Fruit and Vegetable Processing

Plant Sanitation 19

Abstract
An effective sanitation program for fruit and vegetable processing facili-
ties requires a sanitary design of facilities and equipment, training of sani-
tation personnel, use of appropriate cleaning compounds and sanitizers,
adoption of effective cleaning procedures, and effective administration of
the sanitation program—including evaluation of the program through
visual inspection and laboratory tests. Effective sanitation starts with
reduced contamination of raw materials, water, air, and supplies. If the
facility and equipment are hygienically designed, cleaning is easier and
contamination is reduced.
Cleaning labor can be reduced through the use of portable or central-
ized high-pressure or foam cleaning systems, and cleaning-in-place (CIP)
systems can be used in large operations. Many facilities, if designed of
durable material, can be cleaned effectively with acid cleaning compounds
and sanitized most adequately and economically by using paints and other
protective coatings as additional sanitary precautions. The effectiveness of
a sanitation program can be evaluated through the establishment of stan-
dards as guidelines, visual inspection, and laboratory tests.

Keywords
Contamination • Food Safety Modernization Act • Cleaners • Sanitizers •
Cleaning procedures • Wash water • Disinfestation

distribution. It is important to consider raw mate-

Introduction rials as a potential source for food spoilage
microorganisms and as a contributor to bacterial
Effective preservation of fruits and vegetables pools within a processing plant.
depends on the prevention of contamination by Federal laws mandate that processed foods
spoilage-causing and pathogenic microorgan- shipped interstate be free of pathogenic microor-
isms during production, processing, storage, and ganisms. The normal sterilization process for

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 351

N.G. Marriott et al., Principles of Food Sanitation, Food Science Text Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67166-6_19
352 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

commercially canned foods is sufficient to 2001; Hung et al. 2010). High-­pressure ultra-
destroy pathogenic bacteria that may exist in the sound can be used in combination with chlori-
container at the time of sterilization. Also, wash- nated water to achieve an additional log reduction
ing and peeling operations contribute to the phys- in comparison to chlorine alone since ultrasound
ical removal of organisms. Therefore, if the removes bacteria that are entrapped on the sur-
canning and freezing processes are properly con- face (Seymore et al. 2002). Combining ultra-
ducted, the finished product should be whole- sound with other technologies such as heat, high
some. Chapter 5 provides more information on pressure, pulsed electrical field, or cleaning and
the contamination. sanitizing solutions is a more viable option than
Raw materials are exposed to many unclean using ultrasound alone (Sao Jose et al. 2014). A
sources and can provide additional contamination three-step process can be used in which acidic
in the receiving, raw material storage, and pro- electrolyzed water is used first as a rinse, peroxy-
cessing areas. Raw materials may possess bio- acetic acid is used second, and a neutral electro-
logical hazards such as certain fruits and lyzed water rinse is the final treatment that is
vegetables contaminated with microorganisms. used to reduce pathogen growth on cabbage (Lee
Furthermore, sucrose may be contaminated with et al. 2014). Human norovirus is a contamination
bacterial spores and yeasts, and water can be concern of fresh produce. Use of chlorine wash
­contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms. water alone can reduce counts by approximately
The incoming materials may contain hazardous 1 log. However, surfactants can be incorporated
chemicals. Fruit may contain pesticide residues, into chlorine washes to increase efficacy such
and water could be contaminated with heavy met- that there is a 3 log reduction (Predmore and Li
als and chemical residues, whereas packaging 2011).
materials may contain harmful chemical residues Produce plants currently use peroxyacetic
that could leach into the product. Furthermore, acid, chlorine, or chlorine dioxide to disinfect
the intermediate products may become contami- wash water. Peroxyacetic acid with a residual
nated in the processing steps from cleaning com- concentration of up to 80 parts per million (PPM)
pound residues due to improper rinsing. Incoming peroxyacetic acid can be used to reduce patho-
materials may be contaminated with hazardous gens such as Salmonella enterica, Escherichia
extraneous material such as metal, plastic, glass coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes by 3
fragments, and wood slivers. log and control spoilage microbes, including bac-
Washing fresh produce with water cannot be teria, yeast, fungi, and molds.
relied upon to completely remove pathogenic The increase in bagged salads and cut vegeta-
bacteria. Washing with water can also result in bles that are available to consumers has contrib-
cross-contamination. Traditionally, chlorinated uted to a number of outbreaks on products such
water has been the most frequently used sanitizer as lettuce, spinach, and tomatoes (Jung et al.
for the washing of fresh produce. However, this 2014). Hsu et al. (2006) reported that Salmonella
treatment has minimal effect and results in less and E. coli O157:H7 populations declined rap-
than a 2 log CFU/g reduction of pathogens on idly when the products were stored under 4 °C
fresh produce (Beuchat et al. 1998). Other sani- (40 °F) but still survived for up to 24 days. Fruit
tizers such as chlorine dioxide, hydrogen perox- and vegetables are susceptible to pathogen con-
ide, organic acid, calcinated calcium solution, tamination at many points in the supply chain.
ozone, and acidic electrolyzed water have antimi- Matthews (2013) reported that 23% of total food-
crobial effects that are similar to chlorinated borne illness outbreaks from 1996 to 2010 were
water (Bari et al. 1999; Han et al. 2000; Kim produce related. The predominant pathogens
et al. 1999; Lin et al. 2002; Koseki et al. 2003). responsible for these outbreaks were Salmonella,
Acidic electrolyzed water has effectively inacti- Listeria monocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7.
vated pathogens such as E. coli O157:H7, Listeria The Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)
monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Bacillus cereus of 2013 requires preventative controls for aller-
(Kim et al. 2000; Koseki et al. 2001; Park et al. gens, sanitation, and supply chain. These items
Introduction 353

