Microbiology of khoa and khoa based products

Khoa is an important indigenous milk product. It is conventionally prepared by continuous

boiling of milk in an open kettle until desired desiccation (normally 72-75% total solids) and
texture is achieved. According to one estimate about 5.5% of total milk production is
converted into khoa. This amount is equivalent to 3 million kgs kho/per day.
Khoa/Khava/Mawa refers to the partially dehydrated whole milk product prepared by the
continuous heating of milk in a karahi over a direct fire, while also constantly stirring- cum-
scraping by using a khunti till it reaches a semi-solid (doughy) consistency. Thereafter, the
pan-contents are removed from the fire and worked up into a solid mass known as khoa-pat.
Khoa is used as a base material for a variety of sweets, such as burfi, peda, gulabjamum, milk
cake, kalakand, kunda etc.

Definition of khoa
General:
Khoa is a concentrated whole milk product obtained by open pan condensing of milk under
atmospheric pressure.

Definition as per FSSAI 2011 :

Khoya, by whatever variety of names it is sold such as Pindi, Danedar, Dhap, Mawa or Kava,
means the product obtained from cow or buffalo or goat or sheep milk or milk solids or a
combination thereof by rapid drying. The milk fat content shall not be less than 30 percent on
dry weight basis of finished product. It may contain citric acid not more than 0.1 percent by
weight. It shall be free from added starch, added sugar and added colouring matter.

BIS Definition:
According to Bureau of Indian standards, khoa is a heat coagulated milk product obtained by
partial dehydration of milk of buffalo, cow, sheep and goat or their admixture. It shall not
contain any ingredient foreign to milk except addition of citric acid in Danedar khoa.

Preparation-
Khoya a partially dehydrated milk product is prepared from whole milk by continuous
heating in an iron pan karahi over a direct fire. Or in steam kettle. It is constantly stirred and
scrap during heating till a semi-solid consistency is obtained. The desirable consistency is
achieved when the product shows sign of living the bottom and sides of karahi. After
removing from fire the contents are worked up in a solid mass which is now called khoya full
stop depending on the method of preparation three varieties of Khoya available
1.Pindi 2.Dhap 3.Danedar

1. PINDI:
This variety is identified as a circular ball of hemispherical pat with compact mass,
homogenous and smooth texture. It shall not show any sign of fat leakage or presence of free
water. It possesses pleasant cooked flavour and devoid of objectionable tastes like burnt,
acidic, etc. This variety of khoa is used in the manufacture of burfi, peda and other varieties
of sweets.

2. DHAP:
It is a raw (katcha) khoa characterized by loose but smooth texture and soft grains and sticky
body. Dhap variety carries highest percentage of moisture over other varieties of khoa. This
high moisture is necessary to provide adequate free water for soaking of maida (refined wheat
flour) and semolina (suji) and for homogenous distribution of other ingredients in the
preparation of smooth gulabjamun balls. This variety of khoa is used in the manufacture of
gulabjamun, kalajamun, pantooa, carrot halwa, etc.

3. DANEDAR:
This is characterized by the granular texture with hard grains of different sizes and shapes
embedded in viscous serum. Slightly sour milk is preferred in the manufacture of this variety
as it yields granular texture. This variety of khoa is used in the manufacture of kalakand, milk
cake, etc.
These varieties differ in composition and texture and are made use of preparing different
sweets like Barfi and peda from Pindi. Gulab Jamun and pantooa from dhap and kalakand
from danedar.

Khoa based Sweets:

Burfi (From Pindi): Prepared by mixing hot khoa and sugar in karahi. After sugar is
completely dissolved, the product is spread as a thick layer over a tray. The pieces of
desirable sizes are cut. 
Peda (From Pindi): Contains mainly khoa, sugar, dry fruits, silver paper and cardamom.
Khoa and sugar are mixed and cooked over a slow fire. The cooked sweetened product is
manually moulded into a round shape by manipulating the mass with palm.
Gulabjamun (From Dhap): Prepared from mixing Prepared from mixing khoa and maida
(1:3) followed by the addition of baking powder. A uniform dough is now obtained by
kneading the mixture with water. After forming uniform size balls, they are fried in fat to
give uniform brown colour and subsequently immersing in sugar syrup.
Kalakand (From Danedar): After boiling milk, citric acid solution is added to partially
coagulate the hot milk. Sugar is added by stirring at a stage when the product obtains semi-
solid consistency. The product is now removed from the fire, set in tray and cut into pieces.

