion was "Type H"
specified by the Texas State Department of of Highways and Public Trans-
portation [10].
2.2.2 Reinforcement. Six mm (1/4 in.) Grade 60 deformed bars and
10 gage plain annealed wire were used as reinforcement. Figure 2.3
shows a stress-strain relationship of 6 mm rebar. The mechanical
properties of the bars are also shown in the figure. The stress-strain
relationship of the annealed wire is shown in Fig. 2.4. Yield strength
of the wire was much lower than expected. The wire was not deformed,
but several studies verified that the bond strength of the wire to
microconcrete would be adequate.
Al though, as mentioned in Section 2.1, reinforcement of the
specimens might not have a significant meaning in the shear test except
for the baseline monolithic specimen, such conventional practice in
making structural model test specimens was followed in all specimens.
2.2.3 Prestressing Tendon. Two-hundred seventy ksi, 1/2 in.
diameter seven-wire prestressing strand (fpu = 270 ksi, Aps =
0.153 in. 2 ) was used in the test. The tendon sheath was flexible metal
conduit with 3/4 in. inner diameter.
2.2.4 Epoxy. The epoxy bonding agent was a standard concrete
patching adhesive formulated by the Texas State Department of Highways
and Public Transportation (Epoxy Adhesive A103). The strength
development characteristics of the epoxy are shown in Fig. 2.5. These
strength development curves were obtained from a simple bond test using
a metal-to-metal lap shear joint, which was carried out using 2 in. wide
metal sheet strips. This preliminary test was conducted with two
different lap areas, i.e., one with 2 in. x 1/2 in. lapping and the
 27

TABLE 2.1 DESIGN MIX PROPORTION (per ft 3 )

3/B" aggregate 41.0 lbs

111 blast sand 33.B lbs

Ottawa silica sand 36.B lbs
Type III cement 21.25 lbs

Water l4.B lbs

Admixture (ASTM C494 Type B) 0.51 fl. oz.

Water/cement ratio 0.70

Cement ratio 6.4 sacks/yd 3

28

Mc~chanical Properties
(Average of 3 Specimens)

f
61.1 kai
y (3%)

€ 0.00200
Y (5%)
30,500 ksf
E
(5%)

o 0.002 0.004
Strain (in. lin.)

Fig. 2.3 Stress-strain relationship of 6mm

reinforcing bars
 Pt
(ksi) = 33.6 ksi
f

50 10 gage wire
(0. 135 in. q,) ]
20Omm
(Demec gage length)
! Y
f 1 = 45.2 ksi
u t
(Average of two spectmens)
40
p+
10
: 30 I'
,,-
•
. ..
1-1
.j.j
I'.f.l

20

10
'< 10- 6
'I ~ Origin for strain measurement o 1,000 2,000
" (Demec gage)
Strain
Fig. 2.4 Stress-strain relationship of 10 gage wire

N
\0
 w
o
(lb)

1,000

o
o
--------------------------
t:l-I P"-'-
"'CI I
~ I
r-I I
bO I
~
-.-1
I
,.lII: 500
ctl

G
QJ
1-1
a:I

- P.....--
Epoxy "'-- lap
2" wide
__P

metal sheet
Shear test ages for
eoncrete specimens wI
epoxying
Epo .ar P
---0--- I P..-- > ; , --JIo-
2" wide
metal sheet

o 5 10 15 (Days)

Age of epoxy

Fig. 2.5 Development of strength of epoxy

 31

other with 2 in. x 2 in. As seen in Fig. 2.5, both specimens gave
similar development curves of epoxy strength. The shear test for the
epoxied concrete specimens was planned to be carried out when the epoxy
bonding agent was considered to have developed its strength
suffic ientl y. The epoxy bonding agent was exposed to the same
laboratory curing conditions (mainly, temperature), both in the
preliminary test on the metal strip specimen and in the shear test of
the concrete web model specimens.
The compressive strength of the epoxy was approximately 5000 psi at
24 hours according to a rough compression test. It was assumed that the
strength would reach more than 6000 psi at the time of the shear test.
The following is an extract from "Texas Highway Department Special
Specification Item 2131 Epoxy Bonding Agent," which is based upon the
work done by Kashima and Breen [20] at The University of Texas at
Austin:

The epoxy material shall be of two components, a resin and a

hardener, meeting the following requirements:
a. Pot life 90 minutes min. at 68°F
b. Compressive strength 6000 psi min.
c. Tensile strength 2000 psi min.
d. Specific gravity 70 to 120 lbs/cu. ft.
e. Viscosity at 68°F 10,000to 50,000 cps
f. Coefficient of thermal Within 10S of that for concrete
expansion
The joint material shall be able to develop 95% of the flexural
tensile strength and 70S of the shear strength of a monolithic test
specimen.

The Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual [2] specifies seven
epoxy bonding agent tests, which are (1) sag flow, (2) gel time, (3)

open time of mixed epoxy bonding agent, (4) three-point tensile bending
test, (5) compression strength of cured epoxy bonding agent, (6)
temperature deflection of epoxy bonding agent, and (7) compression and
shear strength of cured epoxy bonding agent.
32

These tests on the epoxy were not performed in this study since
this epoxy had been examined thoroughly in connection with other
projects [22,30].

2.3 Fabrication
2.3.' Reinforcing Cages and Forms. The cages were tied by hand
and shear key reinforcement was added for segments with single keys.
Plywood forms were used. In order to firmly position the preceding
segment in match-casting, an adjacent bottom form panel was provided.
Three types of end forms were fabricated. These were for the segments
with no-key, with single key, and with multiple keys, respectively.
Single and multiple key configurations were produced using metal sheet,
as shown in Fig. 2.6.
2.3.2 Casting Procedure. Concrete segments were carefully
fabricated. Special procedures included:
Preparation
--Lining of the end face of the previously cast segment with aluminum
foil for bonding breaking purposes. (This was done successfully.
There was no trouble in lining even multiple shear keys. The
aluminum foil was also painted with lacquer and oil so as to avoid
chemical reaction between the aluminum and the high alkaline cement
paste solution. In actual match-casting of precast segments, a
plain vegetable soap, sometimes mixed with talcum powder, is often
used as a bond breaker between segments. It is rinsed off with
water after stripping, since the face of the segments must be clean
for application of the epoxy. Gallaway [31] reports that to aid in
stripping and provide a small clearance during erection, the female
portion of the previously cast shear key can be lined with plastic
tape. The use of aluminum foil eliminated the rinsing-out
operation of the vegetable soap.)
--Assemblage of the form panels in match casting position (Fig. 2.7).
--Insertion of temporary steel rods in tendon sheaths to keep the
sheaths straight.
 33

...
• I · " (. ~

(a) Single key

'l'.

-
,
.
-
',f
'_ \_~.
.' I _ .~' • ...,

(b) Multiple keys

Fig. 2.6 End forms

 w
+:'-

Wooden form made of 3/4" plywood £. 2" x 4", studs

13"[=:::=:'h~:===== 1~J :li:j

Match-cast /001"
\.

48"

.
20"[:

"Old" segment "New" segment

Fig. 2.7 Hatch-casting of segments

 35

Casting and Curing

--Microconcrete was mixed in a 2 cu. ft. laboratory mixer.
--Concrete was compacted internally with 6 mm steel rods, and
externally with a concrete vibrator.
--Forms were removed 24 hours after casting.
--Separation of the segments (Fig. 2.8).
--Cutting and grinding of sheath at end face with a hand saw and a
hand grinder.
--Movement of the segment into the next position for match-casting.
--Curing of segment concrete and cylinders with plastic sheet cover
and occasional water supply for approximately 1-2 months.
2.3.3 Concrete Strength !l:.1. ¢ 3 in. x 6 in. cyl inder specimens
were capped with sulfur capping material. Three cylinders were tested
for each concrete at 1 days after casting for the purpose of quality
control. The test resul ts for the 1 day compressive strength of the
concrete are summarized in Table 2.2. Overall average of f61 was 4410
psi and the coefficient of variance of the data was 8%. This result was
considered to be satisfactory.
 W
0\

~ ~tch-cast joint
48" ~
48" ".......,

I 1
I
I
I I
I I
1 I
250 lhs I 250 lhs 120"
tie I I
I I

Old segment \ New segment

Fig. 2.8 Separation of segments after form removal

 37

TABLE 2.2 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT 7 DAYS

f~ 7(psi)
(Coefficient of variance)
Casting
Segment Each
Sequence Total
(Ave. of 3-~3'~"

1
D 4,670
(7%)

2
I ! 5,120
(4%)

( ~
3 4,080
(5%)

4
{ I 4,240
(5'70)
4,470
(8%)

5
I ! 4,360
(7%)

( ~
6 4,340
(5%)

1-------

~ ] 4,480
7
(1%)
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
"#$%!&'()!*)&+',)%!'-!$-.)-.$/-'++0!1+'-2!&'()!$-!.#)!/*$($-'+3!
44!5"6!7$1*'*0!8$($.$9'.$/-!")':!
 C HAP T E R 3

TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

3.1 Preparation
Each model segment was cut into two parts, as illustrated in Fig.
1.5, using a concrete saw. The cut sur faces were the exposed end faces
of the test specimens and were not to be joined.