were previously covered under prerequisite pro- wind, humidity, sunlight, and temperature, as
grams such as sanitation previously being cov- well as by domestic and wild animals, irrigation
ered by processing plants under standard water, bird droppings, harvesting equipment, and
sanitation operation procedures (SSOPs). Three workers. Most pathogens are introduced to fruits
areas of focus for sanitation preventive control and vegetables via irrigation shortly before har-
processing plants include (1) pathogen contami- vesting and before the sun dehydrates and
nation, (2) cross-contamination due to water, and destroys pathogens.
(3) cross-contamination of allergens. The first
two of these areas are important to fruit and veg-
etable processing plants. Environmental samples Air Contamination
should be taken on both food contact and non-
food contact surfaces for Listeria and potentially Contaminated air contributes to less sanitary raw
other pathogens. For water cross-contamination, products. Besides normal microorganisms and
wash water should be evaluated for the presence pollutants found in the air, this medium serves as
of pathogens, disinfectant concentration, and a transport of pathogens. Infiltration of unclean
pH. Water solutions with chlorine or peroxyace- air into the processing plant can be improved by
tic acid should be maintained at 6.5–7.5. Wash the use of air filters.
water disinfestation is also optimized through
spray washing as compared to dip washing in
chill tanks. Spray washing occurs in rotating Pest Contamination
buckets and prevents soil buildup in the wash
water, which enhances effectiveness. Certain pests can invade fruits and vegetables
FSMA has also developed standards for grow- during the process of forming on the tree or vine.
ing, harvesting, packing, and holding of produce Contamination by pests can be expressed through
for human consumption that indirectly impact the spread of viruses, spoilage bacteria, and
sanitation effectiveness and vegetable and fruit pathogens, as well as by physical damage.
processing plants. These standards apply at the Infesting microorganisms frequently remain
farm level and require generic E. coli testing as inactive because of the protective skin layer of
an indicator of water quality. In addition, stabi- fruits and vegetables and because of the low
lized compost must meet microbial standards for availability of moisture (measured as minimum
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., fecal water activity [AW]) on the surface. As these
coliforms, and E. coli O157:H7. These standards products reach maturity or shortly thereafter, pro-
include requirements to prevent the contamina- found changes in the medium can cause spoilage.
tion of sprouts, including pathogen testing of The action of pests, such as the pollinating fig
sprout irrigation water; environmental testing of wasp (Blastophaga psenes), introduces microbes
the growing, harvesting, packing, and holding that persist and develop in quantity throughout
environments for the presence of Listeria in the the ripening period until the fruit is mature.
environment; and corrective actions when posi- Although a portion of the microorganisms that
tive samples exist. Other sections of this final rule are introduced do not cause spoilage, these
include worker training and health and hygiene microbes attract other organisms, such as
and sanitation of equipment tools and buildings. Drosophila, which carries spoilage yeasts and
bacteria. When the protective covering of fruits
and vegetables is broken by bruises, mechanical
Soil Contamination injury, or attack of insects, microorganisms can
enter readily.
Heat-resistant bacteria are present in the ground The presence of coliforms on processing grade
and can cause “flat sour” and other spoilage of fruit as it arrives at the processing plant is not
canned vegetables if washing is not thorough. truly indicative of the amount of these microor-
Microbial population is affected by the degree of ganisms in the manufactured juice or of positive
354 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