Khoa, like other indigenous milk products, can serve as a favourable medium for the growth
of a variety of microorganisms due to its high moisture content and good nutritive value. The
market khoa usually keeps well for 48 h under usual Indian conditions beyond which it
deteriorates due to microbial action. These organisms gain access as contaminants from
different sources in to product. The rapid spoilage of khoa is attributed to contamination with
moulds from external sources.
A. Microbial number

Khova like other indigenous products such as chhana kheer dahi etc can serve as a favourable
medium for the growth of variety of microorganisms because of high moisture content and
good nutritive value the market Kauwa usually gets well for 48 Hour under usual Indian
conditions of handling and storage. How was storage beyond this period of and result into
deterioration due to microbial action. These microorganisms gain access into this product as
contaminants from different sources.
The Rapid spoilage of khoa is attributed to contamination with the moulds from external
sources.
B. Type of microflora
Various groups of bacteria (acid producers proteolytic chromogenic lipolytic aerobic spore
formers psychrotrophs thermophilus pathogens) yeast and moulds have been reported to
occur in khoya
1. Acid producers, Acid producers, proteolytic proteolytic, chromogenic chromogenic,
lipolytic lipolytic, aerobic sporeformers, psychrotrophs, thermophiles, pathogens), yeasts and
molds occur in khoa.
2. Psychrotrophs (Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium and Alcaligenes) have been
isolated from peda.
3. In market burfi and peda, Gram-positive mainly cocci, yeasts and molds were isolated
where proportion of yeasts and molds is extremely low as compared to bacteria.

Factors influencing the microflora of khoa Burfi and peda

The microbiological quality of khoa and ko abe sweets appears to be influenced by a variety
of factors during production processing handling storage and distribution. However the major
role is being played by post processing factors as most of the initial microbial population is
killed by severe heat treatment. Sum of common factors influencing the microbiological
quality of these products are discussed below
1. quality of milk
Since khova and its products are predominantly made by Halwai is and rural folk the milk
obtained from rural areas easily constitutes the raw material. Search mail contains a heavy
initial load of microorganisms including the heat resistant spore forming types and
enterotoxin heat stable producers. Some of these organisms are known to survive khova
making and their number in the products depend on their initial load in milk
2. Production hygiene
The extent of hygiene observed during production of khoa peda and burfi has an important
bearing on the entry of microorganisms in this products. The usual sources of such
contamination are unclean utensils environment handlers etc.
i. Contamination from utensils and other equipments full stop it is a usual feature or Halwai
shops to process and handle khoya and it sweets in unclean utensils. The addition of
microorganisms like micrococci bassili and other thermoduric and thermophilus before and
after processing of these products is possible under this condition.

ii. Soil and aerial contamination full stop the usually and hygienic surroundings of Halwai
shops and production of khoa in open (where direct their current carrying coil and that are
common ) contribute significantly to the addition of contaminants. Flies make the situation
for the grave by transmitting even pathogens from the surrounding open sewerage and drains
to the products. Yeast and moulds usually enter the product from air along the sports of some
of the basilli.

iii. Unclean handlers full stop the unhygienic practices followed by the personnel involved
during production and the handling of khoa Barfi and peda unorganised sector like Halwai
shops appear to be a significant factor in affecting the microbiological quality of these
products the role of endless is more important in peda since its preparation involves excessive
handling and direct content with skin of processor's hands

