Chapter 9: Manufactured Substances in Industry

The manufacture of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 through the Contact Process

Stage 1: Combustion of Sulphur Stage 3:
In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to
produce sulphur dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is In the absorber, the sulphur trioxide, SO3 is first reacted with
purified and cooled. concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to form a product called
S(l) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
oleum, H2S2O7.
Stage 2:
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)  H2S2O7
In the converter, sulphur dioxide, SO2 and excess
The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produced
oxygen gas, O2 are passed over a few plates of
concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities.
vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5 catalyst at 4500C to
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(l)
produce sulphur trioxide, SO3.
The two reactions in the third stage are equivalent to adding
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
sulphur trioxide, SO3 directly to water.
About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted
SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(l)
into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this reversible
reaction.
Uses of Sulphuric Acid

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 The manufacture of ammonia, NH3 through the Haber Process

1. Gases mixed and scrubbed 3. Converter

Haber process combines N2 gas from the air with Then, it goes to the converter. It is then passed through layers of
H2 gas from natural gas to form NH3. iron catalyst with aluminium oxide as a promoter at a temperature
The two gases are mixed. The mixture is of 4500C – 5000C
scrubbed to get rid of impurities. 4. Cooler
2. Compressor A mixture of three gases leaves the converter. It is cooled until the
One volume of N2 gas and three volume of H2 ammonia condenses. The nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped
gas is compressed to a pressure of 200 – 500 back to the converter for another chance to react.
atm 5. storage tanks
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) NH3 is formed and then liquefy and separated to get a better yield.
The NH3 is run into tanks and stored as a liquid under pressure.

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Metals Alloys
- Most metals are solid - A mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed
- Pure metals are made up of the same type of composition in which the major components is a metal.
atoms and are of the same size. - The aim of making alloys is to make them stronger, harder,
- The arrangement of the atoms in metals gives resistant to corrosion, have a better furnish and luster.
the metals their ductile and malleable - The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different
properties. sizes disturb the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal.
- The orderly arrangement of atoms in metals - This reduces the layer of atoms from sliding.
enables the layers of atoms to slide on one - Thus, an alloy is stronger and harder than its pure metals.
another when force is applied.
- Thus, metals are ductile or can be stretched.
Alloy Composition Properties Uses
Bronze - 90% copper - Hard and strong - In building of statues or monuments
- 10% tin - Does not corrode easily - In the making of medals, swords and artistic
- Has shiny surface materials.
Brass - 70% copper - Harder than copper - In the making of musical instruments and
- 30% zinc kitchenware
Steel - 99% iron - Hard and strong - In the construction of buildings and bridges
- 1% carbon - In the building of the body of cars and
railways tracks
Stainless - 74% iron - Shiny - In the making of cutlery
Steel - 8% carbon - Strong - In the making of surgical instruments
- 18% chromium - Does not rust
Duralumin - 93% aluminium - Light - In the building of the body of aeroplanes
- 3% copper - Strong and bullet train
- 3% magnesium
- 1% manganese
Pewter - 96% tin - Luster - In the making of souvenirs
- 3% copper - Shiny
- 1% antimony - Strong
Polymers Synthetic Polymers
- Polymers are large molecules made up of many - Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers.
identical repeating sub-units called monomers which - The monomers used are usually obtained from
are joined together by covalent bonds. petroleum after going through the refining cracking
- Monomers are joined into chains by a process of processes.
repeated linking known as polymerization. - Examples: polythene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
- A polymer may consists of thousands of monomers. polypropene, perspex, nylon and terylene.
- Naturally occurring polymers: starch, cellulose, wool, - Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not
protein. Silk and natural rubber corrode or decay, and also difficult to dispose.
- They may cause pollution, blockage of drainage
systems and flash floods.

