Clinical and Decision Making
Clinical and Decision Making
Clinical and Decision Making
68
EBN notebook
+ Author Affiliations
Nurses have probably always known that their decisions have important
implications for patient outcomes. Increasingly, however, they are being cast in
the role of active decision makers in healthcare by policy makers and other
members of the healthcare team. In the UK, for example, the Chief Nursing
Officer recently outlined 10 key tasks for nurses as part of the National Health
Service’s modernisation agenda and the breaking down of artificial boundaries
between medicine and nursing.1 As well, nurses are expected to access, appraise,
and incorporate research evidence into their professional judgment and clinical
decision making.2 This active engagement with research evidence is the focus of
this paper. We will explore why it is necessary to consider the clinical decision
making context when examining the ways in which nurses engage with research
based information. We will also consider the relation between the accessibility
and usefulness of information from different sources and the decisions to which
such information is applied. Finally, we will argue that if we are to encourage
nurses to actively engage with research evidence during clinical decision making,
we need to better understand the relation between the decisions that nurses make
and the knowledge that informs them.
The types of clinical decisions that nurses actually make provide clues about how
(and what types of) research information might assist in decision making. Other
authors have examined the clinical decisions of healthcare professionals (and the
clinical questions arising from such decisions) as expressions of potential
information need.15 Thus, decisions are an important context for information use.
We will show how understanding the structure and characteristics of the decisions
nurses face is important for understanding the ways in which information is
accessed and processed by nurses.
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Decision types and clinical questions/choices expressed by acute and primary care
nurses
“She was breast-feeding but had very sore cracked and bleeding nipples on her
left breast and she did not know what to do about it. [What did the HV think? The
mother asked] The HV thought and replied that she had not come across this
problem before, but asked if it was painful. Mum said that it was and she had tried
to feed her from this breast but it was so painful that she had not done so. She had
only fed from the right breast and for the past three evenings the baby had fed
continuously for six hours and then slept all night. Someone had suggested using
Camillosan cream for her cracked nipples but it had not helped at all. However
she knew that chamomile was a relaxant and maybe that was why the baby had
slept for so long the last three nights. The HV mentioned a nipple shield but said
that she had no experience of using them. The mum said that she wondered if she
should just stop feeding from that breast altogether until they had healed, to which
the HV agreed. The HV then said that if she was having pain in her breast, that
could indicate that she had a thrush infection on her breast. She then asked if she
had seen any white patches on the baby’s tongue or in her mouth and mum replied
that she had not. No more was said about that. They agreed that mum would not
feed from her left breast and only use her right until it healed up. The HV said that
as the baby was feeding well from her right breast then that was OK.” (Field
notes, health visitor).
This quote illustrates at least 5 judgment or decision challenges for the HV, all of
which generate potential information needs: (1) ascertain the likely causes of sore
and cracked nipples; (2) choose a management strategy in the context of little or
no experiential knowledge; (3) judge whether the baby is getting sufficient breast
milk; (4) choose between the merits of Camillosan, Chamomile, or a nipple
shield; and (5) identify the cause of pain (possibly thrush).
Decisional complexity
“When S came back she cleaned the patient’s left leg with gauze soaked in saline
and then applied a dressing (Jelonet). She said that she felt Jelonet was not ideal
but the patient’s consultant preferred it despite the fact that ‘when you take it off
you are removing the good tissue as well.’ Even if I change the dressing, when the
patient goes to the outpatients’ department and sees the consultant they will come
back with Jelonet and clear instructions that we are to use Jelonet.” (Field notes,
district nurse)
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Reproduced with permission from Hamm RM. Clinical intuition and clinical
analysis: expertise and the cognitive continuum. In Dowie J, Elstein A, editors.
Professional judgement: a reader in clinical decision making. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1988:87.
Complexity of the task: the number of information cues (the more cues required
for a decision, the more likely it is that nurses will fall back on intuitive
reasoning); the number of judgment “steps” required to make a choice (eg,
selecting interventions for patients with chronic and comorbid conditions and a
lack of complete information readily available)
Ambiguity of the task: the task characteristics that induce rational information
processing include the presence of easily available (cognitively) organising
principles for collecting and handling information and simplifying decisions
(known as feedforward)20; a familiar decision task with familiar content; the
presence of an observable outcome for the task; and a degree of feedback on the
likely success of the task. An example of a task that is more likely to induce
rational processing (and draw on knowledge derived from research) is the
assessment and treatment of chronic venous leg ulcers. Nurses assessing and
treating leg ulcers identified the helpful role of the UK Royal College of Nursing
Guidelines21 in collecting the information required for a good assessment and
decision, and the design of training, audit, and feedback around the guidelines and
decision making in leg ulcer care.