Perhaps this kind of direct content is responsible for occurrence of higher staphylococci in
Pedda since staphylococci are known to be associated with hands Nails and skin in human
beings. Beside and healthy and dirty handlers main also add other pathogens and non
pathogens during handling of this product.
3. Effect of packaging. Khoya Barfi and Peda are idhar kept in utensils for packed in material
like paper boxes parchment paper aluminium false Polythene bags pouches etc. In rural areas
Khoya is sometimes carried in Bamboo Basket lined with tree leaves full stop in such cases
contamination with yeast and mould and aerobicsporformers becomes inevitable full stop
packing in improperly cleaned and sanitized utensils or other packages also lends to the
addition of contaminants. Chemical treatment of different packaging materials with
antimicrobial agents has been shown to avoid the microbial deterioration of the products.
Packing of cover in nitrogen atmosphere reduced the microbial multiplication as against air
packing. Hot packing 18 degree to 19 degree Celsius of coa has been found to be better than
cold packing 25 degrees to 30 degrees celsius from microbiological point of view.
4. Effect of storage conditions. Khoya products are generally stored at atmospheric humidity
and ambient temperature which in most part of India vary greatly during the year and are
favourable for the growth of diverse types of microorganisms including staphylococci and
basilli etc. The longer of storage under these conditions the greater the microbial number
attained. The problem is further aggravated by the moisture content of these products which
is quite congenial for the microbial proliferation. The moisture content of khoa is maximum
whereas that of peda and Barfi are almost comparable

organisms Source of contamination

Micrococcus flavus Soil, improperly cleaned utensils
Micrococcus luteus

Sarcina Soil, improperly cleaned utensils

Staphylococcus aureus Handlers
Bacillus subtilis Survival during khoa making and
Bacillus cereus multiplication during storage
E. coli Faecal contamination directly or
through packaging
Candida lipolytica Atmosphere
Rhodotorula sp.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Aspergillus niger
Penicillium expansum

Microbial Quality of khoa as per FSSA rules

characteristics khoa

Microbiological Quality of Gulabjamun and Kalakand….

1. Kalakand can be contaminated with thermophiles,
mesophiles, yeasts and molds. Food poisoning organisms
(enterobacteria, staphylococci, salmonellae) is rare.
2. Gulabjamun is relatively safer from microbiological point
of view due to its spongy and juicy nature as a result of
soaking in sugar syrup.
Fssai microbiological standards for khoa

Requirements Sampling plan

TotalPlateCount m 50,000/g
M 1,00,000/g
Coliform Count m 50/g
M 90/g
E.coli M Less than10/g
Salmonella M Absent/25g
Staphaureus(coagulase m 50/g
positive) M 100/g
Yeast and mold count m 50/g
M 100/g
SporeCount :
(a)Aerobic(B.cereus ) m -
M -
(b)Anaerobic(Clostridium m -
perfringens) M -
Listeria monocytogene M Absent/g
Storage&transport;0-4°C
Samplesize–100g

Pathogenic organisms from khoa, burfi and peda…….

Pathogens like Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae,
Vibrio cholerae and E. coli survive for long periods during
storage of khoa.
Heat stable, coagulase positive, enterotoxin producing
staphylococci in khoa, burfi and peda is also present.
Drug resistant coliforms and enteropathogenic E. coli have
also been isolated from khoa. The presence of coliforms in the
products indicates post-processing contamination.
Contamination of products with Salmonella schottmuelleri
and Shigella flexneri is correlated with faecal contamination.
S. aureus, a potent food poisoning organism, can multiply in
khoa, peda and burfi at ambient storage temperature as well as
at 37C.

Common microbiological defects in khoa

Rancidity: On storing khoa under ambient
conditions, the fat component is degraded by
the action of microbial lipases (produced by
certain lipolytic bacteria, yeasts and molds).

Control measures
Storage of khoa below 10 C
coupled with general hygienic
measures during
production.

Stale and Sour flavour: Produced mainly

due to the activity of proteolytic and acid
producing organisms at relatively lower storage temperatures.
Control
Post-processing contamination
(unclean utensils, water supply)
should be minimized.

Mold growth: Storage at ambient and at

relatively lower temperatures might favour the
growth of molds which impart off-flavours and
produce certain mycotoxins. Growth is
favoured by the presence of high moisture
content in the product, air leakage in the
package, high humidity and sufficient aeration
in storage room.
Control
Proper sanitation through
cleaning and fumigation of the
dairy environment. Control of
humidity and aeration in the
processing and packaging room.
Khoa storage in air-tight
packages. Treatment of
wrapping paper with antifungal
agents (potassium sorbate).