3.2 Joining and Post-Tensioning

3.2.1 Match-cast Joint Surfaces. For match-cast joints, the
surface including the formed keys should be even and smooth to avoid
point contact and surface crushing or chipping off of edges during post-
tensioning. It is particularly important before applying epoxy that the
adjacent surfaces are solid, clean, and free of dust and greasy
materials. As in any adhesive bonding, the preparation of the surface
will quite often determine the success of the joint.
Tiny pits were observed in some of the match-cast keyed joint
surfaces. However, they were left as they were, since none of them
seemed to be harmful even for the specimens tested without epoxy. Such
pits can be found in the surfaces of actual match-cast precast segments.
The joint surfaces were cleaned with a wire brush and wiped with
acetone. In actual precast segmental construction, it is recommended
that light sandblasting be used for preparation of the concrete surfaces
for good bonding.
3.2.2 Epoxying. Components of the epoxy mix (resin and hardener)
were proportioned and mixed thoroughly until a uniform color was
obtained, following the instructions of the manufacturer.
The concrete surfaces to be bonded were kept dry. The epoxy
adhesive was applied by hand, using protective gloves, immediately after
mixing. Both mating surfaces were coated and brought together while the
epoxy was still viscous.
The Prestressed Concrete Institute [2,32] specifies that a minimum
compression of 30 psi shall be provided by means of temporary post-

39
40

tensioning over the entire joint area during the open time period of the
bonding agent until the permanent tendons are stressed. Uniform post-
tensioning stress of about 70 psi was applied in this series. During
the provisional post-tensioning, excess epoxy was squeezed out of the
joint. Care was taken to prevent epoxy from entering the tendon ducts.
The temporary clamping force was provided using the post-tensioning
system described in Sec. 3.2.3. The load was controlled by calibrated
load cells and pressure indicators for the first specimen. After
obtaining the relationship between load cells and pressure indicators,
only the latter were used. The epoxy joints were air-cured inside the
laboratory for 12 to 14 days before the specimens were tested.
3.2.3 Prestressing. The post-tensioning arrangement is shown in
Fig. 3.1. Special provisions in the post-tensioning procedure included:
Preparation - Large end plates were used to distribute the bearing
stresses to prevent end surfaces from bursting or chipping off.
Prestressing - As seen in Fig. 3.1, anchoring chucks with nuts and
anchor plates with slits were used for the purpose of detensioning and
removal of the strands after the test.
- Stepwise loading of prestress so that significant tensile stress
would not appear in any part of the specimen concrete. Top and bottom
strands were tensioned alternately. The loads were monitored by load
cells along with pressure indicators. Relatively large seating loss was
experienced. This was partly because the length of the specimens, which
was 48 in., was short. The amount of prestress was determined as
described in Sec. 3.2.4.
3.2.4 Prestressing Forces. According to the ACI Building Code
[13], maximum permissible tensile stress in prestressing tendons due to
jacking force is 0.8f pu. In the test, the bottom strand was tensioned
up to 0.7fpu' which corresponds to 28.9 kips. No attempts were made to
increase this value. As mentioned above, significant amounts of seating
loss were observed after force transfer. The force in the top tendon
was adjusted to maintain the condition that the stress from prestressing
alone at the top fiber would be zero.
As will be shown later, the average prestressing forces in the
bot tom and top tendons just before the shear test were 18.7 kips and 6.7
 ...-_ _ _ _ _ _ Anchoring chuck with nut (112")

- - - - - Anchor plate
Anchoring chuck (1/2 t1 )
~_ _ _ 50 ton load cell
Ram chair
(~) Anchor plate with alit
30 ton centerhole ram

Temporary chuck

Wood
plate
,.........-.
~===:===:::~~:=~==:::::=:-~~~~~~
Ft· 6.7 K (Avg.) I
8" VJoint
I -~
1/2"¢ 7-wire I ~ To hydraul ic pump
strands 8" I
______ _:b_::~:.?_K_ ~~~~I _______________ _
------~--------------~----------------
It

To strain
indicator
\

End anchor
plate
Tea t spec imen .
r Hydros tone
beeween concrete and end plate

Fig. 3.1 Post-tencioning arrangement

~
t-'
42

kips, respectively, with a total of 25.4 kips. The average compressive

stress in concrete due to the prestressing was 424 psi with the
coefficient of variance of 2~.

3.3 Shear Test Arrangement

Figure 3.2 illustrates the shear test arrangement. The load was
applied using a calibrated SATEC testing machine. In order to achieve a
distributed load application, three sets of bearing plates were used, as
seen in Fig. 3.2. Hydrostone was appl ied between the top load ing plate
and the top surface of the specimen. Since bottom surfaces of the
specimens were as flat as the bottom form panel, no hydrostone was used
there. Instead, the bearing stress was lowered by increasing the
bearing area of the plate. This worked well and no damages were
observed at the bottom surface of the specimen after the test.
The test was conducted immediately after the application of the
final prestressing. Tendons were not grouted. Our ing the test, force
changes in prestressing strands were measured using load cells. No
significant changes in prestressing forces were observed until major
slip took place.
Slip at the joints was determined visually and by use of a dial
gage. The dial gage was attached to the specimen with a clamp, so that
it could indicate a relative displacement between the points across the
joint. It should be noted that the original purpose of the dial gage
was just to detect the slip occurrence and, therefore, the setup was
simple rather than sophisticated.

3.4 Test Results

3.4.1 Stresses Due to Prestressing. Stresses in each specimen
introduced by pre stressing are sum mari zed in Table 3.1. Over all
averages of prestressing stresses at top, at centroid, and at bottom
were 56 psi (tension), 424 psi (compression), and 903 psi (compression),
respectively. Al though slight flexural tensile stresses were computed
in the top portion of the segment section, this was not observed to
cause any troubles in the test. Figure 3.3 shows that the test
specimens had only minor flexural tensile stresses at the joints
 Ram*
*SATEC testing machine
Hydrostone

__ I
----------
----------" --==~---
,---==-"::.."::.."::.."::..---
I. 6 I 8" I
,.:~ Joint
---
• >11(
1/2" ¢
7-wire post-
7"_1~7,,1
tensioning
3"~3".,l4n ~4" J3"P" strands
-------
_ _ _ _ _ _ --4 _ _
--
- --
----
----
-
Welding- ~ Dial gage

Loading table*

Fig. 3.2 Shear test arrangement

+='"
v.;I
44

TABLE 3.1 STRESSES DUE TO PRESTRESSING

N M e Stresses*
or or or
Specimen Ft + Fb 8(Fb - F t ) MIN -NI A ± MIs (psi)

(kips) (k-in) (in) Top Bottom

No-Key 25.3 92.0 3.64 38 -882

w/O
Single Key 26.0 86.4 3.32 1 -865
E
P 24.8 86.4
Multiple Keys 3.48 19 -845
0
X 88.3
Average 25.4 19 -864
Y
(Standard deviation) - - (19) (19)
(Coef. of Variance) (2%) (4%) - -
wI No-Key 25.7 101.6 3.95 80 -936
E 25.1 3.92
p Single Key 98.4 74 -910
0
Multiple Keys 25.9 103.2 3.98 84 -948
X
Y
or
No-Joint CD 25.0 94.4 3.78 55 -889

S
No-Joint @ 25.6 104.0 4.06 93 -947
0
Average 25.5 100.3 77 -926
L
I
D
(Standard Deviation) - - (14) (26)
(Coef. of Variance) (2%) (4%) - -
Total Average 25.4 95.8 3.77 56 -903

(Standard Deviation) (0.4) (7.1) (0.26) (33) (39)

(Coef. of Variance) (2%) (7%) (7%) - -
(6.7 k Avg.)
F * ( -: Compression
t +: Tension
8"
--~8~"tt~~~~~~~~N~~M
Fb
(18. 7k Avg.)
 45