evidence of unsanitary conditions in the process- cutting lettuce, and viruses such as norovirus and
ing plant. However, the presence of lactic acid hepatitis A can be transferred to produce during
bacteria constitutes an accurate index of process- cutting or grating (Wang et al. 2013). Bacterial
ing sanitation for high-quality frozen citrus prod- contamination should be decreased through
ucts. Lactic acid bacteria are a more accurate removal of soil through washing and sanitizing.
indicator of unsanitary conditions caused by However, if the sanitizer concentration is not suf-
inadequate cleaning because these microorgan- ficient and continuously monitored, cross-­
isms are the most likely to accumulate in the bac- contamination of produce can occur through the
terial pools that can exist when proper sanitation dispersion of the microbes in the wash water
practices are not followed. (Holvoet et al. 2012). Temperature control is the
Although several mycotoxins occur in nature, most important factor during packaging and stor-
few are regularly found in fruits. The formation age. Maintaining the temperature below 4 °C
of mycotoxins depends more on endogenous and (40 °F) will help prevent bacterial growth in the
environmental factors than fungal growth. environment, thus decreasing bacterial growth
Mycotoxins may remain in fruits even when the and the chance of cross-contamination.
fungal mycelium has been removed. The diffu- Prior to 2005, the use of recirculated water was
sion of mycotoxins into the sound issues of fruits not recommended for washing fruits and vegeta-
may occur, depending on the food and myco- bles because of the contamination caused through
toxin. Proper selection, watching, and sorting of a rapid buildup of microorganisms in the wash
fruits is the most important factor in the reduction water. Chlorination effectiveness of the wash
of mycotoxin contamination during the produc- water is minimal because bacterial spores exhibit
tion of fruit juices. However, the processing of resistance to chlorine. The benefit of chlorinated
foods does not result in the complete removal of water for recirculation is further reduced through
mycotoxins (Drusch and Ragab 2003). absorption of free chlorine and subsequent neu-
tralization by the accumulated organic content of
the water. However, the rinsing of lettuce with
Harvesting Contamination common household sanitizers such as distilled
water, apple cider vinegar (5%), lemon juice
Contamination may occur during harvesting (13%), bleach (4%), and white vinegar (35%) can
fruits and vegetables out of the field through con- reduce aerobic bacterial populations by averages
tact with contaminated boxes, buckets, knives, of 0.6, 1.2, 1.8, and 2.3 log/g (log/0.035 oz),
gloves, etc. (Matthews 2013). One example is respectively, without severely affecting sensory
coring of lettuce in the field which leads to tissue attributes (Vijayakumar and Wolf-Hall 2002).
damage and additional human contact, which can Use of a mixture of peroxyacetic acid, hydrochlo-
contribute to product contamination (Jung et al. ric acid, and potassium hydroxide as a buffer
2014). Rapid cooling to 4 °C (40 °F) is needed makes it possible to use the oxidation mechanism
after harvesting to decrease respiration and the to control microbial growth. The concentration of
growth of any bacteria (pathogenic and spoilage) peroxyacetic acid must be continually monitored
that are present on the fruit or vegetables. to ensure that the concentration is effective at
controlling microbial growth.

Processing Contamination
Sanitary Construction
Cross-contamination has the potential to occur Considerations
during processing since cutting, washing, sanitiz-
ing, packaging and storing are involved. Cutting A well-designed processing plant does not elimi-
of produce releases moisture and nutrients that nate microbial infiltration unless the design incor-
pathogenic bacteria can use to grow (Matthews porates hygienic features, such as easy-to-­clean
2013). E. coli O157:H7 has been associated with areas and equipment with optimal cleaning fea-
Sanitary Construction Considerations 355

tures and instructions. If the processing plant is More mechanization and automation have been
newly constructed, expanded, or renovated, func- developed for cleaning tasks to equipment previ-
tional layouts, mechanical and plumbing layouts, ously done by hand. Prior to CIP cleaning,
and equipment and construction specifications machines and storage equipment were disassem-
should be reviewed by all professional personnel bled every production day and hand cleaned. After
associated with the processing organization. This CIP cleaning was made available, control was ini-
includes mechanical engineers, industrial engi- tially conducted through a control panel with push
neers, food chemists, microbiologists, sanitarians, buttons. Increased automation has incorporated
and operations personnel. This approach permits use of an automatic panel with computer-­
integration of operating procedures and process controlled timers to provide automatic start-up
control (frequently called quality control). and cutoff of cleaning, rinsing, and sanitizing.
Construction of new and expanded fruit and (Additional features of the CIP cleaning system
vegetable processing plants must reflect hygienic have been previously discussed in Chap. 11.)
design because most of today’s plants are volume One of the most important features of hygienic
oriented. High-volume plants operate under the design is the absence of crevices (narrow and
principle that greater capacity is attained through deep cracks or openings) and pockets (large
pushing more materials through a larger-capacity cracks and openings) in the construction of build-
production pipeline. With increased mechaniza- ings and equipment. Crevices frequently present
tion, there has been less emphasis on manual greater cleaning obstacles than do pockets
cleaning and visual inspection and more reliance because penetration and access are more of a
on a CIP system. However, there is still limited challenge.
use of CIP equipment in fruit and vegetable pro-
cessing plants, except in the manufacture of juices.
This concept also incorporates more emphasis on Principles of Hygienic Design
mechanized start-up and shutdown of production
equipment and cleaning and sanitizing equipment. Minimum standards should be adopted when
This approach provides less opportunity for constructing or remodeling a fruit or vegetable
human error but also reduces the possibility of processing plant. Effective hygienic design
spotting a performance error in cleaning. should incorporate the following principles:
High-volume processing plants, by design,
operate with longer production periods and much • Equipment should be designed so that all sur-
greater product volume flow than do lower-­ faces in contact with the product can be read-
volume plants. There is much more microbial ily disassembled for manual cleaning or CIP.
buildup in the plant because of the longer dwell • Exterior surfaces should be constructed to pre-
time and larger volume output. To reduce the vent harboring of soil, pests, and microorgan-
microbial buildup, safe levels should be set by a isms on the equipment, as well as on other
saturation device that senses the buildup, stops parts of the production area, including walls,
production, and triggers an automatic cleaning floors, ceilings, and hanging supports.
procedure. It is suggested that this device would • Equipment should be designed to protect food
be activated only under excessive buildup, such from external contamination.
as 150% of normal conditions. • All surfaces in contact with food should be
Sanitary design features are necessary to mini- inert to reaction with food and under condi-
mize downtime for cleaning and sterilizing. The tions of use and must not migrate to or be
need for maximum utilization of equipment and absorbed by the food.
facilities and for minimum discharge of sewage • All surfaces in contact with food should be
has mandated that the minimum effective clean- smooth and nonporous to prevent accumulation
ing approach to a process cycle is a short cleaning of tiny particles of food, insect eggs, or micro-
time and less effluent discharge from cleaning. organisms in microscopic surface crevices.
356 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

