Let the emissivity of the material be ‘e’.

Total heat dissipated will depend upon the surface area and
the emissivity of the material

∴ Heat dissipated ∝ surface area × emissivity:

At the steady state condition, the power input should be equal to the heat dissipated. From Equations
(7.1) and (7.2), we can write that:

If two filaments are made up of same material, working at same temperature and efficiency but with
different diameters, then from Equation (7.3):

If two filaments are working at the same temperature, then their luminous output must be same even
though their lengths are different.

Limitations
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
o Low efficiency.
o Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.

DISCHARGE LAMPS
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamp. The main
principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as below.
In all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which produces its
illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the gases are poor conductors
of electricity. But on application of sufficient voltage across the two electrodes, these ionized gases
produce electromagnetic radiation. In the process of producing light by gaseous conduction, the most
commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and mercury. The wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the gaseous pressure used inside the lamp. A simple
discharge lamp is shown in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. Discharge lamps

The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of excitation and
ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a discharge tube.

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 When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential, gas or metal vapor
starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. Volt–ampere characteristics of the
arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possess a negative resistance characteristics. A choke or
ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value. Here, the choke serves two functions.
o It provides ignition voltage initially.
o Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all the
discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The nature of the
gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.
Types of discharge lamps
Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
1. The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or vapor
present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside the
walls of the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces UV
radiation, thenthe invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiates light energy falls in the
visible region. This UV light causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such lamps are
known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the lamp circuitry is
complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have negative resistance
characteristics.

NEON DISCHARGE LAMP

This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for starting.
Neon lamp consists of two electrodes placed at two ends of a long discharge tube is shown in Fig. 7.7.
The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V on AC is
impressed across the two electrodes; the discharge takes place through the neon gas that emits light or
electro magnetic radiation reddish in color. The sizes of electrodes used are equal for both AC and DC
supplies. On DC, neon glow appear nearer to the negative electrode; therefore, the negative electrode is
made larger in size. Neon lamp electric circuit consists of a transformer with high leakage reactance in
order to stabilize the arc. Capacitor is used to improve the power factor. Neon lamp efficiency is
approximately 15–40 lumens/W. The power consumption of the neon lamp is 5 W.

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 Fig. Neon lamps
If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white light is obtained. These lamps are used as
night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the determination of the polarity of DC mains and for
advertising purpose.

SODIUM VAPOR LAMP

A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge lamp
consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the temperature of the
tube within the working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are
sealed with the ends. These electrodes are connected to a pin type base construction of sodium vapor
lamp is shown in Fig. .

Fig. Sodium vapor lamp

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 This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp should be more. In
order to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-shaped tube. This longU- tube consists of a
small amount of neon gas and metallic sodium. At the time of start, the neon gas vaporizes and
develops sufficient heat to vaporize metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.
Working
Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube. When sufficient
voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts in the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a
low-pressure neon lamp with pink color. The temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the
metallic sodium vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This
lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp makes the object
appears gray.

In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps. These
voltages can be obtained from a high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The operating
power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is placed to improve the power factor to above
0.8. More care should be taken while replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in
contact with the moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly
so, to spread out the sodium well along the tube.

The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally, these lamps are
manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The normal operating temperatures of these lamps are
300°C. In general, the average life of the sodium vapor lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected
by voltage variations.

Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:

o The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
o The filament breaks or burns out.
o All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
o The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly used
for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.

HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP

The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure, voltage,
temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the efficiency of the lamp.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
1. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
2. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
3. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high pressures.

MA type lamp
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of sodium vapor
lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Fig. 7.9
MA type lamp consists of a long discharge tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard glass or quartz.
This discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To prevent the heat loss from the
inner bulb, by convection, the gap between the two tubes is completely evacuated. The inner tube
contains two main electrodes and an auxiliary starting electrode, which is connected through a high

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resistance of about 50 kΩ. It also contains a small quantity of argon gas and mercury. The two main
electrodes are tungsten coils coated with electron emitting material (such as thorium metal).
Working
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form. Initially, when supply is given to
the lamp, argon gas present between the main and the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized, and an arc is
established, and then discharge takes place through argon for few minutes between the main and the
auxiliary electrodes. As a result, discharge takes place through argon for few minutes in between the
main and the auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by using high resistance that is
inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After few minutes, the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized
between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two
main electrodes. During the discharge process, heat is produced and this heat is sufficient to vaporize
the mercury. As a result, the pressure inside the discharge tube becomes high and the voltage drop
across the two main electrodes will increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and
gives its full output.