(a) Stresses due to prestressing

@
3" 56 psi
q5.8 k- in• .------...._---"'1
"- I
VJOint

25.4,(:- I
I
I

903 psi
©
(b) Stresses due to load P

P k © ©

Moment at

=
joint
3
"iP k-in.
7tf
75 psi 1,013 psi
® ®

(c) Stresses at testing

(a) + (b)
19~
828 psi 110 psi
©
P = 10k
®
P ::: 13S k

Fig. 3.3 Stresses at jOint

46

throughout the test even for the highest level of load applied in any
specimen (P = 135k).
NOTE: Since the specimen with the epoxied multiple key joint showed no
damage in one entire half after the shear test, that undamaged
portion was subjected to another shear test to obtain backup data
for the monolithic specimen. This extra specimen is designated as
No-Joint 2, while the original monolithic specimen is called No-
Joint 1.
3.4.2 Load ~ Slip. Figures 3.4 to 3.6 show the relationship
between the applied load and the joint slip observed in the test.
(a) Specimens !!ith nonepoxied joints - Figure 3.4 shows the data
for the specimens with nonepoxied joints. As expected, each specimen
slipped and failed at the joint. But, each type of joint configuration
showed a definitely different load vs slip relationship.
The specimen with the no-key joint slipped at a load of 28 kips,
which corresponds to a coefficient of friction of 0.55. The specimen,
however, continued to carry load up to more than 70 kips with increasing
slip at the joint. No damage was observed in the specimen. Joint
surfaces were checked after the test and they seemed to be intact in
appearance.
In the specimen with a single large key, the data from the dial
gage indicated that slipping occurred from the beginning of the load
application. However, it was felt that the slipping at such an early
stage was unlikely and it is believed that something might be wrong with
the displacement measuring system for this specimen. This subject will
be discussed later in Chapter 4 in conjunction with the performance of
joint configurations.
The crude data for the specimen with the single key joint indicate
that (1) the inclination of the load vs slip curve is almost constant up
to 34 kips, (2) from 34 to 84 kips, the slope is again constant but the
value is less than that for the load range of 0-34 kips, and (3) from 84
kips to the major failure load, the slope of the curve is dramatically
decreased showing slight resistance against slip. It is interesting to
note that the slope of the load vs slip curve for the no-key joint takes
 (kips)
150 p

7 "17"

3't

~20"
Multiple keys
100

Load
.,- ...--
--- --_....
p
~ ~ingle :ey
;."ttI

..-0/0/ ------•
50 ..,,0
~.".
~o,rl
".-,. _------.... --------
..... ---_
- L . . No
--....
..... -.......
key
---

~.
Slip at joint was observed •
.J (XlO- 3 in)
Olt.·-
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Relative displacement between points across the joint

.r::--
Fig. 3.4 Load vs "slip at joints" without epoxying .......
 .p-
(kips) (kips) 00
I
150 15a- (b) After correction
(a) Original data
Mu1tip1~ keys

No ke\ V ?
Single key key

~
~ Multiple keys
100 + ~ 100
~ f ~
p~ "
~
,~
Load + f~
~ Load
p p
~
t
50
~
I No slip at joint was
observed up to P
50
~. max

,. fl.?
i
Ii/ If
I'J Jif
"fliJ---o"
w:;:..-=r J I '
/ (X10-3in. )
, (x10
-3
in.)
oo ' ·10 o I
20 30 40 o 10 20 30 40
Relative displacement between Relative displacement between
points across the joints points across the joints
Fig. 3.5 Load vs "slip at joints" with epoxying
 (kips)
No key
150 w/p..poxy
p
Single key Joint
wi epoxy 3"

~
rS
~
~
Multiple keys
w/epoxy
1 20
"

100 ~ Multiple keys

~ w/o epoxy

~ --" -_. --- .----...

~ ,r'~Single key w/o epoxy

Load
p .~ -~
~--
/"
;
-- ---- ---
-- .....--"'---_.--
-/'

.~.
".,
50
"."..
" -------- -- No key w/o epoxy
........ ~-----
.
,II
II'
;
~
l
o rL-____ ~~ ____ ~ _______ J_ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ __ J_ _ _ _ _ _ ~
(x10 -3 in. )
_ _ _ _ _ __ i_ _ _ _ _ __ L_ _ _ _ _ __ L_ _ _ _ _ __ L_ _ _ _ _ __ L_ ____

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Relative displacement between points across the jOint
.p..
\0
Fig. 3.6 Comparison of the results with and without epoxying
50

an intermediate value between those mentioned in stages (2) and (3).

The major failure occurred in the single key portion.
The slip at the joint of the specimen with the multiple key joint
occurred gradually as the load increased, showing substantially larger
joint stiffness at higher load levels than the other nonepoxied joints.
The slope of the load vs slip curve decreases continuously until the
failure load is reached. This phenomenon is characteristic of the
multiple key joint. Direct shear failure took place in the multiple
keys.
The relative loads at given slips were substantially higher for the
multiple key joint.
(b) Specimens with Epoxied Joints - The relationship of applied
load and relative joint displacement for the specimens with epoxied
joints is shown in Fig. 3.5. The figure includes two sets of load vs
relative displacement curves: Fig. 3.5(a) shows plots with original
data; and Fig. 3.5(b) shows plots with corrected data. In the test, no
slip at the joints was observed visually up to the failure load. On the
other hand, the uncorrected data of the relative displacement showed
large slips at a very early loading stage. Since it was thought that
these early stage slips were highly unlikely and represent instrument
error, the data were corrected using overall slopes of the plotted
curves. The corrected data plotted in Fig. 3.5(b) indicate no slips and
agree with the visual observation. Again, it was concluded that
something was wrong, for some unknown reasons, with the relative
displacement measuring system, which worked well for the first two
specimens; that is, the specimens with nonepoxied no-key and multiple
key joints.
As seen in Fig. 3.5(b), all three specimens with epoxy joints gave
almost the same load vs relative displacement curves.
The results of all jointed specimens are compared in Fig. 3.6.
These will be discussed in Chapter 4.
3.4.3 Concrete Strength, Prestressing Force, and Maximum Load.
Concrete strength of the control cylinders at the time of the applied
shear test, prestressing forces just before the test and at the maximum
loads, and the maximum applied loads are summarized in Table 3.2 and
 TABLE 3.2 roNCRE'l'E STRENGTH, PRESTRESSING FORCE AND MAXIMUM LOAD

Without Epoxying With Epoxying

Coacrete Prestressing Maximulll Load Concrete Prestressing Hax~ Load
Type of Strength Force Pmax Strength Force Pmax:
Joint
fc Before At Test Predicted f Before At Test Predicted
Test Pmax c Test Pmax
(psi) (Ups) (Ups) (kips) (Ups) (psi) (Ups) (kips) (kips) (kips)

® 7.450 ~ 6.9 6.7

73 - ® 6.Sl0
@ 6.5 6.5

Jle-Key
® 6.720 ~ 18.4 18.4
(28)* (20-35)* ® 6.200 ~ 19.2 19.4 116 109

(f;) 25.3 25.1

© 25.7 25.9

® 6.790 ~ 7.6 7.3

89 40-60 ® 6.270
@ 6.4 6.5
Sinsle
Key
® 6.630 <5> 18.4 18.9
(34)* (20-36)* ® 5.940
@ 18.7 18.8 134 108

(f;) 26.0 26.2 (!;) 25.1 25.3

Hultiple ® 7.450
~ 7.0 6.8
96 44-68 @ 6,460 C9 6.5 6.5 I

Keys
® 7.000
~ 17.8 18.8
(60-80)* (-) * ® 6.440 ~ 19.4 19.4 l24 109

I~ 24.8 25.6
I~ 25.9 25.9

tc - Average of 3 cylinder~. "Slipping load. Prestressing

tc (It) P (I.)
au
(psi) Betore At Pmax Test Predicted

<9 6.6 6.6

I <D 6.230
~ 18.4 18.6 118 108

~
{~+
~-
®
7"
:® ~
ffr~"
)C3'

