MODULE-I

ENGINE COMPONENTS, COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

An automobile is a self propelled machine used on the ground for transportation of passengers
and goods from one place to another place. Automobile engineering or automotive engineering is
the branch of engineering that deals with all types of automobiles like car, bus, truck, jeep, motor
cycle etc., and the means of propelling them. Automobile or automotive refers to one which itself
can move. The study of aero plane, helicopter, rocket etc., which fly in air, comes under
Aeronautical engineering and marine engineering deals with ship, motor boat etc., which sail in
water. Today, of course, the automobile vehicle has become a basic necessity and business of
making and servicing automobiles has become one of the biggest businesses in the world.

I.C. Engines are used, in order to obtain motive power of the vehicle. In recent years, a huge
changes are made in the design of automobiles to provide safety, ease of operation, reliability,
comfort, less fuel consumption etc.

The Automobile consists of following basic components or parts. These are,

1. The power plant: It is nothing but the source of power or engine which provides motive power

to perform various functions in the vehicle. The power plant generally consists of an internal

combustion engine (I.C. Engine) which may be either of spark ignition (S.I), or of compression

ignition type. Sometimes gas turbines are also used in certain cars.

2. The basic structure: This includes frame and wheel assembly, suspension system, axles, etc.

3. The power train (transmission system): The power train carries the power from the engine to
road wheels. It consists of clutch, (for non-automatic transmissions) gear box, propeller shaft,
differential.

4. The super structure or car body.

5. The accessories which include electrical system, radio, wind shield wiper, air conditioner etc.

6. The controls: It consists of steering system, Brakes, etc.

S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

Either S.I. or C.I. engines are used to obtain motive power to perform various functions in the
automobile. Modern automotive engines vary greatly in size and design, but the operating
principles are essentially the same as those of first models developed early.

In S.I. engine, a spark plug is an essential component which initiates combustion of fuel. The
spark plug produces an electric spark of high energy, initiates ignition of fuel. In C.I. engine, the
high temperature (greater than ignition temperature of the fuel) of compressed air ignites the fuel
and this is called self or auto ignition. The fuel pump and fuel injectors are the essential
components of C.I. engine.

BASIC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

Top dead centre (TDC): When the piston is at its top most position i.e., the position closest to
cylinder head, it is called top dead centre.

Bottom dead centre (BDC): When the piston is at its lowest position i.e., the position farthest
from the cylinder head, it is called bottom dead centre.

Bore: The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is denoted by 'D'.
Stroke length or stroke: The distance travelled by the piston between TDC and BDC is called
stroke of the piston and is denoted by 'L'. Clearance volume: When the piston is in TDC position
the cylinder volume above it, is called clearance volume and is denoted by 'Vc'.

Swept volume or piston displacement: The volume swept by piston while moving from TDC to
BDC is called swept volume.

Compression ratio: It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above the
piston at TDC. It is the ratio of total volume of the cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance volume.

For Petrol engines, it ranges from 8 to 12.

For diesel engines, it ranges from 15 to 24.

Power: It is the work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same
amount of work in a lesser time.
Indicated Power (I.P.): The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated
power.
It is expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram.
Brake Power (B.P.): This is the actual power available at the crank shaft. The indicated power
minus various power losses in the engine like friction and pumping losses in the engine, gives
Brake power. It is measured by using a Dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW).
Engine torque It is the force of rotation acting about the crank shaft axis at any given instant of
time.
It is given by T = F.r., where T = engine torque, Nm
F = force applied to the crank, N
r = effective crank radius, m

MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE

1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms
CYLINDERS

The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to develop power. It

has to with stand very high pressure and temperature (around 2800°C). A cylinder block is one

which houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder block and crank case are made integral, then the

construction is called 'Mono block'. The cylinder material should be such that it should retain

strength at higher temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid wear
and

tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally cast iron is used. For heavy duty engines

alloy steels are used.

For cooling water circulation, passages are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder block
also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages.

At the lower end of cylinder block, crank case is made integral with the block. At the top,

cylinder block is attached with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves. Besides,
other

parts like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump, etc., are also
attached to it. The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast Iron and aluminium alloys.

The cast iron material has the following advantages.

1. It is relatively cheap and posses good foundry properties.

2. The co-efficient of thermal expansion of cast iron is low.

3. It has high machinability and does not wear too much.

The aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the following advantages.

1. It has higher thermal conductivity than cast-iron. This results in efficient cooling of engine.

so that higher compression ratios may be used.

2. The density of aluminium is about one third that of cast iron. It is a light material.

3. But considering lesser strength of aluminium, thicker sections have to be used to carry same
load. Further, in case of any loss of coolant, it cannot with stand high temperature and damage
may occur. It wears more than cast iron.

The grey cast iron for cylinder block has the composition; carbon - 3.5 %, silicon - 2.5%,
manganese - 0.65 %.

The Aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the composition. Silicon - 11%, Manganese 0.5%,

Magnesium 0.4%

CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS

Multi cylinder engines are preferred over single cylinder engines due to reasons like

(i) Giving smooth torque output (ii) Lighter fly wheel (iii) Engine compactness (iv) Easy
balancing.

In multi cylinder engines, the arrangement of cylinders is very important. The following cylinder

arrangements are used to give better performance of the engine. They are,
l. In line arrangement 2.Opposed cylinders type 3.V – engine 4.Radial engine

1. In line arrangement

In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in a line i.e., placed side by side vertically with a

common crank shaft. In this type reciprocating forces are nearly balanced.

2. Opposed cylinders type

The two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to each other i.e., they are placed 1800
apart facing each other with a common crank shaft. In this type, the reciprocating parts are
perfectly balanced. As two cylinders are not in line, the force in connecting rod produces a
rocking couple.
3. V – engine

In this type, two cylinders are placed with their axes at 60°. The cylinders are arranged on two
arms of letter “V” with a common crank case and crank shaft it is more compact and rigid and
hence runs more smoothly at high speeds.

Radial engine

In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in radial fashion with a common crank shaft
which is placed at the centre as in figure. The number of cylinders generally used is 5, 7, 9 etc.,
to obtain uniform firing intervals. This type is compact in size and gives higher Brake power per
weight ratio. This is mainly used in air craft engines.
LINERS (SLEEVES)
Engines make use of removable liners which are pressed into cylinder holes. The cylinder liners
are in the form of barrels and used to reduce the cylinder wear and hence to increase
cylinderbore life. The cylinder wear is more when cylinder block is made up of aluminium alloy.
The liners can be inserted in the cylinder bore to reduce this wear. Whenever the liners worn-out,
they can be replaced easily. Whenever a cylinder block is re-bored beyond allowable limits,
liners are used to restore its original size. These are cast centrifugally and made up of special
alloy iron containing silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium.

The liners may be further hardened by nitriding or chromium plating. In nitriding process, liners
are exposed to ammonia vapour at 5000 0C and then quenched. Chromium plating improves
their resistance to wear and corrosion.
There are two types of liners (1) Dry liners and (2) Wet liners.

1. Dry liners

The dry liners are quite thin and uses block metal to give it full length support. These
liners are made in the form of barrel and a flange is provided at the top which keeps the
liner in to position. It is necessary to machine the liner surface accurately both from
inside and outside, as the outer surface of the liner makes contact with cylinder block. By
shrinking the liner, it is put in to the cylinder bore. If the liner is too loose in the cylinder
block, results in poor heat dissipation because of absence of good contact between them.
This will result in higher operating temperature. Improper lubrication results in piston
scuffing. Too tight a liner is even worse than the too loose case. This produces distortion
of cylinder block, liner cracking, hot spots and scuffing.
 2. Wet liner

Wet liner is pressed into bore of cylinder block and is supported at top and bottom only.
These liners make direct contact with cooling water on the outside and hence do not require
accurate machining on the entire outer surface. A flange is provided at the top which fits into the
groove in the cylinder block. Three grooves are provided at the bottom, middle one is empty and
top and bottom grooves are inserted with rubber packing’s. For water leakage, drainage
arrangements are provided from the middle groove. The wet liners are sometimes coated with
aluminium on the outside to make the surface corrosion resistant.

COMPARISON OF DRY AND WET LINERS

Dry liners
1. They may be provided either in the original design or even after wards.
2. No leak proof joint is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is not simple.
4. As dry liners does not make direct contact with cooling water, cylinder cooling is ineffective
5. Accurate machining of both block and outer liner surface is required, for perfect contact
between them.
Wet liners
1. These have to be included in the original cylinder design.
2. A leak proof joint between the cylinder casting & liner is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is simple.
4. As cooling water is in direct contact with liner, better cylinder cooling is possible.
5. Accurate machining on the outer liner surface is not necessary.

PISTON
The piston is a reciprocating part of the engine and converts the combustion pressure in the
cylinder to a force on the crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the cylinder
bore. The space is provided between piston and cylinder wall and is called "clearance". This
'clearance' is necessary to provide space for a film of lubricant. Pistons are made of aluminium
alloys, cast steel, cast iron or chrome nickel. Aluminium alloy pistons are used in modern
automobiles.
Functions
1. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high pressure gases from combustion
chamber into crank case.
2. It transmits the force of explosion to the crank shaft.
3. It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

A typical I.C. engine piston is as shown in figure. The piston almost has the shape of an Inverted
bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In some engines, pistons may be
specially designed to form desired shape of the combustion chamber. At the piston top, few
grooves are cut to accommodate the piston rings and the bands left between the grooves are
known as "Lands". They support the rings against gas pressure. The portion below rings is called
piston skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston pin.

The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.
1. Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston which is desirable
from inertia point of view].
2. It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.

The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.