• Equipment should be designed internally, with • Congestion in areas of open food production
a minimum number of crevices and pockets should be eliminated. Insufficient space com-
where soil particles may collect. plicates cleaning and maintenance and
increases contamination and risks of person-
The interior and exterior of the plant should nel injury and equipment damage.
have the following sanitary features: • Short and direct routes for waste removal are
necessary so that waste is not transported
• Ledges and dirt traps should be avoided. through open production areas. This design is
• Projecting bolts, screws, and rivets should be especially critical because of the unsanitary
avoided to reduce the accumulation area for condition of equipment used for waste
debris. collection.
• Recessed corners and uneven surfaces and • Location of the returned goods area is impor-
hollows should be avoided to reduce accumu- tant. These foodstuffs are frequently infested
lation areas for debris. and may be partially decomposed. It is essen-
• Sharp and unfilled edges should be avoided to tial to isolate these products from all raw
reduce debris accumulation and microbial material and production areas.
contamination. • Control of the environment should be exer-
• Proofing against pest entry through double-­ cised to reduce pests and to provide cleaner air
door construction, heavy-duty strips, and self-­ through location of the waste collecting, waste
closing mechanisms is essential. treatment, and incineration areas as far as pos-
sible from the plant. This control also includes
Certain pitfalls should be avoided when a pro- adequate surface drainage to prevent accumu-
cessing plant is being built, expanded, or reno- lation of water, outside surfaces that are easily
vated to minimize contamination from external cleaned, control of weed and grass growth,
sources. Requirements may change as technol- and control of stocks of surplus supplies and
ogy advances. Thus, the layout should reflect equipment.
maximum flexibility and accommodate existing • Employee personal hygiene is essential (dis-
systems that are compatible with the proposed cussed in detail in Chap. 6).
plant. The following points should be considered
as a means of reducing contamination:
Cleaning Considerations
• Adequate storage space should be provided
for raw materials and supplies. With inade- As with other food plants, management has the
quate storage space, contamination from the legal and moral responsibility to provide the con-
packaging material of supplies can occur. sumer with a wholesome product. An effective
Sufficient space is also needed for thorough sanitation program is needed to provide a clean
screening of raw material because foreign environment for processing.
bodies may accommodate these products.
Segregated materials that are contaminated
should be salvaged and cleaned to prevent the Housekeeping
spread of contaminants. Tainting can occur
when raw materials share the same storage Housekeeping relates to orderliness and tidiness.
area as cleaning and maintenance materials. Careful arrangement of supplies, materials, and
• Separate storage space should be provided for clothing contributes to a tidier operation, reduces
finished products. Insufficient space may dic- contamination, and makes cleaning easier.
tate use of the production area for this function. Attention to neatness and orderliness contributes
This practice can cause cross-contamination of to the performance of responsibilities. Although
raw materials. the responsibility for housekeeping should be
Cleaning Considerations 357

assigned to the sanitarian, the maintenance of cleaning medium, water is important as a heat
good housekeeping depends on the cooperation transfer medium, and it is incorporated in the
of all employees—production, maintenance, and processed products. The sanitary condition of
sanitation. Cooperation is needed to ensure that water should be monitored daily for two criteria:
trash containers, tools, supplies, and personal bacterial content and organic or inorganic impu-
belongings of employees are kept in the proper rities. Bacterial content serves as a guide for
location. Convenient location of trash receptacles acceptability for use in contact with the food or
is necessary to encourage that anything not likely any surface responsible for indirect contamina-
to be used further be discarded immediately. tion. The effectiveness of water in washing the
Insects, rodents, and birds increase contami- product or equipment is dependent on organic
nation. Knowledge of their biological character- and inorganic impurities.
istics and habits is necessary for their control.
Sanitary practices can eliminate nutrition and
protection for pests and, thus, can provide an Role of HACCP
important means of control. Hygienic design—
air and mesh screens and filling of holes, cracks, The juice industry now requires Hazard Analysis
and crevices—will discourage pests from enter- Critical Control Points (HACCP) plans. As with
ing the plant. Periodic inspection for the presence meat and poultry firms, those classified as retail
of pests is another prevention technique. operations are exempted from coverage under the
(Methods of detection and other discussion juice HACCP regulation. Contributions by the
related to pests are included in Chap. 13.) industry, academic, and government communi-
ties have been instrumental in advancing juice
safety through the application of HACCP. The
Waste Disposal FDA places the highest inspection priority to
firms that produce non-pasteurized juice because
Wastes can be handled more effectively and sal- of the possibility of production through novel
vaged more efficiently as by-products if solid and processing methods which merit closer regula-
liquid wastes are separated. Solid wastes are fre- tory monitoring when implemented in HACCP
quently separated through some method of pickup (Kashtock 2004).
and/or transfer of solid materials before being
flushed into drains or gutters. The liquid waste
that is flushed away is usually handled as liquid Fresh-Cut Produce Washing
waste and is treated as effluent, according to meth- and Sanitizing
ods discussed in Chap. 12. Some food processing
plants are processing waste by-­products. The cit- Fresh-cut produce washing should involve the
rus industry incorporates more than 99% of the following:
raw material for juices, concentrates, or dried
­cattle feed. Salvage efficiency has increased with 1. Pre-shower washing to remove dirt and soil
reduced the cost of waste disposal. from the cut surfaces.
2. Placement into a washing tank with a sanitiz-
ing agent. Buffered peroxyacetic acid is the
Water Supply most efficacious and common sanitizer.
3. Rinsing with water is sometimes done depend-
As with other cleaning applications, an abundant, ing on the product and the process.
high-quality water supply is necessary to pro- 4. An efficient water disinfection and recircula-
duce a wholesome product and to effectively tion system should be used with water flow
clean the plant. In addition to being used as a and product flow going in opposite directions.
358 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

