CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of water, cement, sand, gravel crushed rock, or other aggregates.
The aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed rock) are held together in a rocklike mass with a
paste of cement and water.

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.

AGGREGATES
Aggregates used in concrete may be fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse
aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone). Fine aggregates are those that passes
through a No. 4 sieve (about 6 mm in size). Materials retained are coarse aggregates.
The nominal maximum sizes of coarse aggregate are specified in Section 5.3.3 of
NSCP. These are follows: 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, 1/3 the
depth of slabs, or 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or
wires, bundles of bars, or prestressing tendons or ducts. These limitations may not be
applied if, in the judgment the Engineer, workability and methods of consolidation are
such that concrete can be placed without honeycomb or voids.

WATER
According to Section 5.3.4, water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from
injurious of oils, acids, alkalis, salts organic materials or other substances that may be
deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Mixing water for prestressed concrete or for
concrete that will contain aluminum embedment’s, including that portion of mixing water
contributed in the form of free moisture on aggregates, shall not be used in concrete
unless the following are satisfied: (a) Selection of concrete proportions shall be based
on concrete mixes using water from the same source and (b) mortar test cubes made
with non-portable mixing water shall have 7-days and 28 day strengths equal to at least
90
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Unlike steel and other materials, concrete has no definite modulus of
elasticity. Its value is dependent on the characteristics of cement and
aggregates used, age of concrete and strengths.

According to NSCP (Section 5.8.5), modulus of elasticity E c for concrete for

values of wc, between 1500 and 2500 kg/ m3 may be taken as.

0.043 √ f c
'
EC =W c
1.50
Eq. 1-1
(¿ MPa )

f'c Wc
Where is the day 28-day compressive strength of concrete in MPa

is the unit weight on concrete in kg / m3 . For normal weight concrete,

E c = 4700 √ f ' c . Modulus of elasticity E for nonprestressed reinforced may

s

be taken as 200,000 MPa.

DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT

STANDARD HOOKS

Standard hooks refer to one of the following:

4 db
1. 180-degree bend plus extension but not less than 60 mm at free end
of bar.
12 d b
2. 90-degree bed plus extension at free end of bar.
3. For stirrups and tie hooks:
6 db
a) 61 mm diameter bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus
extension at
free end bar, or
12 db
b) 20 and 25 mm diameter bar, 90-degree bend, plus extension
at free end of bar, or
 6 db
c) 25mm diameter bar and smaller, 135-degree bend d plus
extension at free end of bar.

MINIMUM BEND DIAMETERS (SECTION 407.3)

Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in
sizes 10mm through 15 mm, shall not be less than the values in Table 1.1.

4 db
Inside diameter of bend for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 16 mm bar and
smaller. For bars larger than 16 mm, diameter of bend shall be in accordance with Table
1.1

Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric /9plain or deformed) for stirrups and ties
4 db 2 db
shall not be less than for deformed wire larger than D56 and for all
other
wires.
4 db
Bends with inside diameter of less than 8db shall not be less than from
nearest welded intersection.

Table 1.1- Minimum Diameters of Bend

Bar Size Minimum Diameter

6 db
10 mm to25 mm
8 db
28 mm, 32 mm, and 36 mm

PLAIN REINFORCEMENT (407.6)

Reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and ducts shall not be accurately placed and
adequately before concrete is placed, and shall be secured against displacement within
tolerance permitted.
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement prestressing tendons, and
prestressing ducts shall be placed within the following tolerances:

Tolerance for depth d, and minimum concrete over a flexural members walls and
compression members shall be as follows:

Effective depth, d Tolerance on d Tolerance on minimum

concrete cover
≤200 mm ±10 mm
d -10 mm

¿ 200 mm ±12 mm
d -12 mm

Except that tolerance for the clear distance to formed soffits shall be minus 6 mm and
tolerance for cover shall not exceed minus 1/3 the minimum concrete cover required in
the design drawings or specifications.

±
Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of reinforcement shall be 50
±12
mm except at discontinuous ends of members where tolerance shall be mm.

SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT

According for Section 5.7.6 of NSCP, the minimum clear spacing between parallel bars
in a layer should be db but not less than 25 mm. Where parallel reinforcement is placed
in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers should be placed directly above bars in
the bottom layer with clear distance between layers not less than 25mm. In spirally
reinforced or tied reinforced compression members, clear distance between longitudinal
bars shall be not less than 1.5 db nor 40mm.

In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, primary flexural reinforced
shall be spaced not for farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness, nor 450
mm.

BUNDLED BARS
Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as unit shall be limited to
four in any one bundle. Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties and bars
larger than 32 mm shall not be bundle in beams. The individual bars within the span of
flexural members should terminate at different points with at least 40 db stagger. Since
spacing limitations and minimum concrete cover of most members are based on a
single diameter db, bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived
from the equivalent total area.

Figure 1.1 Bundled-bar arrangement

Diameter of single bar equivalent to bundled bars according to NSCP to be used for
spacing limitation and concrete cover.

3-25mm Equivalent diameter, D

π π
4 (25) 2
x3 4 D2
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT (SECTION 407.8.1)

Cast-in –place Concrete (nonprestressed). The following minimum concrete cover

shall be provided for reinforcement:
Minimum
cover, mm
(a) Concrete cast against permanently exposed to earth 75

(b) Concrete exposed to earth or weather: 50

20 mm through 36 mm bars 40
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire, and smaller
(C Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with
) ground: 20
slabs, walls, joists:
32 mm bar and smaller 40
Beams, columns
Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals 20
Shells, folded place members:
20 mm bar and larger 15
16 mm, Wr1 or D31 wire, and smaller

Precast concrete (Manufactured Under Plant Conditions).The Following minimum

concrete shall be provided for reinforcement

Minimum
cover, mm

(a) Concrete exposed to earth or weather:

Wall panels: 20
32 mm bar and smaller
Other members: 40
 20 mm through 32 mm bars 30
16 mm bar, W31 wire, and smaller

(b) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with

ground: 15
slabs, walls, joists: db but not less 15, &
32 mm bar and smaller need not exceed 40
Beams, columns 10

Primary reinforcement
15
Ties, stirrups, spirals 10
Shells, folded plate members:
20 mm bar and larger
16 mm, Wr1 or D31 wire, and smaller

Prestressed Concrete
The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressed and
nonprestressed reinforcement, ducts and end fittings.

Minimum
cover, mm

(a) Concrete cast against permanently exposed to earth 75

(b) Concrete exposed to earth or weather:

Wall panels, slabs joists 25
other members 40

(C) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with

ground: 20
slabs, walls, joists:
Beams, columns: 40
Primary reinforcement,
 25
Ties, stirrups, spirals
Shells, folded plate members: 10
16 mm, Wr1 or D31 wire, and smaller
db but not less than
Other Reinforcement 20

Bundled Bars
For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the equivalent
diameter of the bundle, but need to be greater than 50 mm, except for concrete cast
against and permanently exposed to earth, the minimum cover shall be 75 mm.

SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT (2010 NSCP)

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement is required at right angles to the principles

reinforcement to minimize cracking and to tie the structure together to ensure its acting
as assumed in the design. The provisions of this section are intended for structural
slabs only; they are not intended for soil-supported slabs on grade.

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses normal to flexural reinforcement

shall be provided in structural slabs where the flexural reinforcement extends in one
direction only.

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with either of

the following:

a) Where shrinkage and temperature movements are significantly restrained,

the requirements of 408.3.4 and 408.3.3 shall be considered.
b) Deformed reinforcement conforming to 43.6.3 used for shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the
following:
Areas of shrinkage and temperature reinforced shall be provided at least the following
rations of reinforcement area to gross concrete area, but no less than 0.014:
a) Slabs where Grade 280 or 350 deformed bars are used…….0.0020
b) Slabs where Grade 420 deformed bars or welded wire reinforcement are
used..................................................................................................0.0018
c) Slabs where reinforcement with stress exceeding 420 MPa measured at a
yield strain of 0.35 percent
is used…………………………………………………….....
f
…..0.0018x415/ y

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than five
times the slab thickness, nor farther apart than 450 mm.