1. It is not as strong as cast iron; hence thicker sections have to be used.
2. Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it. It causes a
sort of grinding.
3. It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls thus decreases cylinder life.
4. The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is their unequal
coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.
CONTROL OF PISTON SLAP
The use of Aluminium alloy piston with cast iron cylinder has a drawback of engine slap. If cold
clearance is kept just sufficient, there is danger of seizure at higher operating temperatures and if
it is kept larger, the engine knocks or slaps when cold. Different methods are used to overcome
this difficult, they are,

1. Cutting horizontal sloe: This method keeps the heat away from the lower part of the piston.
By cutting horizontal slot in the portion just below the oil control ring, skirt portion does not
become very hot and hence does not expand so much.

Fig: (a) Piston with horizontal slot Fig: (b) Heat dam construction

2. Heat dam: By making heat dam i.e., by cutting a groove near the top of the piston, the heat
flow to lower part of piston can be reduced. Hence the skirt runs cooler and does not expand too
much.

3. Vertical or T slot: In this type, the top of T tends to retard the heat transfer from head to the
piston skirt. The vertical slot allows the skirt of the piston to close when heated i.e., it allows
piston skirt to expand without increase in diameter. However mechanical strength is decreased
on account of slot. Due to presence of this slot, the diameter reduces permanently which
increases engine slap. Hence fully split skirts are not used.
4. Split skirt: In a split skirt piston, skirt is either partially or completely split. When the piston
warms and begins to expand, it cannot find in the cylinder since the skirt merely closes the
split.
5. Tapered pistons: Sometimes the pistons are turned taper, the crown side being smaller in
diameter than the skirt end. As crown portion is exposed to higher tempt than skirt, that side
expands more than skirt and piston diameter becomes uniform under operating conditions.
6. Special alloy pistons: Special alloy having coefficient of expansion nearly equal to that of cast
iron (or low value) have been used in the manufacture of pistons. One such alloy is "LOEX"
alloy It is an alloy having 12-15% silicon, 1.5-3% nickel and 1 % of each of magnesium and
copper Such pistons are costlier.
7. Wire wound pistons: A band of steel wire is wound between the piston pin and oil controlling,
thus restricting the expansion of skirt.
8. Bimetal pistons: The pistons are made from both steel and aluminium. Steel is used to
manufacture skirt portion and aluminium alloy cast inside to form piston head and piston pin
bosses. For steel, coefficient of thermal expansion is quite small, piston will not expand much
and hence smaller cold clearances can be maintained.

PISTON RINGS

Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are called
compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The bottom ring is called oil
ring, (may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil from the cylinder walls and return it
through slots to the piston ring grooves. A properly constructed and fitted ring will rub against
the cylinder wall with good contact all around the cylinder. The ring will ride in grooves that are
cut into the piston head.

The material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing silicon
and manganese. It has good heat and WCi.1rresisting qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled
face have also been introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings vary
depending on the engine design. It varies from two to four.
Generally the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring grooves. It exerts uniform
pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is to be cut at the ends so that while inserting the ring,
it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the ring groove. The gap is
almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder.
Functions:
1. It forms a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion chamber will not escape into
the crank case.
2. It provides easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
3. It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls throughout the stroke length. This reduces
ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of oil film is to be controlled and the oil should not go up
into the combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon deposits.

PISTON PIN
Piston pin is also known as wrist pin or gudgeon pin, used to connect Piston and connecting rod.
It transfers combustion chamber pressure and piston forces to the connecting rod. It is in tubular
shape to provide adequate strength with minimum weight. It passes through the piston bosses
and small end of the connecting rod. It is made of low carbon case hardened steel (carbon - 15%,
silicon -0.3%, manganese - 0.5%).
Piston pins are installed and secured to provide a bearing action in the following three ways.
1. The pin is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss and has a bearing in the
connecting rod small end. This permits the connecting rod to swivel as required by the combined
reciprocal and rotary motion of piston and crank shaft.
2. The piston pin is fastened to the connecting rod by means of a bolt and uses the piston bosses
for bearings. Nowadays, bolt has been replaced by interference fit.
3. A floating pin is used which is free in both the connecting rod and piston. This arrangement is
most commonly used. Circlips are used to prevent end movements.

Fig: (a) Piston pin fastened to piston

Fig: (b) Piston pin locked to connecting rod

CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end of rod
oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates (turns). It converts
reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the crank shaft. The upper end of the
rod has a hole through it for the piston pin. The lower end must be split type. A combination of
axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial stresses are due to gas pressure
in the cylinder and inertia force caused by reciprocating motion. Bending stresses are caused due
to centrifugal effects. Connecting rods are manufactured by casting and forging processes. The
rod has an I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum weight. Generally
rods are made by drop forging of steel or duralumin and also cast from malleable cast iron.