Biofilm Prevention 4. A 60 °C (140 °F) water rinse should be used to

remove all cleaner and soils. It is crucial that
Inadequacy of cleaning/sanitation can lead to all soil and cleaner are removed for the sani-
biofilm formation. Biofilms are a community of tizer in step 5 to be effective.
bacterial cells that (1) adhere to each other and 5. Apply a sanitizer such as quaternary ammonium
surfaces such as steel, glass, and plastic, (2) are compounds or an acid-based sanitizer at a high
held together and protected by polysaccharides concentration to prevent and control biofilms.
that act as a glue-like material, and (3) differ in
gene expression when compared to normal plank-
tonic cells (Sofos 2009). Bacteria are able to Cleaning of Processing Plants
attach to surfaces when there are nutrient and
soils on a surface due to inadequate cleaning and A hygienic product results from rigid sanitation
form biofilms. The bacteria in biofilms include and effective destruction of microbes during pro-
Listeria, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and spoil- cessing. Conventional fruit and vegetable canning
age bacteria. They can contain many bacteria, but operations may be characterized as pouring food
are often dominated by a single species. Proper into containers (i.e., metal, glass, or plastic), fol-
cleaning and sanitation are needed to prevent bio- lowed by sealing and heat treatment. This heat
film formation. Environmental testing and swab- treatment is referred to as terminal sterilization
bing of equipment after cleaning and sanitation and is designed to eliminate extremely large num-
can be used as an indicator of the presence of bers of Clostridium botulinum spores and to
biofilms. Sporadic spikes in microbial counts reduce the chance of survival of the much more
may indicate that biofilms exist in the plant heat-resistant spores of spoilage organisms. This
(Mejias-Sarceno 2011). ATP bioluminescence condition is called commercial sterility. The pro-
can be used to detect immature biofilms but are cess of aseptic packaging is sometimes called
not effective against mature biofilms. Other indi- aseptic canning. In the aseptic process, the food
cators of biofilms are rainbow-like appearance on and containers are commercially sterilized sepa-
stainless steel and use of touch to detect a slimy rately. The food is cooled to an acceptable filling
feel on the surface of surfaces that appear clean. temperature with subsequent filling and sealing of
Biofilms are very difficult to remove but can be the containers under aseptic conditions. The
inactivated and removed by combining proper microbial destruction (kill step) during terminal
cleaning and sanitizing agents, adequate expo- sterilization is accomplished for sealed containers,
sure time, proper temperature, and mechanical and, because of the excellent control that is techni-
action (Sofos 2009). This allows the biofilm and cally possible over container integrity, ­conventional
soil to dissolve and allow the sanitizing agent to canning is safe technology. This technology is also
kill the cells that were part of the biofilm. Cramer suitable for the HACCP approach.
(2012) stated that the following method can be Aseptic packaging is a relatively new technol-
used to control biofilms in a food plant: ogy; thus, development of test methods is impor-
tant. Active areas of development and concern
1. Dry clean: remove as much visible soil as are package integrity and maintenance of steril-
possible. ity, package performance in distribution, package
2. Rinse with potable water at 49–55 °C
sterilization techniques, and package residual. An
(120–130 °F). online continuous monitoring method is needed.
3. Apply detergent such as a chlorinated alkali or Several methods are available for measurement
a combination of oxidative agents and acids of concentration levels of H2O2 solutions
such as peroxyacetic acid since they break the (Shapton and Shapton 1991). An efficient layout
chemical bonds of food and soil. Mechanical of cleaning equipment is essential to reduce
action, such as scrubbing of surfaces, is the cleaning labor. It is much easier to install clean-
most effective way to remove biofilms. ing equipment when the processing equipment is
Cleaning of Processing Plants 359

put in place. The type of soil found in fruit and same technique used in portable foam equipment.
vegetable processing plants is most easily cleaned The equipment is installed at strategic locations
by portable cleaning systems in small plants and throughout the plant. The cleaning compound is
by a combination of CIP and centralized foam automatically mixed with water and air to form
cleaning in large plants. foam, which is applied at various stations
installed throughout the plant.