LOADS
The most important and most critical task of an engineer is the determination of the
loads that can be applied to a structure during its life, and the worst possible
combination of these loads that might occur simultaneously. Loads on structure may be
classified as dead loads or live loads.

DEAD LOAD
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. This consists
mainly of the weight of the structure and other permanent attachments to the frame .

LIVE LOAD
Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude and position. Live loads that move
under their own power called moving loads. Other Live loads are those caused by wind,
rain, earthquakes, soils, and temperature changes. Wind and earthquake loads are
called lateral loads.

ARRENGMENTS OF LIVE LOAD

Live loads may be applied only to the floor or roof under consideration, and the far ends
of columns built integrally with the structure may be considered fixed. It is permitted by
the code to assume the following arrangement of live loads:
(a) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two adjacent
spans, and
(b) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternative
spans.
REQUIRED STRENGHT (FACTIRED LOAD), U
Required strength U to resist dead load (D) and live load (L) shall be at least equal
to: Eq. 1-2 U=1.4D + 1.7L

If resistances to structural effects of a specified wind load W are included in design, the
following combination of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest
required strength U:

Eq. 1-3 U=0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)

Where load combinations shall be include both full value and zero value of L to
determine the more severe condition, and

Eq. 1-4 U=0.9D + 1.3W

But for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq.1-
2

If resistance to specified earthquake loads of forces E is included in design, the

following combinations of D, L and E shall be investigated to determine the greatest
required strength U:

Eq. 1-5 U=1.1D + 1.3L + 1.1E

Where load combinations shall included both full value and zero value of L to determine
the more severe condition, and

Eq. 1-6 U=0.9D + 1.1E

But for any combination of D, L, and E, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. 1-
2

If resistance to earth pressure H is included in design, required strength U shall be at

least equal to:
Eq. 1-7 U=1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7 H

Except where D or L reduces the effect of H, 0.9D shall be substituted for 1.4D and
zero value of L shall be used to determine the greatest required strength U. For any
combination of D, L and H, required strength U shall not be less than.

If resistance to loadings due to weight and pressure of fluids with well defined densities
and controllable maximum heights F is included in design, such loading shall have a
factor of 1.4 and to be added to all loading combinations that include live load.

If resistance to impact effects is taken into account in design, such effects shall be
included with live load L.

Where structural effects T of differential settlement, creep, and shrinkage expansion of

shrinkage-compensating concrete or temperature change may be significant in design,
required strength U shall be equal to

Eq. 1-8 U=1.75(1.4D +1.4T + 1.7L)

But required strength U shall not be less than

Eq. 1-9 U=1.4(D + T)

Estimations of differential settlement, creep, and shrinkage expansion of shrinkage

compensating concrete or temperature change shall be based on a realistic
assessment of such effects occurring in service.

STRENGTH REDUCTIONS FACTORS, φ (PHI)

The design strength provided by a concrete member, its connections to other members,
and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion shall be taken
as the nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor φ having following
values.

(a) Flexure without axial load.....................................................0.90

(b) Axial tension, and axial tension with flexure.......................0.90
(c)Axial tension and axial tension with flexure:
 1. Spiral reinforcement...........................................................0.75
2. The reinforcement & other reinforced members…........0.75

(d) Shear and torsion.......................................................................0.85

(e) Bearing on concrete...................................................................0.70
(f) Post-tensioned anchorage zones…........................................0.85

ACI-318-05 (NSCP C101-10-210)

Notations
A g=¿ Ag
gross of concrete sections , mm . For a hollow section,
2
is the area
of the concrete only and does not include the area of the void(s)

A v =¿
area of shear reinforcement spacing, mm
2

bw=¿
web width, or diameter of circular section, mm

D = dead loads, or related internal moments and

forces

d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal

tension reinforcement, mm

E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal moments and forces

f yt =¿ fy
specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement, MPa

F = loads due to weight and pressures of fluids with well-defined densities and
controllable maximum heights, or related internal moments and forces.

h = overall thickness or height of member, mm

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