Fig: Connecting Rod

CRANK SHAFT

The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the power from
connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank shafts are made of alloy steel or
cast iron.
 Fig: Crank Shaft
A simplified sketch of the crank shaft for a four cylinder engine is as-in figure. It consists of
1. Main journals
2. Crank pins
3. Crank webs
4. Counter weights
5. Oil holes
The crank shaft is held in position by a number of main bearings and they form axis for the
rotation of crank shaft. Their number is always one more or one less than the number of
cylinders.
The crank pins are the journals for the connecting rod big end bearings and are supported by the
crank webs. The distance between the axis of the main journal and the crank pin centre lines is
called 'crank through'. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crank pins through 'crank
webs for lubricating big end bearings.
When the engine is running, due to rotation of both crank shaft and connecting rod big end, each
crank pin will be subjected to centrifugal forces. This will tend to bend the crank shaft. To avoid
this counter weights are used. The counter weights are formed as integral part of the crank web
or may be attached separately as in fig.
On the front of the crank shaft, it is mounted with
i. Timing gear or sprocket which drives the crank shaft.
ii. Vibration damper
iii. Pulley for driving the water pump, fan and the generator. On the rear end, it is mounted with
a fly wheel.
On the main bearing journals, thrust bearing is located so as to support the loads in the direction
of shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces etc.

VALVES
Each engine cylinder has two valves however some special racing engines use four valves per
cylinder. Air fuel mixture is admitted to the engine through inlet valve and burned gases escape
through the exhaust valve. The valves also must seal the combustion space tightly.
Since air-fuel mixture admits into cylinder with lesser speed compared to velocity of exhaust
gases which leaves under pressure, inlet valves are made larger than exhaust valves. The inlet
and exhaust valves are 45% and 38% of the cylinder bore respectively. The valve face angle with
the plane of valve head is usually kept 45° or 30°. The movement of the valves is actuated by an
eccentric projection called a cam moving on a rotating shaft - the cam shaft.
The inlet and exhaust valves use different materials as they are subjected to different operating
conditions. The inlet valves are exposed to a temperature of 5000 0C and exhaust valves have to
operate in more severe conditions. To prevent burning, the valve must give off heat to the valve
guide and to the valve seat. Silicon - Chrome steel (Carbon - 0.4%, nickel- 0.5%, manganese -
0.5%, silicon - 3.5%, chromium - 8%) is the material used for inlet valves. For exhaust valves,
molybdenum is added to it.
Recently austenitic steels are used for exhaust valves. To make it corrosion resistant, the valve
may be coated with aluminium.
The engine valves may be classified into
1. Poppet valve 2.Sleeve valve 3.Rotary valve
Poppet valve is universally used for automobile engines.

Poppet Valve
Its name is derived due to its motion of popping up and down. As the shape resembles a
mushroom, this valve is also called as 'mushroom' valve. It consists of a head and a stem. It is
simple in construction and self centering. Seal ing efficiency maintenance is much easier with
this poppet valve.

Valve Cooling
It is necessary to cool the exhaust valve directly or indirectly as it reaches very high temperature
i.e. about 750°C or even more. Therefore cooling of exhaust valves becomes very important and
is done by providing cooling water jackets near the valve.

Fig: (a) Poppet Valve Fig: (b) Sodium Cooled Valve

In some heavy duty engines and air craft engines, sodium cooled valves are used. These valves
have a hollow head and stem which is partly filled (about 40% volume of the stem) with sodium
or a mixture of salts. Sodium is a high conductivity metal which melts at 105° C.lt is in liquid
state at operating temperatures. When the valve is in operation, the up and down movement of
sodium transfers the heat to the stem, valve guide, and cylinder block and to the cooling water
circulating in water jackets. This arrangement cools the valve by about 100° C. The sodium goes
up and absorbs heat from valve head and while coming down transfer heat to stem etc.

VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The valves located in the cylinder head are operated by an eccentric projection called cam which
is driven at half the crank shaft speed. Different valve operating mechanisms are used and are
classified into
a) Side valve mechanism
b) Over head valve mechanism
c) Over head inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism.

a) Side Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is used for L-head engines. In this type, inlet and
exhaust valves are mounted in a single row and operated from the same crank shaft. Nowadays,
this mechanism is obsolete due to complicated shape of the combustion chamber which leads to
detonation.

b) Over Head Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is suitable for I and F head designs. The cam
operates the valve lifter which in turn actuates the push rod. This action rotates the rocker arm
about a shaft or a ball joint in some designs, to cause one end to push down on the valve stem to
open the valve.

Advantages
a) Higher volumetric efficiency.
b) Leaner air-fuel mixtures can be burnt.
c) Higher compressions can be used.
Fig: Detailed view of side valve mechanism

Fig: (a) Side valve mechanism. Fig: (b) Over head valve mechanism
Fig: (c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust Fig: (d) Cam shaft valve mechanism\