Fig. MA type lamp

Initially, the discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the mercury
vapors is greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high currents and capacitor is to improve
the power factor of the lamp.

If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapor pressure be reduced before it will
start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating temperature of the inner discharge tube is about
600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is 30–40 lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250
and 400 W ratings for use on 200–250 V on AC supply.

Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports, shopping centers,
railway yards, etc.
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MAT type lamp

This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use on AC
as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp except
the outer tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at the time of starting, it works as a
tungsten filament lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a choke or ballast to limit the high currents to
safer value.

When the supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten filament lamp, its full output is given by the
outer tube. At this time, the temperature of the inner discharge tube increases gradually, the argon gas
present in it starts ionizing in the discharge tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal
switch gets opened, and the part of the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge tube
increases. Now, the discharge takes place through the mercury vapor. Useful color effect can be
obtained by this lamp. This is because of the combination of light emitted form the filament and blue
radiations from the discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor is not required since the overall
power factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is because the filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 7.10 shows
the construction of MAT type lamp.

Fig. MAT type lamp

MB type lamp

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 Fig. MB type lamp

The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB type
lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three electrodes; two main and one
auxiliary electrodes. There are three electrodes present in the MB type lamp, namely two main
electrodes and one auxiliary electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is maintained inside the discharge
tube and it is about 5–10 times greater than atmospheric pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl
glass material so as to withstand high temperatures. We can use these tubes in any position, because
they are made up of special glass material.

The working principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are
manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp consists
a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil and a capacitor
are necessary for working with these types of lamps.

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FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP)

Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction and working of
the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is made in the
form of a long tube.
The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emissive material and are
placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount
of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig.
7.12. Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce an
objectionable colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the tube with
fluorescent powders. They are in the form of solids, which are usually knows as phosphors.
A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp with
bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes directly across the
supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as ballast when the lamp is
running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of 4µF is connected across the
starter in order to improve the power factor.
Working
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in the form of
globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and full supply
voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and choke coil. The small
quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up
the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and
are connected across the supply voltage. Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons
due to the flow of current through them. These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the
long tube discharge that takes place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts
conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and takes
over the conduction of current.
In the mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling down. As a
result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series circuit. A very high voltage
around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals in the series circuit. But
in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage is quite sufficient to break down the
long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide with argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited
atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not fall in the visible region.
Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-emission of light of
different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the emission is called as
luminescence.

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 Fig. Fluorescent lamp
This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
1. Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
2. Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation will
present.
In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known asfluorescent lamp.
Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different colors as given in
Table. .
Table Colors of light

Phosphor material Color effect

1. Zinc silicate Green

2. Calcium tungstate Green

3. Magnesium tungstate Bluish while

4. Cadmium silicate Yellowish pink

5. Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while

6. Cadmium borate Pink

Advantages of fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has the following advantages:
o High efficiency.
o The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
o The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
o Less chances of glare.
o These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be unsatisfactory.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following disadvantages:
o The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
o The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of lowambient
temperature.
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o Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
o The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
Stroboscopic effect
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a cycle’. For
50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be extinguished twice in a
cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this extinguish
phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light falls upon a moving object, the object
appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in reverse direction, sometimes stationary. This
effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This effect is called as ‘stroboscopic
effect’.
This effect can be avoided by employing any of the two techniques listed below.
1. If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should be fed from
different phases. Then, no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero instant of AC supply, so light is
present at any instant.
2. If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in Fig. 7.13, we can eliminate
stroboscopic effect.
Twin tube circuit is also known as lead–lag circuit. Here two tubes are connected in parallel. One of
the two tubes provided with a capacitor in series with the choke coil. The current through the lamps is
almost 90° out of phase and under these conditions, the light output of one of the lamps is at maximum.
Moreover, the overall power factor of lamps is unity. In this lead–lag arrangement, one of the lamps is
operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading.
In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions, the
lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after
4,000–5,000 of its working hours

.
Fig. Lead–lag circuit

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