1 p /2 1P/2
t I 20"
Solid

e:-1Dt)
® 6,440
C9
~
~
25.0
6.3
19.3
25.2
6.3
19.6 134 109

~ 25.6 25.9
-
I.n
.....
52

Fig. 3.7. The shear forces on the joints are one-half the applied
loads. Table 3.2 also includes predicted maximum loads, for which
details are presented in Chapter 4.
As shown in Fig. 3.7, overall average of the concrete strength at
the ages of testing was 6550 psi and the coefficient of variance was 7%.
It was confirmed that the top and bottom prestressing strands
picked up the moment due to the loading during the test, but the force
changes in the tendons were very small. The average prestressing force
was 25.4 kips and the centroidal concrete stress was 424 psi with the
coefficient of var iance of 1.7%.
Slip loads for the three specimens with the nonepoxied no-key,
single key, and multiple key joints were 28 kips, 34 kips,. and 60-80
kips, respectively. In the same order, the maximum loads were 73 kips,
89 kips, and 96 kips for the three specimens with nonepoxied joints.
All three specimens with epoxied joints, including the no-key joint,
seemed to attain much higher failure loads and were very similar to
those for a monolithic segment. The maximum loads for the epoxy joint
and monolithic specimens ranged from 116 kips to 134 kips. Thus, a very
impressive increase in failure load was realized by utilizing an epoxy
bond i ng ag ent •
3.4.4 Crack Pattern at Failure
(a) Specimen with Nonepoxied No-key Joint - As mentioned before, no
damage was observed.
(b) Specimen with Nonepoxied Single Key Joint - Figures 3.8 and 3.9
show the crack pattern of this specimen. Major cracking occurred at the
top end of the male key. The cracks extended into the specimen with a
downward angle of about 45 0 • The cracks were also observed along the
shear plane of the male key. After the test, segments were separated.
Large and wide cracks were observed in the planes of the key
reinforcement. Some of the concrete was spalled off.
(c) Specimen with Nonepoxied Multiple Key Joint - Figure 3.10 shows
the failure pattern of the specimen. Diagonal cracks were observed in
each key. Generally speaking, cracks were localized in the neighborhood

.Obtained from the corrected load vs slip curve (see Chapter 4).
 53

(a) Concrete strength (f )

c
_ Xi + S.l.
(psi) Xi 1-
_-
Average of 3 cylinders
10,000 xi - Si

f
c
5,000

0~-w~o-LE~*~W~,/2E-----w~,/T'O~E--~w~/E----w-/70~E---w~/~E------~C9l~-?~2~)--

No key Single key Multiple keys No joint

(b) Prestressing force (F ) and Maximum load (P )

P ~x

(kips)
150

F l-
P
and 100
T
P
max •I I
I
I
•I I
I
,
I I
l- I I
50 I I
I I
I I
I
F pave - -.. ---. ~ --- - ----- _. --- - ----- - --- - ---- - -- -
25.4k
(1. 7%)

o F P F P
p Fp P Fp P Fp P F P F P F P
P
w/o E w/E w/o E w/E w/o E
P
w/E (b ct
No key Single key Multiple keys No joint

*w/o E = without epoxy; w/E = with epoxy

Fig. 3.7 Comparison of f , F and P

c p max
 VI
.po

Slip at jOint
Spalled
o Slip at

\ off

o o
'-- .... ~

(a) (b) Joint surface after test (c)

Fig. 3.8 Crack pattern at failure (single key joint wlo epoxying)
 55

I
. '.

Fig. 3.9 Crack pattern at failure (single key

join[ w/o epoxying)
 U1
0\
Sheared-off

Slip at joint Slip at joint

Spalled-off

a) b) Joint after test c)

Fig. 3.10 Crack pattern at failure (multiple key joint wlo epoxying)
 57

of the keys. Keys on one side of the segments were completely sheared
off, as shown in Fig. 3.11. The failure pattern was regarded as direct
shear failure.
(d) Specimen with Epoxied No-key Joint - Figure 3.12(a) and Fig.
3.13 show the crack pattern of the specimen. The major shear crack runs
down along the joint from the top to the midheight where the crack
leaves the joint and goes toward a support. Bearing failure was
observed underneath the loading plate. This failure pattern may be
regarded as combination of shear and bearing failures. There was no
slip at the joint.
(e) Specimen with Epoxied Single Key Joint - Figure 3.12(b) shows
the crack pattern at failure for the specimen. Cracks appeared in the
upper half of the specimen propagating from the bottom of the loading
plate. This is considered to be a bearing failure. The joint was
intact.
(f) Specimen with Epoxied Multiple Key Joint - Figure 3.12(c) shows
the crack pattern at failure for the specimen. This is essentially the
same as that of the specimen with the epoxied single key joint. Bearing
failure occurred, and the joint was intact.
(g) Specimens with No Joints (Monolithic) - Figures 3.14 and 3.15
show the crack patterns of the monolithic specimens. As seen in Fig.
3.14, crack patterns of the two specimens were almost identical. The
specimens had a combination failure of shear and bearing.
58

Fig. 3.11 Sheared-off joint after the test

(multiple key joint w/o epoxying)
 59

(a) No-key

t
(b) Single kl
o

t t
(c) Multiple keys

~ t
I 0 '"
I
I
0

t
v2zzza
t
I eZlIzA
t

Fig. 3.12 Crack patterns at failure (specimens w/epoxying)

60

Fig. 3.13 Crack pattern at failure

(epoxied, no·key joint)
 61

(a) CD

(b) CD

VIY Zl
'
VllZlZ2J

t
Fig. 3.14 Crack patterns at failure (no-joint)
•

" •. l,n ' .. ek ... ,,,", If f.ll~n

,_1111>,., ..... Jo ••• )
 C HAP T E R 4

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

4.1 Capacity of the Specimen

Flexural, shear, and bearing capacities of the test specimens, if
assumed to be monolithic specimens, were calculated as described in this
section. The calculated maximum loads P max for each type of loading,
which could be carried by the specimen, assuming monolithic action, are
summarized in Table 4.1. In these calculations, the capacity reduction
factor if; was taken as unity. In Table 4.1 the maximum test loads and
the type of failure obtained in the tests are also shown for comparison.
4.1.1 Flexural Capaci ty. In accord ance with ACI 318-77, Section
18.7.2, the flexural strength for each specimen, if monolithic, was
determined using an effective ultimate prestressing force based on
f'
c
f ps = f se + 10 + 100 (ksi)
Pp
This equation should strictly only be applied to members with unbonded
prestressing tendons and with fse ~ O.5f pu • In the tests, fse was only
O.45f pu for the bottom tendons,but it was felt adequate to use this
equation with measured prestressing forces and concrete strength. The
limiting applied load P for a flexural failure is then obtained from the
following formulas, assuming a uniformly distributed testing load
appl ication.

Pp = Aps = 0.153 0.00283

bd 3 x 18

T' = A f
ps ps

T'
a =
0.85f'b
c

M = T' (d - ~)
n 2

63
64

TABL~ 4.1 CAPACITY OF THE TEST SPECIMENS IF MONOLITHIC

(In terms of maximum applied load, P )
max

Calculated Values
Assuming Monolithic
Action
Maximum* I
Test Nature
Type of Joint Flexure Shear Bearing Load of
(kips) (kips) (kips) Failure
(kips)
78 Slip
166 111 along
No key 152 (28)
:>. Joint
x
0
0.
~ 89 Shear
.&.J Single key 163 110 139 Failure in
::J (34)
0 Key
.c
.&.J
.~ 96 Shear
t3: Failure in
Multiple keys 162 110 152 (60 -80) Keys
Combined
No key II 167 109 133 116 Shear and
Bearing Fa ilure
:>.
x Bearing
0
0. Single key 163 108 128 134 Failure
~

.c
.&.J
.~ i
;3 Bearing
Multiple keys 169 109 132 124 Failure

Combined
Monolithic CD 156 108 127 118 I Shear and
(No Joint) I
I
Bearing Fa ilure
Combined
CD 168 109 131 134 I
1
Shear and
Bearing Fa ilure

*, **Values in parentheses show slipping loads.