Fig: (e) Valve lifter Fig: (f) Valve operat ion

COMPONENTS OF THE VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The essential components of a valve actuating mechanism are
a) Cam Shaft: It provides a means for opening the valves. It carries one cam for each valve to be
operated. It also provides a drive for the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel pump.
The cam shaft is driven by the crank shaft by means of timing gears or chain drive at half the
speed of crank shaft. It is forged from alloy steel or cast from hardenable cast iron and is case
hardened.
b) Valve tappet (valve lifter or cam follower) : It follows the shape of the cam lobe on the cam
shaft and hence converts angular movement of the cam in to a reciprocating motion. This is
placed slightly eccentric with earn to make the cam wear uniform and is located between push
rod and cam.
c) Push Rod: This is placed between valve tappet and rocker arm and transmits reciprocating
motion of valve tappet to the rocker arm. Push rods are made of steel and may be either solid or
hollow. Hollow push rod is lighter and results in reduced inertia forces. It provides a passage for
the oil to lubricate the valve actuating mechanism.
d) Rocker Arm: It may be solid or hollow and changes (reverse) the upward motion of the push
rod to down ward motion of the valve and vice versa. It is made of steel (forged or stamped) or
iron (cast).
VALVE AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS
The valve timing diagram is one which represents position of crank when the valves (both inlet
and exhaust) opens and closes. When a valve opens or closes, how fast it will rise, how long it
will stay open and how fast it will close depends on the shape of cam lobe and position of cam
shaft in relation to the crank shaft.
The exact number of degrees that a valve will open or close before top or bottom dead centre
varies widely, depending on engine design. This diagram shows the crank position when various
operation (suction, compression etc.) in an engine begin and end.
Theoretically, we know that inlet valve should open when piston is at TOC before suction and
close when piston is at BOC after performing suction stroke. The exhaust valve should open
when piston is at BOC before exhaust stroke and should close at the end of exhaust, when the
piston is at TDC to complete a cycle. But the valves require a finite period of time to open and
close without abruptness. Therefore, a slight lead time is necessary for proper operation of the
engine.
The actual valve timing diagrams for a 4-stroke Spark-Ignition engine and diesel engines are as
shown in figures.
a) Inlet Valve: The inlet valve should open few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at TOC
during exhaust stroke of previous cycle. This ensures full open of the valve and entry of fresh
charge in to the cylinder as soon as the piston begins to descend. If the inlet valve closes at BOC,
the cylinder would receive less charge. To avoid this inlet valve is kept open for few degrees of
rotation of the crank after suction stroke i.e., the inlet valve closing is delayed. As engine speed
increases, the inlet valve closing is delayed longer.
b) Exhaust Valve: It is necessary to open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches end of
expansion stroke. Even though this wastes some of the force of expansion, it removes greater
part of burned gases, reducing the amount of work to be done by the piston on its-return stroke. It
is seen from the valve timing diagram that both the valves (inlet and exhaust) overlap for 13
degrees of crank rotation. In petrol engine, more overlapping is not advisable, because air and
fuel mixture may pass out with the exhaust gases and is uneconomical. But in diesel engine, only
air is drawn during suction stroke and hence such problem will not arise.
This overlapping helps in scavenging, resulting in an increased output.
Fig: (a) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - S.1. Engine
Fig: (b) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - Diesel engine

1. Ignition: There is always a time lag between the spark and ignition of the charge. The
charge takes some time to burn after giving the spark. Therefore, it is necessary to
produce the spark early to obtain proper combustion without losses. The angle through
which the spark is given earlier is 'Ignition advance' or 'angle of advance'. In diesel
engines, the opening of fuel valve before TDC is necessary for better evaporation and
mixing of the fuel. There is always lag between ignition and supply of fuel results in
early supply of fuel.
Fig: (a) Port timing diagram for 2Spetrol engine Fig: (b) Port timing diagram for 2S diesel
Engine

The port timing diagrams for two stroke petrol and diesel engines are as shown in figures (a) and
(b).

The main difference between these two is, the charging and scavenging period in the diesel
engine is (90°) greater than that off or petrol engine (70°). This is because there is no danger of
loss of fuel during scavenging of diesel engine.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGNS FOR S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

(a) In S.I. Engines
The combustion chamber design includes shape of combustion chamber, spark plug location and
deposition of inlet and exhaust valves and it affects on the engine performance and it's knocking
properties.
The three basic requirements of a SI Engine combustion chamber are high power output with
minimum octane requirement, High thermal efficiency and smooth engine operation.
These requirements can be achieved by the following design principles. a) Largest possible valve
should be provided with ample clearance to obtain high volumetric efficiency.
b) The heat flow should be minimum in the zone around sparking plug to obtain high thermal
efficiency.
c) To prevent detonation the length of flame travel from the spark plug to 'the farthest point in
the combustion space should be as short as possible. This involves spark plug location, valve
position, shape of the combustion chamber.
d) The combustion chamber should be shaped such that the largest mass of the charge burns in a
short time after ignition.
e) Short combustion time is achieved by creating the highest flame front velocity through the
creation of high turbulence.
f) The compression ratio can be increased as far as possible for a given type of fuel to obtain
maximum thermal efficiency.
g) The figure a, b, c & d shows different types of combustion chambers and are designed to
obtain high combustion rate at the start, a high surface to volume ratio near the end of burning
and centrally located spark plug.
h) The T -head design was introduced in ford T model in 1908. It had the disadvantages
(i) Having two cam shaft;
(ii) Being very prone to detonation, the distance across the combustion chamber was long.