Hot Water Wash

Gel Cleaning
Water provides transport of cleaning compounds
and suspended soil. Sugars, other carbohydrates, Here, the cleaning compound is applied as a gel
and other compounds that are relatively soluble rather than as a high-pressure spray or foam. Gel
in water can be cleaned rather effectively with is an especially effective medium for cleaning
water. The main advantage of a hot water canning and packaging equipment because it
60–80 °C (140–176 °F) wash for fruit and vege- clings for subsequent soil removal.
table processing plants is minimal investment of
cleaning equipment. Limitations of this cleaning
method include labor requirements, energy costs, Slurry Cleaning
and water condensation on equipment and sur-
roundings. This cleaning technique is not effec- This method is identical to foam cleaning, except
tive for the removal of heavy soil deposits. that less air is mixed with the cleaning com-
pound. A slurry is more fluid than foam and pen-
etrates uneven surfaces in a canning plant more
High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning effectively, but it lacks the clinging ability of
foam.
High-pressure spray cleaning has utility in the
fruit and vegetable processing industry because
of the effectiveness with which heavy soils can be  ombination Centralized High-­
C
removed. Difficult-to-reach areas can be cleaned Pressure and Foam Cleaning
more effectively with less labor, and there is
increased effectiveness of the cleaning com- This system is the same as a centralized high-­
pounds below 60 °C (140 °F). Water temperature pressure system, except that foam can also be
should not exceed 60 °C (140 °F) because high- applied through the equipment. This method is
temperature sprays tend to bake the soil to the more flexible because foam can be used on large
surface being cleaned and to increase microbial surface areas, and high pressure can be applied to
growth. More discussion on this cleaning method belts, stainless steel conveyors, and hard-to-reach
is provided in Chap. 11. areas in a canning plant.

Foam Cleaning Cleaning-in-Place

Portable foam cleaning is widely used because of With this closed system, a recirculating cleaning
the ease and speed of foam application in clean- solution is applied by nozzles that automatically
ing ceilings, walls, piping, belts, and storage con- clean, rinse, and sanitize equipment. However,
tainers in fruit and vegetable processing plants. this equipment is expensive and ineffective for
Equipment size and cost is similar to that of heavily soiled areas. Nevertheless, CIP cleaning
­portable high-pressure units. Centralized foam has application for vacuum chambers, pumping
cleaning applies cleaning compounds by the and circulation lines, and large storage tanks.
360 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

Since most fruits contain sugar and are low in fat ing to the skin. Additional information about chlo-
content, water will flush most of the materials rine and iodine sanitizers is provided in Chap. 10.
away. An acid cleaner or rinse should be incorpo-
rated to reduce scale buildup. Higher-volume
operations are better adapted to CIP cleaning Chlorine Dioxide
because labor savings provide a quicker payout
of the equipment. Additional information about Chlorine dioxide is approved as a flume water
cleaning equipment is provided in Chap. 11. treatment for fruits and vegetables (that are not
raw agricultural commodities) at a concentration
of up to 3 parts per million (PPM) and to control
Sanitizers microorganisms in process waters. Also, it is
incorporated in wastewater treatment and for slime
Soil remaining on equipment or at any location in control in cooling towers. The typical use concen-
the plant after cleaning is contaminated with tration of this sanitizer is 1–10 PPM (Anon 2003).
microorganisms. Thorough physical cleaning of
all equipment and rooms is necessary to prevent
microorganisms from contacting chemical sani- Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
tizers. (Readers are referred to Chap. 9 for addi-
tional information on cleaning compounds.) Quaternary ammonium compounds (“quats”) are
Residual soil can also reduce the strength of effective against most bacteria and molds. These
chemical sanitizing solutions. Combination clean- compounds are stable as a dry powder, a concen-
ers (detergent sanitizers) are used most frequently trated paste, or a solution at room temperature.
with smaller operations that perform manual They are heat stable, water-soluble, colorless,
cleaning at a temperature below 60 °C (140 °F). If odorless, noncorrosive to common metals, and
the cleaning medium temperature exceeds 80 °C nonirritating to the skin in normal concentra-
(176 °F), the solution will destroy spoilage micro- tions. These compounds are more active if soil is
organisms and most pathogenic bacteria without present than are other sanitizers, and they express
application of a chemical sanitizer. the greatest antimicrobial activity in the pH range
of 6.0 and above. The quats have limited bacterial
effectiveness when combined with cleaning com-
Halogen Compounds pounds or when dissolved in hard water.

Chlorine and its compounds are the most effective

sanitizers of the halogens for sanitizing food pro- Acid Sanitizers
cessing equipment and containers and for disin-
fecting water supplies. Calcium hypochlorite and Peroxyacetic acid-based sanitizers provide micro-
sodium hypochlorite are two of the most fre- bial control for use in fresh-cut, further processed,
quently used sanitizers in fruit and vegetable pro- and post-harvest fruit and vegetable flume and
cessing plants. Although elemental chlorine is less wash water systems. They reduce the population of
expensive on an available chlorine basis, calcium spoilage microorganisms including yeasts, molds,
hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite are easier and bacteria on processed fruit and vegetables and
to apply in low concentrations. Hypochlorite solu- pathogenic bacteria on processed fruit and vegeta-
tions are sensitive to changes in temperature, ble surfaces. This sanitizer is EPA registered for use
residual organic matter, and pH. These compounds in fresh-cut, further processed, and post-harvest
are quick acting and less expensive than other processing facilities. Also, it is cleared for all other
halogens but tend to be more corrosive and irritat- process applications after a processing step has
Cleaning Procedures 361