 65

5
=-p
M
max 2

2
:.p = 5" Mn

As seen in Table 4.1, the flexural capacity of the specimens was

designed to be relatively high as compared to the shear capacity so that
a premature flexural failure would not mask the joint shear capacity.
No flexural failures occurred in the test ser ies.
4.1.2 Section Shear Capacity. The calculated shear strength of
each test specimen, assuming monolithic action and ignoring the joint
effect, was calculated following ACI 318-77, Sections 11.4 and 11.5,
which were adopted by AASHTO as Article 1.6.13 in the 1980 Interim
changes.
-Shear strength prov ided by concrete Vc

V.
(flexural shear) VC1. = 0.61fTC bWd + Vd + ----M
1 Mcr
max

(web shear) Vcw = (3.51fT

c
+ 0.3f pc )bwd + Vp

Since the shear span of the specimens is very short, web shear
governs. Therefore, Vc = Vcw ' The actual shear capacity should be
somewhat higher than the Vcw estimate due to the short shear span.
-Shear Strength provided by shear reinforcement Vs

d
V = A f -
s v y s

The nominal shear strength Vn = (V c + Vs ) was calculated using

measured fb and fpc for each specimen. Other values are given below.
bw = 3 in.
d = 18 in.
Vp =0

Av =2 TI
x 7; x
(6)2
25.4 = 0.0877 in2
66

fy = 61.1 ksi
s =3 in.
p x Vn
-- 2
This calculated monolithic shear strength was not developed in any of
the jointed test specimens without epoxy but was fully developed in all
monolithically cast and all epoxy jointed test specimens.
4.1.3 Bearing Capacity. The calculated bearing strength of each
test specimen, assuming monolithic action, was determined following ACI
318-71, Section 10.16, and AASHTO Article 1.5.36, using the following
equations:

p = 0.85f~A1
A1 =3 x 8 = 24 in. 2

The measured f~ at the time of the shear test was used in the
calculation for each specimen.
As seen in Table 4.1, the bearing capacity of the specimens was
designed to be higher than the shear capacity. The two epoxy jointed
specimens with keys which underwent bearing-type failures both failed
within 6% of the predicted bearing capacity.

4.2 Shear Strength of the Joints

The method for determining the shear strength of joints in precast
segmental construction has not been standardized. There are a wide
range of approaches which have been suggested. The shear strength of
each specimen has been computed by various applicable theories as
detailed in this section. The resul ts of these calculations are
summari zed in Table 4.2. For comparison, both the calculated shear
strength assuming monolithic action, and the measured shear strength,
and the major slipping loads are also given.
4.2.1 Shear Friction. The shear strength of the nonepoxied joint
without keys was calculated using shear friction concepts. Values of
the coeffic ient 0 f fr iction given by codes or obtained from test for
concrete-to-concrete smooth interfaces are as follows:
 67

f.J.

ACI 318-77 [13] and AASHTO [17] 0.7-1.0

PCI Design Handbook [26] 0.4
Mast [12] 0.7-1.0
Franz [18] 0.7
Jones [19] 0.4
43A.
Gaston and Kriz [20] 0.78 + ----1 = 0.88
N

In many cases such as ACI 318-77 and AASHTO the case of rejoining match-
cast units is not directly covered. Values of ~ = 1.0 are suggested
for concrete placed against hardened concrete, while values of ~ = 0.7
are used for concrete placed against as-rolled structural steel. This
case may be in between.
In the shear friction method of calculation in reinforced concrete
design, it is assumed that all the shear resistance is due to friction
across the crack faces. The ACI Building Code and AASHTO
Specifications, therefore, use artificially high values of the
coefficient of friction in order to compensate for the neglect of dowel
action of the reinforcement crossing the crack and resistance to the
shearing off of protrusions on the crack faces.
For precast construction, it has been reported [16,25,28] that an
externally applied compressive stress acting transversely to the shear
plane is additive to the reinforcement parameter pf y in calculations of
the shear transfer strength of both initially cracked and uncracked
concrete.
It has also been reported [18,19,25] that the coefficient of
friction and the shear transfer strength are not significantly affected
by the presence of moment in the crack or joint, providing the applied
moment is less than or equal to the flexural capacity of the section.
The shear strength of the joints for the test specimens with
nonepoxied joints was computed in accordance with the ACI Building Code
[13], the PCI Design Handbook [26], and an alternate shear transfer
design method proposed by Mattock [25]. The results are shown below.
In the calculation, ¢= 1.0 was used, since the material strength and
specimen dimensions were accurately known.
68

(a) ACI 318-77, Section 11.7

Vn = J..,J.N, P = 2 V
max n

Vn (kips)
(J..,J. = 0.4) (J..,J. = 0.7) (1-1 = 1. 0)

No-key 10.1 17.7 25.3

Single key 10.4 18.2 26.0
Multiple keys 9.9 17.4 24.8

As can be seen from Table 4.2, the values based on either fl = 0.7 or 1.0
for concrete placed against hardened concrete are conservative
predictors of the maximum load values but underestimate the value at
which significant slip occurred.
(b) PCI Handbook, Section 5.6
In the application to precast concrete connections, the use of an
"effective shear friction coefficient ," J..,J. is recommended.
e

Vn = Avff Y fl e Vn = Nfl
e

lOOOAcr 1.I N·lOOO A 1.I

.-. V =
cr
l.I e = n V
V
n n

••• V = IlOOOA
n cr N 1.I

where Acr = area of contact surface.

For concrete-to-concrete connections with a smooth interface surface,
PCI recommends that a value of 0.4 be used for 1-1. This gives the
following values for Vn •
Vn (kips)
( 1-1 = 0.4)

No-key 24.6
Single key 25.0
Mul tiple keys 24.4
 TABLE 4.2 SHEAR CAPACITY OF THE TEST SPECIMENS
(In terms of maximum applied load, Pmax )

Calculated Values for Shear Strength of Joint (kips)

(In terms of maximum applied load, Pmax = 2 V )
n
Nom.
Shear Mod. ACI Shear
Friction Shear Shear Corbel PCI Key
Type of ACI 318 ACI 318-77 Fric- Fric- Theory ACI Hand-. Vn=
Joint ~ AASHTO Sec. 11.7 tion tion using Corbel book vbh Max.*
if mono- PCI Mthd Shear Theory Corbel v=_ Test Nature
li thic) 11= IJ= IJ.= Hand- Ref. Fric- Sec. Sec. 6/f!" ~oad of
0.7 1.0 1.4 book 25 tion 11. 9 5. 11 8 4 kips) Failure

78 Slip
No key 111 Along
>. 35 51 49 84 (28) Joint
M
0
p..
44 89 Shear
r..:I Single key 110 36 52 50 85 50 55 35 I Failure
-1.1
;:)
48 <34 ) in Joint
0
.c: 48 96 Shear
110 Failure
-1.1
:i
r-tul tiple keys 35 50 I 49 83 57 (60-80 ) in Joint
Combined
I 116 Shear &
No key 109 I 72
>.
Bearing
M
0
Failure
p..
r..:I
Bearing
.c: Single key 108 70 134 Failure
-1.1
•.-1
Bearing
:x Mul tiple keys 109 73 124 Failure
Combined
C1 108 70 118 Shear &
Bearing
Failure
No Joint Combined
® 109 72 134 Shear &
Bearing
Failure (j\
\0

* Values
- -

in parentheses show slipping loads.

70

These values are very close to the ACI-AASHTO values based on IJ. = 1.0 in
the ACI procedures and are again conservative predictors of ultimate
load, but are significantly greater than the load at which slip began.
(c) Modified Shear Friction Method of Mattock [25]
Vu = 400 psi + 0.8Pf y
Vn = 400 bwd + 0.8N

Vn (kips)

No-key 41.8
Single key 42.4
Mul tiple keys 41.4

This method overestimates the initial slip load of the keyless and the
single key specimens and also overestimates the ultimate load on the
keyless specimen.
As described in Sec. 3.4.2 and shown in Fig. 3.4, the jointed
specimen with no epoxy and no keys continued to carry load after the
initial slip at the joint and reached a capacity of 73 kips. The load
vs slip relationship was bilinear. It is supposed that the increased
load was carried by resistance to the shearing off of the fine
protrusions on the "flat" joint surfaces, and by dowel action of the
unbonded prestressing tendons. It is unlikely that any design credence
should be given to the increased load capacity after marked slip.
4.2.2 Single Key Joint
4.2.2.1 Behavior of the test specimen with ~ nonepoxied single key
joint. The crack pattern of this specimen (Figs. 3.8 and 3.9) showed
three types of major cracking characteristics: (1) flexural cracks
starting at the junction of the top face of the male single key and the
end face of the segment, (2) shear cracks in the shear plane of the male
key, and 0) splitting cracks in the shear key reinforcement planes of
both adjacent segments which were accompanied by spalling-off in the
male key region. The flexural cracks (1) were first observed just
before the major shear fail ure (2).
As described in Sec. 3.4.2 and shown in Fig. 3.4, the load vs slip
curve for the specimen with the nonepoxied single key joint implied that
 71