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 Synthetic polymer Monomer Uses
Polythene Ethene Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic containers and
insulation for electrical wiring
Polypropene Propene Piping, bottle crates, carpets, car batteries and ropes

Polyvinyl chloride, Chloroethene Artificial leather, water pipes and records

PVC
Perspex Methylmethacrylate Safety glass, reflectors, traffic signs and lens
Terylene Hexane-1,6-diol Clothing, sails and ropes
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic
acid
Nylon Hexane-1,6-diamine Ropes, clothing and carpets.
Hexane-1,6-dioic acid
Glass
- The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2 which found in sand.
- Properties of glass: Transparent, hard but brittle, chemically inert, heat insulator, electrical insulator, impermeable
to liquid
Fused glass (SiO2)
- Highly heat-resistant glass
- High transparency
- High melting point
- Resistant to chemical
attack
Uses
- Laboratory glassware,
lenses, telescope, mirrors

Borosilicate glass Soda-lime glass

(SiO2, Na2O, CaO, Al2O3, (SiO2, Na2O, CaO)
B2O3) - Good chemical durability
- Low thermal expansion - High thermal expansion
coefficient coefficient
- Resistant to heat and Glass - Easy to make into
chemical attack different shapes
- Hight melting point - Low melting point
Uses Uses
- Cooking utensuls, Lead crystal glass - Bottles, window panes,
laboratory glassware, (SiO2, Na2O, PbO, K2O, mirrors, electrical bulbs,
automobile headlights Al2O3) flat glass and all kind of
- Soft abd easy to glass containers
meltn
- High density
- High refractive index
Uses
- Lead crystal
glassware, art
objects, lens, prisms
and chandeliers

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Ceramics
- Ceramics are made from clay, for example kaolin, a hydrated aluminiumsilicate, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O.
- When the clay is heated to a very high temperature, they undergo a series of chemical reaction and are hardened
permanently to form ceramics.
- Ceramics are very hard, brittle, have a very high melting point, chemically inert and do not corrode.
- The are good insulators of electricity and heat.
- Uses of ceramics: construction materials – bricks, tiles, cement and pipes
- Ornamental articles – bowls, cups, plates, vase and porcelain
- Electrical insulators – spark plugs, fuses, insulators in electric iron and oven
- Superconductors
Composite Materials
- Composite materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substance such as
metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers.
- The resulting material has properties that are superior than those of the original components.
- Composite materials are created for specific application.
Composite Component Properties of Properties of composite Uses of composites
material component
Reinforced Concrete - Hard but brittle - Stronger - Construction of roads
concrete - Low tensile - Higher tensile strength - Rocket launching
strength - Does not corrode easily pads
Steel - Strong in tensile - Cheaper - High-rise buildings
strength - Can be moulded into any
- Expensive shape
- Can corrode - Can withsatand very high
applied forces
- Can support very heavy
loads
Superconductor - Copper (II) Insulators of - Conducts electricity without - Magnetically levitated
oxide electricity resistance when cooled by train
- Tttrium liquid nitrogen - Transformers
oxide - Electric cable
- Barium - Computer parts
oxide - Amplifier
Photochromic Glass - Transparent - Reduce refraction of light - Information display
glass - Not sensitive to - Control the amount of light panels
light passes through it - Light detector devices
Silver - Sensitive to automatically - Car windshields
chloride or light - Has the ability to change - Optical lens
silver colour and become darker
bromide when exposed to ultraviolet
light

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 Fibre optics Glass with - Transparent - Low material cost - Transmit data using light
low refraction - Does not reflect - Reflect light ray and allow waves in
index light rays to travel along the fibre telecommunications
- Can transmit electronic - Instruments for
Glass with data or signals, voice and examining internal parts
higher images in a digital format, of the body or inspecting
refractive in the form of light along the interiors of
index the fine glass tubes at manufactured structural
great speeds products
Fibre glass Glass - High density - High tensile strength - Car bodies
- Strong but - Moulded and shaped - Helmets
brittle - Inert to chemicals - Skies
- Non-flexible - Light - Rackets
Polyester - Light - Strong - Furniture
plastic - Flexible - Tough - Water storage tanks
- Inflammable - Not inflammable - Small boats
- Elastic but - Impermeable to water
weak - Resilient
- Flexible

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