occurred. Wright et al. (2000) reported that 5% ace- applied after cleaning. Phenolic compounds have
tic acid and peroxyacetic acid solutions are effec- limited utility in fruit and vegetable plants
tive in the reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 because of their low solubility in water.
on apples relegated to cider manufacture. An acidi-
fied sodium chlorite rinse can provide pathogen
reduction and offers a possible alternative sanitizer Ultraviolet (UV) Light
for fresh-cut produce (Gonzalez et al. 2004).
This sanitizing technique has limited utility for
equipment and processing and storage areas, but
Ozone Sanitizing has been incorporated to reduce microbial growth
on fresh fruits and vegetables. Accumulation of
Ozone effectively sanitizes raw materials, pack- ethylene gas during storage is a potential detri-
aging materials, and the processing environment. ment to fruit and vegetable quality after harvest.
It has gained acceptance by many industries, Potential solutions to this problem are develop-
such as fresh-cut produce processing, produce ment of a titanium dioxide photocatalytic reaction
storage facilities, and fruit and vegetable process- technology to decompose ethylene gas in the stor-
ing. Ozone applied as potatoes are transferred in age environment, and UV irradiation has an energy
a covered conveyor to storage can reduce the source for the titanium oxide photocatalytic reac-
incidence of pathogens (Clark 2004). Williams tion. Maneerat et al. (2003) found that UV doses
et al. (2004) concluded that ozone treatment of improve appearance and do not adversely affect
apple cider and orange juice may provide an fruits stored in a dark environment.
alternative to thermal pasteurization for the
reduction of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella.
Ozone systems are generally mounted or fixed Cleaning Procedures
in place, to simplify management of ozone moni-
toring for safety and efficacy. Ozone is an unsta- A rigid set of procedures cannot be adopted for
ble gas and readily reacts with organic substances. use in every fruit and vegetable processing plant.
It sanitizes by interacting with microbial mem- Procedures depend on plant construction, size,
branes and denaturing metabolic enzymes. It operations, age, and condition. Those discussed
does not leave a chemical residue, and under here are used only as guidelines and should be
ambient conditions, it has a half-life of 10–20 min. adapted to the actual cleaning application.
Ozone must be electrically generated on demand
and cannot be stored for later use. An advantage
of ozone is its ability to readily oxidized microbes Facilitating Effective Cleaning
in solution. Once a surface is spray washed, the
microorganisms physically lifted from the sur- The following practices are recommended to aid
face will be destroyed as they are conveyed to a in cleaning:
drain. Because ozone requires no storage or spe-
cial handling or mixing considerations, it may be 1. Reduce burn-on through careful, controlled
viewed as advantageous over other chemical heating of vessels.
sanitizers. 2. Promptly rinse and wash equipment after use
to reduce drying of soil.
3. Replace facility gaskets and seals to reduce
Phenolic Compounds leakage and splatter.
4. Handle food products and ingredients care-
These compounds are used most frequently in the fully to reduce spillage.
formulation of antifungal paints and antifungal 5. Work in an orderly manner to keep areas tidy
protective coatings, instead of as sanitizers throughout the operating period.
362 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

6. During a breakdown, rinse equipment and

metal other than stainless steel is present, the
cool to 35 °C (94 °F) to arrest microbial acid cleaning compound should be replaced
growth. with a heavy-duty alkaline cleaning com-
7. During brief shutdowns, keep washers, dewa- pound. Hand brushing may be necessary to
tering screens, blanchers, and similar equip- remove tenacious soil deposits left from foam
ment running and cooled to 35 °C (94 °F) or cleaning. The cleaning compound should
below. reach all framework, table undersides, and
other difficult-­to-reach areas. Soak time for
the cleaning compound should be 10–20 min.
 reparation Steps for Effective
P 3. Rinse surfaces within 20 min after applica-
Cleaning tion of the cleaner to remove residues. The
same rinse pattern as with prerinse and
To facilitate effective cleaning, it is necessary to cleaning compound application should be
prepare equipment and the area for cleaning: followed by the application of 50–55 °C
(122–131 °F) water.
1. Remove all large debris in the area to be
4. Thoroughly inspect all surfaces and conduct
cleaned. any necessary touch-ups.
2. Dismantle equipment to be cleaned as much 5. Apply a chlorine compound sanitizer to
as possible. clean equipment with centralized or portable
3. Cover all electrical connections with a plastic sanitizing equipment. The sanitizer should
film. be sprayed as a 100 PPM of chlorine solu-
4. Disconnect lines or open cutouts to avoid
tion. Water pipes used for recirculating wash
washing debris onto other equipment that has water and for pumping peas, corn, and other
been cleaned. vegetables, as well as brines and syrup,
5. Remove large waste particles from equipment should be sanitized by the same method.
by use of an air hose, broom, shovel, or other Frequently drain, clean, and sanitize water
appropriate tool. storage tanks to reduce microbial buildup.
6. Thoroughly backwash and sanitize water fil-
ters and water softeners.
Processing Areas 7. Eliminate scale (as needed) from the sur-
faces of pipeline blanchers, water pipes,
FREQUENCY daily. and equipment to reduce the chance of
thermophiles and other microorganisms
­
Procedure being harbored.
8. Remove, clean, and replace drain covers.
1. Prerinse all soiled surfaces with 55 °C 9. Apply white edible oil only to surfaces sub-
(131 °F) water to remove extraneous matter ject to rust or corrosion. Further use of oil is
from the ceilings and walls to the floor discouraged because the protective film har-
drains. Avoid direct hosing of motors, out- bors microorganisms.
lets, and electrical cables. 10. Avoid contamination during maintenance