slip occurred at the joint from the very beginning of the load
application. A slip of 0.013 in. was recorded at P = 34 kips. Slip at
the joint was also being observed visually by watching the relative
displacement of straight lines drawn on the sides of the specimen across
the joint. No visual slip was observed at the load level of 34 kips for
the specimen. The load vs slip relationship was essentially trilinear.
Consider ing the above-mentioned facts and the test resul ts for the
specimen with the dry no-key joint, it was concluded that some type of
seating error occurred in the slip gage and the load vs slip data were
corrected, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The corrections were made so that the
first linear portion of the original trilinear curve for the dry single
key joint would agree with the initial slope of the load vs slip curves
for the other specimens. The curve was shifted in proportion to the
magnitude of the applied load. Since shear forces are first transferred
by the fr ic tion in the contac t sur fac es wi th prestr essi ng forc es
providing active resistance, it was considered reasonable that the
initial portions of the load vs slip curves be assumed identical to each
other.
Figure 4.1 indicates that considerable slip must take place in
order for a single large key to act and to develop high shearing
stresses. In other words, contributions of the friction and the key to
ini tial slip loads are not additive. The corrected apparent slip load
for the specimen wi th dry single key joint was 34 kips (1-1= 0.61), while
that for the dry no-key joint was 28 kips (u = 0.55) as mentioned in the
prev ious chapter.
Figure 3.6 shows that the ultimate shear transfer strength of the
dry joint was somewhat improved by the existence of a key (from 73 to 89
kips). Even after the flexural failure of the key, the joint continued
to carry the shearing load, but the slope of the load vs slip curve was
much flatter than in the case of the dry no-key joint. It is supposed
that the reinforcement in the vicinity of the key helped to maintain the
load-carrying capacity. After the shear failure of the male key, which
might have been accompanied by the splitting cracks in the key, the load
dropped rapidly.
 "-J
N

Single key with corrected data

leo
100 r-
I

I
. Key failure
Correction (;)
/
.~.
/
~
.;;:===.'-'._- . --
Key failure

in flexure ./' \
Load
'./ L Single key with
/ ~ uncorrected data
. ./
50
0/ ./0
/ ./
}'- ~-­ Slipping

I. .1.
(x10 -3 in.)
o I

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Relative displacement at joint

Fig. 4.1 Correction of load vs slip curve of Bingle key joint

w/o epoxying
 73

4.2.2.2 Forces acting on single key. Figure 4.2 illustrates

forces acting on a key of the specimen with the nonepoxied single key
joint.
In Fig. 4.2(a), the probable forces on the single key just before
slipping are shown. The resul tant force on the key was obtained
assuming uniform distribution of normal compressive stresses due to
prestressing and no contact between top or bottom faces of the male and
female keys, resulting in no forces acting on the top or bottom face of
the male key. Maximum shear friction stresses before slipping was
approximately 280 psi, which corresponds to a coefficient of friction of
0.61.
The probable forces on the key just before key failure in flexure
are shown in Fig. 4.2(b). The resul tant force was calculated using
prestressing force, shear friction force and forces acting on the top
face of the key. The shear friction force and forces acting on the top
face of the key were determined using the load vs slip curves for the
no-key and single key joints. I t is assumed that the shear friction
force would be the same as that of the no-key joint at an identical
amount of slip. Uniform distribution of the force acting on the top
face of the key is also assumed. The str esses in the key wer e
calculated as follows:
-Average shear stress in the key base just before failure

v = ~ = (18 + 5.9) 10 3 = 1 330 .

ave A 3 x 6 x ,PS1

Thi s correspond s to 0.20 fb or 16.Jfb (> sJrb> .

-Flexural tensile stress at the top reentrant corner

M = 18 x 4"3 + 3
5.9 x-=
2
22.4 k-in

3
M N 22.4 x 10 _ 460
ft =S - A = 18

= 780 psi

This corresponds to OJ2f~ or9.6,Jf'6 (>7.~).

 -..J
.j::-

k
18

3,800 psi ~ k
24.9

I<n
k (Resultant force
7.9
(Resultant force
on key) key)

~
~
~ ~
S.9k~

,
~
~ ~
J
26
k
~t
~

..,'\
\ k k ."
~
~

t~ ... k
tt
t
26 26 rJ- ~ 1 26
~ '- 6.9k~ I
" lSk .9k~ 15k ~
/

~ 40k 22k
~
~
~ ~
~
1

\ '460 psi (prestress)

260 psi
(Shear friction, ~ = 0.55)
7
390 psi
460 psi
(prestress)
(Shear
friction, ~ = 0.85)
a) Just before slipping (p 30 kips). b) Just before key failure (p 80 kips)

Fig. 4.2 Forces acting on single key (without epoxy)

 75

From this simple calculation, the relative magnitude of the shear

force contribution by various components can be visualized. Maximum
bearing stress on the key faces was approximately 0.6f~ «0.85f 6).
4.2.2.3 Corbel analogy. Single key joints might be considered to
be analogous to corbels. Hence, the shear strength of the dry single
key joint was calculated using the design methods for corbels.
The ACI Building Code permits the use of the shear friction
provisions for the design of corbels in which the shear span-to-depth
ratio aid is one-half or less, providing limitations on the quantity and
spacing of reinforcement in corbels. ACI 318-77, Section 11.9, governs
the design of corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio aid of unity or
less. Provisions of Section 5.11 of the PCI Design Handbook would also
apply to corbels. Shear strength of the dry single key joint was
calculated using those methods as shown below. Results of a direct
shear strength calculation will also be presented. In shear friction
calculations a value of ~= 1.4 was used on those parts of the shear
friction plane where the concrete is monolithic but a value of~= 0.7
was used where match cast surfaces joined. It was felt that this
surface condition is closer to that of concrete to steel than concrete
placed against concrete and left undisturbed.

a) ACI 318-77, shear friction provisions

2
Key reinforcement Av ff y =2 x 4'IT (0.135) x 33.6

= 0.96 k

Key portion Vn1 = (A ff + N)ll

v y

6 x 1.4
(0.96 + 26.0 x 20)

12.3 k

14
The rest of the joint Vn2 26.0 x 20 x 0.7

= 12.7 k
76
Total shear strength

Therefore, P = 2V = 50 k.
n

b) ACT 318-77, corbel provisions

Vn1 = 6.5(1 - 0.5 ~d)(l + 64p )1£' b d

v c w

6 . 5 (1 - .05 x ~
O. 75) ( 1 - - x 3 x 1000
+ 64 x 0.0017)16630 5 5

Vn2 = N~ = 26.0 x 0.7 = 18.2 k

P = 54.8 k

c) PC! Design Handbook, corbel provisions

(1) As + An = ~lf
~
[Vu (aid) - Nu (hid)]
y
Use the greater
A
s
+ An •
(2) A
s
+ An = -CPf1 [2V
---2! -
3~
N
u
]
y e

(Note that the sign of the N term has been changed to reflect a
u
compressive force.)

After modification,

_ Avf fy d + N(h/2)
(1') Vn -
a

6
0.96 x 5.5 + 26 x 20 x 26
 77

= ;11 x 3 x 5.5 x 1.4(0.96 + 26.0 x ;0) = 17.4 k

The smaller V governs. Therefore, V = 17.4 k, P = 34.8 k.
n n
Since the effect of the normal force is already included in the equations,
no shear friction contribution will be included.

d) Shear keys with assumed shear distribution

For shear strength in the shear plane of the shear keys,

Ferguson r34] writes as follows:

The distribution of shear force on the key section is uncer-

tain. If it is taken as parabolic, as for a homogeneous
rectangular beam, the equation is

V
n
"> (vbh)2/3 .
The allowable shear in such a case is also not too definite.
It is somewhat similar to the shear permitted between stir-
rups, which the Code limits to roughly 101fT.
c

ACI 31B-77, Section 11.B, provisions for deep flexural members,

states that shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than s.l'qbwd
when span-to-depth ratio is less than 2. Werner and Dilger [27] report
that the tensile strength for the concrete may be equal to &!'f":,
c
and
this cracking load can be taken as the shear force which is resisted by
the concrete. The ACI Building Code specifies 7.~ as the modulus of
rupture of concrete.
Using shear strength of f>/f[ to BJff, the shear strength of the dry
single key joint was calculated.