L-head types

I-head T-head

Fig: Design of combustion chambers in S1 engines

Side valve engine was introduced in petrol engines, in 1910 - 30. In this type valves are placed
side by side. It is easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. It had the defects like lack of
turbulence, extremely prone to detonation, slow combustion process etc.

(b) In C.I. Engines

There are many types of combustion chambers used in C.I. Engines. Anyone of these
combustion chambers may produce good results in one field of application, but poor results or
less desirable results in another application.
The open combustion chamber is a non-turbulent type. This is ordinarily used on low speed
engines. Less costly fuels with longer ignition delay may be used with this design.

The turbulent chamber, pre combustion chamber and energy cell are variations of turbulent
type of chamber. All these types tend to exhibit the same general characteristics.
This type depends on turbulence to produce the required mixing of fuel and air. This does not
require
as much excess air as non turbulent type. These are suitable for variable speed operation and also
produce smoother operating engines.
METHODS FOR SWIRL GENERATION
In C.I. engine fuel is injected near the end of compression and mixing of fuel and air take place
inside the combustion chamber. Thus combustion chamber has to perform duty of a carburetor,
within a period of some20 to 35 degrees of crank angle. The combustion chamber design should
be such that it has to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time. To achieve this, an
organized air movement, called air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and air. Different methods are used to generate air swirl in a CI engine
combustion chamber. They are
a) By directing air flow during its entry to the cylinder known as induction swirl. This method is
used in open combustion chambers.
b) During compression, air is forced through a tangential passage in to a separate swirl Chamber
known as compression swirl. This method is employed in swirl chambers.
c) By use of the initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl turbulence, known
as combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre combustion chambers and air cell
chambers. Open combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space is essentially a
single cavity with little restriction and hence there are no pressure differences between different
parts of the chamber during the combustion process. There are many designs of open combustion
chambers used in conjunction with induction swirl. In a 4S 'engine induction swirl can be
obtained by
i) Careful formation of the air intake passages
ii) By making or shrouding a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve.
In a 2S engine, the induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port forms. The induction swirl is
generally weak in intensity.
A swirl chamber or divided combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space is divided
into two or more compartments, between which there are restrictions or throats small enough so
that considerable pressure differences occur between them during the combustion process. In
compression swirl a very strong swirl which increases with speed is generated. Due to strong
swirl, a single orifice injector with low injection pressure is required. Also there is greater
utilization air, results in higher mean effective pressure.
The turbulent combustion chambers using combustion induced swirl are not much favoured now
a days. In this type, the two important designs are pre combustion chamber and air cell
combustion chamber. The pre combustion chamber uses single hole pintle type of nozzle and the
initial shock of combustion is limited to pre combustion chamber only. It has multi fuel
capability without any modification in the injection system. The air cell chamber design is
smooth running and easy starting.

Materials & their composition

1) Grey cast iron (carbon present in the form of flakes of graphite which makes it more Wear and
corrosions resistant) carbon - 3.5%, silicon -2.5%, manganese - 0.65%. Carbon serves to provide
graphite which improves lubrication; silicon provides wear resistance while manganese increases
the strength and toughness.
2) Aluminium alloys-silicon - II %, manganese - 0.5%, magnesium - 0.4%. Silicon reduces
expansion and increases strength and wear resistance, manganese and magnesium improves
strength of aluminium structure. Pressed steel sheet Cast Iron Special alloy iron containing
silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium Cast-iron, aluminium alloy containing silicon.

ENGINE POSITION
The engine may be conveniently placed on the chassis in different positions as given below
(a) Front Position
In most of the lighter vehicles (both private and commercial), the engine is placed at the front
and conventionally rear wheel drives are used. In some of the vehicles drive is also given to front
wheels only. The engine position remains 'the same in heavy commercial vehicles, but the cab is
brought forward over the engine to increase the pay load. The engine position at the front with
rear wheel drive system needs greater length of propeller shafts, as it has to run from front
(engine side) to the rear (road wheels) of the vehicle. Also, in this system, the number of
universal joints required are more.
(b) Rear Position
In this system, the engine is mounted close to the back axle, thereby reducing the length of drive
from engine to the axle. In this position, length of propeller shaft required is reduced and is
suitable for small cars. This position provides more space to the passengers, results in economy
of drive parts and also better engine service is possible. The fixing of gear shift lever, oil gauge
and fuel gauges, accelerator linkage is very complicated due to missing of natural draft of air
during forward motion of vehicle to the radiator.
The major portion of total weight of the vehicle lies on the rear wheels and hence helping in
traction up the hill. With rear position of the engine, the luggage has to be accommodated at
front, near the driver seat, which is a problem as wheel arches are already occupied a large place
there.
(c) Under Floor Position
This position of the engine is in the centre, under the chassis and is used in public service
vehicles and heavy lorries. This position of the engine eliminates the heat and noise in the cab. In
this position the advantages of gravitational flow of the fuel and lubricants are also taken. It also
reduces length of the drive shaft from engine to rear axle. The engine repairs and hence
maintenances are easy.
ENGINE COOLING: In the process of converting thermal energy in to mechanical work, as a
result of combustion, high temperatures are produced. This heat is transferred to the cylinder
walls, piston and valves. Unless these parts are adequately cooled, the engine will be damaged. A
part of total fuel energy is converted in to mechanical work and rest is rejected in the form of
1. Heat from engine surface by combined action of conduction, convection and radiation.
2. Heat lost to exhaust.
3. Heat rejected in to the coolant.
In general, engine converts 30 percent of total fuel energy in to useful work, 30 percent is lost in
exhaust heat and cooling system has to remove 30 percent heat energy to maintain engine
temperature. Some energy lost occurs in friction, compression etc. The cooling system maintains
temperature of engine components within certain limits and increases engine performance.
Cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the overall efficiency due to
following reasons.
1. More lost of heat to cylinder walls causes decrease, in thermal efficiency.
2. Combustion efficiency decreases due to less evaporation of fuel at lower temperature.
3. At lower temperature, viscosity of lubricant increases and results in more frictional losses.
This reduces overall efficiency.