2. Apply a strongly acid cleaner through porta- by requiring maintenance workers to carry a
ble or centralized foam cleaning equipment. sanitizer and to use it where they have
A centralized system is more appropriate for worked.
large plants. Portable equipment is more
practical for smaller plants. For heavily soiled Large processing plants can effectively utilize
areas, cleaning compounds are more effective a CIP system for cleaning piping, large storage
if applied by portable or centralized high- tanks, and cookers. The CIP system can be used
pressure, low-volume cleaning equipment. If as an alternative to steps 1, 2, 3, and 5 above.
Evaluation of Sanitation Effectiveness 363

Packaged Storage Areas counts, can be established. This approach has

limitations due to variations, especially in micro-
FREQUENCY at least once per week where pro- bial counts. Visible contamination and microbial
cessed products are stored, more frequently in a load are not always highly correlated. However,
high-volume operation, and daily in areas where the sanitarian can compensate for variables and
raw products are stored. still effectively evaluate the program.
Inspections can be conducted by the sanitarian
Procedure or by a sanitation committee consisting of the
sanitarian, production superintendent, and main-
1 . Pick up large debris and place in receptacles. tenance supervisor. Evaluations should be made
2. Sweep and/or scrub with a mechanical
in writing. A form that uses a numerical rating
sweeper or scrubber, if one is available. Use system is considered the most appropriate. The
cleaning compounds provided for mechanical report should be divided into areas with specific
scrubbers, according to directions provided by sanitary aspects itemized in each area, as shown
the vendor. in Exhibit 19.1. The completed report should be
3. Use a portable or centralized foam or slurry provided to each supervisor associated with the
cleaning system with 50 °C (122 °F) water to inspected areas.
clean areas heavily soiled, unpackaged prod-
ucts, or other debris. Rinse as described for
the processing areas. Laboratory Tests
4. Remove, clean, and replace drain covers.
5. Replace hoses and other equipment. The sanitarian must know the genera, character-
6. Wash and sanitize vegetable boxes after each istics, and sources of microorganisms found in
trip. Replace wooden husker and cutter bins the plant before laboratory tests have applicable
with metal containers, which should be value. With this knowledge, laboratory tests can
cleaned and sanitized. be a monitoring device to evaluate the effective-
ness of a sanitation program. The sanitarian
should strive to reduce the total count of microor-
 valuation of Sanitation
E ganisms found on clean equipment and among
Effectiveness processed products but should also recognize that
total plate count is not always highly correlated
A sanitation program must be evaluated to deter- with spoilage potential or with the presence of
mine the effectiveness of cleaning and sanitation. microorganisms of public health concern. It is
Performance data not only measure sanitation important to identify microorganisms, such as
effectiveness but also provide documentation of coliforms, as indicators of contamination or ther-
the program being conducted. Sanitation goals mophiles and certain mesophiles as potential
and checks are vital in the determination of sani- spoilage microbes. Large numbers of sporeform-
tation effectiveness. ers can also be significant because these bacteria
can reduce shelf life, and certain microorganisms
can cause foodborne illness.
Sanitation Standards Spot checks for microbial load can verify
opinions formed through visual inspections.
To evaluate sanitation procedures, a yardstick Microbial sampling of products and equipment
measuring the current performance against past from various stages of manufacturing can iden-
performance and desired goals should be incorpo- tify trouble spots in the processing control cycle.
rated to determine progress. Sanitation standards, Use of laboratory tests further utilizes the “think
derived through visual inspections and microbial sanitation-practice sanitation” concept.
364 19  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Plant Sanitation

Exhibit 19.1  Sanitation evaluation sheet for food processing plants

Name of plant: Location: Date:
Scoring system: 1 unsatisfactory, 2 poor, 3 fair, 4 satisfactory
Location Score Comments
1. Premises
Property outside of building
Waste disposal facilities
Other
2. Receiving
Dock
Containers
Conveyors
Floors, walls, ceilings, and gutters (or drains)
Other
3. Preparation
Washers and flumes
Conveyors
Graders and snippers
Blanchers, hoppers, and dewaterers
Pulpers and finishers
Floor, walls, ceilings, and gutters (or drains)
Other
4. Canning
Conveyors
Packaging or filling equipment
Floors, walls, ceilings, and gutters (or drains)
Other
5. Cooking
Exhaust box
Syrupers
Steamers
Floors, walls, ceilings, and gutters (or drains)
Other
6. Storage
Tanks and pipes
Other containers
Floors, walls, ceilings, and gutters (or drains)
Other
7. Welfare facilities
Lockers
Wash basins
Toilets and urinals
Floors, walls, ceilings
Other
8. Personnel
Cleanliness
Head covering
Health records
Other
References 365

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