Form of task presentation: very short time frames for exercising judgment are
more likely to induce intuitive information handling. Alternatively, breaking the
task down into components (decomposition) induces rationality in handling
clinical information, as do information cues that are dichotomous or discrete (eg,
“this Doppler reading indicates either venous or arterial aetiology”); similarly, the
greater the need to make a decision “visible” to others, the greater the use of
analytic reasoning.
Both primary and acute care nurses were characterised by reliance on human
sources of information as the primary means of informing situations in which they
were uncertain.5 We identified 7 distinct perspectives on accessibility, all of which
stress the relative accessibility of experiential sources of information, such as
clinical nurse specialists (CNSs), experienced colleagues, and other primary and
secondary care team colleagues. Notable exceptions were local protocols and
guidelines in acute care (particularly in areas such as coronary care) and sources
of drug related information, such as the British National Formulary, drug
information sheets, and pharmacists in primary care. Even when textual
information was seen as accessible, human sources of information were highly
rated in terms of their accessibility. We also found that simple demographic or
biographical variables, such as clinical experience, educational attainment, or role
on the primary care team, were weak predictors of perspectives of accessible
information sources.
The scale of the relative lack of engagement with information sources can be
gleaned from our observational data. During 90 hours of observing district nurses
in practice, we found that use of an information source while actually making a
decision in the presence of a patient occurred only once, in the form of a
telephone call to another clinician. Similarly, in acute care, 180 hours of
observation (circa 1080 decisions) revealed only 2 forms of text based
information used “in action:” local protocols or guidelines (used 4 times) and the
British National Formulary (used 50 times).
It would be wrong to infer, however, that research based knowledge has no part in
nurses’ decision making. Rather, nurses chose not to use the systematic search-
appraise-implement cycle of evidence-based decision making in real-time for real
clinical decisions with rapid implied response times. Nurses accessed “evidence-
based” information sources—if they accessed them at all—in contexts other than
immediate decision making environments. Nurses described contact with research
based information sources in the context of continuing professional development
and formal education or training. Other influences included being involved in the
production of local protocols and guidelines and having to make sense of research
such as clinical trials, or using research evidence to help resolve conflict between
colleagues. Perceptions about the relative accessibility of human sources of
information were mirrored when we asked nurses about the usefulness of different
sources of information for clinical decision making.
Given these characteristics, it is easy to understand the appeal of CNSs (or other
experience rich sources) as a source of information. A district nurse described a
link nurse colleague (a nurse who is responsible for a particular area of knowledge
and practice, such as diabetes or wound care, and is often linked to the work of a
CNS):
“They’re (link nurses) specialists in the area that they cover, what’s the point of
reinventing the wheel? Me going to the library getting all the information and
thinking, ‘oh I’ve done a good job there.’ I can go to them and they’ve already got
it... But it also gives you back up in areas where, I’m not a specialist... It’s not just
a short cut, it’s that they’re knowledgeable. They have the information there.”
(District nurse)
As with perceptions of accessibility, we found that demographic and biographic
variables, such as age, clinical experience, and levels of educational attainment,
were poor predictors of how useful an information source would be to a nurse.
Thus far, we have focused on the links between information behaviour and
clinical decision making from a researcher’s perspective. It is important to
recognise that the strategies available to clinical decision makers can also alter
their relation with information. Using the principles of the cognitive continuum, it
is possible to simplify decisions by removing some of their complexity in an
effort to induce individuals to apply “search and appraisal” behaviour. For
example, several nurses recounted the usefulness of a structured approach to
gathering information as a means of simply gathering the “important” facts when
faced with the complex judgment task of assessing a patient’s chronic leg ulcer for
venous or arterial aetiology. This structured bundle of facts (eg, Doppler reading,
size, and history) formed the basis of management decisions that that were
sometimes informed by appropriate national evidence-based guidelines (albeit
often internalised). Similarly, the single area of decision making in which
observable text based information use was (relatively) common was uncertainty
about medication use. Nurses’ accounts clearly showed that the sources of
information used “fit” the questions that arose from their decisions—decisions
that were often focused and well structured (eg, should I give this patient drug X
or drug Y to achieve outcome Z?).