V = (6/ b630 to 8/6{)30 x 3 x 6/1000

n
l
= 8.8 to 11.7 k
Assuming that V includes all shear transfer effects through the
n
l
shear key section, the shear friction contribution On the remainder
of the joint is computed as
78

vn = Nj.l = 26.0 x 14/20 x 0.7 = 12.7 k

2
V = V + V = 22 to 24 k
n n n
1 2
p 44 to 48 k

The calculated load P varies from 35 to 54 kips for iJ = 0.7. This

means that each of these methods gives very similar results. The shear
friction results with j.l = 0.4 and 0.7 were shown in Section 4.2.1a.
The calculated values are above the load at which significant slip had
occurred. However, the actual maximum load (89 kips) was still sUbstan-
tially higher than the predicted values.
The PCI Bridge Committee [32] and the 1978 AASHTO Interim Bridge
Specifications, Article 1.6.25, specify that at time of erection the
temporary shear stress carried by the concrete section with unhardened
epoxy would be that engaged by the shear key and shall not exceed 4ff6.
This would correspond to 6 kips and is about 20~ of the value at which
first slip was noticed. This seems quite conservative. However, the
test results do not give a direct comparison, since the fluid epoxy
would lubricate the surface. Such a condition was not checked in these
tests.
4.2.2.4 Reinforcement for the~. The reinforcement for the
single keys used in the test was proportioned similar to that used by
Kashima and Breen [22]. The reinforcement parameter AVfy was 1 kip,
while the normal compressive force N on the key portion was about 8
kips. Since fy of the reinforcing wire was much lower than expected, as
mentioned in Sec. 2.2.2, the product of Avfy was also smaller than
intended. However, the key reinforcement had a visible influence on the
failure pattern of the test specimen. Splitting and spalling occurred
in the plane of the key reinforcement. It is reported [9] that a single
key joint in the Kishwaukee River Bridge had a serious crack which
caused concrete spalling.
4.2.3 Multiple Key Joint
4.2.3.1 Behavior of the test specimen wi th ~ nonepoxied multiple
key joint. As shown in Figs. 3.10 and 3.11, a direct shear failure of
the multiple keys occurred. Just before the major direct shear failure,
 79

occurrence of short diagonal cracks was observed in the multiple keys.

Due to the characteristics of direct shear failures, the damage was
well-confined within the key portion and it did not extend to other
regions (in contrast with the case of a dry single key joint).
The load vs slip curve (Fig. 3.4) was multilinear. The initial
portion of the curve which represents nonslip behavior was identical to
that of the keyless joint. Slips took place gradually, maintaining much
higher stiffness up to the major failure load. The load vs slip
relationship and visual observation indicated a progressive failure of
the multiple keys after the first slip.
4.2.3.2 Forces acting ~ multiple keys. Figure 4.3 illustrates
forces acting on multiple keys of the specimen with the nonepoxied
multiple key joint. The resultant forces were calculated in the same
way as des c rib ed inS e c • 4. 2. 2. 2 , ass u min g per f e c t I Y ide n tic a I
geometrical condition for each key. In Fig. 4.3, three phases of the
loading are illustrated. Those phases are before-slipping at P = 30 k,
after-slipping at P = 58 k (no moment), and before major key failure at
P = 96 k. As the load P increases, the resultant force acting on each
lug-key increases its magnitude, and the direction of the force vector
approaches a vertical line. The effect of the moment due to
prestressing and load application in the shear test was taken into
account in the calculation of the resultant forces. The moment values
shown in Fig. 4.3 are the sum of the moments due to prestressing (as
calculated using the prestress forces reported in Table 3.2) and the
moments due to the applied load P (as calculated using M = 3/2 P as
shown in Fig. 3.3(b)).
Although the existence of moment seemed to have a trivial effect,
it might have played some role in continuously progressive softening of
the joint stiffness. However, the progressive softening of the joint
stiffness may mainly be attributed to the fact that multiple keys cannot
be made perfectly identical to each other.
Occurrence of diagonal cracks within the lug keys may be explained
using the pattern shown in Fig. 4.3(c). The direction of a diagonal
crack may agree with that of a resultant force. Generally, very high
compression tends to cause high tensile stress perpendicular to the
80

a) b) c.)
Before slipping After slipping Before key
(P • 30 k ) (P • 58 k ) failure
(P • 96 k )

Fig. 4.3 Forces acting on mUltiple keys (without epoxy)

 81

compressive force due to the effect of Poisson's ratio, resulting in

splitting. Maximum shear stresses will occur at the base planes of the
keys as a result of distributed loading on the top faces of the keys.
Therefore, direct shear failure will take place at the base of each key.
Figure 3.11 shows sheared-off multiple keys in the specimen without
epoxy. Small clearances and tight contact action were alternately
observed between the top or bottom faces of the mating keys after the
test. Therefore, it is considered that the assumption with respect to
the force transfer mechanism between the adjacent keys is valid at least
for the case of force transfer after-slipping.
4.2.3.3 Direct shear strength. The shear strength of a dry
multiple key joint could be calculated in a similar fashion to the
procedure used for a single key joint based on a nominal concrete shear
strength of 6 fc to 8 fc as discussed in Sec. 4.2.2.3 (d).
Direct shear on keys
Vn 1 = mVbwh
m = number of keys
v = direct shear strength
bw = width of keys
h = depth of keys at base
Vn1 = 8 x (6 ·./7000 to 8 ./7000) x 3 x 1.0/1000
= 12. 0 to 16. 1 k
Shear friction
Vn2 = N~ = 24.8 x 14/20 x (0.7)
= 12.2 k
Vn = Vn1 + Vn2 = 24.2 to 28.3 k
Bearing check
0.85f~A = 0.85 x 7 x 8 x 3 x 0.4
= 57.1 k O.K.
P = 2V n = 48 to 57 k

The calculated load P is shown in Table 4.2 for comparison with the
measured load which was much higher than predicted. It is interesting
to note that both calculated and measured loads for single and multiple
key specimens are in the correct general proportion.
82

In general, multiple keys are not reinforced.

4.2.3.4 Other aspects of multiple key joint. In practical
construction, multiple keys could be one of the most vulnerable parts of
precast segments at the time of handling of the segments, which would
take place frequently due to the nature of precast segmental
construction. In fact, it is reported [35] that in the Long Key Bridge,
some of the keys were occasionally chipped or broken off. Concerning
this problem, an engineer with Figg & Muller, Inc., reportedly said,
"One broken, even two doesn't bother me. More than that we'd have to
think about. But we haven't had more than two (out of eighteen)." This
remark characterizes the general performance of multiple key joints.
Schaijik [35] also reported that the problem of chipped and broken keys
was encountered while producing Vail Pass Bridge segments, and chicken
wire mesh in the keys cured that problem. In these shear tests, no such
problems were experienced.
As to the shape of multiple keys, Schaijik also reported that the
original circular corrugations had been replaced by the superior
geometry of trapezoidal keys for production and assembling reasons, and
that circular corrugations could not always produce a tight fit.
4.2.4 Effect of Epoxy
4.2.4.1 Effectiveness of epoxy. As mentioned in Sec. 1.2.1, the
major funct ions of epoxies are (1) to act as a lubr icant, (2) to even
out minor irregularities between the mating surfaces during erection,
(3) to provide watertightness and durability at the joint, and (4) to
transfer shear forces in the cured state. In the shear test, the
structural effect of epoxy on the performance of precast segmental
joints was phenomenal.
As mentioned in Sec. 3.4.3, all three specimens with epoxied
joints, including the no-key joint, attained much higher failure loads
than any specimen with a nonepoxied joint. The maximum loads (116 to
134 kips) were similar to those (118 to 134 kips) for the monolithic
specimens. As shown in Table 4.1, measured shear strengths of the
epoxied joints were in every case higher than the calculated shear
strengths of monolithic specimens. The calculated shear strength of the
epoxied joints based on shear friction theory but with a coefficient of
 83

friction of 1.4 as is assumed for monolithic concrete is given in Table

4.2. The calculated values range from 70 to 73 kips and were much lower
than the measured failure loads. This, along with the fact that no slip
was noticed in the epoxied joints up to failure loads, led to the
conclusion that the specimens with epoxied joints behaved
monolithically and failed at their web shear and/or bearing capacities.
As described in Sec. 3.4.2(b), all three specimens with epoxied
joints had almost the same load vs relative displacement curves. Table
4.2 indicates the failure loads for the epoxied specimens were the same
range and magnitude as the monolithic baseline specimens. Load-slip
behaviors of the joints studied herein are summarized in Fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.4 confirms that the epoxy enabled all joint types to act
monolithically and much superior to the dry joint specimens.
4.2.4.2 Are~~ !£.!:. !~.!:..!:.!!.~.!:. ~.!:.~~ies. Regarding the basic
characteristics of the epoxy bonding agent, Hugenschmidt [36] reported
as follows:

The properties of epoxies are greatly influenced by

variations in temperature. Because of this sensitivity to
the temperature, the testing of epoxies is expensive and
time consuming. The short-term strengths (compression,
flexure, shear strength, lap shear strength, and modulus
of elasticity) are usually deceptively high. Furthermore,
they can easily give the erroneous impression that the me-
chanical strength of an epoxy system is always greater than
that of the concrete to be bonded. If the concrete is being
bonded under mild conditions, the requirement "failure in
concrete" is easy to fulfill under most prevailing stresses.
The adhesive strength of the epoxy can be assumed to be
greater than the ultimate strength of the concrete and is
therefore not a governing criterion. The important criteria
of an appropriate epoxy adhesive are creep deformation, heat
stability, and moisture resistance.