Preservation of khoya
The keeping quality of Khoya is directly dependent on its microbiological quality and the
factors affecting the microflora of Khoya also govern its shelf life.
The following factors control the keeping quality of khoa (water activity of khoa is 0.960):

Quality of raw material - Use of poor quality milk particularly sour or neutralized lowers the
keeping quality of the final product.

Quality of khoa - Khoa having high moisture (ideal is 30-50% moisture) content has very
poor shelf life. The high amount of fat (30-40%) particularly free fat, in presence of copper
and iron is very much favorable for oxidized flavour. Therefore, khoa should not be
contaminated with these pre-oxidant catalysts (The ideal moisture)

Manufacturing conditions

Sanitary conditions should be adopted at all stages of manufacture of khoa and its subsequent
handling. Minimum is the contamination with micro-organisms, better will be the keeping
quality of khoa.

Temperature of storage
Higher the temperature of storage, lower is the shelf life and vice versa.

Temp. of storage Shelf life on days

Unpacked Packed in laminates

5°C ≤ 10 > 30
30°C ≈ 5 6-7
37°C ≈ 3 ≤ 5

At room temperature (24-30°C) a rancid flavour is developed on khoa while at low

temperature (5-10°C) a stale and sour flavour is observed and there is mould growth on the
surface.

Type of package

Shelf life of khoa is in increasing order, open tray < parchment paper < LDPE < Food grade
HDPE < Laminates < Tins

Methods of packaging

The method of packaging is very important in relation to keeping quality of khoa. Packaging
of khoa under aseptic environment and selection of an appropriate packaging material
improves the keeping quality of khoa.
[20:39, 28/12/2021] Rajlaxmi Dubey: Improving Shelf Life of Khoa

1 Packaging

Under existing trade practice, producers and traders do not employ any packaging for khoa.
By employing proper packaging, the shelf life of khoa can be enhanced. Hot packaging
of khoa in pre-sterilized cans can improve the shelf life upto 14 days at room temperature and
75 days under refrigerated temperatures. Three times increase in shelf life was claimed by
packing khoa in rigid polypropylene containers with lid. Vacuum packaging and packing in
Cryovac Shrink wrap pouches will prevent growth of aerobic microorganisms in khoa.
However, these two packaging methods do not offer protection against bacteria growing
inside khoa.

2 Thermal treatment

Hot filling of khoa in rigid containers at 85°C is useful in extending the shelf life of khoa.
Packaging of khoa in aluminium cans and steaming them for 15 to 20 min will prevent the
spoilage for few weeks. Deep freezing of khoa and storing at -10 to -20°C will extend the
shelf life for considerably long periods. However, at this temperature of storage, the lactose
which is in super saturated state in khoa gets crystallized and gives rise to sandiness defect.

3 U.V. irradiation
Irradiation of khoa with U.V. rays will preserve the khoa up to 25 days. However, oxidation
changes are caused by U.V. irradiation affecting the flavour of khoa.

4 Chemical preservation

Under Food Safety and Standards regulations, no preservative should be added to khoa.
However, some attempts were made to improve the shelf life of khoa by adding mould
inhibitors, nisin and antioxidants. Antifungal agents like sorbic acid, propionic acid and their
salts can be used to preserve khoa. Addition of 0.2 % sorbic acid by weight of khoa during
the last stage of its manufacture will enhance the shelf life up to 20 days at 30°C and 125
days in cold storage. The mould inhibitors can be sprayed on to the surface of the product or
alternatively the packaging material can be treated with the chemical agent. Addition of Nisin
(Nisaplin) will improve the shelf life of khoa by 10-11 days at 30°C.

CONCLUSION
Khoa occupies an important place among
indigenous milk products. Khoa has considerable
economic, dietary, and commercial significance to the
Indian population. It forms an important base for
preparation of variety of milk sweets which are an
integral part of the Indian food heritage.
a critical account
of continuous khoa making methods, recent efforts
on traditional milk heating process for khoa making,
and the energy utilization during khoa production has
been depicted. The various methods and materials
used for packaging and storage of khoa to increase
its shelf life have also been delineated.