This simplification induces shifts towards the rational end of the continuum. From
this perspective, it is easy to imagine how thinking about the decisions nurses face
in clinical practice might have an impact on their information behaviour. Indeed,
some basic elements of the evidence-based nursing process could serve to
simplify decisions. Specifically, the development of focused clinical questions can
be conceptualised as a mechanism for removing some of the “noise” that
surrounds choices and help focus attention on the relevant populations, outcomes,
interventions, and the core type of uncertainty (diagnostic, intervention, or
prognostic). Croskery proposes other, slightly more sophisticated, techniques
under the banner of “cognitive forcing.”26 These techniques involve retraining
clinicians to think differently about problems by accounting for the effects of
limited memory, erroneous perspectives (eg, ignoring base rates of disease when
making diagnoses), limited capacity for self critique, and poor selection of
strategies. The end result is a heightened sense of meta-cognition or “thinking
about thinking.” Research examining the potential of these types of approaches to
reflection on action is missing in nursing.
CONCLUSION
Nurses are increasingly regarded as key decision makers within the healthcare
team. They are also expected to use the best available evidence in their judgments
and decisions. The prescriptive model of evidence-based decision making—and
the search-appraise-implement process that accompanies it—is an active process.
Clinicians who want to implement research in clinical settings sometimes forget
that active information seeking is only one of several possible responses to the
irreducible uncertainties of clinical practice. In fact, observation of nurses in
practice suggests that when “search and appraise” information behaviour occurs at
all, nurses are far more likely to view colleagues (“human” sources of
information) as useful and accessible sources of information than research in any
form. Colleagues are perceived as delivering context specific, clinically relevant
information that takes into account the needs of the judgment or decision situation
and requires minimal critical appraisal; and they are time efficient. We would
argue that this implies a degree of “fit” between the decision task and the
information provided, although not necessarily the provision of high quality (ie,
reliable or valid) information. Moreover, long standing theoretical frameworks
explain this lack of fit between traditional evidence-based sources of research
information and the decisions that nurses’ face.
The cognitive continuum model offers a theoretical basis for a research agenda
that is just emerging in nursing. Outlining the types of clinical decisions is only a
starting point for this agenda. Future work should attempt to explore and explain
the patterns of information use in decisions for which far more detailed maps
exist. Moreover, there is a need for high quality development and evaluation of
interventions that target evidence-based information provision at those individuals
most likely to influence professional choices (eg, CNSs). We feel that such
knowledge will add a valuable, and hitherto missing, dimension to existing
models of research utilisation and knowledge transfer.
References
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how to practice and teach EB. Second edition. London: Churchill
Livingstone, 2000.
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[Medline][Web of Science]
16. ↵
Hamm RM. Clinical intuition and clinical analysis: expertise and the
cognitive continuum. In Dowie J, Elstein A, editors. Professional
judgement: a reader in clinical decision making. Cambridge: Cambridge
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Evid Berbasis Nurs 2004; 7: 68-72 doi: 10,1136 / ebn.7.3.68
Notebook EBN
Carl Thompson, RN, PhD, Nicky Cullum, RN, PhD, Dorothy McCaughan, RN,
MSc, Trevor Sheldon, DSc, FMedSci, Pauline Raynor, RN, HV (cert), PhD
+
Penulis Afiliasi
Perawat telah mungkin selalu tahu bahwa keputusan mereka memiliki implikasi
penting bagi hasil pasien. Semakin Namun, mereka sedang dilemparkan dalam
peran pengambil keputusan aktif dalam kesehatan oleh para pembuat kebijakan
dan anggota lain dari tim kesehatan. Di Inggris, misalnya, Keperawatan Chief
baru-baru diuraikan 10 tugas utama bagi perawat sebagai bagian dari agenda
modernisasi Dinas Kesehatan Nasional dan mogok batas buatan antara obat dan
nursing.1 Selain itu, perawat diharapkan untuk mengakses, menilai , dan
memasukkan bukti penelitian penilaian profesional mereka dan making.2
keputusan klinis keterlibatan aktif ini dengan bukti penelitian adalah fokus dari
makalah ini. Kami akan mengeksplorasi mengapa perlu untuk mempertimbangkan
keputusan klinis membuat konteks ketika memeriksa cara di mana perawat terlibat
dengan informasi penelitian berbasis. Kami juga akan mempertimbangkan
hubungan antara aksesibilitas dan kegunaan informasi dari sumber yang berbeda
dan keputusan yang informasi tersebut diterapkan. Akhirnya, kita akan
berpendapat bahwa jika kita mendorong perawat untuk secara aktif terlibat dengan
bukti penelitian selama pengambilan keputusan klinis, kita perlu lebih memahami
hubungan antara keputusan yang perawat membuat dan pengetahuan yang
memberitahu mereka.