The engine cooling is necessary due to following reasons.

1. As engine temperature increases, the strength of materials used for various engine components
decreases. As an example, in water cooled engines the temperature of cylinder head should not
exceed 270°C, and for air cooled engines, uses light alloys, the temperature should not exceed
200°C.
2. The lubricating oil used in the engine also decides the maximum temperature that can be used.
For different lubricating oils, this temperature range varies from 1600°C to 200°C. If the engine
temperature exceeds this limit, it may deteriorates the lubricating oil or evaporate and burn to
cause piston and cylinder damage. Over heating results in piston seizing also.
3. High cylinder head temperature result in loss of volumetric efficiency and reduces power
output.
4. High engine temperature may cause pre ignition and detonation.

METHODS OF COOLING
1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling
1) Air Cooling: Here, the air stream flows continuously over the heated metal surface and the
rate of heat dissipation depends on surface area of metal, air mass flow rate, thermal conductivity
of metal, temperature difference between metal surface and air.
To increase the effectiveness, the metal surface area which is in contact with air should be
increased. This is done by providing fins over cylinder barrels. The fins may be cast integral with
the cylinder or may be attached separately.
Advantages:
1. Absence of radiator cooling jackets and coolant reduces weight of the system.
2. Air cooled engines are useful in extreme climates, where water may freeze.
3. These engines warm up earlier than water cooled engines.
4. Easy maintenance as there is no leakage problem.
Disadvantages:
1. These are noisier, because of absence of cooling water which acts as sound insulator.
2. Heat transfer co-efficient for air is less. Hence less efficient cooling and results in decrease of
highest useful compression ratio.
3. Distortion of cylinder may occur due to uneven cooling all around the cylinder.
2) Water Cooling: In these systems, the water jackets surrounds engine cylinders ana cooling
water flows through these jackets. Heat is conducted through the cylinder walls to the water in
the jackets which removes the excess heat as it circulates through the radiator.
Water cooling systems are classified into two types.
a. Thermosyphon system.
b. Pump circulation system .
(a) Thermosyphon system: In this system the engine is connected to radiator through flexible
hoses. The difference in densities of hot and cold regions of cooling water causes water
circulation between engine and radiator. The water in circulation absorbs heat from engine
cylinder and hence cool it. The heat from the water is then dissipated into atmosphere through
the radiator by conduction and convection. This cools the water which is required for further
circulation. Sometimes fans are used behind the radiator to increase the air mass flow rate and-
hence to increase cooling efficiency.

Fig (a): Thermosyphon Cooling System

b) Pump circulation system: This system is similar to thermosyphon system. The only
difference is cooling water circulation is affected by means of a pump and a thermostat
valve controls the temperature of water.
Fig (b): Pump Circulation System

Advantages of this system over thermosyphon system are:

(a) No need to place the radiator header tank above the engine level, as water circulation is
effected by pump.
(b) Radiator may be placed on the side or on the rear, if necessary.
(c) Cooling water circulation is proportional to both load and speed.
(d) Because of efficient cooling, water jacket size can be reduced. This results in overall decrease
in engine size.

THERMOSTAT VALVES
It is to be noted that the cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the
overall efficiency of the engine. A thermostat is used to regulate the rate of cooling. It keeps the
cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.

Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles.