His article strongly suggests the need for investigation of long-

term behavior of epoxied joints.
The relationship between the thickness of the epoxy layer in the
joint and the segment size in the model test may not be exactly similar
to that in the prototype construction, since the same amount of
temporary post-tensioning stress is used in both cases. The epoxy layer
 ~
[Sh\ andlor bearing failure]

Epoxied joints (no-key, single key, and multiple keys)

/
--- - Failure load for monolithic specimens
..... [Shear failure along keys]

MultiPle key joint (w/o epoxy)

Single key joint (w/o epoxy)

/
Load
.-.-.~-.-.,
~ [Shear failure in key]
~
-- ----
"[Flexural crack in key] __
.
/
--~---
-- ---
/ .
-- - - -
--
------ --
No-key joint (w/o epoxy)

~[SliP]

Relative joint displacement

Fig. 4.4 Comparison of behavior of joints

 85

in the joint of the model test specimen may tend to be relatively

thicker. In this respect, tests using prototype-size specimens might be
needed.
Kashima and Breen [30] have pointed out that many epoxies furnished
as suitable for jointing concrete segments in fact are unsuitable. The
suitability of specific formulations should be checked using simple
tests but with surface conditions and ambient factors typical of the
proposed application.
It.3 Appraisal of Types of Joint
The overall findings from these limited exploratory tests on shear
strength of joints in precast segmental bridges are condensed in Fig.
4.4.
In terms of the maximum loads developed, all epoxied joints
behaved similarly and developed loads equal to those carried by the
monolithic specimens. Among the nonepoxied joints, the multiple keys
showed higher strength, though the maximum value was significantly lower
than those of the epoxied joints. The nonepoxied single key joint
carried less load than the load developed by the multiple keys. As
expected, the keyless joint without epoxy carried the lowest load. The
loads at initial slip for nonepoxied joints were almost identical, while
no significant slip was observed in the epoxied joints. Comparison of
absolute values of the maximum loads between nonepoxied single and
multiple key joints may not be important, since those values could be
changed by designing a key configuration differently, especially by
increasing or decreasing the shear key area-to-web section area ratio.
In general, use of multiple keys assures more shear key area and results
in higher shear strength of the joint. In a single key configuration,
there seems to be a limit on strength increase by increasing the key
area.
A more important consideration for nonepoxied joints is the
behavior of the joint as indicated by the vertical load vs slip
relationship. Figure 4.4 indicates a clear superiority of the multiple
key dry joints over the single key dry joints. It appears that the
single key joints should not be used without an epoxy bonding agent, as
specified by the Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual [2]. When
86

the shear load is very small and corrosion resistance and durability do
not require its use, the epoxy might be omitted. It is clear that use
of mul tiple keys improves the overall performance of the dry joints.
However, application of an adequate epoxy bonding agent provides much
better assurance.
Epoxy which does provide structural assistance is available for a
modest cost. The other major benefits of the epoxy bonding agent such
as water tightness and durability of the joint are automatically
enhanced by its use. Therefore, the use of epoxy is strongly
recommended. Use of an adequate epoxy bonding agent allows use of the
single large shear key which might be advantageous in some cases.
Even though this program was limited it was apparent that from the
viewpoint of construction simplicity there are important differences
bet ween single and mul tiple keys. The single large key requires
placement of key reinforcement. It is more difficult to conceal and,
hence, is less aesthetic. The small multiple keys have no need for key
reinforcement and can be easily concealed. They do require somewhat
more complicated forms and may be more fragile and prone to handling
damage.
As mentioned in Sec. 1.1, temperature and weather limitations
regarding mixing and placing epoxy jointing material may be one of the
possible disadvantages of precast segmental construction. On this
subject, Gentilini and Gentilini [37] reported their experience as
follows:

In the wintertime, the surface to be bonded was electrically

heated using armored electric cables which were buried in the
precast segment at a depth of I-in. from the surfaces to be
bonded. This heating procedure was adopted after some nega-
tive experiments with traditional systems where heating is
provided from the outside of the concrete.

A strictly controlled program of curing epoxies was utilized in the

construction of the Olympic Stadium in Montreal. Construction proceeded
successfully under winter conditions. The technology exists to utilize
epoxies correctly, although many examples of misuse have been reported
in the relatively brief American history of segmental bridges.
 C HAP T E R 5

CONCLUSIONS

All conclusions in this study must be qualified because of the

limi ted test program undertaken. Only one reliable epoxy was used and
single model specimens were used under a single loading condition.
However, within that context the following conclusions are warranted:

(1) Load vs relative joint displacement relationship

Each type of joint configuration showed a distinct load vs joint
slip relationship (Fig. 4.4). In nonepoxied specimens, the load vs slip
curve was bilinear for the keyless joint, trilinear for the single key
joint, and multilinear for the multiple key joint. The relative loads
at given slips were substantially higher for the multiple key joint. In
epoxied specimens, no significant slip at the joints occurred up to the
major failure load.
The load vs relative joint displacement relationship of all
specimens without epoxy were almost identical to each other until
initial slips occurred. Thus, contributions of shear friction and of
keys to the resistance to initial slip were not additive.

(2) Shear friction

The shear friction provisions of ACI 318-77 overestimated the slip
load of the specimens with nonepoxied joints unless coefficients of
friction were reduced to 0.55 to 0.61 from conventional values which
vary from 0.7 to 1.0. Prestressing forces were considered to be
additive to the reinforcement parameter p f y •

(3) Nonepoxied single key joint

In the specimen with the nonepoxied single key joint, flexural
cracks were first observed at the junction of the top face of the male
single key and the end face of the segment. After development of the
flexural cracks, major shear failure occurred in the base plane of the

87
88

male key, accompanied by splitting cracks in the key reinforcement

planes.
Corbel provisions of ACI 318-77 and the PCI Design Handbook or
direct shear strength calculation based on 6Jf[ to 8Jf[ shear stress
gave similar values of shear strength for the single key joint.
However, these calculated shear strengths were only 601 of the actual
maximum shear force.

(4) Nonepoxied multiple key joint

In the specimen with the nonepoxied multiple keys, a direct shear
failure of the multiple keys took place. Again, the calculated load
using nominal concrete shear strength of 6~to a)"q' was only 60% of
the actual maximum load.

(5) Epoxy
The effect of epoxy on the performance of precast segmental joints
was phenomenal. All three specimens with epoxied joints, including the
keyless joint, acted monolithically, carrying loads as high as the
monolithic no-joint specimens. The measured failure loads of the
epoxied specimens were 60 to 80% higher than the calculated shear
strength of the joints based on a shear friction theory with the
coefficient of friction assumed as 1.4, as used for fully monolithic
concrete.

(6) Appraisal of types of joint

The results ind icated that single key joints should al ways be used
with epoxy bonding agents. If nonepoxied joints are to be used, the use
of multiple keys improves the overall performance of the joints.
However, application of an epoxy bonding agent provides much better
total assurance, and, therefore, it is highly desirable.

(7) Design procedures

(a) Precast segmental joints without epoxy will be controlled by
slip in the joint. A conservative design procedure is to utilize ACI-
AASHTO shear friction provisions but with the value of ~ taken as 0.5.
 89

The ultimate strength of both single key and multiple key specimens can
be conservatively estimated by using a nominal shearing stress of 8Jf'[
on the key shear area.
(b) Precast segmental joints with a properly controlled epoxy
jointing material will behave like monolithically cast concrete. Normal
ACI-AASHTO provisions for determining flexural, bearing, and shear
strength are applicable to the properly cured joint.

(8) Further studies

There is a need for investigation of long-term behavior of epoxied
joints. Addi tional tests using prototype-size specimens should be run.
In addition, tests of specimens with various epoxies and jointing
conditions, with nonepoxied joints with various key shapes, and with
bonded tendons might be useful. A construction age test series should
be run with epoxy joints before the epoxy solidifies. The joint
behavior should be studied under reversed and fatigue loads.
In any further study, an improved joint slip measurement system
should be used in place of the crude system used in this study.
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91
92

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 93

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94

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