METODE Mendasari PAPER INI
Dalam tulisan ini, kami sangat menarik pada temuan 2 studi utama yang
dilakukan di University of York antara tahun 1997 dan 2002,3-9 2 studi kasus
dilakukan di 3 wilayah geografis dengan berbagai jenis rumah sakit, karakteristik
populasi, dan tingkat pelayanan kesehatan. Kami purposif sampel peserta sesuai
dengan kerangka sampling dibangun di sekitar variabel dianggap secara teoritis
signifikan bagi keputusan klinis koleksi making.7 data terdiri 200 wawancara
mendalam dengan perawat dan manajer; 400 jam observasi non partisipan dari
"pengambilan keputusan dan penggunaan informasi dalam aksi"; 4000 dokumen
praktik berdasarkan diaudit untuk karakteristik seperti usia, dasar penelitian,
penulis, dll; dan statistik dimodelkan (menggunakan pendekatan metodologi Q)
10 perspektif tentang aksesibilitas, kegunaan, dan hambatan untuk menggunakan
sumber informasi dari 242 perawat.
BUKTI BERBASIS PENGAMBILAN KEPUTUSAN MELIBATKAN AKTIF
MENGGUNAKAN INFORMASI
Jenis keputusan dan pertanyaan klinis / pilihan yang diungkapkan oleh perawat
perawatan akut dan primer
Frekuensi pengambilan keputusan
Jumlah dan jenis keputusan yang dihadapi oleh perawat terkait dengan lingkungan
kerja, persepsi peran mereka klinis, otonomi operasional, dan sejauh mana mereka
melihat diri mereka sebagai pengambil keputusan yang aktif dan berpengaruh.
Perawat yang bekerja pada sibuk medis Unit penerimaan mengakui 50 pasien per
hari menghadapi tantangan yang berbeda keputusan dibandingkan dengan
pengunjung kesehatan (HVs) atau perawat kesehatan masyarakat, yang dapat
melihat 10 pasien per hari. Pertimbangkan sejauh mana penilaian dan pilihan fitur
dalam konsultasi ini HV ini:
"" Dia menyusui tetapi harus sangat sakit retak dan pendarahan puting payudara
kirinya dan dia tidak tahu apa yang harus dilakukan tentang hal itu. [Apa HV
berpikir? Ibu bertanya] The HV berpikir dan menjawab bahwa dia tidak
menemukan masalah ini sebelumnya, tapi bertanya apakah itu menyakitkan. Ibu
berkata bahwa itu dan dia telah mencoba untuk memberi makan dia dari payudara
ini tapi itu begitu menyakitkan bahwa dia tidak melakukannya. Dia hanya makan
dari payudara kanan dan untuk tiga malam terakhir bayi itu diberi makan terus
menerus selama enam jam dan kemudian tidur sepanjang malam. Seseorang telah
menyarankan menggunakan Camillosan krim untuk putingnya retak tapi tidak
telah membantu sama sekali. Namun dia tahu chamomile yang relaksan dan
mungkin itu sebabnya bayi telah tidur begitu lama tiga malam terakhir. The HV
disebutkan perisai puting tetapi mengatakan bahwa dia tidak memiliki
pengalaman menggunakan mereka. ibu mengatakan bahwa dia bertanya-tanya
apakah dia harus berhenti menyusui dari payudara yang sama sekali sampai
mereka sembuh, untuk yang setuju HV. The HV kemudian berkata bahwa jika dia
mengalami sakit di dadanya, yang bisa menunjukkan bahwa dia memiliki infeksi
jamur pada payudaranya. Dia kemudian bertanya apakah dia telah melihat adanya
bercak putih di lidah bayi atau di mulutnya dan ibu menjawab bahwa dia tidak.
Tidak ada lagi yang dikatakan tentang itu. Mereka sepakat bahwa ibu tidak akan
memberi makan dari payudara kirinya dan hanya menggunakan kanannya sampai
sembuh. HV mengatakan bahwa sebagai bayi itu makan dengan baik dari
payudara kanannya maka itu adalah OK. "(Catatan lapangan, petugas kesehatan)."