1. Bellows type
2. Wax or hydrostatic type

Fig.Bellows type thermostats

This thermostat consists of metallic bellows filled with some volatile liquids like alcohol,
acetone, ether etc., whose boiling temperature ranges between 70-85°C. One end of bellows
contains a valve and to the other end a frame is attached' which fits in to the cooling passage.
The thermostat is fitted in the water hose pipe at the engine outlet. After the engine has started,
cooling system should not operate during warming up duration~ that engine warms up early.
During this warming up period, the liquid inside the bellows has not yet changed its state and
hence does not exert any pressure on the valve. Therefore the valve remains in closed position.
If the temperature of the cooling water exceeds a pre-determined as 80°C the liquid inside the
bellows. Vaporizes and exerts a pressure on the valve. The valve opens and allows water
circulation through the radiator, As water temperature rises, valve opens gradually, thus controls
the flow of water through the radiator according to engine cooling requirement.

Wax thermostat:
It is also known as Dole thermostat. This thermostat is more reliable to operate within the
specified temperature range and is not sensitive to pressure variations. The heat carried by the
coolant is transmitted to the copper loaded wax having high thermal expansion coefficient. The
expansion of copper loaded wax makes the rubber plug to contract against the plunger and hence
exerts a force on it in upward direction. This makes the plunger to move upward and opens a
valve in the thermostat (Not shown). This allows the coolant to flow through the radiator.

Fig: Wax thermostat

ENGINE LUBRICATION
Lubrication is the most important phase of vehicle maintenance. Without lubrication, engine
cannot run smoothly even a few minutes. Inadequate lubrication results in engine troubles like
scored cylinders, burned out bearings, misfiring cylinders, dirty spark plugs, stuck piston rings,
engine deposits and sludge and more fuel consumption.
Dry or solid friction is a result of direct contact between two metallic surfaces or due to inter
locking of irregularities on metal surfaces, produces lot of heat and causes wear of the metal
surface. Hydrodynamic lubrication means, introduction of lubricating oil between two surfaces.
There is no physical contact between them and only resistance to motion is resistance offered by
the oil itself.
In boundary lubrication, the introduction of lubricant between surfaces will not cause complete
separation between them. The surfaces touch at their high spots. Boundary lubrication exist in
piston rings and valve train.
OBJECTS OF LUBRICATION
The main objects of lubrication are
(a) It reduces power loss by minimizing friction between moving parts.
(b) Decreases wear and tear of the moving components.
The lubrication also serves other purposes like.
1. Cooling effect: The lubricant absorbs heat from hot moving parts and dissipates it to the
surrounding air through the crank case.
2. Cushioning effect: The lubricant serves as a good cushion against shocks present in the
engine.
For example, instant combustion causes sudden pressure rise and the resultant shock goes to the
bearings through piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Then the lubricant present in the main
bearings absorbs this shock.
3. To act as cleaning agent: As lubricating oil circulates, it absorbs so many impurities and oil
may be further purified by filtration. Ex.: oil dissolves carbon particles during its circulation.
4. Sealing action: It maintains an effective seal on the piston rings and avoids entry of high
pressure gases into the crank case.
ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to
1. Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication).
2. Wet sump system.
(a) Splash lubrication b) Pressure feed lubrication
3. Dry sump system
1. Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed with the
petrol.
i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less, it causes damage to the
engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder head
and
produces poor emissions. This method is used in scooter and motor cycles [two-stroke engines].
2. Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that serves as
the oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the cylinders and
bearings flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is pumped and recirculated to the
engine lubricating system. The wet sump system is again classified into
a) Splash lubrication system.
b) Pressure feed system.

(a) Splash Lubrication System:

It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was used in early motor cycles. The lower end of the
connecting rod consists of a scoop like structure as in the figure. The oil is stored in the oil
trough (being delivered from the crank case oil sump). When the engine runs, the connecting rod
oscillates and the scoop takes the oil from oil trough and splashes on to the cylinder walls each
time when it passes through BDC position. This lubricates engine walls, gudgeon pin, main
crank shaft bearings, big end bearings etc. The oil dripping from the cylinder walls, collects in
the tank where it is cooled by air flow.

Fig: Splash lubrication system

(b) Pressure Feed System:

This system is most commonly used in modern car engines. In this system, the oil forces oil
under pressure to the main bearings, connecting rod and cam shaft bearings and also to the
timing gears. Drilled assuages in the crank shaft carry oil from the main bearings to the
connecting rod bearings. The cylinder walls, piston pin, piston and piston rings are lubricated by
oil spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft. For the cam shaft and timing gears, there is a
separate oil line from the main oil gallery. The basic components of the wet lubricating system
are pump, strainer, pressure regulator, filter etc.
Fig: Full pressure feed lubrication system

3. Dry Sump Lubricating System: In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is called
scavenging pump and is located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil from this pump is
carne to an external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s the oil through filter to the
cylinder and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and bearings in to the sump is again removed
by scavenging pump (sump pump), which supplies oil to the reservoir. As the capacity of sump
pump is greater than oil pump, oil will not be accumulated in the engine base. The oil pump
draws oil from the supply tank and delivers it under pressure to the engine bearings and oil
pressure of 400- 500 kpa is maintained in main and big end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100
kpa is maintained in timing gears and cam shaft bearings etc. This system is suitable for
lubricating sport cars, jeeps etc.
Fig. Dry sump lubrication system