Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Operating System
Subject Code: CS-405
Semester: 4th
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CS405 Operating Systems

UNIT-I

Operating System

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.

Examples-Some Popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows

Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Fig 1.1Operating System

Desirable Characteristics & features of an Operating System

Following are some of important features of an operating System.

 Memory Management

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

Processor Management


Device Management


File Management


Security


Control over system performance


Job accounting


Error detecting aids
Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main

memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program
to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities
fo e o y a age e t −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part is not in

 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
use.

 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.

 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and
for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the
follo i g a ti ities fo p o esso a age e t −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is

 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.

known as traffic controller.

 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
follo i g a ti ities fo de i e a age e t −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O

 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
controller.

 Allocates the device in the efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.

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An Operating System does the follo i g a ti ities fo file a age e t −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known

 Decides who gets the resources.

as file system.

 Allocates the resources.

 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Characteristics

Follo i g a e so e of the i po ta t a ti ities that a Ope ati g Syste pe fo s −

 Security− By ea s of pass o d a d si ila othe te h i ues, it p e e ts u autho ized

 Control over system performance− Re o ding delays between request for a service and
access to programs and data.

 Job accounting− Keepi g t a k of ti e a d esou es used y a ious jo s a d use s.

response from the system.

 Error detecting aids− P odu tio of du ps, t a es, e o essages, a d othe de uggi g a d

 Coordination between other software’s and users− Coo di atio a d assig e t of

error detecting aids.

compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

Types of Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.
The p o le s ith Bat h Syste s a e as follo s −
 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.

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The main difference between Multi-programmed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multi-programmed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if nusers are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at

 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
another.

 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue

 Better service to the customers.

operating.

 Reduction of the load on the host computer.

 Reduction of delays in data processing.

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Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary
purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among
multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to
other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The ad a tages of et o k ope ati g syste s a e as follo s −
 Centralized servers are highly stable.
 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by
the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the
response time. So, in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, scientific experiments, medical image
systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard

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real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects likes
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Operating Systems Services: Types of Services

Operating system services are responsible for the management of platform resources, including
the processor, memory, files, and input and output. They generally shield applications from the
implementation details of the machine. Types of Operating system services include:


1. Kernel operations provide low-level services necessary to:


create and manage processes and threads of execution


execute programs


define and communicate asynchronous events


define and process system clock operations


implement security features


manage files and directories, and


Control input/output processing to and from peripheral devices.
Some kernel services have analogues described in the paragraph on Object Services,
such as concurrency control services.

2. Command interpreter and utility services include mechanisms for services at the operator


level, such as:


comparing, printing, and displaying file contents


editing files


searching patterns


evaluating expressions


logging messages


moving files between directories


sorting data


executing command scripts


local print spooling


scheduling signal execution processes, and
Accessing environment information.

3. Batch processing services support the capability to queue work (jobs) and manage the
sequencing of processing based on job control commands and lists of data. These
services also include support for the management of the output of batch processing,
which frequently includes updated files or databases and information products such as
printed reports or electronic documents. Batch processing is performed asynchronously
from the user requesting the job.

4. File and directory synchronization services allow local and remote copies of files and
directories to be made identical. Synchronization services are usually used to update
files after periods of off line working on a portable system.

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Operating System – Important Services

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.
 It provides programs an environment to execute.
 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.

Following are a few common services provided y a ope ati g syste −



Program execution


I/O operations


File System manipulation


Communication


Error Detection


Resource Allocation
Protection

Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like
printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a
process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate,
registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to progra a age e t −
 Loads a program into memory.
 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers
hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its
own properties like speed, capacity, and data transfer rate and data access methods.

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A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an
ope ati g syste ith espe t to file a age e t −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in
the network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Follo i g a e the ajo a ti ities of a ope ati g syste ith espe t to o u i atio −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected
through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by
Message Passing.

Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
e o ha dli g −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles
and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an
ope ati g syste ith espe t to esou e a age e t −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

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Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or
users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to protection −
 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.
 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

Different ways of providing these Services –

 Utility Programs
A program performs very specific tasks.
These programs usually related to managing system resources. Operating systems contain a
number of utilities for managing disk drives, printers, and other devices. Utilities differ
from applications mostly in terms of size, complexity and function. For example, word
processors, spreadsheet programs, and database applications are considered applications
because they are large programs that perform a variety of functions not directly related to
managing computer resources. Utilities are sometimes installed as memory-
resident programs.
Examples of utility programs are antivirus software, backup software and disk tools.

 System Calls
A system call is the programmatic way in which a computer program requests a service from
the kernel of the operating system it is executed on. A system call is a way for programs
to interact with the operating system. A computer program makes a system call when it makes
a e uest to the ope ati g syste ’s ke el. Syste all provides the services of the operating
system to the user programs via Application Program Interface (API). It provides an interface
between a process and operating system to allow user-level processes to request services of
the operating system. System calls are the only entry points into the kernel system. All
programs needing resources must use system calls.

 Process creation and management

Services Provided by System Calls:

 Main memory management

 File Access, Directory and File system management
 Device handling(I/O)
 Protection
 Networking, etc.

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Types of System Calls: There are 5 different categories of system calls –
 Process control: end, abort, create, terminate, allocate and free memory.
 File management: create, open, close, delete, read file etc.
 Device management
 Information maintenance
 Communication

Operating System - Properties

Batch processing

Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities
elated to at h p o essi g −
 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a

 The OS keeps a number a job in memory and executes them without any manual
single unit.

 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
information.

 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets
copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.

Fig 1.2Batch processing

Advantages

 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job gets started as soon as the previous job is finished,
without any manual intervention.

Disadvantages

 Difficult to debug program.

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 A job could enter an infinite loop.

 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking

Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching
between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program
while it is running. An OS does the follo i g a ti ities elated to ultitaski g −
 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an

 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes
immediate response.

 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.

multiple programs at a time.

 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at

 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming
a reasonable cost.

 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.

Fig 1.3Multitasking

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either

 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete.
finishes or needs to perform I/O.

 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each
During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.

action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is

 As the system switches CPU, rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given
needed for each user.

the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared
among many users.

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Multiprogramming

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is
referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one
to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

Fig 1.4 Multiprogramming

An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system
resources using memory management programs to ensure that the CPU is never idle, unless
there are no jobs to process.

Advantages

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating
syste does the follo i g a ti ities elated to i te a ti ity −

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 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the
following activities related to real-time system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to
ensure correct performance.

Distributed Environment

A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer

system. An operating system does the following activities related to distributed enviro e t −

 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local

 The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with each
memory.

other through various communication lines.

Spooling

Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to

putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk
which is accessible to I/O devices.
A ope ati g syste does the follo i g a ti ities elated to dist i uted e i o e t −
 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the

 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O
slower device catches up.

in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write
data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.

Fig 1.5 Spooling

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