Tiga unsur kompleksitas putusan yang meresap rekening perawat dari keputusan
mereka dijelaskan di bawah.
"" Ketika S kembali dia membersihkan kaki kiri pasien dengan kain kasa yang
dibasahi saline dan kemudian diterapkan saus (Jelonet). Dia mengatakan bahwa
dia merasa Jelonet tidak ideal tapi konsultan pasien lebih suka meskipun fakta
bahwa 'ketika Anda mengambil itu off Anda menghapus jaringan yang baik juga.
"Bahkan jika saya mengubah saus, ketika pasien pergi ke pasien rawat jalan
'departemen dan melihat konsultan mereka akan datang kembali dengan Jelonet
dan instruksi yang jelas bahwa kita harus menggunakan Jelonet." (Field catatan,
perawat kabupaten) "
THE KOGNITIF KONTINUM: KEPUTUSAN SEBAGAI DRIVER UNTUK
INFORMASI PERILAKU
Sejak tahun 1960, psikolog kognitif dan teori keputusan telah mengembangkan
ide continuum.16,18 kognitif Model ini menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor
penentu utama apakah seseorang terlibat dalam pengambilan keputusan intuitif
(yaitu, kecil kemungkinannya untuk terlibat dalam pengambilan keputusan
berbasis bukti ) atau pengambilan keputusan yang rasional (yaitu, lebih mungkin
untuk terlibat dalam pengambilan keputusan berbasis bukti) tergantung pada di
mana keputusan "tugas," seperti memilih intervensi keperawatan, terletak pada
(kognitif) kontinum (gambar). Kontinum kognitif ini memiliki 3 dimensi, 16,19
yang dijelaskan di bawah.
Angka
Lihat versi yang lebih besar:
Kontinum kognitif.
Direproduksi dengan izin dari Hamm RM. Intuisi klinis dan analisis klinis:
keahlian dan kontinum kognitif. Dalam Dowie J, Elstein A, editor. Pertimbangan
profesional: pembaca dalam pengambilan keputusan klinis. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1988: 87.
Kompleksitas tugas: jumlah isyarat informasi (lebih isyarat diperlukan untuk
keputusan, semakin besar kemungkinan itu adalah bahwa perawat akan jatuh
kembali pada penalaran intuitif); jumlah penghakiman "langkah-langkah" yang
dibutuhkan untuk membuat pilihan (misalnya, memilih intervensi untuk pasien
dengan kondisi kronis dan komorbiditas dan kurangnya informasi yang lengkap
tersedia)
Bentuk tugas presentasi: frame waktu yang sangat singkat untuk melakukan
penilaian lebih mungkin untuk menginduksi informasi intuitif penanganan. Atau,
melanggar tugas ke dalam komponen (penguraian) menginduksi rasionalitas
dalam menangani informasi klinis, seperti melakukan isyarat informasi yang
dikotomis atau diskrit (misalnya, "membaca Doppler ini menunjukkan baik vena
atau arteri etiologi"); sama, semakin besar kebutuhan untuk membuat keputusan
"terlihat" kepada orang lain, semakin besar penggunaan penalaran analitis.
Kedua perawat perawatan primer dan akut yang ditandai dengan ketergantungan
pada sumber daya manusia informasi sebagai sarana utama menginformasikan
situasi di mana mereka uncertain.5 Kami mengidentifikasi 7 perspektif yang
berbeda pada aksesibilitas, yang semuanya menekankan aksesibilitas relatif
sumber pengalaman informasi, seperti spesialis klinis perawat (CNSS), rekan-
rekan yang berpengalaman, dan rekan tim perawatan primer dan sekunder lainnya.
Pengecualian adalah protokol lokal dan pedoman dalam perawatan akut (terutama
di bidang-bidang seperti perawatan koroner) dan sumber informasi obat terkait,
seperti British National formularium, lembar informasi obat, dan apoteker dalam
perawatan primer. Bahkan ketika informasi tekstual dipandang sebagai diakses,
sumber daya manusia informasi yang dinilai tinggi dalam hal aksesibilitas
mereka. Kami juga menemukan bahwa variabel demografis atau biografi yang
sederhana, seperti pengalaman klinis, pencapaian pendidikan, atau peran di tim
perawatan primer, merupakan prediktor lemah perspektif sumber informasi yang
dapat diakses.
Skala relatif kurangnya keterlibatan dengan sumber informasi dapat diperoleh dari
data pengamatan kami. Selama 90 jam mengamati perawat kabupaten dalam
prakteknya, kami menemukan bahwa penggunaan sumber informasi sementara
sebenarnya membuat keputusan di hadapan pasien terjadi hanya sekali, dalam
bentuk panggilan telepon ke dokter lain. Demikian pula, dalam perawatan akut,
180 jam pengamatan (sekitar 1.080 keputusan) mengungkapkan hanya 2 bentuk
informasi berbasis teks yang digunakan "dalam aksi:" protokol lokal atau
pedoman (digunakan 4 kali) dan British National formularium (digunakan 50
kali).
Mengingat karakteristik ini, mudah untuk memahami daya tarik CNSS (atau
sumber yang kaya pengalaman lain) sebagai sumber informasi. Seorang perawat
kabupaten digambarkan seorang rekan Link perawat (perawat yang bertanggung
jawab untuk daerah tertentu pengetahuan dan praktek, seperti diabetes atau
perawatan luka, dan sering dikaitkan dengan karya seorang SSP):
"" Mereka (link perawat) spesialis di daerah yang mereka menutupi, apa gunanya
menciptakan kembali roda? Me pergi ke perpustakaan mendapatkan semua
informasi dan berpikir, 'oh saya telah melakukan pekerjaan yang baik di sana.
"Aku bisa pergi ke mereka dan mereka sudah punya itu ... Tapi itu juga memberi
Anda kembali di daerah di mana, aku tidak spesialis ... Ini bukan hanya jalan
pintas, itu adalah bahwa mereka berpengetahuan. Mereka memiliki informasi di
sana. "(perawat District)"
Sejauh ini, kita telah berfokus pada hubungan antara perilaku informasi dan
keputusan klinis membuat dari sudut pandang peneliti. Hal ini penting untuk
mengenali bahwa strategi yang tersedia untuk pengambil keputusan klinis juga
dapat mengubah hubungan mereka dengan informasi. Menggunakan prinsip-
prinsip kontinum kognitif, adalah mungkin untuk menyederhanakan keputusan
dengan menghapus beberapa kompleksitas mereka dalam upaya untuk mendorong
individu untuk menerapkan "mencari dan penilaian" perilaku. Sebagai contoh,
beberapa perawat menceritakan kegunaan pendekatan terstruktur untuk
mengumpulkan informasi sebagai sarana hanya mengumpulkan "penting" fakta
ketika dihadapkan dengan tugas penghakiman kompleks menilai ulkus kaki kronis
pasien untuk vena atau arteri etiologi. Ini bundel terstruktur fakta (misalnya,
membaca Doppler, ukuran, dan sejarah) membentuk dasar dari keputusan
manajemen bahwa kadang-kadang diinformasikan oleh pedoman berbasis bukti
nasional yang tepat (meskipun sering diinternalisasikan). Demikian pula, daerah
tunggal pengambilan keputusan di mana teks diamati berdasarkan penggunaan
informasi itu (relatif) umum adalah ketidakpastian tentang penggunaan obat-
obatan. Rekening perawat jelas menunjukkan bahwa sumber informasi yang
digunakan "cocok" pertanyaan yang muncul dari mereka keputusan-keputusan
yang sering terfokus dan terstruktur dengan baik (misalnya, harus saya berikan ini
X obat pasien atau obat Y untuk mencapai hasil Z?).
Model kontinum kognitif menawarkan dasar teoritis untuk agenda penelitian yang
baru saja muncul di keperawatan. Menguraikan jenis keputusan klinis hanya titik
awal untuk agenda ini. Pekerjaan di masa depan harus berusaha untuk
mengeksplorasi dan menjelaskan pola penggunaan informasi dalam keputusan
yang peta jauh lebih rinci ada. Selain itu, ada kebutuhan untuk pengembangan
kualitas tinggi dan evaluasi intervensi yang menargetkan penyediaan informasi
berbasis bukti di orang-orang yang paling mungkin untuk mempengaruhi pilihan
profesional (misalnya, CNSS). Kami merasa bahwa pengetahuan tersebut akan
menambah berharga, dan sampai sekarang hilang, dimensi untuk model yang ada
pemanfaatan penelitian dan transfer pengetahuan.
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